文献翻译

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英文文献pdf翻译成中文

英文文献pdf翻译成中文
对于将英文文献PDF翻译成中文，有几种常见的方法可以实现。

首先，你可以使用在线翻译工具，如Google翻译或百度翻译，直接
上传PDF文件并选择需要翻译的语言。

这些工具可以快速将整个文
档翻译成中文，但需要注意的是，由于自动翻译的限制，可能会出
现一些翻译不准确或不通顺的情况，特别是对于专业术语或复杂句子。

其次，你也可以雇佣专业的翻译人员或翻译公司来完成这项任务。

他们可以提供更准确、流畅的翻译，尤其是对于专业领域的文献，这种方式会更可靠。

然而，这需要一定的成本和时间，因为翻
译人员需要逐字逐句地进行翻译，并且可能需要进行专业术语的翻
译和校对。

另外，如果你自己对英文和中文都比较熟悉，也可以考虑自行
翻译。

这种方式可以确保翻译的准确性和流畅性，但需要花费较多
的时间和精力。

无论采用哪种方式，翻译文献需要保证准确性和完整性，尤其
是对于学术文献或专业领域的文献。

希望这些信息能够帮助你找到合适的方法来将英文文献PDF翻译成中文。

外文文献及翻译

外文文献及翻译1. 文献："The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health"翻译：运动对心理健康的影响Abstract: This article explores the effects of exercise on mental health. The author discusses various studies that have been conducted on this topic, and presents evidence to support the claim that exercise can have positive impacts on mental well-being. The article also examines the mechanisms through which exercise affects mental health, such as the release of endorphins and the reduction of stress hormones. Overall, the author concludes that exercise is an effective strategy for improving mental health and recommends incorporating physical activity into daily routines.摘要：本文探讨了运动对心理健康的影响。

作者讨论了在这个主题上进行的各种研究，并提出证据支持运动对心理健康有积极影响的观点。

该文章还探讨了运动如何影响心理健康的机制，如内啡肽的释放和压力激素的减少。

总的来说，作者得出结论，运动是改善心理健康的有效策略，并建议将体育活动纳入日常生活。

2. 文献： "The Benefits of Bilingualism"翻译：双语能力的好处Abstract: This paper examines the benefits of bilingualism. The author presents research findings that demonstrate the cognitiveadvantages of being bilingual, such as enhanced problem-solving skills and improved attention control. The article also explores the social and cultural benefits of bilingualism, such as increased cultural awareness and the ability to communicate with people from different backgrounds. Additionally, the author discusses the positive effects of bilingualism on mental health, highlighting its role in delaying the onset of cognitive decline and in providing a buffer against age-related memory loss. Overall, the author concludes that bilingualism offers a range of advantages and recommends promoting bilingual education and language learning. 摘要：本文研究了双语能力的好处。

如何进行有效的文献翻译和引用

如何进行有效的文献翻译和引用翻译和引用文献是学术写作过程中重要的环节，它们直接关系到作品的质量和可信度。

本文将介绍如何进行有效的文献翻译和引用。

一、文献翻译1. 理解原文：在进行文献翻译之前，首先要仔细阅读并理解原文。

对于专业术语和句子结构要有清晰的理解，确保翻译结果能精准传达原文的含义。

2. 保持风格和语气一致：翻译过程中要保持原文的风格和语气，力求忠实地传达作者的意图。

同时，根据目标语言的表达习惯和规范，进行必要的修饰和调整，使翻译结果自然流畅。

3. 注意语法和拼写：在进行文献翻译时，要严格遵循目标语言的语法规则，并注意拼写的准确性。

避免使用机器翻译或者不熟悉的翻译软件，以免产生误译或语法错误。

4. 保留原文译名和引文：对于人名、地名、机构名等特定词汇，应尽量保留原文译名，同时在文中适当加注原文的拼音或者音译，方便读者查证和理解。

对于引用的文献，在翻译后的文中应添加适当的引文标注，包括作者、标题、出版年份等信息。

二、文献引用1. 引言中的引用：在引言部分，可以通过直接引用或间接引用的方式引用文献。

直接引用时，要用引号将原文括起来，并注明出处。

如果引用内容过长，可以使用缩略号表示省略部分内容。

2. 正文中的引用：在正文中引用文献时，可以使用上标或者括号标注作者和年份。

例如：“根据 Smith（2010）的研究结果显示……”或者“研究结果显示……（Smith，2010）”。

3. 参考文献列表：所有被引用的文献都应在参考文献列表中列出，格式应符合学术规范。

具体的格式要求可以根据不同的引用风格（如APA、MLA等）进行调整。

每一条文献引用应包括作者、标题、期刊或书籍名称、出版年份等信息，且按照字母顺序排列。

4. 避免抄袭和剽窃：在引用文献时，要注意避免抄袭和剽窃现象的发生。

当引用他人观点时，应加注出处，并在文中对其进行必要的解释和评价，以显示自己对该观点的理解和思考。

综上所述，进行有效的文献翻译和引用是学术写作中必不可少的环节。

英文文献全文翻译

英文文献全文翻译全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：LeGuin, Ursula K. (December 18, 2002). "Dancing at the Edge of the World: Thoughts on Words, Women, Places".《世界边缘的舞蹈：关于语言、女性和地方的思考》Introduction:In "Dancing at the Edge of the World," Ursula K. LeGuin explores the intersection of language, women, and places. She writes about the power of words, the role of women in society, and the importance of our connection to the places we inhabit. Through a series of essays, LeGuin invites readers to think critically about these topics and consider how they shape our understanding of the world.Chapter 1: LanguageConclusion:第二篇示例：IntroductionEnglish literature translation is an important field in the study of language and culture. The translation of English literature involves not only the linguistic translation of words or sentences but also the transfer of cultural meaning and emotional resonance. This article will discuss the challenges and techniques of translating English literature, as well as the importance of preserving the original author's voice and style in the translated text.Challenges in translating English literature第三篇示例：Title: The Importance of Translation of Full English TextsTranslation plays a crucial role in bringing different languages and cultures together. More specifically, translating full English texts into different languages allows for access to valuable information and insights that may otherwise be inaccessible to those who do not speak English. In this article, we will explore the importance of translating full English texts and the benefits it brings.第四篇示例：Abstract: This article discusses the importance of translating English literature and the challenges translators face when putting together a full-text translation. It highlights the skills and knowledge needed to accurately convey the meaning and tone of the original text while preserving its cultural and literary nuances. Through a detailed analysis of the translation process, this article emphasizes the crucial role translators play in bridging the gap between languages and making English literature accessible to a global audience.IntroductionEnglish literature is a rich and diverse field encompassing a wide range of genres, styles, and themes. From classic works by Shakespeare and Dickens to contemporary novels by authors like J.K. Rowling and Philip Pullman, English literature offers something for everyone. However, for non-English speakers, accessing and understanding these works can be a challenge. This is where translation comes in.Translation is the process of rendering a text from one language into another, while striving to preserve the original meaning, tone, and style of the original work. Translating afull-length English text requires a deep understanding of both languages, as well as a keen awareness of the cultural andhistorical context in which the work was written. Additionally, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to convey the beauty and complexity of the original text in a new language.Challenges of Full-text TranslationTranslating a full-length English text poses several challenges for translators. One of the most significant challenges is capturing the nuances and subtleties of the original work. English literature is known for its rich and layered language, with intricate wordplay, metaphors, and symbolism that can be difficult to convey in another language. Translators must carefully consider each word and phrase in order to accurately convey the author's intended meaning.Another challenge of full-text translation is maintaining the author's unique voice and style. Each writer has a distinct way of expressing themselves, and a good translator must be able to replicate this voice in the translated text. This requires a deep understanding of the author's writing style, as well as the ability to adapt it to the conventions of the target language.Additionally, translators must be mindful of the cultural and historical context of the original work. English literature is deeply rooted in the history and traditions of the English-speaking world, and translators must be aware of these influences in orderto accurately convey the author's intended message. This requires thorough research and a nuanced understanding of the social, political, and economic factors that shaped the work.Skills and Knowledge RequiredTo successfully translate a full-length English text, translators must possess a wide range of skills and knowledge. First and foremost, translators must be fluent in both the source language (English) and the target language. This includes a strong grasp of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary in both languages, as well as an understanding of the cultural and historical context of the works being translated.Translators must also have a keen eye for detail and a meticulous approach to their work. Every word, sentence, and paragraph must be carefully considered and translated with precision in order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. This requires strong analytical skills and a deep understanding of the nuances and complexities of language.Furthermore, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to craft a compelling and engaging translation. Translating a full-length English text is not simply a matter of substituting one word for another; it requires creativity, imagination, and a deep appreciation for the beauty of language. Translators mustbe able to capture the rhythm, cadence, and tone of the original work in their translation, while also adapting it to the conventions of the target language.ConclusionIn conclusion, translating a full-length English text is a complex and challenging task that requires a high level of skill, knowledge, and creativity. Translators must possess a deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural and historical context of the work being translated. Through their careful and meticulous work, translators play a crucial role in making English literature accessible to a global audience, bridging the gap between languages and cultures. By preserving the beauty and complexity of the original text in their translations, translators enrich our understanding of literature and bring the works of English authors to readers around the world.。

毕业论文的文献翻译是什么

毕业论文的文献翻译是什么毕业论文的文献翻译是什么在撰写毕业论文的过程中，文献翻译是一个不可忽视的环节。

文献翻译是指将外文文献转化为母语的过程，旨在使读者能够准确理解并运用这些文献中的信息。

在这个过程中，翻译者需要具备一定的翻译技巧和专业知识，以确保翻译结果的准确性和流畅性。

首先，文献翻译需要翻译者具备良好的语言能力。

翻译者需要熟练掌握目标语言和源语言，准确理解文献中的内容，并将其转化为母语。

在翻译过程中，翻译者需要注意语法、词汇和句法等方面的准确性，以确保翻译结果的质量。

其次，文献翻译需要翻译者具备专业知识。

毕业论文通常涉及特定的学科领域，因此翻译者需要对该领域的专业术语和概念有一定的了解。

只有在掌握了相关的专业知识后，翻译者才能准确理解文献中的内容，并将其转化为母语，使读者能够理解和运用这些信息。

此外，文献翻译还需要翻译者具备一定的翻译技巧。

翻译技巧是指在翻译过程中运用的一些方法和策略，以提高翻译的准确性和流畅性。

例如，翻译者可以采用对等翻译、意译或加注说明等方式来处理一些难以准确翻译的内容。

同时，翻译者还需要注意上下文的连贯性和一致性，以确保翻译结果的整体性和可读性。

此外，文献翻译还需要翻译者具备一定的研究能力。

在翻译过程中，翻译者需要对文献中的内容进行深入的研究和理解，以确保翻译结果的准确性和可靠性。

翻译者需要查阅相关的参考资料和文献，了解文献中的背景和相关的研究成果，以便更好地理解和翻译文献中的内容。

最后，文献翻译还需要翻译者具备一定的时间管理能力。

毕业论文的撰写通常有严格的时间要求，因此翻译者需要合理安排时间，确保在规定的时间内完成文献翻译的任务。

同时，翻译者还需要预留一定的时间进行校对和修改，以确保翻译结果的质量。

综上所述，毕业论文的文献翻译是一个需要翻译者具备一定的语言能力、专业知识、翻译技巧、研究能力和时间管理能力的过程。

只有在具备这些能力的基础上，翻译者才能准确理解和翻译文献中的内容，并将其转化为母语，使读者能够准确理解并运用这些信息。

论文外文文献翻译

论文外文文献翻译以下是一篇700字左右的论文外文文献翻译：原文题目：The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Medical Diagnostics: A Review原文摘要：In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in the field of medical diagnostics. AI has the potential to improve the accuracy and efficiency of medical diagnoses, and can assist clinicians in making treatment decisions. This review aims to examine the current state of AI in medical diagnostics, and discuss its advantages and limitations. Several AI techniques, including machine learning, deep learning, and natural language processing, are discussed. The review also examines the ethical and legal considerations associated with the use of AI in medical diagnostics. Overall, AI has shown great promise in improving medical diagnostics, but further research is needed to fully understand its potential benefits and limitations.AI在医学诊断中发挥的作用：一项综述近年来，人工智能（AI）在医学诊断领域的应用引起了越来越多的关注。

八大英文文献翻译神器

你值得拥有的八大英文文献翻译神器不管是做科研还是写SCI论文，开始都需要阅读大量的文献，做课题至少查阅600篇，粗看300篇，细看100篇，研读50篇，在看到一叠叠论文后，由于语言问题，往往会觉得无从下手，下面分享几款常用的文献翻译神器。

1、谷歌浏览器翻译优点：页面简洁，使用方便，随开随用，多种语言随时切换，只要有网就能翻译。

缺点：功能比较单一，排版比较乱，界面不是很美观。

2、SCI Translate9.0目前有9.0普通版以及VIP版，VIP版内置Google 人工智能云翻译引擎，翻译精准度很强；没有广告。

3、LinggleLinggle是一个可用来进行英语语法、句子写作的工具，可为学习者提供更准确的英文写作建议。

4、NetSpeakNetSpeak是一个提供免费线上单词、词组、语句翻译的工具，其特点是可以在线搜索和比较各种英文词汇、短句、语法、单词解释等内容，并且可以统计出这个用语的变化形态，还可以分析使用频率和情境，堪比谷歌翻译。

5、CNKI翻译CNKI翻译助手是一款专业的学术翻译工具，由“中国知网”开发制作，汇集了从CNKI系列数据库中挖掘的大量常用词汇、专业术语、成语俚语及双语例句等，形成海量中英在线词典和双语平行语料库。

6、LingoesLingoes是一款简明易用的词典与文本翻译软件，支持全球超过80多种语言的词典查询、全文翻译、屏幕取词、划词翻译、例句搜索、网络释义和真人语音朗读功能。

7、有道词典有道词典是个神器，尤其是查词、划词、取词的方面特别突出，词库中有所有专业用语的补充包，可以让你瞬间翻译出各种专业的英文单词，从复杂的有机化合物，到稀奇古怪的动物名，哪里不会点哪里。

8、Copy Translator比较适用于即时翻译，内置了谷歌翻译、百度翻译、有道翻译、搜狗翻译、彩云翻译和腾讯翻译几种不同的翻译引擎，随意切换，总有一个适合你。

英文文献翻译格式

英文文献翻译格式
英文文献翻译格式通常包括以下几个方面:
1. 文献信息：在翻译文献之前，首先要提供文献的基本信息，包括作者、标题、期刊/书名、出版日期等。

通常按照以下格式进行排列：
[作者姓氏]，[作者名字]. [文章标题]. [期刊/书名]. [出版日期].
2. 翻译译者：如果是自己翻译的文献，应该标明自己是译者。

可以在文献信息的末尾加上"Translated by: [译者姓名]"或者"Translation by: [译者姓名]"。

3. 段落翻译：在翻译文献的内容时，可以将原文按照段落进行翻译，并使用缩进或者空行进行分隔。

可以使用换行符或者段落符号表示新的段落。

4. 引用翻译：如果在翻译过程中需要引用原文的内容，可以使用引号标注，同时在引用的末尾注明原文的出处。

可以使用段落符号或者引用标记来引用内容。

5. 注释：如果在翻译过程中需要添加注释或者补充说明，可以使用括号或者脚注来表示。

注释应该直接放在被注释的内容后面，使用合适的标点符号进行分割。

6. 标题翻译：如果文献中包含标题或子标题，应该将其翻译成对应的中文。

可以将翻译后的标题用加粗、斜体、下划线等格
式进行标记，以便读者区分。

7. 插图翻译：如果文献中包含插图或者图片，通常需要对其进行翻译。

可以在插图下方或者旁边加上对应的中文说明，以方便读者理解。

总体而言，英文文献翻译格式应该清晰明了，准确无误地传达原文的信息。

要注重原文内容的准确性，并注意译文的语法、词汇、结构等方面的准确性和流畅度。

英文文献及翻译(计算机专业)

英文文献及翻译(计算机专业)The increasing complexity of design resources in a net-based collaborative XXX common systems。

design resources can be organized in n with design activities。

A task is formed by a set of activities and resources linked by logical ns。

XXX managementof all design resources and activities via a Task Management System (TMS)。

which is designed to break down tasks and assign resources to task nodes。

This XXX。

2 Task Management System (TMS)TMS is a system designed to manage the tasks and resources involved in a design project。

It poses tasks into smaller subtasks。

XXX management of all design resources and activities。

TMS assigns resources to task nodes。

XXX。

3 Collaborative DesignCollaborative design is a process that XXX a common goal。

In a net-based collaborative design environment。

n XXX n for all design resources and activities。

英文文献翻译

Preparation and characterization of Ag-TiO2 hybrid clusters powders[1]（Ag-TiO2混合团簇粉末的制备和表征）Abstract：液相电弧放电法被用于制备纳米Ag-TiO2复合超细粉末。

XRD和TEM图表明颗粒呈葫芦状形态，分布狭窄。

我们讨论了实验条件对产品的影响，比较了这种方法制备的粉末和其他γ射线辐照法制备的粉末。

Introduction：材料合成技术，提高了研究特定电子和光学特性的能力。

这也导致了设备和不同效应的快速发展，如集成光学型偏振器[1]和量子霍耳效应。

所需的长度尺度对于这些结构的控制是在纳米级别的[ 2 ]。

科学家面临的一个新的挑战是半导体量子点的生长，它具有新的光学响应，引起了对其基础物理方面和三阶非线性光致发光的应用等的研究兴趣。

这方面的一个例子是Ag-TiO2复合材料通过胶体方法合成[ 3 ]或由γ射线辐照法合成[ 4 ]。

对比其他制备超细金属颗粒的方法，γ射线辐照法能在室温的环境压力下产生粉末。

在这封信中，我们开发了一种新的方法，即液相电弧放电法，用以制备纳米复合材料，当它经水热处理可以得到纳米级别的超细粉。

Preparation and photocatalytic activity of immobilized composite photocatalyst (titania nanoparticle/activated carbon)[2]固定化复合光催化剂（TiO2纳米颗粒/活性炭）的制备和光催化活性研究Abstract：制备了一种固定化复合光催化剂——TiO2纳米颗粒/活性炭（AC），并研究了它在降解纺织染料的光催化活性。

AC通过油菜籽壳制备。

碱性红18（BR18）和碱性红46（BR46）被用来作为模型染料。

并采用了傅里叶变换红外（FTIR），波长色散X射线光谱（WDX），扫描电子显微镜（SEM），紫外可见分光光度法，化学需氧量（COD）和离子色谱（IC）分析。

知云文献翻译使用教程

知云文献翻译使用教程知云文献翻译是一款在线文献翻译工具，它可以帮助用户快速准确地翻译各种学术文献和研究论文。

下面是知云文献翻译的使用教程，包含了一些常用的用法和中英文对照例句。

1. 打开知云文献翻译的网页：在浏览器中输入“知云文献翻译”，进入官方网站。

2. 选择翻译语种：在网页上方的语种选择框中，选择您要翻译的语种。

例如，如果您想将中文翻译成英文，选择“中文”为源语言，选择“英文”为目标语言。

3. 输入文本：在输入框中输入您要翻译的文本。

可以是整篇论文的摘要、段落或者句子。

4. 点击翻译按钮：点击页面上的“翻译”按钮，开始进行翻译。

5. 查看翻译结果：在下方的输出框中，您将看到翻译后的文本。

可以一次性翻译整篇论文，也可以逐句进行翻译。

以下是一些中英文对照例句，以帮助您更好地理解知云文献翻译的使用方法：中文原文：这项研究旨在探讨人工智能在医学领域的应用。

英文翻译：This study aims to explore the application ofartificial intelligence in the field of medicine.中文原文：实验结果表明，新药对癌症患者的治疗效果显著提高。

英文翻译：The experimental results indicate that the new drug significantly improves the treatment efficacy for cancer patients.中文原文：本研究采用随机对照试验设计，对两组受试者进行了比较。

英文翻译：This study employed a randomized controlled trial design to compare two groups of subjects.中文原文：研究结果表明，环境因素对人体健康有着重要的影响。

英文翻译：The research findings indicate that environmental factors have a significant impact on human health.中文原文：本文综述了当前研究的进展情况及未来的研究方向。

外文文献翻译原文+译文

外文文献翻译原文Analysis of Con tin uous Prestressed Concrete BeamsChris BurgoyneMarch 26, 20051、IntroductionThis conference is devoted to the development of structural analysis rather than the strength of materials, but the effective use of prestressed concrete relies on an appropriate combination of structural analysis techniques with knowledge of the material behaviour. Design of prestressed concrete structures is usually left to specialists; the unwary will either make mistakes or spend inordinate time trying to extract a solution from the various equations.There are a number of fundamental differences between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and that of other materials. Structures are not unstressed when unloaded; the design space of feasible solutions is totally bounded；in hyperstatic structures, various states of self-stress can be induced by altering the cable profile, and all of these factors get influenced by creep and thermal effects. How were these problems recognised and how have they been tackled?Ever since the development of reinforced concrete by Hennebique at the end of the 19th century (Cusack 1984), it was recognised that steel and concrete could be more effectively combined if the steel was pretensioned, putting the concrete into compression. Cracking could be reduced, if not prevented altogether, which would increase stiffness and improve durability. Early attempts all failed because the initial prestress soon vanished, leaving the structure to be- have as though it was reinforced; good descriptions of these attempts are given by Leonhardt (1964) and Abeles (1964).It was Freyssineti’s observations of the sagging of the shallow arches on three bridges that he had just completed in 1927 over the River Allier near Vichy which led directly to prestressed concrete (Freyssinet 1956). Only the bridge at Boutiron survived WWII (Fig 1). Hitherto, it had been assumed that concrete had a Young’s modulus which remained fixed, but he recognised that the de- ferred strains due to creep explained why the prestress had been lost in the early trials. Freyssinet (Fig. 2) also correctly reasoned that high tensile steel had to be used, so that some prestress would remain after the creep had occurred, and alsothat high quality concrete should be used, since this minimised the total amount of creep. The history of Freyssineti’s early prestressed concrete work is written elsewhereFigure1:Boutiron Bridge,Vic h yFigure 2: Eugen FreyssinetAt about the same time work was underway on creep at the BRE laboratory in England ((Glanville 1930) and (1933)). It is debatable which man should be given credit for the discovery of creep but Freyssinet clearly gets the credit for successfully using the knowledge to prestress concrete.There are still problems associated with understanding how prestressed concrete works, partly because there is more than one way of thinking about it. These different philosophies are to some extent contradictory, and certainly confusing to the young engineer. It is also reflected, to a certain extent, in the various codes of practice.Permissible stress design philosophy sees prestressed concrete as a way of avoiding cracking by eliminating tensile stresses; the objective is for sufficient compression to remain after creep losses. Untensionedreinforcement, which attracts prestress due to creep, is anathema. This philosophy derives directly from Freyssinet’s logic and is primarily a working stress concept.Ultimate strength philosophy sees prestressing as a way of utilising high tensile steel as reinforcement. High strength steels have high elastic strain capacity, which could not be utilised when used as reinforcement; if the steel is pretensioned, much of that strain capacity is taken out before bonding the steel to the concrete. Structures designed this way are normally designed to be in compression everywhere under permanent loads, but allowed to crack under high live load. The idea derives directly from the work of Dischinger (1936) and his work on the bridge at Aue in 1939 (Schonberg and Fichter 1939), as well as that of Finsterwalder (1939). It is primarily an ultimate load concept. The idea of partial prestressing derives from these ideas.The Load-Balancing philosophy, introduced by T.Y. Lin, uses prestressing to counter the effect of the permanent loads (Lin 1963). The sag of the cables causes an upward force on the beam, which counteracts the load on the beam. Clearly, only one load can be balanced, but if this is taken as the total dead weight, then under that load the beam will perceive only the net axial prestress and will have no tendency to creep up or down.These three philosophies all have their champions, and heated debates take place between them as to which is the most fundamental.2、Section designFrom the outset it was recognised that prestressed concrete has to be checked at both the working load and the ultimate load. For steel structures, and those made from reinforced concrete, there is a fairly direct relationship between the load capacity under an allowable stress design, and that at the ultimate load under an ultimate strength design. Older codes were based on permissible stresses at the working load; new codes use moment capacities at the ultimate load. Different load factors are used in the two codes, but a structure which passes one code is likely to be acceptable under the other.For prestressed concrete, those ideas do not hold, since the structure is highly stressed, even when unloaded. A small increase of load can cause some stress limits to be breached, while a large increase in load might be needed to cross other limits. The designer has considerable freedom to vary both the working load and ultimate load capacities independently; both need to be checked.A designer normally has to check the tensile and compressive stresses, in both the top and bottom fibre of the section, for every load case. The critical sections are normally, but not always, the mid-span and the sections over piers but other sections may become critical ，when the cable profile has to be determined.The stresses at any position are made up of three components, one of which normally has a different sign from the other two; consistency of sign convention is essential.If P is the prestressing force and e its eccentricity, A and Z are the area of the cross-section and its elastic section modulus, while M is the applied moment, then where ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and compression.c e t f ZM Z P A P f ≤-+≤Thus, for any combination of P and M , the designer already has four in- equalities to deal with.The prestressing force differs over time, due to creep losses, and a designer isusually faced with at least three combinations of prestressing force and moment;• the applied moment at the time the prestress is first applied, before creep losses occur,• the maximum applied moment after creep losses, and• the minimum applied moment after creep losses.Figure 4: Gustave MagnelOther combinations may be needed in more complex cases. There are at least twelve inequalities that have to be satisfied at any cross-section, but since an I-section can be defined by six variables, and two are needed to define the prestress, the problem is over-specified and it is not immediately obvious which conditions are superfluous. In the hands of inexperienced engineers, the design process can be very long-winded. However, it is possible to separate out the design of the cross-section from the design of the prestress. By considering pairs of stress limits on the same fibre, but for different load cases, the effects of the prestress can be eliminated, leaving expressions of the form:rangestress e Perm issibl Range Mom entZ These inequalities, which can be evaluated exhaustively with little difficulty, allow the minimum size of the cross-section to be determined.Once a suitable cross-section has been found, the prestress can be designed using a construction due to Magnel (Fig.4). The stress limits can all be rearranged into the form:()M fZ PA Z e ++-≤1 By plotting these on a diagram of eccentricity versus the reciprocal of the prestressing force, a series of bound lines will be formed. Provided the inequalities (2) are satisfied, these bound lines will always leave a zone showing all feasible combinations of P and e. The most economical design, using the minimum prestress, usually lies on the right hand side of the diagram, where the design is limited by the permissible tensile stresses.Plotting the eccentricity on the vertical axis allows direct comparison with the crosssection, as shown in Fig. 5. Inequalities (3) make no reference to the physical dimensions of the structure, but these practical cover limits can be shown as wellA good designer knows how changes to the design and the loadings alter the Magnel diagram. Changing both the maximum andminimum bending moments, but keeping the range the same, raises and lowers the feasible region. If the moments become more sagging the feasible region gets lower in the beam.In general, as spans increase, the dead load moments increase in proportion to the live load. A stage will be reached where the economic point (A on Fig.5) moves outside the physical limits of the beam; Guyon (1951a) denoted the limiting condition as the critical span. Shorter spans will be governed by tensile stresses in the two extreme fibres, while longer spans will be governed by the limiting eccentricity and tensile stresses in the bottom fibre. However, it does not take a large increase in moment ，at which point compressive stresses will govern in the bottom fibre under maximum moment.Only when much longer spans are required, and the feasible region moves as far down as possible, does the structure become governed by compressive stresses in both fibres.3、Continuous beamsThe design of statically determinate beams is relatively straightforward; the engineer can work on the basis of the design of individual cross-sections, as outlined above. A number of complications arise when the structure is indeterminate which means that the designer has to consider, not only a critical section,but also the behaviour of the beam as a whole. These are due to the interaction of a number of factors, such as Creep, Temperature effects and Construction Sequence effects. It is the development of these ideas whichforms the core of this paper. The problems of continuity were addressed at a conference in London (Andrew and Witt 1951). The basic principles, and nomenclature, were already in use, but to modern eyes concentration on hand analysis techniques was unusual, and one of the principle concerns seems to have been the difficulty of estimating losses of prestressing force.3.1 Secondary MomentsA prestressing cable in a beam causes the structure to deflect. Unlike the statically determinate beam, where this motion is unrestrained, the movement causes a redistribution of the support reactions which in turn induces additional moments. These are often termed Secondary Moments, but they are not always small, or Parasitic Moments, but they are not always bad.Freyssinet’s bridge across the Marne at Luzancy, started in 1941 but not completed until 1946, is often thought of as a simply supported beam, but it was actually built as a two-hinged arch (Harris 1986), with support reactions adjusted by means of flat jacks and wedges which were later grouted-in (Fig.6). The same principles were applied in the later and larger beams built over the same river.Magnel built the first indeterminate beam bridge at Sclayn, in Belgium (Fig.7) in 1946. The cables are virtually straight, but he adjusted the deck profile so that the cables were close to the soffit near mid-span. Even with straight cables the sagging secondary momentsare large; about 50% of the hogging moment at the central support caused by dead and live load.The secondary moments cannot be found until the profile is known but the cablecannot be designed until the secondary moments are known. Guyon (1951b) introduced the concept of the concordant profile, which is a profile that causes no secondary moments; es and ep thus coincide. Any line of thrust is itself a concordant profile.The designer is then faced with a slightly simpler problem; a cable profile has to be chosen which not only satisfies the eccentricity limits (3) but is also concordant. That in itself is not a trivial operation, but is helped by the fact that the bending moment diagram that results from any load applied to a beam will itself be a concordant profile for a cable of constant force. Such loads are termed notional loads to distinguish them from the real loads on the structure. Superposition can be used to progressively build up a set of notional loads whose bending moment diagram gives the desired concordant profile.3.2 Temperature effectsTemperature variations apply to all structures but the effect on prestressed concrete beams can be more pronounced than in other structures. The temperature profile through the depth of a beam (Emerson 1973) can be split into three components for the purposes of calculation (Hambly 1991). The first causes a longitudinal expansion, which is normally released by the articulation of the structure; the second causes curvature which leads to deflection in all beams and reactant moments in continuous beams, while the third causes a set of self-equilibrating set of stresses across the cross-section.The reactant moments can be calculated and allowed-for, but it is the self- equilibrating stresses that cause the main problems for prestressed concrete beams. These beams normally have high thermal mass which means that daily temperature variations do not penetrate to the core of the structure. The result is a very non-uniform temperature distribution across the depth which in turn leads to significant self-equilibrating stresses. If the core of the structure is warm, while the surface is cool, such as at night, then quite large tensile stresses can be developed on the top and bottom surfaces. However, they only penetrate a very short distance into the concrete and the potential crack width is very small. It can be very expensive to overcome the tensile stress by changing the section or the prestress。

(完整word版)外文文献及翻译doc

Criminal Law1.General IntroductionCriminal law is the body of the law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders,and fixes punishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particular crimes, and procedural law establishes rules for the prosecution of crime. In a democratic society, it is the function of the legislative bodies to decide what behavior will be made criminal and what penalties will be attached to violations of the law.Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. And physical or corporal punishment may still be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. A convict may be incarcerated in prison or jail and the length of incarceration may vary from a day to life.Criminal law is a reflection of the society that produce it. In an Islamic theocracy, such as Iran, criminal law will reflect the religious teachings of the Koran; in an Catholic country, it will reflect the tenets of Catholicism. In addition, criminal law will change to reflect changes in society, especially attitude changes. For instance, use of marijuana was once considered a serious crime with harsh penalties, whereas today the penalties in most states are relatively light. As severity of the penaltieswas reduced. As a society advances, its judgments about crime and punishment change.2.Elements of a CrimeObviously, different crimes require different behaviors, but there are common elements necessary for proving all crimes. First, the prohibited behavior designated as a crime must be clearly defined so that a reasonable person can be forewarned that engaging in that behavior is illegal. Second, the accused must be shown to have possessed the requisite intent to commit the crime. Third, the state must prove causation. Finally, the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the crime.(1) actus reusThe first element of crime is the actus reus.Actus is an act or action and reus is a person judicially accused of a crime. Therefore, actus reus is literally the action of a person accused of a crime. A criminal statute must clearly define exactly what act is deemed “guilty”---that is, the exact behavior that is being prohibited. That is done so that all persons are put on notice that if they perform the guilty act, they will be liable for criminal punishment. Unless the actus reus is clearly defined, one might not know whether or not on e’s behavior is illegal.Actus reus may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action,or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of Cain striking Abel might suffice, or a parent’s failure to give to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation, and occasionally through one’s official position. Duty also can arise from one’s own creation of a dangerous situation.(2)mens reaA second element of a crime is mens rea. Mens rea refers to an individual’s state of mind when a crime is committed. While actus reus is proven by physical or eyewitness evidence, mens rea is more difficult to ascertain. The jury must determine for itself whether the accused had the necessary intent to commit the act.A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. For instance, if Cain tears a gas meter from a wall, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbor’s house, he could be liable for poisoning. Courts often consider whether the actor did recognise the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea hasbeen reduced in some areas of the criminal law.Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing affected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.(3)CausationThe next element is causation. Often the phrase “but for”is used to determine whether causation has occurred. For example, we might say “Cain caused Abel”, by which we really mean “Cain caused Abel’s death. ”In other words, ‘but for Cain’s act, Abel would still be alive.” Causation, then, means “but for” the actions of A, B would not have been harmed. In criminal law, causation is an element that must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.(4) Proof beyond a Reasonable DoubtIn view of the fact that in criminal cases we are dealing with the life and liberty of the accused person, as well as the stigma accompanying conviction, the legal system places strong limits on the power of the state to convict a person of a crime. Criminal defendants are presumed innocent. The state must overcome this presumption of innocence by proving every element of the offense charged against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt to thesatisfaction of all the jurors. This requirement is the primary way our system minimizes the risk of convicting an innocent person.The state must prove its case within a framework of procedural safeguards that are designed to protect the accused. The state’s failure to prove any material element of its case results in the accused being acquitted or found not guilty, even though he or she may actually have committed the crime charged.3. Strict LiabilityIn modern society, some crimes require no more mens rea, and they are known as strict liability offenses. For in stance, under the Road Traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit.Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly.1. 概述刑法是规定什么试犯罪，有关犯罪嫌疑人之逮捕、起诉及审判，及对已决犯处以何种刑罚的部门法。

参考文献翻译

参考文献翻译参考文献Teixeira, J.O.. (2003). Enhancing the competitiveness of the tourism industry. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(3), 827-847.这篇文章主要探讨了如何提升旅游业竞争力。

作者通过对巴西旅游业的研究发现，提高旅游业竞争力是一个复杂且独特的过程，需要多方面的因素共同作用。

文章首先介绍了旅游业竞争力的概念，并解释了其重要性。

旅游业竞争力不仅仅是指旅游目的地本身的吸引力，还包括了目的地的硬件设施、软件服务、旅游产品和营销策略等多方面因素。

提高旅游业竞争力对于经济发展和社会进步都具有重要的意义。

接下来，作者提出了提升旅游业竞争力的几个关键因素。

首先，目的地需要有适当的硬件设施，如交通运输、酒店、旅游景点等，以满足游客的需求。

其次，软件服务在提高旅游业竞争力中扮演着重要角色，包括旅游目的地的接待能力、服务质量等。

此外，旅游产品的创新和差异化也是提升竞争力的关键因素。

最后，有效的营销策略对于吸引游客和增加目的地知名度至关重要。

在探讨了这些因素后，作者提出了一些提升竞争力的具体措施。

例如，政府可以加大对旅游业的投资，提供资金支持和税收优惠等，以促进旅游业的发展。

此外，各级政府还可以通过制定旅游政策和规划来引导和规范旅游业的发展。

同时，旅游企业和行业协会也可以合作，共同制定和实施营销和推广计划，增加目的地的知名度和吸引力。

总的来说，文章提供了一些有关提升旅游业竞争力的实用建议，并认为提高竞争力是一个综合性和长期性的过程。

此外，作者还提到了巴西旅游业的一些特点和挑战，为其他国家和地区提升竞争力提供了一定的借鉴意义。

参考文献：Teixeira, J.O.. (2003). Enhancing the competitiveness of the tourism industry. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(3), 827-847.。

将中文参考文献转化为英文的方法

将中文参考文献转化为英文的方法
将中文参考文献转化为英文的方法主要有以下几种途径：
1. 在线翻译工具：使用在线翻译工具将中文参考文献逐句翻译成英文。

常用的在线翻译工具有谷歌翻译、百度翻译等。

但需要注意的是，由于机器翻译的准确度有限，可能需要进一步修改和调整翻译结果。

2. 专业翻译人员：请专业的翻译人员翻译整篇参考文献。

翻译人员熟悉中英文语言和学术术语，能够提供更准确和流畅的翻译。

3. 查找英文文献：如果中文参考文献对应的英文文献存在，可以直接引用英文文献。

在学术数据库或搜索引擎中搜索相关的英文文献，找到对应的英文版文献进行引用。

无论哪种方法，都需要对翻译结果进行适当的修改和校对，以确保翻译的准确性和语言流畅性。

此外，对于重要的参考文献，最好能够请专业人士或熟悉英文写作的同行进行校对，以确保翻译的质量和准确性。

工具型和文献型翻译

编辑ppt
Ⅰ工具性翻译聚焦于文本功能, 为翻译策略选择提供功能视角。
Ⅱ文献性翻译聚焦于文本的语言构成要素, 为翻译策略选择提供结构视角
工具型翻译使得译文读者更易于理解, 增加了译文的可读性。文献型翻译较多的保留了汉语原文的语言和文化特征, 有助于向目的语读者传递汉语原文的语言和文化
两种翻译综合体现相得益彰，从而确保译文在与读者的认知理念不相冲突的同时，较为有效地传播文化。
编辑ppt
相应功能翻译
译文与源文功能基本对应的文学
翻译
古希腊的六步格诗（hｅｘａｍｅｔｅｒ）翻译成英语的素体诗（ｂｌａｎｋｖｅｒｓｅ）等
编辑ppt
.
文献型翻译( Documentary Translation)
●强调的是源语作者和源语文本接受者之间的交际行为。译者把源语文化呈现给译语读者，把他们放在源语文化的背景下，让他们感到读到的东西本身是存在于他文化之中。
Documentary translations serve as a document of an SC (source culture) communication between the author and the ST(source text) receiver.
编辑ppt
逐词翻译或逐行对照翻译（ｗｏｒｄ－ｆｏｒ－ｗｏｒｄｏｒｉｎｔｅｒｌｉｎｅａｒｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ）
以传播中国文化为目的时，译者宜主要采用文献型翻译；以提高译文在西方读中的可读性为目的时，宜主要采用工具型翻译。
编辑ppt
工具型翻译 ( Instrumental Translation)
●强调译语文本读者能无障碍地接受源语文本所传达的信息，所接受到的信息和源语文本信息具有同样的功能，即实现译语文本和源语文本的功能对等。