Chapter 1 Introduction
机械原理复习重点
•The composition of principle and structure analysis
2.1 The composition of a mechanism Links
Fixed links
Links 构件 Kinematic pairs 运动副
固定构件 ------- Frames 机架
从动件运动规律的设计 凸轮机构基本尺寸的设计 凸轮机构轮廓曲线的设计 绘制凸轮机构工作图
（4）Making Cam Mechanism Drawing
复习重点 1、常用运动规律的特点，刚性冲击，柔性冲击，S-δ曲 线绘制 2、凸轮轮廓设计原理—反转法，自锁、压力角与基 圆半径的概念
例题.如图所示，偏置直动滚子从动件盘形凸轮机构，已知凸轮实际轮廓 线为一圆心在O点的偏心圆，其半径为R. 从动件的偏距为e。 1）．分析凸轮顺时针转动时，图示从动件偏置方向是否合理？ 2）．标出当从动件从图示位置升到位移s时,对应凸轮的转角及凸轮 机构的压力角。 解：1）图示偏置方向为正偏置，偏置方向合理。
Driving links 主动件
Moving links 活动构件
Driving links have their own indepen-dent motion characteristics the other moving links are called as Driven links 从动件
If all lower pairs in a four-bar linkage are revolute pairs, as shown in the following Fig, the linkage is called a revolute four-bar linkage, which is the basic form of four-bar linkages.
Chapter1 Introduction 第一章 绪 论
机械原理
§1.2 MECHANISMS AND MACHINES 机构与机器 机械（Machinery；Machine)：机器与机构的总称
机器组成： 原动机部分 执行部分 传动部分 操纵控制部分 机器是由机构组成的。在一般情况下，一部机器可 以包含若干个机构。
中国矿业大学(北京)
中国矿业大学(北京)
机械原理
机电与信息工程学院 机械电子工程系
机械原理
Mechanisms and Machine Theory
中国矿业大学(北京)
机械原理
机电与信息工程学院 机械电子工程系
主讲教师 郑晓雯
教 授 专 业 博士生导师 机械设计及理论 机械电子工程
机电与信息工程学院 机械电子工程系
中国矿业大学(北京)
是运动的单元，它 可由若干个零件组 成，但各零件之间 不允许有相对运 动，是刚性结构。
中国矿业大学(北京)
机械原理
Chapter1 Introduction
§1.1 ABOUT THIS COURSE §1.2 MECHANISMS AND MACHINES §1.3 CONTENT OF THIS COURSE §1.4 DESIGN PROCESS AND THIS BOOK §1.5 COURSE INFORMATION and REQUIREMENTS
Examples of the Machines and Mechanisms? Some Mechanisms widely used in our life and engineering. Mechanisms: pencil sharper, mechanical clock, folding chair, adjustable desk lamp, automatic umbrella, etc. Machines: food blender(食物搅拌器), bulldozer(推土机), automobile transmission system, mechanical manipulator and robots, elevator, engine, etc. Can you give some
Chapter 1 Introduction
Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
to be and describing how things are
Prescriptive: the early study of language aims to lay down
rules for correct and standard behavior in using languages, such as grammars, to set models for language users to follow. Descriptive: the study of language aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, be it correct or not; modern linguistic study is supposed to be scientific and objective, they believe that whatever occurs in language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.
Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the formation of words. Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.
Chapter 1 Introductions
5500BC 天然金与铜被用作工具 与武器，人类开始了金属的使用。 与武器，人类开始了金属的使用。
Chapter1 Introduction
20
Bronze Age
Bronze age
Chapter1 Introduction
21
Cu Sn Pb Zn
第一个合金材料：铜锡合金（青铜） 第一个合金材料：铜锡合金（青铜）
Fe3C+ FeO→4Fe + CO
Chapter1 Introduction
27
铸铁 依含碳量 和杂质多少
Alloys of iron & carbon
锻铁 钢铁
铁和碳的合金
Chapter1 Introduction
28
第八世纪的 "Carolingian"剑 剑
东方曲剑" 东方曲剑 Persian "
逆的转变成别的物质) 逆的转变成别的物质
• Chemicals：composition, structure, ： performance, transformation
Chapter1 Introduction 8
Materials Science and Chemistry
Materials Scienቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱe & Chemistry
Materials the Paleolithic Period the Neolithic Age Wood √
新编简明英语语言学教程chapter 1 Introduction
Example:
男生做完头发:
甲：呀，剃头了？ 乙：呵呵，剃了。 甲：真“瓜”。 乙：滚！
1.1.2 The Scope of Linguistics
Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics
语音学 音系学 词汇学 句法学 语义学 语音学
Writing: later developed
Langue vs. Parole (Saussure)
Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.
Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.
Example:
甲：就是呀，我觉得她长得多漂亮呀！特别像ⅹⅹⅹ。 乙：哦，对了。听说ⅹⅹⅹ拍了一部新电视剧，你看 了吗？ 甲：我也听说了，不过一直没找到什么地方能下载呀。 怎么？你下了？ 乙：没有，不过男朋友给我带来了。 甲：你看看，你男朋友对你多好。我男朋友能有他一 半就好了。 乙：你男朋友也不错的，那次你感冒了看把他忙的！ 甲：什么呀！我感冒还不是因为他！要不是陪他去买 电影票能感冒吗？乙：哦，那次你们看的什么电影？ 甲：是ⅹⅹⅹ，没意思。不过主演ⅹⅹ还是很帅的。 乙：ⅹⅹ？哦，就是演ⅹⅹⅹⅹⅹ的那个吧！ 甲：就是了，他其实演技一般，就是那双眼睛特别迷 人。
(2) Class attendance and participation 30%
Chapter One Introduction
Chap.01_Introduction
23
As early as 1816, the vitalistic theory received a heavy blow when Michel Chevreul (米切尔· 欧仁· 谢弗勒) found that soap, prepared by the reaction of alkali with animal fat, could be separated into several pure organic compounds. Without the intervention of an outside vital force.
NH4CN
O NH2 C NH2
By the mid-nineteenth century, the weight of evidence was clearly against the vitalistic theory. H. Kolbe (柯尔柏), 1844，Acetic acid.
M. Berthelort (柏赛罗), 1854, Oil and Fat
Caudate nucleus 尾状核
13
14
Ian Robertson is of Psychology at Trinity College, Dublin “Power and success work through the same circuit as sex and cocaine; it’s a basic, primitive reward system.”
18
History: In Zhou Dynasty, there were some people named “染人”, “醯人” in charge of staining, making wine and making vinegar. But the foundations of organic chemistry date from the mid-eighteenth century, when chemistry was evolving from an alchemist’s art into modern science. At that time, unexplainable differences were noted between substances obtained from living sources and those obtained from minerals.
生理学英文练习题-第一章-绪论
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTIONSummaryPhysiology is the study of how living organisms work. It is the science that describe the normal functions and their regular patterns of the living organisms. The vast field of physiology can be divided into viral physiology, bacterial physiology, cellular physiology, plant physiology, human physiology,and many more subdivisions. However, the Human Physiology is very important and basic biomedical course for medical students.The body has three fundamental characteristics of living organism which are metabolism, excitability and reproduction. The metabolism include material metabolism and energy metabolism. The material metabolisms of carbonhydrate, lipid, proteins etc. have mainly been learned in BIOCHMISTRY. The energy metabolism will be learned in the 7th Chapter in PHYSIOLOGY. The excitability is very important physiological term, the property of living organisms that permit them to react to stimuli is defined as excitability.Since the normal functions of organs or organ systems was emphasized, homeostasis is another very important physiological concept. Homeostasis signifies a stable and constant status of the internal enviroment in the body of living organism. It is a dynamicbalance of pH, osmostic pressure, temperature, ions concentrations, and so on. Homeostasis is a necessary for the normal functions of cells, organs and organ systems. Therefore, homeostasis is the soul concept of PHYSIOLOGY.The living organism needs to overcome the possible disorder caused by the metabolisms, then homeostasis could be maintained and the normal functions of the living organisms could be gone on. How to maintain the homeostasis? There are mainly three mechanisms to maintain the homeostasis. They are neural regulation, humoral regulation and auto-regulation. Three regulatory patterns exhibit different mechanisms and features.Feedback, a term borrowed from engineering, is a fundamental feature of homeostasis. Feedback regulation anticipates changes in a regulated variable, improves the speed of the body’s homeostatic responses, and minimizes fluctuations in the level of the variable being regulated. In the negative feedback system, a change in the variable being regulated brings about response that tend to push the variable in the direction opposite to the original change. The homeostasis could be maintained after negative feedback regulation. In positive feedback system, an initial disturbance in the system sets off a train of events that increases the disturbance even further. Some special physiological activities in the livingorganism are carried out by the positive feedback system such as processes of giving birth, blood coagulation, micturition.Definition1.Physiology（生理学）2.Acute experiment（急性实验）3.Chronic experiments（慢性实验）4.In vitro（离体）5.In vivo（在体）6.Metabolism（新陈代谢）7.Interstitial fluid（组织间液）8.Internal environment（内环境）9.Homeostasis（稳态）10.Excitability（兴奋性）11.Excitation（兴奋）12.Inhibition（抑制）13.Stimulus（刺激）14.Neural regulation（神经调节）15.Neuro-humoral regulation（神经体液调节）16.Reflex arc（反射弧）17.Unconditioned reflex（非条件反射）18.Conditioned reflex（条件反射）19.Humoral regulation（体液调节）20.Auto-regulation（自身调节）21.Feedback（反馈）22.Negative feedback（负反馈）23.Positive feedback（正反馈）24.Feedforward（前馈）Choose the ONE best answer, then fill the corresponding letter in the blank.( C ) 1. Which one of the following is a physiological process with negative feedback?A.Blood coagulationB.Process of passing urineC.Sino-aortic baroreceptor reflexD.Na+ influx during action potentialE.Process of parturition( D ) 2. Which one of the following is not the property of regulation by hormone?A.Slow in onsetB.Diffuse in natureC.Longer in durationD.Accurate in actionE.Action in overcorrection( D ) 3. Which of the following is not the fundamental characteristic of living organisms?A.MetabolismB.ExcitabilityC.ReproductionD.Passive diffusionE.Adaption( D ) 4. The concept of homeostasisA.includes the concept of an error signal.B.refers to maintaining physiological functions in a stablecondition.C.refers only to the regulation of body temperature.D. A and BE. B and C(A) 5. This term refers to the existence of a stable internal environmentA.HomeostasisB.FeedbackC.AutoregulationE.None of the above(C) 6. Which one of the following provides long-term regulatory control that results in relatively unchanging internal conditions.A.Positive FeedbackB.DiseaseC.Negative FeedbackD.All the aboveE.None of the above(B) 7. Moving your hand away from a hot stove is an example of a basic function calledA.Positive feedbackB.ResponseC.RegulationD.All the aboveE.None of the above(E) 8. On the objects that Physiology researches and observes, which of the following is correct description ?A.Whole body levelan and organ systems levelsD.Molecular levelE.All the above(E) 9. On the methodology applied in Physiology, which of the following is correct?A.Acute experimentB.Chronic experimentC.Experiment in vivoD.Experiment in vitroE.All the above(D) 10. The acceleration of heart beat caused by catecholamine hormones released from adrenal gland after doing exercise, it isA.Neural regulationB.Humoral regulationC.AutoregulationD.Neural-humoral regulationE.None of the aboveQuestions:1.What are the five components of the reflex arc?2.What are fundamental characteristics of living organism?3.Explain the mechanisms of how to maintain the homeostasis inliving organism.4.Contrast the properties of the neural regulation, humoralregulation and auto-regulation.5.Describe the category of the humoral regulation.Answers:Definitions:1.Physiology（生理学）: Physiology is the study of how livingorganisms work, the goal of physiology is to study the normal functions and their regular patterns of organs or organ systems of living organism.2.Acute experiment（急性实验）：Experiment performed is to studythe physiological activities or to observe the reaction to the external interference in short time is called acute experiment.The animals used are oftenly under anesthesia, and the experiments are oftenly destructive and irreversible, even induce the death of animals. The acute experiment include experiment in vivo and in vitro.3.Chronic experiments（慢性实验）: Experiment performed is to studythe physiological activities or to observe the reaction to the external interference in long time is called chronic experiment.The Chronic experiments may be performed on conscious subject for a long period of time after recovery from the operation.4.In vitro（离体）：Experiment is performed on an isolated tissueor organ that is taken out from the body of the animal.5.In vivo（在体）：Experiment is performed on the whole body of theanimal to observe one or some physiological functions of the organ or organ systems.6.Metabolism（新陈代谢）：Metabolism is the one of basiccharacteristics of living organism. It means all the chemical reactions in all the cells of the body, and includes all material and energy transformations that occur in the body. The material metabolism includes catabolic and anabolic reactions.7.Interstitial fluid（组织间液）：The spaces between cells arecalled the interstitutium, the fluid in these spaces is the interstitial fluid.8.Internal environment（内环境）：It is the environment that allcells of the body live in the extracellular fluid, which is called the internal environment of the body.9.Homeostasis（稳态）：The state maintenance of a constancy andbalance in one’s internal environment. It is the soul of the physiology.10.Excitability（兴奋性）：It is the ability of certain kinds of cells(excitable cell) to make response to the stimulus. Essentially, It is the ability of cells to generate action potential.Excitability is a fundamental property to all tissues and cells.11.Excitation（兴奋）：It signifies a beginning of an activity orincrease in physiological activity after stimulus, such as the acceleration of the heart beat after stimulating the sympathetic nerve.12.Inhibition（抑制）：Inhibition is a stop of an activity or adecrease in physiological activity after stimulus, such as the slowing of the heart beat after stimulating the vagus nerve.13.Stimulus（刺激）：Any changes from external or internalenvironmental factors that causes a response in a sense organ or an organism are called the stimulus. It includes the physical, chemical and biological stimuli.14.Neural regulation（神经调节）：The functions of organs or organsystems are regulated by the central nervous system via the reflexes. The reflex is the regular response of effectors to the stimulus based on the reflex arc.15.Neuro-humoral regulation（神经体液调节）：In many cases, theendocrine system is so closely related to the nervous system that it can be regarded as an extension of the efferent limb of the reflex arc . In this instance it is called neuro-humoralregulation.16.Reflex arc（反射弧）：Reflex arc is the pathway in a reflex, itis the basic unit of integrated neural activity, consisting of receptor, afferent nerve, nervous center, efferent nerve and effector.17.Unconditioned reflex（非条件反射）：A fixed reflex whose mechanismmay be supposed to be inherited as its functioning does not depend on previous experience.18.Conditioned reflex（条件反射）：A learned reflex in which thenervous system is trained to produce a new and unusual response to a stimulus.19.Humoral regulation（体液调节）：The functions of organs or organsystems are regulated by the special chemicals released by the endocrine glands or cells, or metabolic products released by the living cells.20.Auto-regulation（自身调节）：In certain cases, a tissue or organcan respond directly to the environmental change, depending neither on nervous nor on humoral control. This form of regulation is called auto-regulation.21.Feedback（反馈）：It is a flow of information along a closed loop.Usually, a constancy of physiological variable requires a feedback mechanism that feeds the output information back to thecontrol system so as to modify the nature of control.22.Negative feedback（负反馈）：A regulated variable is sensed,information is sent to a controller, and action is taken to oppose change from the desire value.23.Positive feedback（正反馈）：With a variable is sensed and actionis taken to reinforce change of the variable, so it promotes a change in one direction.24.Feedforward（前馈）：control mechanisms often sense a disturbanceand can therefore take corrective action that anticipates changes. Conditioned reflexes belong to the feedforward control system.。
国际学术会议英语课件Chapter1Introduction
Sample demonstration
I. Listen to the following six passages of introductions in an oral presentation and then match the numbers of the passage on the left column with the topics (A-F) on the right column.
Passage 3 C. Saying what you plan to do in your presentation and why
Passage 4 D. Getting the audience to do something Passage 5 E. Getting the audience to imagine situations
Number of the passage
The skills the speakers use
Passage 1 A. Saying something personal about yourself
Passage 2
B. Asking the audience a question or get them to raise their hands
▪ In the Conclusion it should pick out the main points from the main body and summarize them for your audience. So the conclusion is similar to the Introduction in fact.
Passage 6 F. Giving interesting facts that relates directly to the audience
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版练习题参考答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rulesof the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have tobe checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as inany other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importanceof the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languagesinto a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.rd speech when the The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to reconeed arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms ofthe amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech whilerecord of speech. Thus their data for investigation and written language is only the “revised” analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions,and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same objectin different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic levelthere is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with theability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, theexpressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted ordenied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a longhistory.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices,-shopping with her.” and values. For example: “I will never go windowThe social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . Forexample: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primaryand why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, pleaserefer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants inEnglish. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is thetranscription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Thelatter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrowtranscription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study ofspeech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the finedetails as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f],feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and nodiacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word orIt is calledbefore another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”.dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the soundcombination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciati somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrowtranscription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in thetwo words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, butin spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to beaspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown inbroad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration,thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasalsand glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups:close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowelsand the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologistsis to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it isrepresented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phoneswhich can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones ofthat phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] ora [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinationsin English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.a feature of aThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is,for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend totendency may become regularized as rules of increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] soundis nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same placeof articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet –indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; thisis because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that whileonsonant that follows it. pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the cDeletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there isno [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word froma noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which candistinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence ofwords may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphologybetween each1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they maybe suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type:added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”．(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they maybe prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”．(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organizedcommunity. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study eachinflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another byprocesses of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of thederivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads,and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elementsbeing conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and thesurface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give thedeep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory,the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels ofthe objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancienttimes. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linkedthrough the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use,context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approachwas J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation i n, somewhatwhich the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答：The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive orevaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”．答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have thesame form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short … 2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below … 2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter One: Introduction1. Linguistics and English linguistics1) As the name suggests, linguistics is the study of language in general and of particular languages, their structure, grammar, history, culture, and so on.2) According to John Lyons（约翰·莱昂斯），linguistics is divided into types: general linguistics（普通语言学）and descriptive linguistics (描述语言学).A. Differences:i. General linguistics deals with language in general, or the whole human language. Descriptive linguistics studies particular languages.ii. General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general. Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish models that describe the rules of particular languages like Chinese, German, English, etc.B. Relationship:They explicitly or implic itly depend on each other.i. On the one hand, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described.ii. On the other hand, the descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguists. Thus, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other.3) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics. It deals with a particular language --- English, for the purpose of constructing a model to represent the unconscious linguistic knowledge possessed by a fluent English speaker.Actually the study of any particular language is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2. The nature of language(s)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.1) Language is a system.i. Every language consists of a set of rules, including phonological rules, morphological rules, syntactic rules, semantic rules, grammatical rules, and so on. These rules underlie people's actual speech or writing.ii. In de Saussure's（索绪尔）term, the system of language is called langue（语言体系）and the speaker's speech is called parole (言语).iii. According to Chomsky（乔姆斯基）, competence（语言知识）is "the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language"，while performance（言语行为）is "the actual use of language in concrete situations".iv. Langue or competence is abstract and not directly observed, while parole or performance is concrete and directly observable. It has to take in a definite time and place, and in a particular situation.2) Language is symbolic.i. What is a symbol? How many parts does a symbol consist of?A symbol is essentially made up of two parts: a concrete object or form, and the meaning or the idea that it conveys.ii. There are a few words which cannot be classified as symbols such as the, a, an, etc.3) Language is a system of vocal symbols.i. Two types: visual symbols, auditory symbolsii. Not all sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols. For example, sneezes, coughs and so on usually do not have symbolic value.iii. Language is primarily speech, and not the written form. Three reasons: A. Biolog ically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write. B. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life. C. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the world today which have not been written down.4) Language is arbitrary.i. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.ii. By saying language is arbitrary, we mean that we cannot give a reason why a certain linguistic form should represent a certain meaning and why a certain meaning should be represented by a certain form.iii. It does not imply that any individual speaker has the freedom to determine the pronunciation of a word.5) Language is creative.i. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.ii. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.6) Language is double-structured.Two levels: grammatically --- meaningful and sound --- meaningless7) Language is changeable.Language has changes in three systems: sound system, lexical system and grammatical system.3. Scientific method3.0 Definition: Generally speaking, a scientific method is the procedure adopted by scientists in conducting their investigation and establishing their conclusion.3.1 Scientific method in generalFour stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions3.2 Scientific method in linguisticsFour stages: gather data, construct a tentative rule, examine the tentative rule, finalize the ruleAn important principle --- objectivity3.2.1 ObjectivityThree common linguistic biasesA. Some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.B. Only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.C. Change is not natural for living languages and such a change is a sign of corruption and decay.3.2.2 Sources of dataA. Collecting data is the initial work for any linguistic description.B. If the linguist describes a language that he does not know himself, he may find a suitable native speaker of that language as his informant（（为语言学调查）提供资料的本地人），who is usually a bilingual.3.2.3 Rules constructionA. The essential task of linguistic description is to construct rules which may account for a native speaker's implicit knowledge about the language.B. How does a linguist construct a rule?Step 1: the linguist starts with collecting data.Step 2: based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple rule as a tentative version.Step 3: then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.Step 4: he keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected.Attention: very likely, the data gathered are not complete. Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.4. The goal of linguistics4.0 Definition: the goal of linguistics is to establish a model of a native speaker's competence.4.1 Modeli. There are two kinds of models:A. a physical or literal model --- it can be used to investigate the function and construction of the real object.B. a conceptual or theoretical model --- it can be used to examine something unobservable such as the nature of economy.Which type does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to? --- The latter.ii. Two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness（明确性）and generativeness（生成性）A. By saying a model is explicit, we mean that the rules of the language the model contains are clearly defined.B. By saying a model is generative, we mean that we can use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences.4.2 CompetenceA native speaker has four types of linguistic knowledge: phonological knowledge（音位知识）, morphological knowledge（词法知识）, syntactic knowledge（句法知识）and semantic knowledge（语义知识）i. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.ii. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about how a word is formed.iii. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.iv. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the meaning of language.5. Sub-branches of linguistics1) Phonetics（语音学）is the study of speech sounds of all human languages. It deals with questions like how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, how English sounds are classified and described.2) Phonology （音系学）is the science that deals with the sound system of a language.3) Morphology（词法、形态学）deals with word formation and the internal structure of words.4) Syntax（句法）is concerned with how words are combined to form phrases and how phrases are combined by rules to form sentences.5) Semantics（语义学）is the study of the meaning of words and sentences6. Saussure: The Father of Modern Linguistics1) When did modern linguistics start? --- At the beginning of the 20th century.2) What are the most influential schools of modern linguistics? --- Structural linguistics（结构语言学）and Transformational-generative Grammar (TG Grammar)（转换生成语法）3) Who is commonly acknowledged as the father of modern linguistics? --- Ferdinand de Saussure4) Why is he regarded as the founder of modern linguistics?Answer:1。
会计专业英语教案一
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION1．TYPES OF BUSINESS OWNERSHIPAs with types of businesses, the way in which the accounting information is reported will depend on the type of ownership. The main types of ownership are: Sole proprietorThis is one person in business on his or her own. The owner gets to make all the decisions but has has no no no other other other owner owner owner of of of the the the business business business to consult to consult if if needed. needed. The The owner owner owner also also also gets gets gets to to to keep keep keep all all all the the profits profits but, but, but, if if if the the the business business business should should should fail, fail, fail, the the the owner owner owner not not not only only only loses loses loses the the the business business business but but but all all all his his his or or or her her personal possessions as well until the debts are satisfied. A sole proprietor has unlimited liability. It It is is is also also also more more more difficult difficult difficult to to to obtain obtain obtain finance finance finance for for for a a a sole sole sole proprietor proprietor proprietor business. business. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, most most businesses begin life under sole proprietor ownership. PartnershipUnder this type of ownership, two or more people decide to pool their skills and resources and go into business together. A partnership, like a sole proprietorship, has unlimited liability. Indeed, one partner may be responsible for getting the partnership into debt but another partner may have to to pay pay pay those those those debts debts debts out out out of of of their their their personal personal personal funds. funds. A partnership partnership type type type of of of ownership ownership ownership is is is common common among lawyers and doctors as they are bound by the ethics of their profession to suffer unlimited liability. Accountants can now form companies, with the exception of Auditors. CompanyAn important feature of a company is that it is a a separate separate legal entity from its owners (shareholders). Since the company is a legal entity in its own right, it is responsible for its own debts and losses. This means that once the shareholders have paid what they agreed to pay for the the shares, shares, shares, their their their obligation obligation obligation to to to the company the company and and the company’s creditors the company’s creditors i s satisfied. is satisfied. This This is is is of of great importance to the shareholders since they know their liability is limited.Another feature of a company is that its life is not limited by the life of the shareholders. Shares may be sold by an existing shareholder to another person who wishes to become a shareholder. When a shareholder dies, tha t person’s shares pass to the beneficiary of his or her estate.COMPARISON OF OWNERSHIP Sole Proprietor Partnership Company Legal Status of Not a separate Not a separate Separate legal Business Entity legal entity legal entity entity Risk of Owner’s pe rsonal Partners’ personal Limited liability Ownership assets at risk assets at risk Duration Expires by owner’s Expires by choice Perpetual of Life choice or death of or withdrawal of succession owner partner Transferability If proprietor sells Partnership share Usually of Ownership his interest, the cannot be sold transferable Interests business is without agreement reconstituted of other partners:under new new partnership ownership formed Sources of Owner’s funds and Partners’ funds Shares, Finance loans and loans debentures, loans Profit All accrue to Shared according Dividends Sharing owner to partnership declared by agreement or directors Partnership Act 1908 Ownership One owner Two or more One or more Capital Provided by Partners contribute Divided into owner according to shares partnership agreement Liability for Unlimited Unlimited Limited to firm’s debts the amount outstanding on share capital Management Owner Each partner Appointed by shareholders 2. USERS OF FINANCIAL INFORMATIONInternal Usersn Managers who plan, organize and run a business n Marketing managersn Production supervisorsn Finance directorsn Company officersExternaln Investors n Creditors n Others n Regulatory agencies n Tax authorities n Customers n Labor Unions n Economic planners 3. TYPES OF BUSINESS ACTIVITYFinancing Activities n Borrowing creates liabilitiesn Bank loans n Debt securitiesn Goods on credit or payables n Selling stock creates sto ckholders’ equityInvesting Activities n Obtaining resources or assets to operate the business n Land n Buildings n Vehicles n Computers n Furniture n Equipment Operating Activities n Primary activity of business Selling goods Providing services Manufacturing Cost of Sales Advertising Paying employees Paying utilities Operating Activities Revenues are the increases in assets resulting from the sale of a product or service Expenses are the cost of assets consumed or services used in generating revenue. If revenue > expense =Net IncomeIf revenue < expense =Net Loss!4. CONTENT AND PURPOSE OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTSn Accountants communicate with users through four financial statements The Objective of Financial Statementsn The objective of financial statements is to provide information about the financial position, performance and changes in financial position of an enterprise that is useful to a wide range of users in making economic decisions. Four Financial Statements n Income Statement n Retained Earnings Statement n Balance Sheet n Statement of Cash Flows INCOME – EXPENSES = PROFIT (LOSS) FOR THE PERIOD IncomeExpenses can be classified as RETAINED EARNINGS STATEMENT (ALSO CALLED CHANGES IN EQUITY)nShows changes in retained earnings for period: month, quarter, year n Beginning balance n Add Net Income from income statement. n Deduct Dividends nEnding balance For a Sole Proprietor, The Capital, or Equity, that shows on the Trial Balance is the OPENING Capital. Transactions Transactions occur occur occur during during during the the the financial financial financial year year year that that that will will will affect affect affect the the the Equity, Equity, Equity, causing causing causing it it it to to have increased or decreased by the end of the financial year. The change from Opening to Closing Capital is usually shown within the Equity section at the bottom of the Balance Sheet, as shown in the following example for Richard’s Rhubarb Shop:EXAMPLE:Accounts Payable 35,000 Accounts Receivable 45,000 Bank Loan Long Term 175,000 Bank Overdraft 21,000 Land (cost) 195,000 Inventory 213,000 Cash on hand 2,000 Shares in other Companies 8,000 Goodwill 5,000 Capital (opening) 238,800 Drawings 10,200 Other Information:Profit for the year ended 31 March 2016 was $8,400 Required:Complete a fully classified Balance Sheet Current Assets213,000 Non-Current Assets5,000 208,000 Total AssetsCurrent Liabilities35,000 Non-Current Liabilities175,000 Total Liabilities$ 237,000 8,400 10,200 $ 237,000THE BALANCE SHEETTHE PURPOSE OF THE BALANCE SHEETThe The purpose purpose purpose of of of the the the Balance Balance Balance Sheet Sheet Sheet is is is to to to show show show the the the financial financial financial position position position of of of a a a business business business at at at a a a particular particular point of time. It reports the assets of the business and how these assets have been funded. The assets can be funded by liabilities (external funding) or owner’s equity (internal funding). Therefore we can say that the value of the assets will be the same as the combined value of the liabilities and the owners equity. This gives ris e to the short accounting equation: Assets = Liabilities + Owners’ EquityUSES OF THE BALANCE SHEETThe Balance Sheet helps users gain knowledge of the financial strength of the business, through providing information about: · Solvency and liquidity (can the business meet it’s short -term obligations?) · Financial Structure (what proportion of the business is funded by liabilities and what proportion is funded by owners?) · Utilisation of assets (how effectively are the assets being used?) · Financial flexibility (does the business have the ability or leverage to borrow further funds?) · Return on Investment (is the business able to pay out cash to the owners as a reward for investing their funds?) We will look at the Balance Sheet in two forms: ‘T’ form (side-by-side) A = L + E and Vertical A – L = E ‘T’ FormO BBLE T RADE RS B ALANC E S H EET AS AT31M ARCH 20XX$000 $000 $000 $000 Assets LiabilitiesCurrent Assets Current LiabilitiesCash 40 Accounts Payable 80 Accounts Receivable 100 Inventory 150 Non-Current LiabilitiesPrepayments 10 300 Bank Loan 320 Non-Current Assets400 Property, Plant and Equipment Land 80 EquityBuildings 150 W Obble, Capital 160 Less deprn 50100 Vehicles 40 Less deprn 2020 200 Investments Term Deposit account 50 Intangibles Goodwill 10 Total Assets$560 Total Liabilities & Owner’s Equity$560 Current Assets10 Non-Current AssetsProperty, Plant and Equipment 50 20 20 Investments Intangibles Current LiabilitiesNon-Current Liabilities400 $160 $160(X) (X) (X) X XXThe IASB Framework addresses general purpose financial statements that a business enterprise n Explains uncertainties and contingencies Auditor’s Reportn Certified Public Accountant – CPA n Auditor (CPA) conducts independent examination of financial statements n Fair representation? n Follow generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP)? n Unqualified opinion 。
Chapter01Introduction
Example: 4-bit multiply (unsigned).
Hardware
1011 x 1110 10011010
Microcode
1011 x 1110
0000 1011. 1011.. 1011...
10011010
Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4
Cycle 5
Chapter 1, Slide 12
Dr. Naim Dahnoun, Bristol University, (c) Texas Instruments 2004
Parameter
I/O bandwidth: Serial Ports (number/speed) DMA channels Multiprocessor support Supply voltage Power management On-chip timers (number/width) Cost Package External memory interface controller JTAG
Analogue signal processing is achieved by using analogue components such as:
Resistors.
Capacitors.
Inductors.
The inherent tolerances associated with these components, temperature, voltage changes and mechanical vibrations can dramatically affect the effectiveness of the analogue circuitry.
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Chapter 1 - I ntroductionEcho sounding is a technique for measuring water depths by transmitting acoustic pulses from the ocean surface and listening for their reflection (or echo) from the sea floor. This technique has been used since the early twentieth century to provide the vital depth input to charts that now map most of the world’s water-covered areas. These charts have permitted ships to navigate safely through the world’s oceans. In addition, information derived from echo sounding has aided in laying trans-oceanic telephone cables, exploring and drilling for off-shore oil, locating important underwater mineral deposits, and improving our understanding of the Earth’s geological processes. Until the early 1960s most depth sounding used single-beam echo sounders. These devices make a single depth measurement with each acoustic pulse (or ping) and include both wide and narrow beam systems. Relatively inexpensive wide-beam “unstabilized” sounders detect echoes within a large solid angle under a vessel and are useful for finding potential hazards to safe navigation. However, these devices are unable to provide much detailed information about the sea bottom. On the other hand, more expensive narrow-beam “stabilized” sounders are capable of providing high spatial resolution with the small solid angle encompassed by their beam, but can cover only a limited survey area with each ping. Neither system provides a method for creating detailed maps of the sea floor that minimizes ship time and is thus cost-effective. The unstabilized systems lack the necessary spatial resolution, while the stabilized systems map too little area with each ping.In 1964, SeaBeam Instruments—at the time the Harris Anti-Submarine Warfare Division of General Instrument Corporation—patented a technique for multiple narrow-beam depth sounding. The first such systems to use this technique were built by SeaBeam for the US Navy and were known as Sonar Array Sounding Systems (SASS). SASS employed two separate sonar arrays oriented orthogonal to one another—one for transmitting and one for receiving—an arrangement called a Mills Cross Array. The arrays and the associated analog electronics provided 90 1°-wide unstabilized beams. Roll and pitch compensation produced 60 1°-wide stabilized beams, which permitted mapping a 60° “fan” of the sea floor with each ping. This system allowed survey vessels to produce high-resolution coverage of wide swaths of the ocean bottom in far less ship time than would have been required for a single-beam echo sounder, greatly reducing the costs of such mapping endeavors.Figure Chapter 1 - -1: Contour Map of Perth CanyonMost multibeam bathymetry systems still use the Mills Cross technique for beam forming. However, as faster computers and Large Scale Integrated (LSI) digital chips have become available, most of the signal processing, including beam forming, moved from analog signal processing into the digital (discrete) signal processing (DSP) domain using digital signal microprocessor (DSPµP) chips. The availability of fast DSPµPs has also permitted the implementation of sophisticated detection algorithms. As a result, survey vessels today can do on-board real-time multibeam processing and display of bathymetry data in a manner impossible only a few years ago. Figure Chapter 1 - -1 shows a sample of a high-quality ocean floor map produced by a SEA BEAM 2100 Multibeam Survey System, the latest generation of multibeam sonar from SeaBeam Instruments.The SEA BEAM 2100 system represents the culmination of over a third of a century of design, development, and production experience by SeaBeam Instruments in the area of multibeam bathymetric systems. With added sophistication, this latest generation multibeam sonar system has added capabilities and complexity. It is necessary to have a basic theoretical understanding of the way multibeam bathymetry systems in general, and the SEA BEAM 2100 in particular, work in order to both:•Operate the system in a manner that maximizes coverage and data quality•Evaluate the system performance for signs of system degradationOrganization of this DocumentThis manual provides a general explanation of the way a multibeam sonar system works and describes in detail the implementation of multibeam technology represented by the SEA BEAM 2100 system.Chapter 2, “Sonar Concepts,” introduces the concepts and definitions involved in echo sounding, using a description of a simple single-beam echo sounder as an example. Characteristics of the creation and transmission of acoustic pulses in water and their echoes off the ocean bottom are discussed. This chapter also explains some of the limitations of a single-beam sonar.Chapter 3, “Introduction to Multibeam Sonar: Projector and Hydrophone Systems,” describes the Mills Cross technique, including the processes of beam forming and beam steering and how it is applied to sonar and to the SEA BEAM 2100 in particular. The chapter discusses how systems that employ the Mills Cross technique can make up for many of the short-comings of single-beam echo sounders.Chapter 4, “Detection Processing and Range Calculation,” describes how the SEA BEAM 2100 extracts signals and determines the location of the sea floor from multibeam echoes. The processes used for ship motion compensation and the formation of stable beams and the implementation of sound velocity profiles are discussed.Chapter 5, “Sidescan Sonar,” discusses sea floor imaging using sidescan sonars and how the SEA BEAM 2100 can be used simultaneously as a depth-finding and sidescan sonar.A glossary of the terminology of multibeam sonar technology is included as an appendix. Scope of this DocumentMultibeam technology involves a number of disciplines including underwater acoustics, digital signal processing, and detection theory statistics. Many excellent texts are available that provide in-depth mathematical treatment of each of these fields. The purpose of this document is not to cover all related topics in rigorous mathematical detail, but instead to present you with a simple, clear understanding of the fundamental concepts required to develop the full potential of a multibeam sonar system. Ideas are presented in a graphical and descriptive way, with minimal use of complex mathematics. Where appropriate, references to texts are provided so you can pursue topics in greater detail. While directed at users of the SEA BEAM 2100 system in particular, most of the concepts explained in this document are common to all multibeam sonars, so much of this information can be applied to any commercially available multibeam system.。
1-4单元《新编语言学教程》课后答案
Chapter 1Introduction1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) linguistics语言学: the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language语言: a system of arbitrary vocal 任意的声音symbols used for human communication.用于人类交流的任意声音符号系统(3) arbitrariness任意性: the absence of similarity betweenthe form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality,语言符号的形式与现实的关系缺乏相似性e.g. the worddog does not look like a dog.(4) duality双重性: the way meaningless elements of languageat one level (sounds and letters) combine to formmeaningful units (words) at another level.在一个层面上（语言和字母）的无意义的语言元素结合在另一个层次上形成有意义的单位（词）(5) competence语言能力: knowledge of the grammar of alanguage as a formal abstraction and distinct from thebehavior of actual language use作为一种形式抽象的语言的语法知识，区别于实际语言使用的行为, i.e.performance.(6) performance语言运用: Chomsky’s term for actuallanguage behavior as distinct from the knowledge thatunderlies it, or competence.乔姆斯基对实际语言行为的术语不同于它的知识，或能力。
语言学 第一章
Theoretical linguistics
2.1ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱPhonetics( 语音学） is the study of sounds used in linguistic communication， e g. how a person make a sound 2.2 Phonology(音位学）studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication, for example, the sound /l/
in leap and feel are two different sounds, but they are interchangeable and make no differences in meaning, we can just leave them as one phoneme(音位） /l/
3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic study（共时 的）---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study（历时 的）---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)
2.7 Sociolinguistics(社会语言学）is the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society ,for example, dirty words are spoken in different social classes, but the extent of speaking it is varied concerning different area, education background and so on. 2.8 Psycholinguistics（心理语言学） is the study of language that relates to psychology such as how our mind works when we use language, how we memorize and how we process the information we receive in communication.
Chapter 1Introduction 练习题
Chapter One IntroducitonI. Multiple Choices.Directions: In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question to complete the sentence.1. __________ function constructs a model of experience and logical relations.A. InterpersonalB. TextualC. MetalingualD. Ideational2. Arbitrariness of language was first discussed by ____________,A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. FirthD. Saussure3. Which function is the major role of Language?A. InformativeB. InterpersonalC. PerformativeD. Emotive4.Which branch of study cannot be included in the scope of Linguistics?A. SyntaxB. PragmaticsC. PhoneticsD. Anthropology5. The ___________ function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.A. performativeB. phaticC. recreationalD. emotive6. The term __________ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language changes over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. comparativeC. diachronicD. historical comparative7.__________ examines how meaning is encoded in a language.A. SemanticsB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. Morphology8.Saussure distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker as __________.A. paroleB. languageC. systemD. langue9.The fundamental distinction between competence and performance is discussed by _________.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. Austin10. What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and lettersB. Sounds and meaningC. Letters and meaningD. Sounds and symbols.11. ___________ studies the sound systems in a certain language.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Syntax12. The founder of modern linguistics is ___________.A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. BloomfieldD. Saussure13. Modern linguistics focuses on the present day language, and it will be possible to describe language from a _________ perspective.A. sociologicalB.synchronicC. diachronicD. Psychological14. Which of the following is NOT the function of language?A. Metalingual function.B. Interpersonal function.C. Emotive functionD. Cultural transmission15.We can refer to Chairman Mao. This feature of language is called _________.A.dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacement16.The sentence "Don't say X." is ___________.A.descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. obligatoryD. Narrative17.Which of the following functions are NOT the functions put forward by Halliday?A. The Ideational FunctionB. The Interpersonal FunctionC. The Generative FunctionD. The Textual Function20. __________ is the major concern of semantics.A. MeaningB. WordsC. Sentence structuresD. Phrase structure rules21. The set of possibility for “doing” is termed _________ from a functional language’s view.A. linguistic potentialB. communicative competenceC. competenceD. langue22. Traditional grammar regards the __________ form of language as primary, not the spoken from.A. oralB. writtenC. writingD. vocal23. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the __________ nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmissionnguage is __________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.A. instructiveB. constructiveC. intuitiveD. productive25.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechII. Complete each of the following statements.1.When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact ratherthan exchanging information or ideas, its function is ____________ function.2.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as ___________.3.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be___________; it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, it is said to be __________. 4.In modern linguistics, ___________ study seems to enjoy priority over ___________ study.The reason is that successful studies of various sates of a language would be the foundations of a historical study.5.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” This famous quotation from Shakespeareillustrates that language has the design feature of _______________.6.An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use language, but they are notmutually intelligible, which show that language is culturally ____________.7.The features that define our human languages can be called ____________ features.8.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called ___________.9.Chomsky initiated the distinction between ______________ and performance.10.___________ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the otherhand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.III. Answer the following questions.1. A distinction can be drawn between competence and performance in the study of language. What do they refer to? Why does Chomsky draw such a distinction?2. Explain the following statements with examples: Our language can be used to talk about itself.3.How do you understand “duality”, a design feature of language?1.phatic2. displacement3. descriptive, prescriptive4. synchronic, diachronic5. arbitrariness6. transmitted7. design8. morphology9. competence 10.Pragmatics。
自整英语语言学
一.名词解释Chapter 1 Introduction引言1.linguistic语言Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学一般被定义为语言的科学研究。
2.general linguistics一般语言学The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.作为整体而言的语言研究经常被成为一般语言学。
3.phonetics语音学The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.语言交际中语音的研究导致了语音学的建立。
4.morphology形态学The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.对这些符号的排列方式和组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的分支形态学。
5.syntax句法The study of the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is called syntax.句子的组合形式的研究称之为句法。
6.semantics语义学The study of meaning is known as semantics.意义的研究被称为语义学。
7.pragmatics语用学When the study of meaning is conducted，not in isolation，but in the context of language use，it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.当意义的研究是进展的，不是孤立的，而是在语言运用的语境中，它就称为语言学的另一个分支，语用学。
chapter 1 introduction
经过近80年的研究改进，汽车阻力系数从 0.8降至0.137，阻力减小为原来的1/5 。
3. How can the airplane fly?
Boeing 747 70.7×64.4× 19.41 (m)
An-225 84×88.4×18.1 (m) 600,000kg
395 000kg
机翼升力：来自下部还是上部？ 人们的直观印象是空气从下面冲击着鸟的翅膀 ，把鸟托在空中。19世纪初建立的流体力学环 量理论彻底改变了人们的传统观念。
20世纪30年代起，人们开始运用流体力学原理改进 汽车尾部形状，出现甲壳虫型，阻力系数降至0.6。
20世纪50－60年代改进为船型，阻力系数为0.45。
80年代经过风洞(wind tunnel experiments) 实验 系统研究后，又改进为鱼型，阻力系数为0.3 。
以后进一步改进为楔型，阻力系数为0.2。
MБайду номын сангаасst engineering problems are concerned with physical dimensions much larger than this limiting volume.
The elemental volume must be small enough in macroscope
g
Viscosity
Reconsider flow between fixed and moving parallel plates (Couette flow)
Note: u(0)=0 and u(h)=U i.e., satisfies noslip boundary condition
1. 2. 3. 4.
5.
英语语言学导论
Chapter 1 Introduction介绍1.语言定义What is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules. This explains why “iblk” is not a possible sound combination in English, and also why “Been he wounded has” is not a grammatically acceptable sentence in English.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for, for instance, between the word “pen” and the thing we write with. Different languages have different words for the same object. Words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. All evidence points to the fact that writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper. The fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal.2. 语言特征Design Features of LanguageDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Charles Hockett (American) in 1960 : (5 of 13)①Arbitrariness 任意性: There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.) On the other hand, language is not entirely arbitrary, such like onomatopoeic words and some compound words.②Productivity 多产性: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.③Duality 双重性: Language is a system, which consists of two levels. The basic level is a structure of sounds, and the higher level is the units of meaning.④Displacement 移位性: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑤Cultural transmission 文化传承性: Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.3.语言功能Function of LanguageThree main functions : the descriptive function, the expressive function and the social function.①The descriptive function: also referred to differently as the cognitive, or referential, or propositional function, is assumed to be the primary function of language.It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.②The expressive function: also called the emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.③The social function: also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Roman Jakobson (Russian-born) :He identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.①Addresser, Emotive 情感功能The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.②Addressee, Conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.③Context, Referential 信息功能The addresser conveys a message of information.④Message, Poetic 诗性功能The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.⑤Contact, Phatic communication 寒暄功能The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee.⑥Code.Metalinguistic 元语言，纯理功能The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself, e.g. “Let me tell you what the word ‘linguist’ means.”M.A.K. Halliday (British) in the early 1970s :He explored the functions of child language, and found that as a child grew into an adult the7 functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract system of functions.①Ideational 经验功能: The ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer’sexperience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker’s attitude, evaluation, his feelings and emotions.②Interpersonal 人际功能: The interpersonal function is to establish or maintain socialrelationships between people.③Textual 语篇功能: The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.4.语言学定义What is LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.(Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.)(It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.)5.语言学范围the scope of linguisticsRelatively independent branches within the area of linguistics, and also the core of linguistics:①Phonetics语音学: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication.②Phonology音位学: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.③Morphology形态学: The study of the way in which symbols are arranged and combined to form words.④Syntax 句法学: the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.⑤Semantics语义学: In most general terms language is used to convey meaning. The study of meaning is known as semantics.⑥Pragmatics语用学: Language communication does not occur in a vacuum, it always occurs in a context. The study of meaning in the context of language use is called pragmatics. Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study: sociolinguistics社会语言学psycholinguistics 语言心理学applied linguistics 应用语言学。
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Chapter 1 Introduction
Technical terms:
1.Linguistics: linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
nguage: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication.
3.Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it
from any animal system of communication.
4.Arbitrariness: the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship
to their meaning.
5.Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two
levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.
6. Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
7. Displacement: displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.
8. Cultural transmission: while human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. This is what cultural transmission means.
9. Prescriptive and descriptive: prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
10. Synchronic and diachronic: The description of a language at some point of time in
history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
11. Langue and parole: langue was used by the linguist Sassure to mean the system of
a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a
language have a shared knowledge of or, as Saussure said, “agree to use”. Langue is the “ideal” form of a langua ge. Saussure called the actual use of language by people in speech or writing “parole”.
12. Competence and performance: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s
knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.。