Common Elements of Cognition
认知语言学
学科发展历程
认知语言学在20世纪70年代中期开始在美国孕育（朗 奴·兰盖克提出空间语法），80年代中期以后开始成熟， 其学派地位得以确立，其确立标志为1989年春由勒内·德 尔文(ReneDirven) 组织的在德国杜伊斯堡(Duisbury) 召 开的第一届国际认知语言学大会。此次大会宣布于1990年 发行《认知语言学》杂志, 成立国际认知语言学( ICLA) , 出版认知语言学研究的系列专著，90年代中期以后开始进 入稳步个特例。一个范 畴或类别往往有个“原型”，是用以确定类别的参照标准， 需要归类的目标与标准进行比较，符合标准所有特征的目 标例示（instantiate）这一标准，不完全符合的目标是 对标准的扩展（extension）。
经典范畴理论的如下特征 1 范畴划分由一组充分必 要条件决定 2 特征是二元 3 范畴具有清晰边界 4 范畴 成员之间地位平等。
eg2.钟书能 阮薇. 认知与忠实——汉英上下位词翻译的认知 视角『j』.韶关学院学报
3.上下位：
以基本层次范畴为中心 范畴可以向上发展为上位范畴向 下发展为下位范畴上位范畴依赖于基本层次范畴 且物体 的完形形象和大部分属性都来自基本层次范畴 因此又被 称为寄生范畴(parasiticcategory) 下位范畴也是寄生范 畴它是在基本层次范畴的基础上更进一步细致的切分。
二、认知语言学的主要概念
原型 范畴化、基本范畴、上下位 命题模式、意象模式、隐喻模式、转喻模式 意象图示
1.原型（prototype）：
是物体范畴最好、最 典型的成员, 所有其他成 员也均具有不同程度的典 型性。
eg1. 在英语的世界图景中, 鸟的原型为画眉鸟;而对于 母语为俄语的人而言则是 麻雀; 麻雀在中国人的认 知意义中也具有典型意义。
教育心理学英语词汇
教育心理学英语词汇心理（mind）亚里士多德（Aristotle，公元前384年—公元前322年）所著的《灵魂论》（De Anima，又译《精神论》）意识阈（conscious threshold）和统觉团（apperception mass）的比纳（）和西蒙（）桑代克（）冯特（,梅耶（）Educational Psychology加涅（）第一章学习的性质与分类艾宾浩斯（,鲍尔（）和希尔加德（）倾向（disposition）或能力（capability）行为表现（performance）“学习”（learning）与“表现”（performance）神经元（neuron）树突（dendrite）和轴突（axon）突触（synapse）星形细胞（astrocyte）音素（phoneme）陈述性记忆（declarative memory）和程序性记忆（procedural memory）运作（operations）经验主义（empiricism）洛克（John Locke）、贝克莱（George Berkeley）、休谟（David Hume）反思（reflection）理性主义（rationalism）苏格拉底（Socrates，公元前469—公元前399年）认为，“真理存在于人的灵魂中”；他的学生柏拉图（Plato笛卡儿（Descartes, 1596—1650）和德国哲学家康德（Kant,1724—先天知觉假设（innate perceptual assumptions）行为与联想论（behavioral associationist theories）和认知与组织论（cognitive organizational theories）条件反应（conditioned response）斯金纳（）条件反射（conditioned reflex）中性刺激（neutral stimulus）操作条件反应（operant conditioned response）有机体（organism）托尔曼（）巴特利特（坚持信息加工理论的代表人物有西蒙（）、安德森（）、．加涅（）布鲁纳（）、奥苏伯尔、维特罗克（）乔纳森（ 1992）激进建构主义（radical constructivism）、社会建构主义（social constructivism）、社会文化认知（social cultural cognition）、信息加工的建构主义（information processing constructivism）、社会学建构主义（social constructionism）、控制论系统（cybernetic system）情境性学习（situated learning）社会团体的习俗（practices of community，一类为陈述性知识（declarative knowledge），另一类为程序性知识（procedural knowledge）。
布鲁姆的教育目标分类学说和加涅的学习结果分类
布鲁姆的教育⽬标分类学说和加涅的学习结果分类布卢姆的教学⽬标分类理论对教育⽬标分类体系的设想，最初是1948年由出席在波⼠顿召开的美国⼼理学年会的⼀些考试专家在⼀次正式会议上提出的。
其主要代表⼈物有布卢姆、克拉斯沃尔（D．R．Krathwohl）等⼈。
布卢姆等⼈把教育⽬标分为三⼤领域──认知领域(cognitive domain)、情感领域（affective domain)和动作技能领域(psychomotor domain)。
他们的教育⽬标分类强调指导教学过程和对结果进⾏评价，其实是⼀种教学⽬标分类。
（⼀）认知领域的⽬标分类布卢姆等⼈在1956年出版的《教育⽬标分类学，第⼀分册：认知领域》中把认知领域的⽬标分为六个亚领域，即知识（knowledge）、领会(comprehension)、运⽤(application)、分析(analysis)、综合(synthesis)和评价(evaluation)。
1．知识知识⽬标要求学⽣在学习情境中把某种信息储存在⼤脑中，以后所要做的就是回忆这些信息。
知识这⼀类别所涉及的主要⼼理过程是记忆。
在知识的测验情境中，提问的形式与最初的学习情境中的形式有所不同，这要求学⽣在回答问题时有⼀定程度上的联想和判断过程，但这仅仅是⼀⼩部分；在其他类别的学习和测验中也有记忆，同样这也只是⼀⼩部分。
知识包括具体的知识、处理具体事物的⽅式⽅法的知识、学科领域中的普遍原理和抽象概念的知识三⼤类，每⼀类型⼜包括若⼲个⼩类型。
（1）具体的知识是指对具体的、孤⽴的⽚断信息的回忆。
它包括：①术语的知识，即具体符号的指称事物的知识，如熟悉的⼤量词汇的⼀般意义；②具体事实的知识，指⽇期、事件、⼈物、地点等⽅⾯的知识，如对某些特定⽂化中的主要事实的回忆。
（2）处理事物的⽅式⽅法的知识，是指有关组织、研究、判断和批评的⽅式⽅法的知识。
它包括：①惯例的知识，即有关对待和表达各种现象和观念的独特⽅式的知识，如了解演讲与写作中的正确形式和习惯⽤法；②趋势和顺序的知识，即时间⽅⾯各种现象所发⽣的过程、⽅向和运动的知识，如最近50年美国政府的发展趋势；③分类和类别的知识，即有关类别、组织、部类及排列的知识，如各类⽂献的范围；④准则的知识，即有关检验和判断各种事实、原理、观点和⾏为所依据的准则的知识，如对某种作品及其阅读⽬的作出适当判断的准则；⑤⽅法论的知识，即有关在某⼀特定学科领域使⽤的以及在调查特定的问题和现象时所⽤的探究⽅法、技巧和步骤的知识，如有关⽤科学⽅法评价健全概念的知识。
乔姆斯基的观点
乔姆斯基的观点乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）是一位著名的美国语言学家、哲学家和社会评论家。
他以其关于语言学和政治观点的辩证风格而闻名于世。
以下是乔姆斯基的一些观点和参考内容。
1. 语言和思维的关系：乔姆斯基认为，语言不仅仅是一种交流工具，而且是思维和认知的重要组成部分。
他提出了“普遍语法”（Universal Grammar）的概念，认为人类天生具备一种语言学习的能力和结构。
这一观点挑战了传统的行为主义语言学观点，并成为了现代认知科学的重要基础之一。
参考内容：- 《普遍语法理论》（The Theory of Universal Grammar）：这是乔姆斯基著名的一本著作，详细阐述了他对普遍语法的理论和相关观点。
2. 语言的社会功能：乔姆斯基认为，语言不仅仅是个体交流的工具，而且是社会交往和权力斗争的重要工具。
他提出了“生成语法”（Generative Grammar）的概念，强调语言是一种社会行为，并受到特定社会和文化环境的影响。
参考内容：- 《语言和权力》（Language and Power）：这本书详细讨论了乔姆斯基关于语言和社会权力关系的观点，并探讨了语言如何通过话语和话语行为来塑造社会和权力结构。
- 《社会语言学导论》（Introduction to Sociolinguistics）：这是乔姆斯基在社会语言学方面的重要著作，讨论了语言和社会的互动关系。
3. 政治和媒体：乔姆斯基对大规模媒体和政治权力的关系持批评态度。
他认为媒体在塑造公众意见和控制信息流动方面发挥着巨大作用，而政府和权力结构常常通过控制媒体来维持其统治地位。
参考内容：- 《制造同意》（Manufacturing Consent）：这是乔姆斯基与爱德华·赫尔曼（Edward S. Herman）合著的一本书，探讨了媒体在塑造舆论和制造同意方面的作用，并提出了“新闻取向模型”（propaganda model）的概念。
社会工作-认知行为理论
认知的三个层次——更深层次的条件性假设
条件性假设
● 这是人们对自己、他人和世界的一些基 本信念，它们通常是隐含的、不自觉的、 不经过检验的，而且往往会导致情绪上 的困扰和行为上的问题。
● 形式：“如果……就……”
认知的三个层次——最深层次的图式或核心信念
核心信念
这是人们对自己、他人和世界的一些根深蒂固的信念，它们通常是无意识的、 不可动摇的、不容置疑的，而且往往会影响人们的认知、情感和行为。核心信 念通常是关于自己、他人和世界的一些基本性质和规律的信念。
• 图式是关于个体如何看待他们对世界对
人对事件和环境的重要信念和假设。 • 基本的认知图式是积极的(适应的)或消极的
(不适应的)。 P77 图式的五个因子
认知治疗
认知治疗中的具体流派通常具有不同的治疗方法和技术，它们基于认知心理学的原则， 并针对特定的心理问题和疾病制定了相应的策略。
艾丽斯(Albert Ellis)：20世纪 50年代创立理性情绪治疗，即 著名的ABC理论。 该疗法着重于通过挑战和改变 不合理的信念和态度来解决情 绪和行为问题。
阿尔伯特-埃利斯 理性情绪疗法的提出者
“人们之所以烦恼，并不是因为事情本身， 而是因为他们对事情的看法……”
人的消极情绪和行为障碍结果不是由于某 一激发事件直接引发的，而是由于经受这 一事件的个体对它不正确的认知和评价所 产生的错误信念所直接引起，这种错误信 念也称为非理性信念。
认知治疗——ABC人格理论
• 视觉刺激：亚历克斯被束缚在一个特殊的椅子上，使他无法移动。他被强行迫视 观看一系列令人作呕的暴力画面和镜头，同时他接受药物注射。
• 音乐疗法：亚历克斯被迫听取巴赫和贝多芬等经典音乐作品。这些音乐与他犯罪 行为相关联，并且在治疗过程中通过条件反射制造出极度不适感，从而使他对该 音乐产生条件性恐惧。
A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of College En
Sino-US English Teaching, February 2018, Vol. 15, No. 2, 92-96doi:10.17265/1539-8072/2018.02.005 A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching ofCollege English Writing *SHAN Xiao-mingChina University of Petroleum-Beijing (CUPB), Beijing, ChinaOne major objective in the teaching of college English writing is to help students master basic language skills, inthe hope that students will finally learn to write passably well in English. In keeping with the concept that alanguage is a huge system, a cognitive approach to college English writing aims at the link and association ofvarious language elements to help to inspire the formation of the linguistic instinct on the part of the students.Based on the practical teaching practice, ways are recommended to coordinate various elements of a sentence,including “vowel spectrum”, “sentence analyzing spectrum”, and “focus in context”.Keywords: college English writing, a cognitive approach, coordination of “vowel sound spectrum”, “sentenceanalysis spectrum” and “spectrum of focus in context”IntroductionIn order to learn to write in English, students need to have basic language skills in the first place. However,generally speaking, Chinese college students have not mastered satisfactorily basic language skills when they begin to learn to write in English. An official from Ministry of Education has made the remark that “there is still a part of the students who do not understand, can not say and read in English.” (LIU, 2012, p. 44). The fundamental difficulty in learning to write in English lays in the fact that a language is a huge system that comprises of many fields of study. A simplistic or sole approach will never yield the desirous result. A cognitive approach to the teaching of college English writing will be more effective and efficient because it makes use of various fields of study while focusing on the links and association of various language elements. In this way, students will be inspired to form their linguistic instincts to help them learn to write. However, in the practice of a cognitive approach to the teaching of college English writing, most efforts are tentative and exploratory in nature.The present study of a cognitive approach to college English writing starts from the basic cognitive practice and suggests that the most basic elements of the written language are like the musical notation and atomic weight, which can be utilized for the teaching of college English writing. It then moves on to provide a more systematic cognition and study of college English writing, consisting of mainly three parts, “the vowel spectrum ”, “sentence analyzing spectrum”, and “the focus in context”.*Acknowledgements: This paper is sponsored by China University of Petroleum-Beijing (CUPB).SHAN Xiao-ming, associated professor, master, Schools of Foreign Language Studies, China University of Petroleum-Beijing (CUPB), Beijing, China.All Rights Reserved.A COGNITIVE APPROACH TO THE TEACHING OF COLLEGE ENGLISH WRITING93DiscussionBasic language skills are closely related with meta cognition as far as college English writing is concerned.The general metacognition refers to the cognition of the cognitive subject to its own cognitive phenomenon andthe knowledge of cognition, such as the individual factors that affect cognitive processes and outcomes, the waythese factors work. In college English writing, the way to use the basic language skills is a metacognitive strategy.It includes conscious planning, monitoring, and evaluation. In the course of metacognition, the followingquestions are frequently asked: What kind of linguistic basis should English writing have? What language skillshould be mastered to avoid primary mistakes? Is writing purely a matter of language, or depended on interactingwith the reader via language? Which is of greater priority, to develop the ability to read, dictate, speak, andtranslate in a comprehensive way, or to highlight the main text? Should one be guided entirely in writing by his orher sense of language, or should one parse sentences word by word to learn to write? All these questions peopleencounter in writing should be answered with metacognitive knowledge and the answers to these questions areconducive to the development and formation of the linguistic instinct and English writing ability.From “Word Core” to “Five Basic Sentence Patterns”The cognitive process starts from the very basics. Writing involves word, sentence, and text. Each word, sentence, and text has a core. The basis of writing can then be summed up as the coordination of “three cores”.The “word core” includes the “core of meaning ” (word root) and “the core of the sound” (the vowel of stressed syllable). The consciousness of word root is strongly beneficial to the expansion of vocabulary. Theconfusion in spelling out the 20 vowel phonemes from the five vowel letters affects seriously readingcomprehension and ultimately writing.All Rights Reserved.The “Five basic sentence patterns”, a combination of “vowel spectrum”, and “sentence analyzing spectrum ” are suggested in the light of cognition.Firstly, the “Five basic sentence patterns” perform the function of sound spectrum. Each of them representsa vowel letter (including a letter cluster) that can spell out all the different vowels and every phonetic codes. Allthe vowel spectra make use of only 10 symbols: a short line (-) signaling “long open vowel”(ā[ei]ō[əu]ē[I:]ū[ju:][u:] Ī(ӯ)[ai]); a positive hook (ˇ) signaling “short shut vowel” (ǎ[æ]ǒ[ɒ]ě[e]ǔ[ʌ]ǐ(Ў)[i]); ainverted hook (ˆ) and two points (¨) signaling two R tones (â[ɑ:]ô[ɔ:]ô[ɜ:]ê[ɜ:]ê[ɑ:]û[ɜ:]î[ɜ:] orä[eə][ɛə]ö[uə]ë[iə]ë[eə]ü[uə]ï(ÿ)[ai-ə]); left skimming (`), right skimming (´), and middle point (．) are used tosignal three special spelling vowels of each letter, with the exception of letter “o” which is signaled by a wave line(~) (à[ɔ:]á[ɔ]ȧ[e]ó[u:]ò[u]ȯ[ʌ]Õ[au]ǒ[ɔi]è[ju:]é[ei]ė[əu]ù[u]ú[e]ủ[w]ì[i:]í[iə]). If the same letters in differentsyllables spell the same vowel, their symbols are the same. For example, in both the two words “car” and “father”,the letter “a” is considered as the same symbols as [â].Secondly, the “Five basic sentence patterns” reflect the function of sentence element spectrum. All the elements of a sentence are represented differently. This way, we can determine the basic sentence pattern,centering around the predicate (the sentence core) of the sentence.The different elements of a sentence are represented as follows:subject, predicate, object, object clause^|, predicative, predicative clause^\, {attribute}, [adverbial], *attributive clause, # adverbial clause, <object supplement>, appositive= \appositive clause=/, non-predicateA COGNITIVE APPROACH TO THE TEACHING OF COLLEGE ENGLISH WRITING94 verb, \parentheses/ (function words are not marked)By coordinating “vowel spectrum” and “sentence spectrum”, five basic sentence patterns are suggested as follows:(1) Sentence pattern one with “a”: A sentence made of words with letter of “a”. {Some} sn ākes, r ăts and wásps {in mány glâss boxes}[àll] âre put [ăt a ．corner] {of the village squäre}—(A sentence pattern of subject+predicate+object in passive voice) (2) Sentence pattern two with “o”: A sentence made of words with letter of “o”. The wôrds \=/ that The n ōse {of a f ŏx}, the tòoth {of a wólf}, the j ŏint {of a m ȯnkey}, the hôrns {of a cÕw} are all impôrtant.{sóme pöor women]{living by a reservöir} said [c ŏmmo ．nly]—(A sentence pattern of complex sentence with an appositive clause )(3) Sentence pattern three with “e”: A sentence made of words with letter of “e”. A woman ėntrepre’nêur s ėwed hêr nephèw [hêartily] a sh ēet {with pictures} {of éight diff e re ．nt bëars} {nëar an ĕlephant}—(A sentence pattern of subject+predicate+double object)(4) Sentence pattern four with “u”: A sentence made of words with letter of “u”. They have been q ủickly busy [digging something] [in a building of the zoo] [u ．ntil now] for some r ūbies {pùt in a pûrse} are [sürely] búried [ŭnder it]—(A sentence pattern of coordinate sentence)(5) Sentence pattern five with “i”: A sentence made of words with letter of “i” . Some Ind ỉan polìcemen {with blue t īes} {in a taxi} carried materíals {for w ĭnder} [in holi ．days] [to a fìeld][fri ĕndly] [to make bîrds and lïons] {there} <l ĭve [quïetly]>—(A sentence pattern of subject+predicate+compound object sentence) Contextual Cryptography and Unique Core of WritingAfter the repeated practice and analysis of the five sentence patterns suggested above, in terms of cognition, students will be greatly helped in college English writing. For example, a detailed analysis of a short poem by Keats, with the application of the five sentence patterns, will help them better understand the different sentences and their elements and after sufficient practice, students tend to write in the similar fashion, inspired by the linguistic instinct developed and formed in the course of time. There are only two sentences in the eight lines of the poem (the main clause is in bold).This living hand , \ {now warm and capable}[Of earnest grasping]/, would , \ if it were coldAnd in the Īcy, s Īlence, {of the tomb}/, So hàunt th ӯ days and chill th ӯ dreaming nights #[That thÕu wouldst wish th Īne own heart <dry of blood>]#[So] [in my veins] red life might stream [again], And thÕu be conscience-calmed——see here it is I hold it <towards you>. (DING & ZHU, 1994, p. 13)Commentary:(1) The first line to the seventh line is one sentence. The subject of the sentence is “this living hand”. The predicate is juxtaposed “haunt thy days ”and “chill thy dreaming nights”.All Rights Reserved.A COGNITIVE APPROACH TO THE TEACHING OF COLLEGE ENGLISH WRITING95(2) Before “would” in the second line, there is an adjective phrase to modify “hand”. Behind it is the “ofstructure” as an adverbial modifier, modifying “capable” and meaning “this hand” can grasp one’s feelings.(3) The fifth line is an adverbial clause of purpose to modify the main predicate, meaning “you will expectthe blood of your heart to become thirsty”.(4) The sixth line is an adverbial clause of the result, meaning “I will save your feelings”.(5) The seventh line is the coordinate part of the adverbial clause of the result from the above line, meaning“I am waiting for you here”.(6) The eighth line is the “poetic eyes” (it is equal to the “core of prose”), meaning “Grasp my hand soon,please”.From these sentences, students can go on to coordinate “focus in context”, as can be explained by the following:(a) The nouns and subject, containing five focuses which coordinate: (1) number, (2) article , (3) pronoun, (4)adjective, (5) preposition.For example, in “This living hand”, The noun “hand” is a core of the subject. Using the pronoun “this”instead of article “the” means this hand is a specific hand; it refers to the poet himself. From this we know that thepoet is “capable and warm” to be worthy of love.There are also several attributive nouns in the poem, such as “in the icy silence of the tomb”. Nouns like “tomb” have the connotation of horrifying environment (silence, cold) on the part of the poet’s girlfriend.(b) Verb and predicate, including 10 focuses to coordinate (6) morphology, (7) tense, (8) voice, (9) modality,(10) adverbial, (11) predicative, (12) object, (13) subjunctive mood, (14) non-finite verb, (15) verb phrase.All Rights Reserved.In the poem, the “would” is changed to “wouldst”. It shows that the poet is anxious to face his girlfriend. He hopes she will love him.(c) Clause, with 5 focuses to coordinate: (16) coordinate clauses; (17) noun clause; (18) attributive clauses;(19) adverbial clauses; (20) special clauses.There are more than four clauses in the first sentence of the poem. In accordance with the principles of English writing, the logic focus is in the last clause of the poem. When the poet says, “see here it is”, it means ifnot, his red vein would not stream again. So, he would hold his living hand to his lovely girl as soon as possible.ConclusionThe main function of language is expression and communication. The purpose of writing is to enable the reader to empathize with the work. Otherwise, it can only be parole, not real language. Dukas, an Americanscholar, said:The use of words to express personal intention is to convey it to others, and, if possible, use it to influence the behavior of others. However, this performance may not achieve the purpose of communication, so it still stays at the levelof parole. (Dukas, 1988, p. 27)A cognitive approach to college English writing is to coordinate all aspects of language to test the author’sprecise and accurate cognition of complex things. It is very much in keeping with the concept that language is ahuge system. As far as its signifier series is concerned, it can include pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, text,and so on; As far as its signified series are concerned, they involve a wider range. The cognitive linguistic schools96A COGNITIVE APPROACH TO THE TEACHING OF COLLEGE ENGLISH WRITINGin recent years mainly study the relationship among language, communication, and cognition. In language,cognition, consciousness, experience, embodiment, the brain, the individual, the human, the society, the culture,and the history are all blended in a rich, complex, and dynamic way. Therefore, language learning involves allaspects of cognition (GUI, 2010, pp. 275-281).Stephen Pinker, a famous cognitive psychologist, affirmed the role of linguistic forms. In his book Language Instinct, he advocated the acceptance of cognitive linguistics on the basis of scientific understanding ofChomsky’s transformational generative grammar. He said, “if I were to comprehensive opposing views on bothsides of the debate, such as formalism and functionalism, syntax, semantics and pragmatics, got inclusiveness forall, this may be because there are no differences between them.” (Pinker, 2015, p. 93). He went on to say:Language instinct is both genetic and inseparable from the environment…… It is a natural learning ability of human being to get induction according to “similarity”. Although we speak different languages, we have the same mentalstructure. Language is a window on human nature. (Pinker, 2015, p. 203)In sum, a cognitive approach to the teaching of college English writing is to enforce the basic language skills by coordinating the various elements of a sentence, in the hope of inspiring the students’ mental structure oflanguage instinct.ReferencesDING, W. D., & ZHU, Q. (Eds.).(1994). Poetry introduction (p. 13). Shanghai Translation Publishing House.Dukas, D. (1988). A new theory of art philosophy (p. 27). Beijing: Guangming Daily Press.GUI, S. C. (2010). Thinking about some problems of foreign language teaching in China. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 4, 275-281.All Rights Reserved.LIU, G. Q. (2012). Attach great importance to the reform of college English teaching and strive to improve the quality of college English teaching. Foreign Language Teaching and Research,24, 44.Pinker, S. (2015). The evolution of human language instinct: The mystery of language (p. 93; p. 203). China: Zhejiang People’s Press.。
语言学总复习
大家好
11
Stop （Plosive） 塞音（爆破音）
[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]
Nasal 鼻音 [m] [n] [ŋ]
Fricative 擦音 [f] [v] [θ] [s] [z] [∫] [З]
Approximant 中通音 [ j ] [r] [w]
Lateral
Syntactic category: 能在句子中起相同作用 的词构成相同的句法范畴。句法范畴不同于 词类，两个属于不同词类的词可能属于同一 句法范畴。
man, earth, wind, car, anger
Bound Morphemes: cannot occur as separate words
recollection re/collect/ion
大家好
20
Root（词根） : is the basic form of
a word which cannot be further
What is displacement?
大家好
2
7. The origin of language. 8. What functions does language have? 9. What is Linguistics? 10. What are the main branches of linguistics? 11. Important distinctions in Liguistics.
analyzed without total loss of
identity.
Stem（词干）: may consist of a
single root morpheme or plus one
理性为舵感性为帆作文1000字
理性为舵感性为帆作文1000字英文回答：Rationality as the rudder and emotion as the sails are two indispensable elements of human cognition. Rationality provides the logical framework for decision-making, while emotion drives motivation and intuition. Balancing these two forces is crucial for navigating the complexities of life.When rationality takes the helm, it steers us towards logical conclusions based on evidence and reason. It allows us to analyze, compare, and weigh different options objectively, avoiding impulsive decisions and biases. Rational thinking enables us to make informed choices, plan strategically, and solve problems effectively.Emotion, on the other hand, serves as the driving force that propels us forward. It colors our perceptions, influences our desires, and motivates us to pursue ourgoals. Without emotion, we would lack passion, creativity, and the ability to connect with others. Emotions can guide us towards experiences that bring joy, fulfillment, and meaning to our lives.However, when emotions run unchecked, they can lead to impulsive actions and clouded judgment. Overwhelming emotions can impair our reasoning abilities, making it difficult to make rational decisions. Therefore, it is essential to find a harmonious balance between rationality and emotion.Just as a ship needs both a rudder and sails to navigate effectively, our minds require the guidance of reason and the动力 of emotion. By embracing both sides of our cognitive spectrum, we can chart a course through life that is both logical and fulfilling.中文回答：理性为舵，感性为帆，两者是人类认知中不可或缺的元素。
语言学——精选推荐
Chapter 6Cognition（概念，选择题）I n psychology, it is used to refer to the mental processes and can be understand as information processing.Another definition of”Cognition”is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment.There are three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach, and the conceptual approach.Psycholinguistics（概念，选择题）Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspect of language; it is usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious use of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences.Psycholinguistics is also concerned with how languages are learned, and the rules they play in our thinking.It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within Psycholinguistics: Acquisition, Comprehension, Production, Disorder, Language and Thought, Neurocognition.Cognitive Linguistics （名词解释）Cognitive Linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It’s an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.Construal and Construal Operations （名词解释，三种分类）Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation.Construal Operations are conceptualizing processes applied in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.1)Attention/ SalienceThe operations grouped under salience have to do with our direction of attention towards something that salience to us.We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about.2)Judgment/ComparisonThe Construal Operations of Judgment/Comparison have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. This is quit a fundamental cognitive capacity and the cognitive operations of judgment are also very fundamental to the human experience.3)Perspective/SituatednessWe view a scene in terms of our situatedness. Perspective generally depends on two things. Firstly, it depends on where we are situated in relation to the scene we are viewing. Secondly, itdepends on how the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness.Categorization （名词解释、三种分类）Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. It is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge, and it allows us to relate present experiences to past one.1)Basic levelThe categories at the Basic Level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the most.2)Superordinate levelSuperordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level.3)Subordinate levelThey have clearly identification gestalts and lots of individual specific features. At this level, we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.Image Schemas （名词解释、各个分类的特点-选择题）Mark Johnson defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.1) A center-periphery schema2) A containment schema3) A cycle schema4) A force schema5) A link schema6) A part-whole schema7) A path schema8) A scale schema9) A verticality schemaMetaphor （名词解释）Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.1）ontological metaphorsHuman experiences with physical objects provide the basic for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, ect, as entities and substances.2）structural metaphorsIt allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.3）orientional metaphorsIt gives a concept a spatial orientation. They are characterized not so much by structuring one concept in terms of another, but by a co-occurrence in our experience.Metonymy （名词解释）Metonymy, in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain.Chapter 7Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis （重点-大题）Our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different language may probably express speaker’s unique wayside of understanding the world.Linguistic Determinism, language may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic Relativity, language is relative in similarity. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Firth-theory of context of situation（重点-大题）1)The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.The verbal action of the participants.The non-verbal action of the participants.2)The relevant objects.3)The effects of the verbal action.That is, who speaks what to whomever and when for what.Culture in language teaching classroom（重点-大题）To get the students familiar with culture differences;To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will;To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture though various classroom practices.Chapter 8Pragmatic （名词解释）Pragmatic is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of meaning in speaker’s meaning.Speech act theory （名词解释）It was proposed by John Austin in his book How to Do Things with Words. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question” What do we do when using language?”1.Performatives and Constatives （大题举例子）Performatives are statements which are used to do something, which do not state or describe a fact and not verifiable.Performative verbs: mane, bet, ect.Constatives are statements that state or describe a fact and are thus verifiable.2.Felicity ConditionsThere must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevant participants andcircumstances must be appropriate;The procedure must be executed, correctly and completely;Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thought, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.A theory of the Illocutionary act （大题）The theory of the illocutionary act was set up by Austin. There are three acts, locutionary act, illocutionary act, perlocutionary act.locutionary act: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.Illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something, that is to say something is to do something. It is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.Conversational implicature: （大题or名词解释）It is the use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.in order to avoid the logical use of implication (in the section on logical semantics), Grice coined the term implicature.The characteristics of Conversational implicature:CalculabilityThe fact that speakers try to convey conversation implicature and hearers are able to understand them indicates that implicature are calculable.CancellabilityIf the linguistic or situational contexts change, the implicature will also change.Non- detachabilityIt means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore, it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact.Non- conventionalityConversational implicature is by definition different from the conversational meaning of words. It is indeterminate and it varies with context.The Cooperative Principle （大题）A speaker can mean more than what is said and the hearer can understand the speaker’s meaning. Grice argues that there is a set of assumption guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls The Cooperative Principle. CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows:Quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required; do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Quality: try to make your contribution one that is true. Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Relation: be relevant.Manner: be perspicuous. (avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly)Relevance Theory （名词解释）This theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Wilson in their book Relevance, Communication and Cognition in 1986. They believe that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to single principle of relevance, which can be define d as: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.Chapter 9（名词解释）Literary StylisticsThe branch of linguistics that studies the relationship between language and literature is Literary Stylistic, which focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.StylisticsStylistics is the study of varieties of language which properties position that language in context.ForegroundingOriginally coming from usual arts and in contrast with back grounding, the concept of foregrounding, a popular term in stylistics, was applied in literary studies by the Prague School, modern stylisticians. It is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”. This deviation, or uncommon usage, involves all levels of language, sound, syntax, meaning, etc.RegisterIn linguistic, a register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.。
公共利益与个人利益的不同作文(英语加汉语)
The difference between public interest and private interest 何谓公共利益与私人利益，公共利益与个人利益是一对双生子，明白了其中一个，另一个也迎刃而解。
人们会因性别、性格、年龄、体力体质、文化程度等的不同而获得不同的收入，形成不同的阶层。
不同的阶层，就会具有不同的利益诉求。
那么，针对不尽相同的各阶层利益诉求，该怎样判定什么是公共利益呢？显然，这不是很好回答的问题。
之所以说不好回答，一是遍查相关资料，尤其是当前国家各类法律文本，对什么是公共利益，以及如何有效判定是否属于公共利益范畴，语焉不详。
似乎这是一个大家都心知肚明的概念，无需多费笔墨。
二是理论上的定义与实际认知之间是否一致，也是各说各话，莫衷一是。
从名词本身简单的解释就是：前者是大众、大部分人、关系社会整体、政府关注的利益，后者是小众、小部分人、关系社会部分、公民个人关注的利益。
更明确而正规的说，我姑且认为公共利益可以界定为：一定的社会群体为实现其生存、发展所需要的，并为群体中不确定多数人所认可的资源和条件。
它的内涵有以下特征。
第一，分享性。
第二，广泛性。
第三，丰富性。
第四，超越个体性。
第五，层次性。
个人利益的界定相对于公共利益来说要简单得多，因为个人利益只考察单个的人。
尽管每个人都会和其他个人发生联系，且单个人之间都是相互作用的，考察了单个的个人利益就可推及到其他个体。
笔者认为个人利益是指个人为了满足生存、发展和享受所需要的各种资源和条件的总和。
由此可以看出两者之间最明显的不同就是研究对象不同，而这个不同延伸出来的关注方面、研究方法、研究结果、问题与解决方法等都存在很大的不同。
作为政府其制定政策必须两者选其一，所以政府的政策永远不是最好的，而是最合理的，最符合当时当地情况的。
政府为得到更好的结果，就必须均衡同为社会运行参与者的多数人与少数人的利益分配，而市场动力学就是研究市场中各参与要素的关联、交互和动态现象，以期望从中找到各要素之间的规律，从而为人们研究复杂关系中各参与要素的作用及均衡配伍，从而实现市场最大的效益。
动画与漫画差别（Theanimationisdifferentfromthecartoon）
动画与漫画差别（The animation is different from the cartoon）These common characteristics of cartoon and animation have made people summarize the main features of "anime" in cognition.The difference between animation and comics:First, the cartoon is the art of space, pay attention to the effect of the picture, animation is the time art, emphasize the movement rule. Cartoon static works, because the number of images is less than the animation, so the shape of the line and the precision can be very complicated, in order to enhance the beauty and richness of the work. Comic style is given priority to with painting performance, so don't need to each connection, but the mainstream animation picture to facilitate the shading, so must be modified the original model, connect all the lines, especially the mainstream business cartoon film, must use a large number of coloring job specification to improve efficiency. Animation loses its advantage when it loses movement and timeliness.The electronic cartoon is between the animation and the cartoon, becomes a new cartoon form.The cartoon moves toward animation, the middle part is a lot of, the change is very big, the animation emphasizes the sports sex and the effect more. Movement is the essential difference between an animated cartoon.Second, the cartoon is a simple two-dimensional plane image, and the animation requires not only the screen but also otherart forms such as sound dialogue and other forms of art. In animation production, because the action must match the music, the sound recording has to be done before the animation production.Voice input way has two kinds: one kind is based on the existing audio clips, in the music video animation are common: one kind is to screen dubbing, two methods are often combined with each other.Third, the cartoon is independent, individualized, the input is low; Animation is collectivized and large-scale, the investment is high, the hardware and hardware, equipment, site, capital, personnel, management have considerable requirements.Computer animation has computer aided animation and modeling animation, computer aided animation and two-dimensional operation, its main purpose is to assist animators to make traditional animation.Fourth, the cartoon is very simple and intuitive, so that it is easy to see and close to literary works, and the animation is closer to the film. In animation, time is very important, and time is often the important element of difference and cartoon.Comics are, in some ways, the basis of animation.Fifth, the cartoon and animation industry strategy is different. Comic USES mainly the strategy, and is clearly ananimation film industry, especially cartoon culture and cartoon industry highly developed countries and regions, diffuse and animation from market research, creation, production, marketing and other aspects are showed different patterns.Some people call it a print movie, and the comics are all "now."The animation process is clear and the process is rigorousThe production process of animation can be divided into three stages: early creation, concrete production and later synthesis, and there are several steps in each stage. The early stage is particularly important. It is the key to determine the quality of a cartoon, and the premise of success. The script, the art design and the camera lens are the three most important links.The post-production of animation includes video synthesis, sound synthesis and music music.The early creation of animation is the most important, the early creation determines the overall framework, form and pattern of a film,It has a very professional and technical discipline.Animation creation is a highly specialized high-end commercial design, influenced by factors such as market and business rules.For animation work in three main aspects, including animation production, animation production and animation project management, the animation project management is one of the most crucial one annulus, the main work includes investment, planning, survey, planning, marketing, promotion, personnel organization, project management, and many other complex work.For specific animation video creative work, it is necessary to take the following technical requirements:First, the creation of animation scripts. The main content includes topic selection, thought structure, narrative description. The writing of the script should pay attention to the following elements: 1. The elements of the plot: characters, motivation, obstacles and conflicts are the four elements that make up the story. Conflicts produce plots, and stories need to describe conflicting plots. The larger the conflict, the more complex and fulfilling the story. Complexity increases the interest of the story. Drama is the starting point of the plot, following the development process of starting, bearing, turning and closing. 2. The importance of vision: the script of the cartoon is very different from that of the live-action feature film.3. The possibility of production: even big-budget movie blockbusters have a fixed budget. For individualized animation creation, the production cycle is the main limiting factor. For the general animation creation, to make the film short and hard, this means to follow the principle of the role simplification and the best practice. For example, commercial advertisementscan tell a complete story in 30 to 60 seconds. In short, while creating a story, it may change some subplots, but the core of the story remains the same. A cartoon should not be everywhere is bright, good play is through the plot generation of conflict and aesthetic feeling. The possibility of making or the feasibility is one of the most direct and important factors in the film creation, which is also the basis for the implementation of a film. Due to the limitations of capital, technology, personnel and time, the possibility of production is likely to be the biggest constraint on film creation, which is highly regarded by every animation creator.Secondly, the art design stage of animation is divided into character design and scene design. It's pretty hard for a cartoon character. The strength of cartoon animation is exaggeration, and the animator can use his imagination and sense of humor. The art design stage mainly includes the role design, scene design, props design.The character design is to design the role model, the structure, including the whole body Angle, proportion and the characteristics of the action.In the role design, pay attention to the following points: 1. Pay attention to the possibility that the role modeling is implemented throughout the animation, not too complex or too simple. 2. Pay attention to the differences between the role design. Each character should be unique and avoid the similarities. 3. Pay attention to the style of the role design. The characters in the same film must be serialized. 4. Pay attention to the audience cognition of the role design, andcarefully study the taste and psychological characteristics of cartoon audience.The scene design takes care of the following points: 1. The scene design should be consistent or close to the style of the character design style. 2. Create scenes according to the lens movement and the degree of push and pull,Some scenes are designed in whole painting style, while others are designed using "componanized" stackable combination. 3. Pay attention to the perspective of scene drawing, the roles and scenes should be consistent with each other, so as to avoid the view that objects from different perspectives should be kept in a reasonable position. 4. Pay attention to the precision of the scene drawing, in detail, and not to influence the performance of the characters too finely.Third, the design of the animation desk.Playscript with stage directions of the film, the following four main problems: 1. The animations especially playscript with stage directions will use pictures narrative text, the text decomposition, preliminarily established the schematic diagram of visual space and time, the basic perspective of lens.2. The animation separation platform is not a simple description of the text script. It is a more specificre-creation based on the text, highlighting the key points. 3. The animation camera platform basically establishes the motion direction of the lens. 4. The mode of animation sub-lens should be clearly defined in the mode of switching between the sessions, and the acceptance of the transfer between each session is oneof the key points of animation production.The frame of the animation is the important link between the text script and the original drawing and the animation design. The people engaged in animation, original painting and middle painting can follow the platform.Taiben is the basic blueprint for animation work.Fourth, animation and original design.So the animation and the original painting are a special painting creation, and they play a crucial role in the success or failure of an animation. The work of this stage must be understood in relation to the "movement". This is why pure comic book creators are not involved in original painting. Cartoon creation more emphasis on independent picture composition, shape and aesthetic feeling, and animation original painting need time from the perspective of "movement", the motion law of give attention to two or morethings, role performance, preparatory action, action time and other factors.The animation and the original painting are done on a sequence of shots.They have both division and cooperation in their creation. The animation and the original painting have different responsibilities and different tasks and requirements.The original painting is the main creator of each character action in the cartoon, which is the first process of actiondesign and drawing. The duties and tasks of the original painting are: to complete the design of the action of all characters in the animation sequence according to the plot and the intention of the director, and draw a key dynamic picture of different movements and expressions. In a nutshell, the original painting is the painting of the key movement of the moving object.The animation is also called the middle painting, which is the assistant and collaborator of the original painting. The duties and tasks of the animation are: the process of changing the key dynamic of the original painting, drawing the middle picture from one piece to the next according to the scope of motion, the number of movements and the law of motion of the original painting. In short, animation is the painting of the gradual process between the key dynamics of moving objects.The number of animations determines the speed and flow of the action, and the more animated sheets in principle, the more smooth and slow.The original painting requirements are comprehensive, mainly including comprehensive film and television, lens knowledge, rich imagination and skillful skills. Skills include the following five skills: 1. The original painting should have a keen observation. 2. Original painting requires good thinking and research.In particular, the generality and characteristics of motion law and image are summarized. The original author should be good at acting and experiencing. The original artist must haveexcellent painting skills, so as to make the creation in a timely and efficient manner. The original artist can calculate the time accurately. In addition to the previous points, modern original painting creators also have certain computer knowledge.Fifth, the motion of animation. Take care of the following aspects: 1. Motion conception. 2. Decomposition of motion. 3. Composition of drawings. 4. Motion test.In addition to the animation and structure analysis, the motion of animation should pay special attention to the time progress and rhythm changes of the movement.The rhythm refers to the movements, the strength, the speed, the interval and the pause.The spacing is large, the movement speed is fast; Small spacing, slow motion.More seconds, slower movements; The less seconds, the faster the movement.The motion laws of animation also include the physical principle of motion, mainly including action and reaction, elastic inertia, acceleration and negative acceleration, etc.Generally, layered images include: 1. Different priorities.2. Different movements. The speed is different.。
英语翻译作文高频词
英语翻译作文高频词High-Frequency Words in Academic Writing。
Academic writing is a crucial aspect of higher education and research, as it allows scholars to effectively communicate their ideas, findings, and contributions to their respective fields. One of the key elements that distinguishes academic writing from other forms of writing is the use of high-frequency words, which are words that appear frequently in academic texts across various disciplines.These high-frequency words serve several important functions in academic writing. Firstly, they help to establish a formal and objective tone, which is essential for conveying the seriousness and credibility of the research or argument being presented. Secondly, they facilitate clear and concise communication by providing a common vocabulary that is widely understood within the academic community. Thirdly, the consistent use of high-frequency words helps to create a sense of coherence and flow throughout the text, making it easier for the reader to follow the author's line of reasoning.One of the most common high-frequency words in academic writing is "the," which is a definite article used to refer to specific entities or concepts. Other high-frequency words include "be," "have," "do," "say," "get," "make," "go," "see," "come," and "take." These words are often used as verbs, nouns, or adjectives, and they serve to connect ideas, describe actions, and provide context within the text.In addition to these basic high-frequency words, academic writing also makes extensive use of more specialized vocabulary, such as discipline-specific terms, technical jargon, and academic concepts. These words are often derived from Latin or Greek roots and are used to convey complex ideas and theories with precision and clarity.For example, in the field of sociology, high-frequencywords might include "social," "culture," "structure," "interaction," "institution," and "stratification." In the field of psychology, common high-frequency words might include "cognition," "behavior," "emotion," "development," "personality," and "perception."The consistent use of high-frequency words in academic writing is not only a stylistic choice but also a reflection of the underlying logic and structure of the text. By using a common set of words and phrases, academic writers are able to build upon the shared knowledge and understanding of their readers, allowing them to focus on the substantive content of their arguments and findings.However, it is important to note that the use of high-frequency words in academic writing should not be overdone or used in a formulaic manner. Effective academic writing requires a balance between the use of high-frequency words and more varied and nuanced language, as well as a deep understanding of the subject matter and the ability to critically analyze and synthesize information.In conclusion, the use of high-frequency words is a fundamental aspect of academic writing, as it helps to establish a formal and objective tone, facilitate clear communication, and create a sense of coherence and flow throughout the text. By mastering the use of these high-frequency words, academic writers can enhance the clarity, credibility, and impact of their work, and contribute to the ongoing advancement of knowledge and understanding within their respective fields.。
情感与理智英语版pdf
情感与理智英语版pdf### Emotional and Rational: An Exploration in EnglishIntroductionEmotions and rational thinking are two fundamental aspects of human cognition that influence our decision-making processes. This document aims to explore the interplay between these two elements, providing insights into how they shape our lives and the choices we make.Understanding EmotionsEmotions are complex psychological states that involve a variety of components, such as subjective experiences, physiological responses, and expressive behaviors. They are often triggered by specific events or thoughts and can range from happiness and love to anger and fear.Key Points:- Biological Basis: Emotions have a biological basis, with the amygdala and hypothalamus playing crucial roles in emotional processing.- Cultural Influence: Emotional expression and understandingcan vary significantly across different cultures.- Impact on Decisions: Emotions can sometimes lead to impulsive decisions that may not be in one's best interest.Rational ThinkingRational thinking, on the other hand, is a cognitive process that involves logical reasoning and critical analysis. It is often associated with the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain responsible for higher-order thinking.Key Points:- Problem Solving: Rational thinking is essential for problem-solving and decision-making in various fields such as science, business, and law.- Objective Analysis: It allows individuals to make decisions based on evidence and logical deduction rather than emotions. - Limitations: Rational thinking can sometimes overlook the importance of emotions in decision-making, leading to a narrow perspective.The Balance Between Emotion and RationalityFinding a balance between emotions and rationality is crucial for effective decision-making. While emotions can provide valuable insights and guide us towards what is important to us, rational thinking helps us to evaluate options and makeinformed choices.Strategies for Balance:- Self-Awareness: Recognize and acknowledge your emotions without letting them dictate your actions.- Critical Thinking: Apply critical thinking to evaluate the pros and cons of a decision.- Emotional Intelligence: Develop emotional intelligence to understand and manage your emotions and those of others.Case StudiesThis section presents case studies that illustrate how emotions and rationality influence decisions in various contexts, such as personal relationships, professional settings, and ethical dilemmas.Examples:- Personal Relationships: The impact of emotions on trust and conflict resolution.- Professional Decisions: How rational thinking can lead to more effective leadership and strategic planning.- Ethical Dilemmas: The challenges of balancing personal emotions with ethical principles.ConclusionEmotions and rationality are both indispensable in shaping our thoughts and actions. By understanding their roles and learning to integrate them effectively, we can make more balanced and thoughtful decisions that lead to greater personal and professional success.Further ReadingFor those interested in delving deeper into the subject, this section provides a list of recommended readings and resources that offer a more comprehensive exploration of emotions and rational thinking.Suggested Readings:- "Thinking, Fast and Slow" by Daniel Kahneman- "Emotional Intelligence" by Daniel Goleman- "The Rational Optimist" by Matt RidleyAppendixThis appendix includes a glossary of terms, a list of references, and additional resources for further study.Glossary:- Cognition: The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.- Neuroscience: The scientific study of the nervous system, including the brain.References:- A list of academic articles, books, and other sources cited throughout the document.Resources:- Links to online courses, podcasts, and other educational materials related to emotional and rational thinking.This document serves as a comprehensive guide to understanding the dynamics between emotions and rational thinking, providing practical advice and resources for those seeking to enhance their decision-making capabilities.。
wilhelm wundt 英文介绍
wilhelm wundt 英文介绍English:Wilhelm Wundt was a German physiologist, philosopher, and psychologist who is widely regarded as the founder of experimental psychology. He was born in 1832 in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, and began his career studying medicine before becoming interested in psychology. Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879, where he conducted experiments to study mental processes and consciousness. He believed that psychology should be treated as a separate science, distinct from philosophy and physiology, and focused on using experimental methods to study the mind. Wundt's work laid the foundation for modern psychology and influenced the development of structuralism, which sought to analyze the basic elements of consciousness. He also taught and mentored a generation of psychologists who went on to make significant contributions to the field. Wilhelm Wundt's pioneering work in experimental psychology has had a lasting impact on the study of human behavior and cognition.中文翻译:威廉·温特是一位德国生理学家、哲学家和心理学家，被广泛认为是实验心理学的创始人。
什么是概念的英语作文
什么是概念的英语作文Title: Understanding the Concept of Concept。
Concepts are the building blocks of human cognition, serving as mental representations that help us make sense of the world around us. They are the fundamental units of thought, enabling us to categorize, understand, and communicate about various phenomena. In this essay, we will delve into the nature of concepts, explore how they are formed, and discuss their significance in shaping our perception and understanding.At its core, a concept can be defined as a mental abstraction that represents a class of objects, events, or ideas that share common characteristics. For example, the concept of "chair" encompasses various objects with similar attributes such as having a seat, a backrest, and typically four legs. Similarly, the concept of "justice" represents the abstract idea of fairness and moral rightness.One of the remarkable features of concepts is their flexibility and adaptability. While some concepts may have clear and rigid definitions, many are fluid and subject to interpretation. This flexibility allows us to apply concepts to new situations and contexts, expanding our understanding and problem-solving abilities.The formation of concepts is influenced by various cognitive processes, including perception, categorization, and abstraction. When we encounter new stimuli, our sensory systems process the information, and our brains categorize it based on similarities and differences to existing concepts. Through a process of abstraction, we extract essential features and properties shared by members of a concept class, enabling us to recognize and apply the concept in diverse contexts.Language plays a crucial role in the development and communication of concepts. Words serve as linguistic labels for concepts, allowing us to identify and refer to them in conversation and thought. Moreover, language facilitates the transmission of concepts across individuals andgenerations, enabling the accumulation and sharing of knowledge and understanding.Concepts also play a significant role in higher-order cognitive processes such as reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making. When faced with a complex problem, we often rely on our conceptual knowledge to analyze the situation, generate possible solutions, and evaluate their effectiveness. For example, a physician may use medical concepts to diagnose a patient's condition and recommend appropriate treatment options.Furthermore, concepts contribute to the formation of schemas, which are organized structures of knowledge and beliefs about specific domains. Schemas help us interpret new information, guide our attention and memory processes, and influence our expectations and behaviors. For instance, our schema for "restaurant" includes expectations about the environment, menu options, and social norms, shaping our dining experiences.In addition to their cognitive functions, concepts alsohave practical implications for communication, education, and social interaction. Effective communication relies on shared conceptual understanding between speakers and listeners, ensuring that messages are accurately conveyed and understood. In education, concepts serve as the building blocks of curriculum and instruction, guiding students' learning and intellectual development. Moreover, concepts play a crucial role in social identity and group membership, shaping our sense of belonging and affiliation with others.In conclusion, concepts are foundational elements of human cognition, enabling us to organize, understand, and navigate the complexities of the world. From simple everyday objects to abstract philosophical ideas, concepts shape our perception, reasoning, and communication in profound ways. By studying the nature and functions of concepts, we gain insight into the fundamental mechanisms of human thought and behavior.。
大学生的礼仪修养（EtiquettecultivationofCollegeStudents）
大学生的礼仪修养（Etiquette cultivation of College Students）The etiquette of college students,.Txt liar too much, fool is obviously not enough. I was in charge of kiss your princess in the way to kill Longyou Zhanji River and climbing to the top of the tower. Etiquette cultivation of College StudentsChina is a civilized country with a long history, known as "a state of ceremonies" reputation. It is a fine tradition of the Chinese nation to speak "courtesy" and understand "the instrument". The long - standing etiquette culture is a great legacy left by our predecessors. With the progress of the times, interpersonal communication has become increasingly frequent and close, as a contact lubricant etiquette is also increasingly important. In today's society, advocating etiquette is the basic requirement of society for its members, as well as the spiritual requirements of social members. Paying attention to etiquette plays an important role in promoting social progress and improving civilization.Comply with etiquette, etiquette, can effectively show the upbringing, grace and charm of a person, to better reflect one's cognitive level and respect for others and the society, so personal knowledge, accomplishment and value of social recognition and respect. Appropriate and proper etiquette can not only give the public an amiable, respectable, cooperative and interactive trust and desire, but also make the process of cooperation with the public be harmonious and successful.A student who knows the book and does not reach the ceremony, the knowledge level and the moral standard is seriously uncoordinated, can not become an excellent person. A talentedperson should not only have a high level of professional knowledge, but also have a good moral accomplishment and etiquette accomplishment. Etiquette is the form of good moral accomplishment, and it is also one of the important ways to cultivate good moral character. Good moral character needs to be reflected in a polite way. Although the research and education of etiquette have been developed in China, the combination of profession and etiquette has become a trend. However, etiquette education has not yet attracted enough attention in Colleges and universities, and most colleges and universities have not yet offered etiquette courses.College students are the high level of knowledge of the group, in today's society China have been regarded as intellectual leader, is also Chinese tomorrow development pillar, in the moral level, the etiquette training should be put forward higher requirements. The pursuit of individuality is the characteristics of contemporary young people, in the pursuit of outstanding personality process, but some students regard ugliness as a personality. Many uncivilized, rude, or even ugly, stale, vulgar things are regarded as "new wave", "cool", now in the university campus, often can see disheveled, misbehaving, scolding, spitting, do not speak the ceremony do not understand the phenomenon of other instrument when is available, such as closing like thunder, the phone never self introduction, no comity teachers, walking and eating, carrying boxes. These bad phenomena are no longer individual, and have a more common trend.Now I'll talk about etiquette knowledge that I know:First, straighten out the position and correct attitudeLearning etiquette should first straighten out the position, correct attitude. If you go abroad, there will be a problem, which is in accordance with the rules of their own country, or in accordance with the rules of the country to do? In addition, there are human factors, for example, I am the master, I will emphasize the main guest, respect guests, but if I am a guest, I will emphasize the guest. Only in order to straighten out the position, correct attitude, in order to do a good job in international exchanges.Two, talkThe conversation consists of two questions, the first is the problem of what to say, namely the content, language as the voice, you can not make irresponsible remarks; the second problem is how to say, the form, the same meaning, use different forms of expression, to the listener, there are different feelings.Generally speaking, there are four free talk. 1, avoid interrupting each other when talking to each other, the superior can interrupt the lower level, elders can interrupt the younger generation, equal identity is no power to interrupt the conversation. If you talk to each other at the same time, you should say "you please" and let the other person speak first.2, some people fond of teaching others complement each other,Always want to know is more than the other, better than the other. In fact, there is no right position for this problem, because people stand in different angles, the views on the same problem will have a big difference. For example, when you say Beijing is cooling down, the other side tells you that Harbin is snowing heavily. Of course, if the identity of both sides of the conversation is equal, familiar with each other, sometimes appropriate to complement each other's conversation is not serious, but at the negotiating table must not complement each other.3, avoid correcting right and wrong "ten miles of different wind, hundred miles of different customs."." People from different countries, different regions and different cultural backgrounds consider the same problem, and the conclusions are not necessarily the same. A truly cultivated man is one who respects others. Respect others is to respect the choice of the other side. In addition to the questions must be answered outside major issues issues of right and wrong clearly, general problems in interpersonal communication with each other is not just argument or not, don't go to judgment, because it is relatively right or wrong, some problems are hard to tell who is right and who is wrong. In China, for example, nodding your head in agreement, shaking your head in disapproval, but in some countries, such as Macedonia, Bulgaria, Nepal, the opposite is true, nodding against the head, shaking your head and agreeing. So, please remember a social principle: accept people psychologically. Each person's education level is not the same, not the same occupation background, consider the issue is not the same, so you must be tolerant, do not put their own judgment standard casually on others.4, don't doubt the other party's words to others, do not hesitate to express doubt. The so-called anti human heart can not be, doubt the other party is not impossible, but can not write on the face, this is very important. If you don't pay attention, it's easy to bring trouble. Questioning the other party is actually a provocation to his dignity, a kind of irrational behavior. In interpersonal communication, such a problem deserves high attention.Conversation is an essential means of communication in communication. Mastering four - avoid interrupting each other, avoid, avoid each other, complement each other to correct each other -- is the premise of avoid question effective conversation. A common form of communication, attending the banquet, we must avoid the table -- avoid smoking, food to others, urging people to drink, finishing clothing, eat sound. Remember the above points, help to establish a good image of your success, increase your weight! Communication etiquette reflects individual occupation attainment, occupation of modern people, have rich knowledge of etiquette, and can be applied in different occasions according to different communicative skills, often can make a career.Four. Matters needing attention in self modification of formal occasions1, the bag and shoes color is consistent, whether men or women, attend important occasions, bags and leather shoes color should be consistent. It's common sense that you can't wear white leather shoes, hand colored coffee handbags. In addition, youalso have something special in your bag, for example, girls should put a pair of spare stockings in the bag.2, the lady hairstyle should be fashionable, the hairstyle of the lady is fashionable and decent, reflects its social status and economic ability, and personal life is happy. A woman with economic ability, social status and a happy life, must pay attention to her hairstyle. Men's first impression of women is hairstyle.3, lady make-up should be fresh and natural, in social occasions, women do not make up, just do not respect yourself, do not respect others. At the same time also stressed the make-up, if not make-up, but a poor imitation like a dog, so she must learn make-up, and keep fresh and natural makeup on social occasions.4, men do not hang anything on the waist, in important occasions, men can not hang anything on the waist. Usually, men's waist, mobile phone or other items a Swiss Army knife, but on important occasions, you lose your identity. In short, in communication, we should first correct position, correct attitude, that is, accurate positioning of their own problems. Only in each communication accurately positioning themselves, to do proper words and deeds; secondly, we should flexibly use the three elements of communication, cognition and interaction,Improve the efficiency of your communication; finally, in communication occasions, the image is very important, must grasp the correct self modification method.Five, the three elements of communication1, the so-called communication is mutual understanding, it includes two aspects of the problem, one is that you know other people do not know, two is that others know you don't know. Only you know, it's useless for someone else to know.2, know the so-called expert doorway, layman watching lively. In formal occasions, a lot of things have certain rules. If you don't know the rules, you'll make jokes. If you drink dry white, you can add ice, drink red wine, nothing, if you drink red wine with ice, it is impolite. Coffee can't mess with the spoon, spoon uses two, one is added to the milk sugar, stir, two feel particularly hot coffee, stir cool. If you put the spoon used for other purposes, such as a spoon to stir the drink, you do not know the rules. Lack of awareness of rules is not only detrimental to your personal image, but also detrimental to the image of the company you represent.3, interactive so-called interaction, is to get feedback from each other, produce results. For example, Chinese people sometimes like to be polite, invite people to eat, prepare a lot of delicious, but say that rice is not good, please bear with me. In fact, I want to get compliments from others. But because there are different cultural backgrounds, sometimes there are problems with interaction. Beijing people say hello, like to eat, but if you say hello to foreigners, and ask "eat", he can not understand. So experienced translation will "eat" translated into "hello", otherwise foreigners will answer to eat or not eat.Six, avoid the table1. Smoking should not be smoked in public places. When dealing with outsiders, especially women and elders, they should not smoke when they are present, which is a kind of upbringing. Non smoking is the basic upbringing of a person at a table.2, to other people pinch vegetables in social occasions, should do not let vegetables dish. When you dine together and outsiders, do not give others food, because you do not know each other what to eat, what not to eat, but according to common sense, you clip vegetables, he must eat, so, it will cause the other party in a very awkward position.3, they should do to help wine on the table is not quanjiu. Many people pay attention to domestic meal drink, love Quanjiu, so in the wine on the table consumes a lot of time. Communication needs to straighten out their position, to the other party as the center, whether to drink, should respect the wishes of the other party.4, finishing clothing should not be arranged on the table dress. Especially in international exchanges, such as the lady is not clear and finishing clothing at the table, took out a small mirror makeup, will cause trouble. This behavior, first of all that you lack of self-esteem, but also by Westerners was mistaken for showmanship prostitutes.5, eating sounds, eating should not be issued sound, which is mainly applicable to international exchanges. In the west, eating sounds is the basic feature of pigs.Seven, visit1, pay attention to the choice of time. Generally speaking, to visit someone, you should choose a good time in advance, you should not choose busy or three meals each other, not too late in the evening. Holidays and weekends, this is a good time to visit, but if you do not have an appointment, do not rush to travel, these days, the master often arrange otherwise. Pre appointed time is most polite. Try to do a casual visitor, please. An appointment to visit, they must be punctual, observant, and trustworthy. The guest should arrive on time or a little earlier, because of the special circumstances can not keep an appointment, should find ways to notify each other, silently cancel the reservation is very impolite.2, pay attention to the choice of clothing. General access, neat, simple, generous, not too gorgeous. Disheveled, with dishevelled hair and a dirty face is an insult to the host. In order to celebrate a happy occasion, we must pay attention to it.3. Knock on the door or ring the doorbell when you enter the door. Knocking on the door should have a sense of rhythm, not light, not heavy, not urgent, not slow, knocking two or three is appropriate. Open or open door can not be broken into,To master a very rude to be taken by surprise, the best room to visit people after the crash. If you need a long time to wait, can be the first places in reception talk or reading some newspapers magazines or books, to visit people should stand up after greeting. For a formal visit about good, no matter howurgent, visit the time is very tight, at the door only greetings, don't talk to a seated talk, otherwise it will give each other a not mature impression. It's impolite to wear slippers at the door, to see the family and to say hello to them.4. Thank you for your host's hospitality. Master of tea or candy and other small food, should stand or bow in your hands, and say "thank you", if you smoke, as a student should be declined.5, in the process of conversation, we should pay attention to the conversation etiquette and skills, conversation should be brief, less negative, boring words. Be good at listening, make positive reaction, don't interrupt the conversation of others at will. The guest should not look around in the house. Don't walk into the master's bedroom unless the host invites you.6, master the best opportunity to leave. General visit, time should not be too long, not too hasty. Generally half an hour to an hour is appropriate. If business and business visits are made, the length of time can be determined. The best time to leave the guest, is a conversation with the owner after the climax, or in another new guests, to master if fatigue or family to indicate what something urgent to do so, timely leave more appropriate. When you leave, thank you for your host and family's hospitality. If the host has elders, he should say goodbye to his elders. To sum up, as a guest should comply with the basic etiquette as follows: reservation, do not come, do not casual visitor; some of the guests; do a guest is refined and courteous, clean clothes, not sloppy; customer; dignified, gentle, not vulgar guest; timely leave, not difficult to quit the guest.According to the above discussion, we college students should learn the essence of traditional culture, improve cultural and moral cultivation, learning the necessary etiquette, be based on the society, based on the wave front, it can get more sure.In fact, do not know whether college students have thought: when you use the language and politeness in social communication conversation; with civilized manners with people; with appropriate instruments to communicate with people, people will feel your refined and courteous manner, liberal and dignified temperament, civilized and moral cultivation, will have a tribute. Elegant and reasonable style of conversation, kind and integral appearance, will be a warm spring breeze blowing people, a whole body of enthusiasm.Etiquette runs through the whole process of interpersonal communication, serving for the connotation of communication; not paying attention to etiquette will inevitably affect the depth of communication and the persistence of communication. Because of the defects and the impact of communication etiquette in the company. Not only foreign exchanges, we college students should attach great importance to etiquette, in daily life habit, naturally become a kind of culture also helps to improve their taste.。
社会学英语名词解释
社会学英语名词解释Aaccounting 说明过程人们提供说明以理解世界的过程。
（俗民方法论）accounting practices 说明过程的实践某人提出说明而其他人接受或拒绝该说明的方式。
（俗民方法论）accounts 说明行动者解释（描述、批评及理想化）特定情境的方式。
（俗民方法论）act 行动米德理论的基本元素，包含冲动、知觉刺激、对知觉感到的客体采取行动，并利用该客体满足原先的冲动。
action 行动人们所做之事是意识过程创造的结果。
actual social identity 实际的社会认同人们真正是什么样的人。
(戈夫曼)adaptation 适应帕森斯的四种必要功能之一。
系统必须能适应它的环境，并能调整环境以符合系统所需。
更详细地说就是，系统必须能处理外在情境的危险及突发事件。
affectivity-affective neutrality 情感-情感中立此模式变量系指对某种社会现象要投注多少情绪(或情感)。
(帕森斯)affectual action 情感性行动由情绪引起的非理性行动。
(韦伯)agency 能动力(性)系指行动者所做之行动;亦即，如果不是行动者介入并采取所谈论之行动，所发生之事可能不会以那种方式发生。
agents 行(能)动者有能力为社会世界带来影响的行(能)动者;行(能)动者拥有权力。
alienation 异化人们与其生产活动、所生产的物品、一起共事的同僚及其潜能之间的自然联系崩解了或被分离了。
(马克思)anomie 失序伴随有机连带社会而兴起的一种感觉，亦即不知道自己该做什么。
人们在社会游荡，并且缺乏清楚、具安全感的寄托。
(涂尔干)对默顿而言，当社会结构个文化之间发生严重断裂，被结构创造出来的人们依文化规范和目标运作，但当规范和目标发生严重断裂时，就产生失序的情形。
appearance 外表观众眼中的行动者;尤其指那些能暗示出表演者社会地位的项目。
(戈夫曼)ascription-achievement 先赋-成就此模式变量关心的是，当我们判断某一社会现象时，是以它被赋予了什么，还是以它成就了什么来判断的。
理智与情感论文英语
理智与情感论文英语Abstract:The paper explores the intricate balance between reason and emotion in the context of human decision-making. It delves into the philosophical and psychological underpinnings of these two fundamental aspects of human cognition, examining their roles in shaping our choices and actions.Introduction:The introduction section sets the stage for the discussion by providing a brief overview of the historical and contemporary perspectives on the dichotomy between reason and emotion. It outlines the purpose of the paper and the central questionsit seeks to address.Historical Context:This section traces the evolution of the concept of reason and emotion from ancient Greek philosophy to modern times. It highlights the contributions of key thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, and Hume, who have shaped our understanding of the relationship between these two elements.The Role of Reason:The paper then focuses on the role of reason in decision-making. It discusses the principles of logic, critical thinking, and rational analysis, and how they are applied to evaluate options and make choices. The section also considers the limitations of reason, such as cognitive biases andheuristics that can lead to irrational decisions.The Role of Emotion:Conversely, the role of emotion is explored, emphasizing its influence on our subjective experiences and decision-making processes. The section covers the neuroscientific basis of emotions, their impact on motivation, and the potential for emotional intelligence to enhance decision-making.The Integration of Reason and Emotion:The core of the paper argues that neither reason nor emotion can be considered in isolation. It presents evidence from interdisciplinary research that suggests a synergistic relationship between the two, where emotion can inform and guide reason, and reason can regulate and refine emotional responses.Case Studies:To illustrate the interplay between reason and emotion, the paper presents case studies from various fields, including business, law, and personal relationships. These case studies demonstrate how successful decision-making often involves a balance of both rational and emotional considerations.Challenges and Solutions:This section identifies common challenges that arise when attempting to integrate reason and emotion, such as emotional overwhelm or over-reliance on logic. It proposes strategies for overcoming these challenges, including mindfulness practices, decision-making frameworks, and the cultivation of emotional intelligence.Conclusion:The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the paper, reinforcing the importance of understanding and managing the interplay between reason and emotion. It calls for a more nuanced approach to decision-making that acknowledges the complexity of human cognition and the value of both rational and emotional contributions.Bibliography:A comprehensive list of sources is provided, including academic papers, books, and relevant philosophical texts that have been referenced throughout the paper.This outline serves as a framework for a paper that aims to provide a nuanced examination of the relationship between reason and emotion in human decision-making, advocating for a balanced approach that leverages the strengths of both.。
大于小于的英语作文
大于小于的英语作文Title: The Power of Comparison: Exploring the Dynamics of Greater Than and Less Than。
Comparison is an inherent aspect of human cognition, influencing decision-making, problem-solving, and even language itself. Among the most fundamental elements of comparison are the concepts of "greater than" and "less than." In this essay, we delve into the multifaceted nature of these comparative relations and explore their significance in various aspects of life.At its core, the concept of "greater than" signifies superiority or precedence, while "less than" denotes inferiority or subservience. These relations find expression not only in mathematics but also in everyday language and thought. From early childhood, individuals learn to grasp these concepts intuitively, shaping their perceptions and judgments.In the realm of mathematics, the symbols ">" (greater than) and "<" (less than) serve as indispensable tools for expressing comparative relationships between numbers. Through these symbols, numerical quantities are comparedand ordered, facilitating mathematical operations and analysis. For instance, in arithmetic, the understanding of "greater than" and "less than" is crucial for tasks such as comparing the sizes of fractions, determining the resultsof inequalities, and interpreting graphical representations.Beyond mathematics, the principles of "greater than"and "less than" extend into various domains, including economics, sociology, and psychology. In economics, the concept of "greater than" underpins notions of profit, growth, and market dominance, driving competition and innovation. Conversely, the concept of "less than" underscores issues of poverty, inequality, and disadvantage, prompting efforts toward social justice and redistribution.In sociology, comparisons of wealth, power, and status lie at the heart of analyses of social stratification and mobility. Societies are often characterized by hierarchiesin which certain individuals or groups are deemed "greater than" or "less than" others based on criteria such as income, education, or occupation. These hierarchies influence patterns of interaction, resource allocation, and social cohesion within communities.Psychologically, the tendency to compare oneself to others is a ubiquitous aspect of human behavior, contributing to feelings of pride, envy, or inferiority. Social comparison theory posits that individuals evaluate their abilities and opinions by comparing them with those of others, influencing self-perception and behavior. Inthis context, the distinctions between "greater than" and "less than" play a pivotal role in shaping individuals' identities and aspirations.Moreover, the dynamics of "greater than" and "less than" are not confined to objective measures but also manifest in subjective experiences and cultural constructs. For example, notions of beauty, intelligence, or success are often defined in relative terms, leading to perceptions of superiority or inadequacy. Media representations,societal norms, and personal values all contribute to the construction of hierarchies based on perceived differences.Nevertheless, the interpretation of "greater than" and "less than" is not always straightforward and may vary depending on context, perspective, and cultural background. What constitutes superiority or inferiority in one context may not hold true in another, highlighting the inherent subjectivity of comparison. Moreover, the reliance on comparative judgments can lead to biases, stereotypes, and prejudices that perpetuate inequalities and inhibit understanding.In conclusion, the concepts of "greater than" and "less than" are pervasive elements of human cognition and social interaction, shaping perceptions, decisions, and relationships. Whether in mathematics, economics, sociology, or psychology, the dynamics of comparison influence our understanding of the world and ourselves. By critically examining these concepts and their implications, we can strive for more equitable and nuanced perspectives,fostering empathy, cooperation, and mutual respect in an interconnected world.。
格式塔心理学的原理
Format psychology, also known as Gestalt psychology, is a psychological approach that emphasizes the importance of perception and organization of information. This theory suggests that humans have a tendency to perceive patterns in theenvironment rather than simply focusing on individual parts.格式心理学，又称格式塔心理学，是强调感知和信息组织的心理学方法。这个理论认为人类倾向于看到环境中的模式，而不只是关注单个部分。
One of the key principles of Gestalt psychology is the idea of "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts." This means that when we perceive a collection of objects, we tend to see them as a unified whole rather than just individual elements.格式心理学的一个关键原则是“整体大于部分之和”的概念。这意味着当我们感知一组物体时，我们倾向于将它们看作一个统一的整体，而不仅仅是单独的元素。
Gestalt psychologists believe that perception is not just a passive process of receiving sensory information, but an active process of organizing that information into meaningful patterns. This process involves principles such as proximity, similarity, closure, andcontinuity.格式心理学家相信，感知不仅仅是passiv接收感官信息的过程，而是将这些信息组织成有意义模式的主动过程。这个过程涉及接近性、相似性、封闭性和连续性等原则。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Summary and Discussion of Program Comprehension During Software Maintenance and EvolutionAnneliese von Mayrhauser (Andrews)A. Marie VansColorado State UniversityDean L. ZellerCS79995 –Program ComprehensionDr. Jonathan MaleticDepartment of Computer ScienceKent State UniversityOutline•Definitions•Tasks•Common elements of cognition models •Cognition models•Evaluation and Analysis•Chunking Diagrams as a curriculum planSlide 2of 44Definition•Program comprehension–Using existing knowledge to acquire newknowledge that ultimately meets the goals of atask•All models formulate hypotheses and thenresolve, revise, or abandon them.Slide 3of 44Tasks•Adaptive:Change system to reflect newdesign goals•Perfective:Make improvements onexisting system•Corrective:Repair an existing system•Reuse:Find solution based on closefit with reusable components •Leverage:Reconfigure solution to increaselikelihood of using predefinedcomponents•Most programming tasks involve reading codewritten by someone else.Slide 4of 44 Common Elements of CognitionModels•Knowledge•Mental Model–Static elements–Dynamic elements•Knowledge Acquisition•Expert vs. NoviceSlide 5of 44Knowledge•General knowledge (solution independent)•Spans many abstraction levels–“this is an operating system”–“this is how a round-robin algorithm works”–“this is a linked list”–“this is a variable incremented within a loop”Slide 6of 44Mental Model•Internal, working representation•Models based on understanding complete problem•Complete understanding is not always necessary to solve a problem.Slide 7of 44Mental Model –Static Elements •Text-structure knowledge units–Sequential statements–Blocks–Conditional–Iteration–Functions (methods, modules, etc…)•Chunks (macrostructures)–Various levels of text-structure abstractionsSlide 8of 44 Text Structure ChunksSlide 9of 44Slide 10of 44Chunking Diagramarray for loop conditional input result variable assignmentSwapSort Record Searching ...Database•Hierarchy structureSlide 11of 44Mental Model –DynamicElements•Plans•HypothesesSlide 12of 44Plans•Causal knowledge about information flow •Validating•Programming plans–Algorithms–Data structures–Code segments•Domain plansHypotheses•Conjectures for possible solutions•Hold or reject•Types (Letovsky)–Why:purpose of a function or design choice–How:method for accomplishing goal–What:classification of code•Degree of certainty–Uncertain guesses to certain conditionsSlide 13of 44Hypotheses, con’t •Understanding is complete when a mental modelcontains a complete hierarchy of hypotheses–Primary hypothesis (global, non-specific)–Subsidiary hypotheses•Reasons to reject a hypothesis–Code to verify cannot be found–Confusion exists because one piece of code satisfiesdifferent hypotheses–Code cannot be explainedSlide 14of 44 Mental Model –DynamicElements•The key is to keep the number of “open”hypotheses manageable while increasingunderstanding.•Strategy•ChunkingSlide 15of 44Slide 16of 44Strategy•Guides the sequence of actions while following a plan to reach a goal.•Match programming plans to code •Shallow reasoning–Recognize familiar plans•Deep reasoning–Look for causal relationshipsSlide 17of 44Chunking•Create new, higher-level abstraction structures •Labels replace the detail of the lower level chunks...Data PointersLinked ListsReady Queue Round Robin Scheduler Deadlock Resolution...Process Scheduler...Operating SystemSlide 18of 44Cross-Referencing•Map program parts to functional descriptionsBeacons•Cues an index into knowledgeSlide 19of 44Rules of Discourse•Conventions in programming•Examples:–Variable names should indicate content–Always use a return within a function–Always initialize variables–A conditional should have a chance of beingeither true or falseSlide 20of 44Experts•Organize knowledge structures quickly–Novices may understand syntax, while experts organizelanguage in terms of algorithms.•Schemas, efficiently organized•Problem decomposition•Flexibility–Discard questionable hypotheses“Oh, you got yourself a virus!”--Best Buy tech supportSlide 21of 44Cognition Models•Letovsky•Shneidman and Mayer•Brooks•Top-down•Pennington•IntegratedSlide 22of 44Letovsky Model •Knowledge base (prior knowledge)•Mental model (internal representation)–Specification (goals)–Implementation (data structures and functions)–Annotation (links each goal to its realization)•Assimilation process–“Programmers proceed in the way they thinkyields the highest return in knowledge gain.”•Dangling purpose unitSlide 23of 44Slide 24of 44Shneiderman and Mayer Model•Short term memory –immediate decisions •Working memory –overall problem•Long term memory –all prior knowledge •Discussion: how does knowledge go from working memory to long term memory?Slide 25of 44Slide 26of 44Brooks Model •Reconstruct domain knowledge used byinitial developer•Recreate mappings from problem domaininto programming domain•Top-Down process that successively refines hypothesesSlide 27of 44Slide 28of 44Top-Down Model•Typically applies when the code type is familiar•Decompose code into typical elements •Plans–Strategic: global–Tactical: local–Implementation: language dependent •Heirarchy of goals and plans•Rules of discourseSlide 29of 44Slide 30of 44Pennington Model•Program model (control flow)–Build from the bottom up via beacons–Chunking microstructures into macrostructures–Cross referencing•Situation model–Requires knowledge of real world domain–Complete once program goal is reachedpcboards= pcboards –sold“reduces the inventory by the number of pcboards sold”Slide 31of 44Slide 32of 44Integrated Metamodel•Components–Top-down–Situation–Program models–Knowledge base•Combines top-down with bottom up •Experiments show that programmers switch between all three comprehension models. Any ofthe submodels can become active at any time.Slide 33of 44Slide 34of 44Evaluation and Analysis•Model evaluation criteria–Does the model incorporate static structuresthat represent persistent knowledge and thesystem’s current mental representation?–Does the model represent dynamic processesthat build the mental representing usingknowledge?–To which extent was each model validated byexperiments?Slide 35of 44Evaluation•Similarities: all models accommodate…–Mental representation of the code–Knowledge base in long-term memory–Process for combining the knowledge base withnew external information•Differences: level of detailSlide 36of 44Slide 37of 44Evaluations, con’t•Letovsky–highest level model•Shneiderman & Mayer–more dtailed–Heirarcy–Separates syntactic vs. semantic knowledge •Brooks–All changes in current model stem from hypotheses –Model is constructed in one dimension only –Leaves the knowledge structure undefinedSlide 38of 44Evaluations, con’t•Pennington–More detailed–Specific descriptions of the cognitive process •Soloway, Adelson, Ehrlich–Highest level abstractions in mental model–Assumes that the knowledge used has been previously acquired–Does not account for situations when the programmer has little experience with the code•Integrated Metamodel–Responds to cognition needs for large software systemsSlide 39of 44Analysis•Summary of program comprehension experiments •Observational (O)–Behaviors observed as they occur in the real world •Correlational (C)–Determine behavior to explore relationships between variables•Hypothesis testing (H)–Investigate cause and effect between variables –Validate an existing theoryVariables•Models•Common cognition elements•Code size–Small (900 LOC), medium, and large (40,000LOC)•Language–Cobol/Fortran/Basic/Pascal vs. C/C++•Subjects–Novice, graduate students, professionalSlide 40of 44Results•Most were small scale code experiments–Only two medium and one large•Most did not use C/C++ environments–Only two did•Most investigated strategies, beacons, or plans.•Few addressed processes, rules of discourse, actions, or episodes.•Most were observational experiments–As of 1995, the theory of developing program-comprehension models was still in the theory-buildingstage.Slide 41of 44Issues•Scalability–Does a model based on 200 LOC programs apply tolarge programs?•Dynamic Behavior–Most focused on static properties•Theory building–Measures specific conditions based on hypotheses notalways based on a well-defined program-comprehension theory.Slide 42of 44Slide 43of 44Conclusions•Much of the work in program comprehension experiments were based on general understanding of small-scale code.•Existing results from related areas need further investigation.•Some results appear as components of larger results.•Data availability is a challenge.•Literature fails to provide a clear picture of comprehension processes based on specialized maintenance tasks.Slide 44of 44Chunking Diagram –CS10061Assignment 1print raw_input Graphic initialization(always provided) from Tkinter import *c = Canvas() c.pack()create_rectanglecreate_oval create_line create_polygon Illustrated Story I(sequential)Functions (defining) Functions (calling) Illustrated Story II (procedural)Lists asgraphic pointsMad Lib FunctionsIllustrated Story III(scalable objects)Functions (parameters) GridstructuresVariables (integer) Mathematical operations Illustrated Story IV(decisions/quest)if Lists asinventorywhile for Assignment 2Assignment 3 Assignment 4Assignment 5 Assignment 6 Slide 45of 44ReferencesVonmayrhauser, A. And Vans, A.M. Program Comprehension During Software Maintenance and Evolution. Computer . 28(8), August, 1995. pp 44-55.。