经济学Chapter-8(1)

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chapter8 Financial Structure

chapter8 Financial Structure

2)Expertise(专门技术)
Problem 1(课后题2): Describe two ways in which financial intermediaries help lower transaction costs in the economy.
Ⅲ Asymmetric Information
由经济学家乔治· 阿克洛夫(George Akerlof)于1970年提出来。 “柠檬”一 词在美国俚语中表示“次品”,由于逆向选择对市场的影响类似于二手车市 场的次品问题,故柠檬问题又称次品车问题。“柠檬问题”是信息不对称理 论的重要组成部分。
二手车市场(used-car market)
买者不知道每辆车的质量但知道车市的质量分布。假设车市有三辆车,价格分 别为:0,5,10。 首先,顾客愿意花费的价格是5,所以,价格为10的车主退出市场; 之后,基于市场质量分布,顾客将只愿意花费2.5,价格为5的车主退出市场; 最后,顾客的花费意愿将降为0,且只有最差的车留在市场。
交易一方对另一方缺乏充分了解,以至于无法做出正确的决策。
1)Adverse selection
2)Moral hazard
Ⅲ Asymmetric Information
and Financial Structure
1、How Adverse Selection Influences Financial Structure------ The Lemons Problem(柠檬问题)
Ⅰ Basic Puzzles About Financial Structure Throughout the World
5、The financial system is among the most heavily regulated sectors of the economy. 6、Only large, well-established(组织完善) corporations have easy access to securities markets to finance their activities. Individuals and medium-small businesses

经济学基础第八章ppt课件

经济学基础第八章ppt课件

也就是说,微观经济学假设人们的行为 是理性的,然后分析理性的人在面临外在 条件改变如价格变化时,应该做出什么样 的反应。
如消费者,生产者,储蓄者,投资者,劳 动者
理性原理是经济学的出发点,是强调得
最多的一个假设。那么什么是理性或理性
行为呢?
精品课件
理性rationality: 是指人们进行选择时有明确目标,能计算 与比较,具有内在一致的逻辑。具有这种特 征的选择行为就被称做是理性的。
过于自信刚愎自用过于自信刚愎自用微观经济学假设人们是微观经济学假设人们是homehomeeconomicuseconomicus行为经济学假设人们是行为经济学假设人们是homesapienshomesapiens40情景1选择今天花60分钟完成任务明天花80分钟完成任务情景2选择下个月30日花60分钟完成任务下个月31日花80分钟完成任务41人们的行为不仅受到利益的驱使而且还受到多种心理因素的影响
继继继 继继停 续 续 续… 续 续 止
ABA 结结结 束束束
B A B 100 结 结 结 100 束束束
A 1 0 2… 97 99 98
B 1 3 2… 100 99 101
精品课件
微观经济学均衡是否存在 例子二:走左边还是右边?
• 如果你是理性的,对方是理性的,但是你 不确定对方是否理性。
精品课件
3. 在进行取舍的选择时,任何一种选择都 是对稀缺资源的使用或配置,都要付出机会 成本。那什么是机会成本呢?做一件事情的 成本是,花在该事情上的资源本来可以用于 其他最好用途时能够得到的最大价值。 粮食的生产成本就是用于生产粮食的土地、 资本、人力等本来可以用于开发房地产、经 营农庄、开办养猪场中的最好用途时可以得 到的收入。一般来说,这个放弃的收入是市 场化了的,是市场价值。

经济学基础 第八章

经济学基础   第八章
第一年,政府增加对物品的劳务和购买 第二年,石油输出国组织提高了石油价格 第三年,受汇率影响出口下降
第四年,一项新结束的推广提高了劳动生产年率
用AD-AS模型说明以上事件引起的一系列变化及
结果,并说明国民收入与物价水平的变动情况
第二节 通货膨胀
第二节 通货膨胀 一、通货膨胀的定义 Inflation
失业人数 失业率= 100% 劳动力总数
第三节 失业 二、失业的类型 (一)自然失业
1.摩擦型失业
2.结构型失业 3.季节型失业 4.技术型失业
第八章 通货膨胀与失业
《经济学基础》
目录
第一节 AD-AS模型
第二节 通货膨胀
第三节 失业理论
第四节 失业与通货膨胀的关系
课后思考
第一节 AD-AS模型
第一节 AD-AS模型 一、总需求 Aggregate Demand
总需求:一系列价格水平下社会经济各部门的整体需求 居民的消费需求 企业的投资需求
P
国外的购买需求
AD 0 Y
第一节 AD-AS模型 二、总供给 Aggregate Supply
P AS
Y 0
第一节 AD-AS模型 三、总供求AD-AS模型
P AS
均衡的物价总水平 P*
AD
0
Y* 均衡的国民收入
Y
练一练
假设经济起初处于充分就业均衡状态,在以后连 续四年中,发生了这样一些经济事件
的变动情况。
第二节 通货膨胀 CPI的计算
CPI 鸡蛋 = 鸡蛋当期价格 鸡蛋基期价格
Weight鸡蛋 Weight手机
手机当期价格 CPI 手机 = 手机基期价格
……
CPI = CPIi Weighti

国际经济学第九版英文课后答案 第8单元

国际经济学第九版英文课后答案 第8单元

*CHAPTER 8 (Core Chapter)TRADE RESTRICTIONS: TARIFFSOUTLINE8.1 Introduction8.2 Partial Equilibrium Analysis of a TariffCase Study 8-1: Average Tariff on Non-Agricultural Products in Major Developed CountriesCase Study 8-2: Average Tariff on Non-Agricultural Products in Some MajorDeveloping Countries8.2a Partial Equilibrium Effects of a Tariff8.2b Effects of a Tariff on Producer and Consumer Surplus8.2c Costs and Benefits of a TariffCase Study 8-3: The Welfare Effects of Liberalizing Trade in Some U.S. Products Case Study 8-4: The Welfare Effects of Liberalizing Trade in Some EU Products 8.3 The Theory of Tariff Structure8.3a The Rate of Effective Protection8.3b Generalization and Evaluation of the Theory of Effective ProtectionCase Study 8-5: Rising Tariff Rates with Degree of Domestic ProcessingCase Study 8-6: Structure of Tariffs on Industrial Products in U.S., EU, Japan, and Canada8.4 General Equilibrium Analysis of a Tariff in a Small Country8.4a General Equilibrium Effects of a Tariff in a Small Country8.4b Illustration of the Effects of a Tariff in a Small Country8.4c The Stolper-Samuelson Theorem8.5 General Equilibrium Analysis of a Tariff in a Large Country8.5a General Equilibrium Effects of a Tariff in a Large Country8.5b Illustration of the Effects of a Tariff in a Large Country8.6 The Optimum Tariff8.6a The Meaning of the Concept and Retaliation8.6b Illustration of the Optimum Tariff and RetaliationAppendix: A8.1 Partial Equilibrium Effects of a Tariff in a Large NationA8.2 Derivation of the Formula for the Rate of Effective ProtectionA8.3 The Stolper-Samuelson Theorem GraphicallyA8.4 Exception to the Stolper-Samuelson Theorem - The MetzlerParadoxA8.5 Short-run Effect of a Tariff on Factors' IncomeA8.6 Measurement of the Optimum TariffKey TermsTrade or commercial policies Consumer surplusImport tariff Rent or producer surplusExport tariff Protection cost or deadweight loss of a tariff Ad valorem tariff Nominal tariffSpecific tariff Rate of effective protectionCompound tariff Domestic value addedConsumption effect of a tariff Prohibitive tariffProduction effect of a tariff Stolper-Samuelson theoremTrade effect of a tariff Metzler paradoxRevenue effect of a tariff Optimum tariffLecture Guide1.I would cover sections 1 and 2 and assign problems 1-2 in the first lecture. Themost difficult part of section 2 is the meaning and measurement of consumer and producer surplus. Since a clear understanding of the meaning and measurementof consumer and producer surplus is crucial in evaluating the effect of tariffs, Iwould explain t hese concepts very carefully.2.I would then cover section 3 and assign problems 3-6 in the second lecture. Thetheory of tariff structure is also very difficult and important, and so I would alsoexplain this concept very carefully. I found that the best way to explain it is byusing the simple example used in the text of the suit with and without importedinputs.3.The rest of the chapter can be skipped without loss of continuity by thoseInstructors who do not wish to cover the general equilibrium effects of tariffs. 4.For those Instructors who wish to cover the rest of the chapter, I would take upanother two lectures to do so. I would also assign and grade problems 8-14 tomake sure that students understand the material.5.In covering section 8.4, I would pay special attention to the explanation of Figure8-5 and to the Stolper-Samuelson theorem.6.In covering Section 8.6, please note that the optimum tariff can only be discussedintuitively without trade indifference curves (examined in Appendix A8.6). Answer to Problems1.a) Consumption is 70Y, production is 10Y and imports are 60Y (see Figure 1 onthe next page).b) Consumption is 60Y, production is 20Y and imports are 40Y (see Figure 1).c) The consumption effect is -10Y, the production effect is +10Y, the trade effectis -20Y and the revenue effect is $40 (see Figure 1).2. a) The consumer surplus is $245 without and $l80 with the tariff (see Figure 1).b)Of the increase in the revenue of producers with the tariff (as compared withtheir revenues under free trade), $l5 represents the increase in production costsand another $15 represents the increase in rent or producer surplus (see Figure1).c) The dollar value or the protection cost of the tariff is $l0 (see Figure 1).3. This will increase the rate of effective protection in the nation.4. a) g = 0.4 - (0.5)(0.4) = 0.4 - 0.2 = 0.2 = 40%1.0 - 0.5 0.5 0.55. a) g=60%b) g=80%c) g=0d) g=20%6. a) g=70%b) See the first paragraph of section 8.3b.7. See Figure 2.8.When Nation 1 (assumed to be a small nation) imposes an import tariff oncommodity Y, the real income of labor falls and that of capital rises.9.Py/Px rises for domestic producers and consumers. As production of Y (the K-intensive commodity) rises and that of X falls, the demand and income of K rises and that of L falls. Therefore, r rises and w falls.10.If Nation 1 were instead a large nation, then Nation 1's terms of trade rise and thereal income of L may also rise.India is more likely to restrict imports of K-intensive commodities in which India has a comparative disadvantage and this is likely to increase the return to capitaland reduce the return to labor according to the Stolper-Samuelson theorem.12. See Figure 3 on the previous page.13. See Figure 4.14. a) The volume of trade may shrink to zero (the origin of offer curves).App. 1. The more elastic S H and S F are, the lower is the free trade priceof the commodity and the lower is the increase in the domesticprice of the commodity as a result of the tariff.App. 2a. The supply curve of the nation for the commodity shifts upand to the left (as with the imposition of any tax); this does not affectthe consumption of the commodity with free trade, but it reducesdomestic production and increases imports of the commodity; italso increases the revenue effect and reduces producers' surplus.b)The imposition of a tariff on imported inputs going into the domestic productionof the commodity will have no effect on the size of the protection cost ordeadweight loss.App. 3. See Figure 5 (on the next page).App. 4. See Figure 6.App. 5. Real w will fall in terms of Y and rise in terms of X. On theother hand, r eal r will rise in terms of Y and fall in terms of X. Thiscan be seen by drawing a figure similar to Figure 8-10, but with theVMPLy curve shifting upward.App. 6a. See Figure 7.c) After Nation 1 has imposed an optimum tariff and Nation 2 has retaliatedwith an optimum tariff of its own, the approximate terms of trade for Nation1 is 0.8, while the approximate terms of trade of Nation2 is 1.25.d) Nation 1's welfare declines from the reduction in the volume and in the termsof trade. Although nation 2's terms of trade are higher than under free trade,the volume of trade has shrunk so much that nation 2's welfare is also likelyto be lower than under free trade.Multiple-choice Questions1. Which of the following statements is incorrect?a. An ad valorem tariff is expressed as a percentage of the value of the traded commodityb. a specific tariff is expressed as a fixed sum of the value of the traded commodity.c. export tariffs are prohibited by the U.S. Constitution*d. The U.S. uses exclusively the specific tariff2. A small nation is one:a. which does not affect world price by its tradingb. which faces an infinitely elastic world supply curve for its import commodityc. whose consumers will pay a price that exceeds the world price by the amount of the tariff*d. all of the above3. If a small nation increases the tariff on its import commodity, its:a. consumption of the commodity increasesb. production of the commodity decreasesc. imports of the commodity increase*d. none of the above4.The increase in producer surplus when a small nation imposes a tariff is measured bythe area:*a. to the left of the supply curve between the commodity price with and without the tariffb. under the supply curve between the quantity produced with and without the tariffc. under the demand curve between the commodity price with and without the tariffd. none of the above.5. If a small nation increases the tariff on its import commodity:*a. the rent of domestic producers of the commodity increasesb. the protection cost of the tariff decreasesc. the deadweight loss decreasesd. all of the above6.Which of the following statements is incorrect with respect to the rate of effectiveprotection?a. for given values of ai and ti, g is larger the greater is tb. for a given value of t and ti, g is larger the greater is a ic. g exceeds, is equal to or is smaller than t, as t i is smaller than, is equal to or is larger than t*d. when a i t i exceeds t, the rate of effective protection is positive7. With a i=50%, t i=0, and t=20%, g is:*a. 40%b. 20%c. 80%d. 08. The imposition of an import tariff by a small nation:*a. increases the relative price of the import commodity for domestic producers and consumersb. reduces the relative price of the import commodity for domestic producers and consumersc. increases the relative price of the import commodity for the nation as a wholed. any of the above is possible9. The imposition of an import tariff by a small nation:a. increases the nation's welfare*b. reduces the nation's welfarec. leaves the nation's welfare unchangedd. any of the above is possible10. According to the Stolper-Samuelson theorem, the imposition of a tariff by a nation:a. increases the real return of the nation's abundant factor*b. increases the real return of the nation's scarce factorc. reduces the real return of the nation's scarce factord. any of the above is possible11. The imposition of an import tariff by a nation results in:a. an increase in relative price of the nation's import commodityb. an increase in the nation's production of its importable commodityc. reduces the real return of the nation's abundant factor*d. all of the above12. The imposition of an import tariff by a nation can be represented by a rotation of the: *a. nation's offer curve away from the axis measuring the commodity of its comparative advantageb. the nation's offer curve toward the axis measuring the commodity of its comparative advantagec. the other nation's offer curve toward the axis measuring the commodity of its comparative advantaged. the other nation's offer curve away from the axis measuring the commodity of its comparative advantage13. The imposition of an import tariff by a large nation:a. increases the nation's terms of tradeb. reduces the volume of tradec. may increase or reduce the nation's welfare*d. all of the above14. The imposition of an optimum tariff by a large nation:a. improves its terms of tradeb. reduces the volume of tradec. increases the nation's welfare*d. all of the above15. The optimum tariff for a small nation is:a. 100%b. 50%*c. 0d. depends on elasticities。

经济学原理 Chapter 8

经济学原理 Chapter 8
8
Application: The Costs of Taxation
PRINCIPLES OF
ECONOMICS
FOURTH EDITION
N. G R E G O R Y M A N K I W
Premium PowerPoint® Slides by Ron Cronovich 2008 update
APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION
18
2: Elasticity and DWL of a tax
ACTIVE LEARNING
Would the DWL of a tax be larger if the tax were on
A. Rice Krispies or sunscreen? B. Hotel rooms in the short run or hotel rooms in
Q
APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION
9
ACTIVE LEARNING
Analysis of tax
A. Compute
$ 400
1:
P
350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0
The market for airplane tickets
CS, PS, and total surplus without a tax.
$ 400
1:
P
350 300
The market for airplane tickets
250 PS = ½ x $200 x 100 P = 200 = $10,000 150 100 total surplus = $10,000 + $10,000 50 = $20,000 0 0 25 50

(财务知识)西方经济学第八章最全版

(财务知识)西方经济学第八章最全版

(财务知识)西方经济学第八章第八章生产要素价格决定的需求方面前述各章讨论了消费商品(或称为产品)的价格和数量的决定。

这壹部分内容通常被见成是所谓的“价值”理论。

由于讨论的范围局限于产品市场本身,所以它对价格决定的论述且不完全。

首先,它在推导产品需求曲线时,假定消费者的收入水平为既定,但且未说明收入水平是如何决定的;其次,它在推导产品供给曲线时,假定生产要素的价格为既定,但且未说明要素价格是如何决定的。

由于消费者的收入水平在很大程度上取决于其拥有的要素价格和使用量,故价格理论的上述俩点不完全性能够概括为它缺乏对要素价格和使用量决定的解释。

为了弥补这个不足,需要研究生产要素市场。

本章讨论要素需求理论,下章分析其供给方面。

因为要素的价格和使用量是决定消费者收入水平的重要因素,所以要素价格理论在西方经济学中又被见成是所谓的“分配”理论。

于是,从产品市场转到要素市场也意味着从价格理论转到分配理论。

第壹节分配论概述生产要素价格的决定在西方经济学的传统上是分配论的壹个重要部分。

19世纪的西方经济学家们习惯于把生产要素分为三类,即土地、劳动和资本。

这三类生产要素的价格,则被分别称作地租、工资和利润。

因此,那时的生产要素价格理论就是地主、工资收入者和资本家这三个主要社会经济阶级之间的收入分配理论。

到19世纪末,第四种生产要素——企业家才能被“发现”。

于是,利润被见成是企业家才能的收益,而资本所有者的收益被见做“利息”。

生产要素价格决定的主要理论基础是所谓的边际生产率分配论。

该理论最先由美国经济学家J.B.克拉克提出。

他认为,在其他条件不变和边际生产力递减的前提下,壹种生产要素的价格取决于其边际生产力。

后来的西方经济学家对克拉克的理论作了改进。

他们认为,生产要素的价格不仅取决于其边际生产力,也取决于壹些其他因素。

边际生产力只是决定要素需求的壹个方面。

除此之外,厂商在决定要素需求时仍要考虑要素的边际成本。

只有当使用要素的边际成本和边际收益(边际生产力)相等时,厂商才在要素使用上达到了利润最大化。

宏观经济学 斯蒂芬威廉森chap08

宏观经济学 斯蒂芬威廉森chap08

Macroeconomics, 3e (Williamson)Chapter 8 A Two-Period Model: The Consumption-Savings Decision and Credit Markets1) C onsumption smoothing refers toA) t he tendency of all consumers to choose the same amount of current consumption.B) t he tendency of consumers to seek a consumption path over time that is smoother thanincome.C) t he tendency of consumers to seek an income path over time that is smoother thanconsumption.D) c onsumer's concerns about going heavily into debt.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition2) I ntertemporal decisions involve economic decisionsA) m ade within a given period of time.B) m ade in between two periods of time.C) i nvolving trade-offs across periods of time.D) t hat ignore concerns about the future.Answer: CQuestion Status: P revious Edition3) T he simplest device to analyze dynamic decisions is aA) o ne-period model.B) t wo-period model.C) m odel that includes only the number of years of a typical consumer's lifetime.D) c ontinuous time model.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition4) W e use a two-period model becauseA) t he business cycle has two phases: contraction and recovery.B) i t is the simplest dynamic model.C) w e want to make a distinction between young and old households.D) t his is the horizon of the politicians that formulate policy.Answer: BQuestion Status: N ew5) W e limit ourselves to two periods in the intertemporal model of the business cycle becauseA) w e need to concentrate on the two phases of the business cycle.B) w e can assume that people can live two periods of, say, 30 years.C) t his is all we need to emphasize the intertemporal trade-off.D) w e need an even number of periods.Answer: CQuestion Status: N ew6) F or all bonds to be indistinguishable,A) a ll consumers must never be expected to default on their debts.B) t he government must guarantee all bonds.C) a ll consumers must be identical.D) t hey must be traded through financial intermediaries.Answer: AQuestion Status: P revious Edition7) S avings in our model areA) d urable consumption.B) n on-durable consumption.C) p ostponed consumption.D) m oney.Answer: CQuestion Status: N ew8) A one-period bond is a promise to repayA) 1units of goods in the second period.+(1)rB) r units of goods in the second period.C) (1 +r) units of goods in the second period.D) t he original amount lent.Answer: CQuestion Status: P revious Edition9) T he consumer's lifetime budget constraint states thatA) t he present value of lifetime consumption must be equal to the present value oflifetime gross income.B) t he present value of lifetime consumption must be equal to the present value oflifetime disposable income.C) t he present value of lifetime consumption plus the present value of lifetime taxes to bepaid must be equal to the present value of lifetime income.D) t he present value of lifetime taxes to be paid by the consumer must be equal to thepresent value of government spending.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition10) T he endowment point is the consumption bundle in whichA) f irst-period consumption is equal to zero.B) s econd-period consumption is equal to zero.C) t he consumer finds the most utility.D) c onsumption is equal to disposable income in each period.Answer: DQuestion Status: P revious Edition11) T he endowment point is the consumption bundle in whichA) b oth consumptions are the same.B) c urrent consumption equals current output less current government expenses.C) n o savings occur.D) t he interest rate equals zero.Answer: CQuestion Status: N ew12) A t the endowment point, we have the property thatA) c = c'.B) c = y - t.C) y - t = y' - t'.D) y = y'.Answer: BQuestion Status: N ew13) I f we represents a two -period consumer's lifetime wealth and r denotes the real rate ofinterest, the vertical (future consumption) intercept of the consumer's budget line is equal toA) w e.B) (1 + r )we. C) (1)we r +. D) (1)r we+. Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition14) I f we represents a two -period consumer's lifetime wealth and r denotes the real rate ofinterest, the horizontal (current consumption) intercept of the consumer's budget line is equal toA) w e.B) (1 + r )we. C) (1)we r +. D) (1)r we+. Answer: AQuestion Status: P revious Edition15) I f we represents a two -period consumer's lifetime wealth and r denotes the real rate ofinterest, the slope of the consumer's budget line is equal toA) r × we.B) - 1(1)r +. C) - (1)r we +. D) - (1 + r ).Answer: DQuestion Status: P revious Edition16) I f the interest rate increases, lifetime wealth (we )A) i ncreases.B) s tays constant.C) d ecreases.D) c hanges in an ambiguous way.Answer: CQuestion Status: N ew17) T o assure a well-defined solution to the consumers' intertemporal choice problems, we mustassume that consumers' preferences exhibit the properties thatA) c onsumers are all identical and that more is always preferred to less.B) m ore is preferred to less and that consumers prefer diversity.C) c onsumers like diversity and that more is sometimes preferred to less.D) m ore is sometimes preferred to less and that first-period consumption and second-period consumption are both normal goods.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition18) W e assume that the representative consumer's preferences exhibit the properties thatA) t hey are convex and that more is always preferred to less.B) m ore is always preferred to less and that each consumer has one strictly favoriteperiod of time for consumption.C) e ach consumer has one strictly favorite period of time for consumption and thatcurrent and future consumption are both normal goods.D) c urrent and future consumption are both normal goods and that the consumer likesdiversity in his or her consumption bundle.Answer: DQuestion Status: P revious Edition19) T he property of diminishing marginal rate of substitution follows from the property that theindifference curves areA) d ownward sloping.B) u pward sloping.C) b owed in toward the origin.D) b owed out from the origin.Answer: CQuestion Status: P revious Edition20) F or the consumer to be at an optimum, it must be the case thatA)MRS c,c' =1 (1)r +B) M RS c,c' =(1 +r)C)MRT c,c' =1 (1)r +D) M RT c,c' =(1 +r)Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition21) A consumer is a borrower ifA) o ptimum current consumption is less than current disposable income.B) o ptimum current consumption is greater than current disposable income.C) f uture disposable income is greater than current disposable income.D) t he consumer's indifference curves are relatively steep.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition22) A consumer is a lender ifA) o ptimum current consumption is less than current disposable income.B) o ptimum current consumption is greater than current disposable income.C) c urrent disposable income is greater than future disposable income.D) t he consumer's indifference curves are relatively flat.Answer: AQuestion Status: P revious Edition23) F or a borrower in a (c,c') graph, the optimal consumption bundle isA) t o the left of the endowment point.B) t o the right of the endowment point.C) o n the endowment point.D) d ependent on other factors.Answer: BQuestion Status: N ew24) F or a lender in a (c,c') graph, the optimal consumption bundle isA) t o the left of the endowment point.B) t o the right of the endowment point.C) o n the endowment point.D) d ependent on other factors.Answer: AQuestion Status: N ew25) F or a household in a (c,c') graph, the optimal consumption bundle isA) t o the left of the endowment point.B) t o the right of the endowment point.C) o n the endowment point.D) d ependent on other factors.Answer: DQuestion Status: N ew26) A n increase in first-period income results inA) a n increase in first-period consumption, an increase in second-period consumption,and an increase in saving.B) a n increase in first-period consumption, a decrease in second-period consumption,and an increase in saving.C) a decrease in first-period consumption, an increase in second-period consumption,and an increase in saving.D) a n increase in first-period consumption, an increase in second-period consumption,and a decrease in saving.Answer: AQuestion Status: P revious Edition27) W ith higher future taxesA) c urrent consumption declines.B) c urrent consumption stays the same.C) c urrent consumption increases.D) c urrent consumption depends on other factors.Answer: AQuestion Status: N ew28) A temporary increase in income today leads toA) a small increase in current consumption.B) a large increase in current consumption.C) a small decrease in future consumption.D) a large decrease in future consumption.Answer: AQuestion Status: N ew29) A permanent increase in income today leads toA) a small increase in current consumption.B) a large increase in current consumption.C) a small decrease in future consumption.D) a large decrease in future consumption.Answer: BQuestion Status: N ew30) I f current income increases as much as future income decreasesA) c urrent consumption decreases.B) c urrent consumption stays the same.C) c urrent consumption increases.D) W e do not know.Answer: CQuestion Status: N ew31) A good proxy for the flow of consumption services would beA) a ggregate consumption.B) c onsumption of services and consumption of durables.C) c onsumption of durables and consumption of nondurables.D) c onsumption of nondurables and consumption of services.Answer: DQuestion Status: P revious Edition32) I n the data, which of the following is most volatile?A) r eal GDPB) c onsumption of durablesC) c onsumption of nondurablesD) c onsumption of servicesAnswer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition33) I n the absence of a financial system, the two-period model without taxes predicts thatA) c onsumption is more volatile that output.B) c onsumption is as volatile as output.C) c onsumption is less volatile than output.D) W e do not know.Answer: BQuestion Status: N ew34) T he two primary explanations for the excess volatility of consumption areA) c onsumers' limited life spans and credit market imperfections.B) c redit market imperfections and changes in market prices.C) c hanges in market prices and distorting taxes.D) d istorting taxes and consumers' limited life spans.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition35) A n increase in second-period income results inA) a n increase in first-period consumption, an increase in second-period consumption,and an increase in saving.B) a n increase in first-period consumption, a decrease in second-period consumption,and an increase in saving.C) a decrease in first-period consumption, an increase in second-period consumption,and an increase in saving.D) a n increase in first-period consumption, an increase in second-period consumption,and a decrease in saving.Answer: DQuestion Status: P revious Edition36) T he idea that a permanent increase in income causes a larger increase in consumption than atemporary change in income is called theA) F riedman-Lucas theory.B) p ermanent income hypothesis.C) R icardian equivalence theorem.D) i ntertemporal substitution effect.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition37) P ermanent income isA) t he minimum income obtained throughout lifetime.B) i ncome that cannot be taxed.C) i ncome that cannot be lent.D) t he constant income corresponding to lifelong wealth.Answer: DQuestion Status: N ew38) P ermanent income is notA) p roportional to life-long wealth.B) p roportional to current consumption.C) p roportional to the present value of life-long consumption.D) p roportional to the present value of life-long income before taxes.Answer: DQuestion Status: N ew39) W hat raises permanent income?A) l ower future taxesB) h igher current taxesC) h igher interest ratesD) h igher current consumptionAnswer: AQuestion Status: N ew40) A martingale has the property thatA) i t is inherently unpredictable.B) t he best prediction of its value tomorrow is its value today.C) t he best prediction of its future growth rate is its current growth rate.D) t he best prediction of its value tomorrow can be computed by looking at its pastbehavior.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition41) A change in the stock market is a good indicator of a change inA) c urrent income.B) f uture income.C) w ealth.D) t he future growth rate of real GDP.Answer: CQuestion Status: P revious Edition42) A n increase in the real interest rate is an example of aA) p ure substitution effect.B) s ubstitution effect and a positive income effect.C) s ubstitution effect and a negative income effect.D) s ubstitution effect and an income effect whose sign depends on whether the consumeris initially a borrower or a lender.Answer: DQuestion Status: P revious Edition43) A n increase in the real interestA) i ncreases savings for both borrowers and lenders.B) i ncreases savings for borrowers, but has an uncertain effect on the savings of lenders.C) i ncreases savings for lenders, but has an uncertain effect on the savings of borrowers.D) h as an uncertain effect on the savings of both borrowers and lenders.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition44) F or a lender, an increase in the real interest rateA) d efinitely reduces current consumption and increases future consumption.B) r educes current consumption and has an uncertain effect on future consumption.C) h as an uncertain effect on current consumption and increases future consumption.D) h as an uncertain effect on both current and future consumption.Answer: CQuestion Status: P revious Edition45) F or a borrower, an increase in the real interest rateA) d efinitely reduces current consumption and increases future consumption.B) r educes current consumption and has an uncertain effect on future consumption.C) h as an uncertain effect on current consumption and increases future consumption.D) h as an uncertain effect on both current and future consumption.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition46) T he substitution effect of a change in the real interest rate is an example ofA) a n intratemporal substitution effect.B) a n intertemporal substitution effect.C) a n atemporal substitution effect.D) a temporary substitution effect.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition47) I n a two-period model, government spending is financed throughA) t axes and transfer payments.B) t axes and issuing debt.C) t axes and redeeming debt.D) t axes only.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition48) T he government's present value budget constraint states thatA) t axes must equal government spending in each period.B) t he present value of government spending must be equal to the present value ofconsumers' disposable incomes.C) t he present value of government spending must be equal to the present value of taxes.D) t he government may run deficits each and every year, as long as the deficits aresufficiently small.Answer: CQuestion Status: P revious Edition49) F or a competitive equilibrium in a two-period model, all of the following must be trueexceptA) e ach consumer picks first- and second-period consumption given the real interest rate.B) t here must be an equal number of borrowers and lenders.C) t he government's present-value budget constraint holds.D) t he credit market clears.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition50) T he Ricardian equivalence theorem implies thatA) g overnment debt policy must be handled correctly for the economy to prosper.B) t he amounts of government spending are neutral.C) a n increase in government spending has no effect on the economy, as long as there isan equal change in taxes.D) t he timing of taxes collected by the government is neutral.Answer: DQuestion Status: P revious Edition51) I f government spending is held constant and Ricardian equivalence holds,A) a n increase in the government budget deficit is always matched by a reduction inprivate savings.B) a n increase in government savings is always matched by an increase in thegovernment budget deficit.C) a n increase in government savings is always matched by an equal increase in privatesavings.D) a n increase in government savings is always matched by an equal reduction in privatesavings.Answer: DQuestion Status: P revious Edition52) T he Ricardian Equivalence saysA) w hatever the level of government expenses, consumption is the same.B) w hatever the timing of taxes, consumption is the same.C) h igher government expenses reduce consumption.D) a n increase in current consumption has to lead to a decrease in future consumption.Answer: BQuestion Status: N ew53) A ccording to the Ricardian EquivalenceA) t rade deficits do not matter.B) f iscal deficits do not matter.C) c urrent account deficits do not matter.D) h ousehold deficits do not matter.Answer: BQuestion Status: N ew54) T he Ricardian equivalence implies thatA) t he level of government spending has no impact.B) t he level of taxes has no impact.C) t he distribution of government expenses though time has no impact.D) t he distribution of taxes through time has no impact.Answer: DQuestion Status: N ew55) A n important reason why Ricardian equivalence may fail is ifA) b orrowing and lending are done through intermediaries.B) g overnment debt incurred today may not be paid off until after some currentconsumers are deceased.C) s tate and local governments also engage in debt finance.D) s ome consumers are borrowers, while other consumers are lenders.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition56) T he Ricardian Equivalence holds only ifA) t he government is altruistic.B) t here are no credit constraints.C) t he government runs deficits.D) t he government runs surpluses.Answer: BQuestion Status: N ew57) W hich condition would generate a violation of the Ricardian Equivalence?A) d ownward sloping labor supply curveB) u nderdeveloped credit marketsC) i nflationary monetary policyD) d eflationary monetary policyAnswer: BQuestion Status: N ew58) W hen different consumers pay different amounts of taxes, Ricardian equivalence may failbecauseA) a lternative ways of collecting the same tax revenue can affect the distribution ofincome.B) c onsumers can become jealous of one another.C) s uch differences in taxes create credit market imperfections.D) h igher taxes on more talented people may be politically popular.Answer: AQuestion Status: P revious Edition59) D istorting taxes can invalidate Ricardian equivalence becauseA) t hey confuse consumers about the need for government to repay its debt.B) a lternative ways of collecting the same tax revenue produce different amounts of lostwelfare.C) t hey are inferior to lump-sum taxes.D) t hey are more popular, politically, than lump-sum taxes.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition60) T he phenomenon that some consumers pay a higher interest rate when they borrow than theinterest rate they receive when they lend is best described as an example ofA) i rrational behavior.B) a credit market imperfection.C) a vast banking conspiracy.D) t he burden of public debt.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition61) W hen there are credit-market imperfections, an increase in government debt may beadvantageous because itA) d iscourages credit-constrained consumers from borrowing too much.B) a llows credit-constrained consumers to borrow more.C) e liminates the problems that cause credit-market imperfections.D) e ncourages more private saving.Answer: BQuestion Status: P revious Edition62) C onsumer choice theory predicts that, with identical consumers, fully-funded socialsecurityA) a lways makes all generations worse off.B) m akes some generations better off, and cannot make any generation worse off.C) m ay make some generations worse off and cannot make any generation better off.D) m ay be Pareto improving.Answer: CQuestion Status: P revious Edition63) I n a fully-funded social security programA) t he young pay for the benefits of the old.B) t he young are forced to save for their own retirement.C) t he young have to buy bonds for the old.D) t he young are forced to save for the retirement of the old.Answer: BQuestion Status: N ew64) W hy do consumers benefit from pay-as-you-go social security?A) I t keeps inflation in check as money is redistributed.B) I t is a better way than taxes to finance the government.C) I t forces people to save more than they would otherwise.D) W ith sufficiently high population growth, many young contribute to the benefits of theold.Answer: DQuestion Status: N ew65) C onsumer choice theory predicts that, with identical consumers, pay-as-you-go socialsecurityA) a lways makes all generations worse off.B) m akes some generations better off, and cannot make any generation worse off.C) m ay make some generations worse off and cannot make any generation better off.D) m ay be Pareto improving.Answer: DQuestion Status: P revious Edition66) S ocial security is most likely to present political problems whenA) m oving from pay-as-you-go to fully-funded and when population growth is low.B) m oving from pay-as-you-go to fully-funded and when population growth is high.C) m oving from fully-funded to pay-as-you-go and when population growth is low.D) m oving from fully-funded to pay-as-you-go and when population growth is high.Answer: AQuestion Status: P revious Edition。

英文版微观经济学复习提纲Chapter 8. Firms in perfectly competitive markets

英文版微观经济学复习提纲Chapter 8. Firms in perfectly competitive markets

8Firms in Perfectly Competitive MarketsChapter SummaryIn a perfectly competitive market there are many buyers and many firms, all of whom are small relative to the total market. Products sold by these firms are identical and there are no barriers to new firms entering the market. Firms in a perfectly competitive market are unable to control the prices of goods they sell and are unable to earn economic profits in the long run.Prices in perfectly competitive markets are determined by the interaction of market demand and market supply. Since each firm must accept the market price, the firm is called a price taker. The objective of the firm is to maximise profit. Profit is the difference between total revenue and total cost. The firm will produce the output for which marginal revenue (MR) is equal to marginal cost (MC). (A characteristic of price taker firms is this: marginal revenue is the same as price. This is not true of other market structures.) In the short run the firm’s price: (a) will exceed its average total cost (ATC) which means it will make an economic profit, or (b) will equal ATC so its total cost will equal total revenue and it earns no economic profit, or (c) will be less than ATC, which means the firm experiences an economic loss. (Remember economic costs include all opportunity costs as well as explicit accounting costs.)A firm experiencing losses can continue to produce, it can stop production by shutting down temporarily, or it can go out of business. The third option is a long-run decision while the first two are short-run. In the short run, the firm can either produce the profit maximising level of output or produce zero output. If shutting down (Q = 0) would lose an amount greater than its fixed cost, the firm will shut down temporarily. If the firm can reduce its loss below the amount of its fixed cost it will continue to produce. The firm will produce output even though total profits remain negative if total revenue is greater than total variable cost. This is identical to saying that the price of its output (P) must exceed average variable cost (AVC). The condition P = AVC is called the shutdown condition. The minimum point on the firm’s average variable cost curve is called the shutdown point.When firms earn short-run profits, other firms will enter the industry. This shifts the industry supply curve to the right and lowers the market price. Entry continues until economic profits are zero. When firms suffer short-run losses, some firms will exit the industry. The exit of firms shifts the industry supply curve to the left and the market price increases. Exit continues until economic profits are zero.The long-run supply curve in a perfectly competitive market shows the relationship between market price and quantity supplied. In a long run competitive equilibrium entry and exit of firms causes the typical firm to earn zero economic profits.121 Chapter8Learning ObjectivesWhen you finish this chapter you should be able to:1.Define a perfectly competitive market, and explain why a perfect competitor faces a horizontaldemand curve. A perfectly competitive market has many buyers and sellers, all firms sell identical products and there are no barriers to new firms entering the market. A perfectly competitive firm faces a horizontal demand curve because if the firm tried to raise its price, consumers would buy from the firm’s competitors. Since the firm can sell all the output it wants at the current market price there would be no point to trying to charge a lower price. If a firm increases the output it sells, the price will not decrease because each firm is too small to shift the market supply curve enough to lower equilibrium price.2.Explain how a perfect competitor decides how much to produce. To make profit as large as possible, afirm will produce that quantity of output for which marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Since marginal revenue equals price for a perfectly competitive firm, price will also equal marginal cost at the profit-maximising quantity of output.e graphs to show a firm’s profit or loss. The firm’s profit-maximising rate of output is determined bythe intersection of the demand curve with the marginal cost curve. The position of the average total cost (ATC) curve in this graph will indicate whether the firm earns a profit (price exceeds ATC) or suffers a loss (price is less than ATC).4.Explain why firms may shut down temporarily. A firm experiencing losses in the short run will shutdown if the revenue from producing is insufficient to cover its total variable costs. By shutting down, the firm will avoid variable costs and minimise its losses.5.Explain how entry and exit ensure that perfectly competitive firms earn zero economic profit in thelong run. If firms earn short run economic profits, other firms will enter the market. The entry of firms will shift the market supply curve to the right and lower price until the short run profits are eliminated. If firms suffer short run losses, some firms will leave the market. The exit of firms will shift the market supply curve to the left and raise price until the short run losses are eliminated.6.Explain how perfect competition leads to economic efficiency. In the long run, competitive forces willdrive the market price to the minimum average total cost of the typical firm. This means that perfect competition results in productive efficiency. Firms also produce at the point where the marginal cost of producing another unit equals the marginal benefit consumers receive from consuming that unit. This means that perfect competition achieves allocative efficiency. This result only applies to perfectly competitive firms because only a horizontal demand curve can touch the long run ATC curve at its lowest point. Downward sloping demand curves will always be tangent to LRATC at a point above the minimum.Chapter ReviewChapter Opener: Perfect Competition in the Market for Organic FoodThe market for organic food has grown rapidly in Australia recently. In response to rising demand many farmers switched to organic methods (from 372,000 hectares in 1990 up to 7 million in 2007). At the moment, organic food, although it costs around 15% more to produce, attracts a price premium of around 50%. However, in response to this increase in demand for organic food, supply is expected to increase further, which will probably force these prices down again. Therefore this industry exhibits characteristics of perfect competition, whereby short run profits are eventually eroded in the long run due to the increase in other firms (farmers) entering the market.Firms in perfectly competitive markets 122Perfectly Competitive MarketsA perfectly competitive market is a market that meets the conditions of (1) many buyers and sellers, (2) all firms selling identical products, and (3) no barriers to new firms entering the market. Prices in perfectly competitive markets are determined by the intersection of market demand and supply. Consumers and firms must accept the market price if they want to buy and sell in a competitive market.A price taker is a buyer or seller that is unable to affect the market price. A firm in a perfectly competitive market is a price taker because it is very small relative to the market and sells exactly the same product as every other firm. Although the market demand curve has the normal downward shape, the demand curve for a perfectly competitive firm is horizontal at the market price.Helpful Study HintIn order to understand what a perfectly elastic demand curve is, draw a series of demand curvesthat are increasingly more elastic, but not perfectly so. With each of these curves the responseof quantity demanded to a given price change becomes greater and greater. The most elastic ofthese curves will have a slight downward slope. The perfectly competitive firm’s demand curvecan then be understood as representing what happens to quantity demanded for the smallestincrease in price — quantity demanded drops to zero even if the price, is increased by only acent! Since the firm can sell all it can at the market price the question “what happens toquantity if price is decreased?” is irrelevant. The firm would not choose to lower price.Consider a farmer offering to sell wheat at $2.95 per bushel if he can sell all he produced for aprice of $3.00.How a Firm Maximises Profit in a Perfectly Competitive MarketEconomists assume that the objective of a firm is to maximise profits. Profit is the difference between total revenue (TR) and total cost (TC). Therefore, a firm will produce that quantity of output where the difference between TR and TC is as large as possible. A firm’s average revenue (AR) equals total revenue divided by the number of units sold. Average revenue is the same as market price. For a firm in a perfectly competitive market, price is also equal to marginal revenue. Marginal revenue (MR) is the change in total revenue caused by producing and selling one more unit. The marginal revenue curve for a perfectly competitive firm is the same as its demand curve.The marginal cost (MC) of production for a perfectly competitive firm first falls, then rises. So long as MR exceeds MC the firm’s profits are increasing and production will increase. The firm’s profits will decrease if production is increased beyond the output for which MC exceeds MR. The profit maximising level of output is where MR = MC. Since P = MR for these firms, profit will be maximised when P = MC.123 Chapter8Helpful Study HintStudents often ask “Why wouldn’t the firm want to maximise the difference between MR andMC?” This question is addressed in the feature Don’t Let This Happen to You! [page 254]Read this feature and understand the firm’s goal is to maximise total profit not additionalprofit. Another frequently asked question is “Why would the firm produce a unit of output forwhich MR = MC since it would not earn any profit from this last unit?” Included in the cost ofproduction is a normal return so that the revenue earned from the profit maximising unit ofoutput is just enough to compensate the firm’s owner(s) for the effort made to produce it.Illustrating Profit or Loss on the Cost Curve GraphProfit equals total revenue (TR) minus total cost (TC). Since TR equals price multiplied by quantity sold, this can be written as:Profit = (P x Q) - TCDividing both sides by Q:Profit(PxQ)TC= -Q Q QThis equation means that profit per unit (or average profit) equals price minus average total cost. Multiplying both sides of the equation by Q yields an equation that tells us a firm’s total profit is equal to the quantity produced multiplied by the difference between price and average total cost. (P – ATC is called the profit margin per unit.) Profit = (P − ATC) x QThe graph illustrating the perfectly competitive firm’s demand curve, marginal revenue and average total cost curves [Figure 8.4, page 251] can be used to identify rectangles with areas equal to TR, TC and profit. The firm will make a profit if P > ATC. The firm will break even if P = ATC. The firm will experience losses if P < ATC.Helpful Study HintStudy Solved Problem 8.1 (page 252) carefully. Be sure you understand the graphs that show afirm’s profit or loss. If properly drawn, graphs can help you to answer questions that would bemore difficult to answer using only words or numbers. Aids to learning from the graphs: (1)When a firm’s demand curve intersects the ATC curve, price will exceed ATC for some levelof output. That means the firm earns a profit. (2) To show a firm suffering losses the ATCcurve is drawn everywhere above the demand curve. (3) Always draw the demand curve andthe MC curve first to determine the profit-maximising output. This will make it easier toidentify ATC and AVC at this same output.Firms in perfectly competitive markets 124Deciding Whether to Produce or to Shut Down in the Short RunIn the short run, a firm suffering losses has two choices. The first choice is whether to produce any output at all. The firm will produce the profit-maximising output and reduce its loss below the amount of its fixed cost if, by continuing to produce, its total revenue is greater than its total variable cost. The firm’s second choice is to stop production by shutting down temporarily (producing zero output). During a temporary shut down a firm must still pay its fixed costs. If, by producing, the firm would lose an amount greater than its fixed costs, it will shut down.A sunk cost is a cost that has already been paid and cannot be recovered. The firm should treat its sunk costs as irrelevant to its decision making.The firm’s marginal cost curve is its supply curve only for prices at or above average variable cost. The shutdown point is the minimum point on a firm’s average variable cost curve. If the price falls below this point, the firm shuts down production in the short run. The market supply curve can be derived by adding up the quantity that each firm in the market is willing to supply at each price.Helpful Study HintThe decision to shut down is not the same as deciding to leave the market or go out of business.Many firms sell goods or services only in certain seasons. Examples include ski resorts, retailstores near summer resorts and Christmas tree vendors. These firms shut down temporarilyduring the off season. Going out of business permanently, however, is a long-run decision.“If Everyone Can Do It, You Can’t Make Money at It” – The Entry and Exit of Firms in the Long RunIn the long run, unless a firm can cover all of its costs it will shut down and exit the industry. Economic profit is a firm’s revenues minus all its costs, implicit and explicit. Economic loss means a firm’s total revenue is less than its total cost, including all implicit costs. If firms in a perfectly competitive market are earning economic profits in the short run, firms in other markets that are breaking even or suffering losses will have an incentive to enter the market so they too can earn an economic profit. Entrepreneurs will start new firms as well.The entry of new firms shifts the industry supply curve to the right. As a result, the market price will fall. The entry of firms will continue until price is equal to average total cost. If firms in a perfectly competitive market are suffering losses in the short run, some of these firms will exit the industry since they will not be able to cover all of their costs. The exit of firms shifts the industry supply curve to the left. As a result, the market price will rise. The exit of firms will continue until price is equal to average total cost.Long-run competitive equilibrium is the situation in which the entry and exit of firms have resulted in the typical firm just earning zero economic profits. The long-run supply curve shows the relationship in the long run between market price and the quantity supplied in the long run. A constant cost industry is an industry in which the typical firm’s average total costs do not change as the industry expands. This means that the firm will have a horizontal long-run supply curve. An increasing cost industry is an industry in which the typical firm’s long run average total cost increases as the industry expands. This means the firm will have an upward sloping long run supply curve. A decreasing cost industry is an industry in which the typical firm’s average total costs decrease as the industry expands. This means that the firm will have a downward sloping long run supply curve.125 Chapter8Helpful Study HintWhich firms are most likely to leave an industry that is experiencing economic losses? Eventhough we assume all firms are identical, that is not true in the real world. Some firms havemore financial resources and are better able to withstand short periods of negative profits.Financially weaker firms are more likely to exit.Perfect Competition and EfficiencyProductive efficiency is the situation in which a good or service is produced at the lowest possible average cost. Perfect competition can lead to productive efficiency. Managers of firms strive to earn economic profits by reducing costs. (In perfectly competitive markets, this is the only choice they have.) But other firms quickly copy ways of reducing costs so that in the long run consumers, not producers, benefit from cost reductions.Allocative efficiency is a state of the economy in which production reflects consumer preferences. In particular, every good or service is produced up to the point where the last unit produced provides a marginal benefit to consumers equal to the marginal cost of producing it. Entrepreneurs in a perfectly competitive market efficiently allocate resources to best satisfy consumer wants.Helpful Study HintCritics of the perfectly competitive model complain that few industries feature buyers andsellers of identical products who are all price takers. These critics fail to understand either whatan economic model is or how these models are used by economists. Although not manymarkets are perfectly competitive, many markets are very competitive and experience entry andexit in response to short-run profits and losses. The markets for televisions, calculators,personal computers and even automobiles have changed over time as firms earned short-runprofits or new technologies forced firms to adapt. The steel and coal industries experienced exitby firms in response to short-run losses, much as the allegedly “unrealistic” model of perfectcompetition predicts. The model also provides policy makers and analysts with a valuablestandard against which to judge the efficiency of real markets. When the price of a product isgreater or less than marginal cost, one can argue that too little or too much of the product hasbeen produced, a deviation from allocative efficiency. Solved Problem 8.2 (page 266) describesthe benefits of competition in markets for such products as cell phones and DVD players.Solved ProblemChapter 8 in the textbook includes two Solved Problems to support learning objectives 3 (“Use graphs to show a firm’s profit or loss”) and 6 (“Explain how perfect competition leads to economic efficiency”). The following Solved Problem supports another of this chapter’s learning objectives.Solved Problem 11-3 Supports learning objective 2: Explain how a perfect competitor decides how much to produce.Firms in perfectly competitive markets 126 Cost and Revenue for “Apples R’ Us”Sally Borts owns “Apples R’ Us,” an orchard located in Washington State in the US. Sally is one of about 7,500 apple producers in the United States who produced over 9 billions pounds of apples in 2004. Although the price of apples reached nearly $.30 per pound in 2003, it fell to less than $.20 in 2005. Sally believes she would be able to sell her apples for $.20 in 2006, or $200 per thousand lbs. She estimated her revenue and costs of production for various quantities of apples based on the number of pounds her orchard would yield per acre.Output (000 lbs.) Total cost(000)Marginalcost (000)Total revenue(000)Marginal revenue(price per 000 lbs)0 $50 $01 150 $100 200 $2002 225 75 400 2003 275 50 600 2004 375 100 800 2005 525 150 1,000 2006 725 200 1,200 2007 1,000 275 1,400 2008 1,500 500 1,600 200Sources: /media/industry/index.shtml. Agricultural Prices, U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service.(a)Determine whether “Apples R’ Us” is a perfectly competitive firm.(b)Explain how Sally will decide how much to produce.Solving the Problem:Step 1: Review the chapter material. Since this problem requires an understanding of the lessons from “How a Firm Maximises Profit in a Perfectly Competitive Market,” you may want to review this section of Chapter 8 beginning on page 246.Step 2: Determine if “Apples R’ Us” is a perfectly competitive firm. Sally is one of thousands of apple producers and her output is a small fraction of the total number of apples produced. Within each variety of apples (Red Delicious, McIntosh, Granny Smith, etc.) apple growers sell an identical product and new firms are free to enter the market. Therefore, “Apples R’ Us” is a perfectly competitive firm. Also, marginal revenue is constant, meaning the demand curve must be horizontal. That is only true in a perfectly competitive market.Step 3: Explain how Sally will decide how much to produce. Sally should increase her production of apples so long as the marginal revenue exceeds her marginal cost of production. Sally’s marginal revenue equals the $200 price of a thousand pounds of apples. Therefore, if the estimates for 2006 are accurate, Sally should produce 6 thousand pounds of apples since her marginal cost for this quantity of output also equals $200.8127 ChapterSelf-Test(Answers are provided at the end of the Self-Test.)Multiple-Choice Questions1Which of the following are characteristics of a perfectly competitive industry?a Firms are unable to control the prices of the products they sell.b Firms are unable to earn an economic profit in the long run.c Firms sell identical products.d All of the above.2 A buyer or seller that is unable to affect the market price is called?a A price maker.b A price taker.c An independent producer.d A monopoly.3To maximise profit, which of the following should a firm attempt to do?a Maximise revenue.b Minimise cost.c Find the largest difference between total revenue and total cost.d All of the above simultaneously.4What is the relationship between price, average revenue, and marginal revenue for a firm in a perfectly competitive market?a Price is equal to average revenue and greater than marginal revenue.b Price is greater than average revenue and equal to marginal revenue.c Price is equal to both average revenue and marginal revenue.d Price, average revenue, and marginal revenue are usually all different values.5Refer to the figure below. Based on the information on the graph, what can be said about marginal revenue?Firms in perfectly competitive markets 128a Marginal revenue increases as the quantity of bushels produced and sold increases.b Marginal revenue decreases with additional bushels produced and sold.c Marginal revenue remains constant as additional bushels are produced and sold.d There is insufficient information to deduct the behaviour of marginal revenue from this graph.6Refer to the figure below. Which of the following best represents profit per unit?a The shaded rectangle.b The distance between points A and B.c Market price, or the demand (marginal revenue) curve.d None of the above.7Refer to the figure below. One of the curves in this figure is not necessary in order to determine the amount of profit obtained from producing any level of output. Which curve can be discarded?a The marginal cost curve.b The demand curve.c The average total cost curve.d None of the above. All three curves are needed in order to determine the amount of profit obtained fromproducing and selling any amount of output.8129 Chapter8Refer to the figure below. What happens at point A?a The firm earns zero accounting profit.b The firm suffers a loss.c The firm breaks even, which means that it earns some profit.d The firm may or may not earn profit.9Refer to the figure below. Which level of the demand curve results in economic losses?a Demand when price is $495.b Demand when price is $250.c Any demand curve for prices above $495.d Both levels of the demand curve shown on the graph result in losses for the firm.10Refer to the figure below. Which demand curve is associated with the shutdown point?a Demand1b Demand2c Demand3d Demand411Refer to the figure below. What is the value of total fixed cost?a$3,400b$5,800c$2,400d None of the above. There is insufficient information to answer the question.12Which term below best describes the minimum amount that a farmer needs to earn on her $100,000 investment in her farm to remain in the (perfectly competitive) industry in the long run?a Explicit cost.b Opportunity cost.c Economic profit.d Economic loss.13Refer to the graph below. What do you expect to happen in this market as it approaches long run equilibrium?a Profits and entry.b Losses and exit.c Profits and exit.d Losses and entry.14Refer to the figure below. After the shift in market demand, how will the firm react?a The firm will adjust its output upward in search of higher profit.b The firm will have to adjust its output downward and suffer losses.c The firm will maintain output constant but suffer losses.d The firm will adjust its output downward and earn higher profit.15What is long-run competitive equilibrium?a The situation in which the entry and exit of firms have resulted in the typical firm just breaking even.b A situation in which market price is at a level equal to the minimum point on the typical firm’s marginalcost curve.c The end of a process during which firms are prevented from adjusting their production methods.d All of the above.16Refer to the figure below. After the rightward shift in market demand, which of the following moves would happen next in this perfectly competitive market?a A reversal or leftward shift in market demand.b A rightward shift in market supply.c A leftward shift in market supply.d A further rightward shift in market demand.17Refer to the figure below. Initially, the market is in long-run equilibrium at point A. Immediately after the decrease in demand, in a constant-cost industry, which point is likely to be a temporary equilibrium and which point is a final equilibrium?a Point B is a temporary equilibrium and point C is a final equilibrium.b Point D is a temporary equilibrium and point C is a final equilibrium.c Point C is a temporary equilibrium and point D is a final equilibrium.d Point C is a temporary equilibrium and point A is a final equilibrium again.18Refer to the figure below. Which graph best depicts an industry in which the typical firm’s average costs decrease as the industry expands production?a The graph on the left.b The graph on the right.c Either graph could be associated with that industry.d Neither graph.19Which of the following terms best describes a state of the economy in which production reflects consumer preferences?a Allocative efficiency.b Productive efficiency.c Capitalism.d Consumer equilibrium.20Refer to the figure below. The graph describes a typical firm in the competitive DVD player industry. What combination of price and output levels best describes the existence of productive efficiency in the DVD player industry?a Point A.b Point B.c Both points reflect productive efficiency.d Neither point reflects productive efficiency.Short Answer Questions1.Entry and exit ensure that perfectly competitive firms will not earn economic profits in the long run. Whywould any firm remain in an industry if it cannot earn a profit?2.Explain why the firm’s short-run supply is that portion of its marginal cost curve that lies above averagevariable cost.3.Why must perfectly competitive firms produce at the lowest point of their average total cost curves whentheir markets are in long run equilibrium?4.When firms incur short run losses, the exit of some firms will shift the market supply curve to the left. Butsome firms will remain in the industry. Which types of firms will leave the market?5.Explain why a perfectly competitive firm would not advertise its product in order to attract consumersaway from rival firms.。

经济学基础第8章

经济学基础第8章

8
8.2.3 垄断竞争厂商的长期均衡
MR=MC,AR=AC
MC
AC
P
·H
d1 (AR1)
·E
d0 (AR0)
d2 (AR2) MR
O
Q
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8.2.4 各种市场效率比较
(1)产量:完全竞争>垄断竞争>完全垄断 (2)价格:完全竞争<垄断竞争<完全垄断 (3)成本:完全竞争<垄断竞争<完全垄断 (4)福利:完全竞争>垄断竞争>完全垄断
MR=MC,AR>AC
MC AC
P N 垄断利润
O
·F ·G ·E
MR Q
D=AR=P
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8.2 垄断竞争市场
8.2.1 垄断竞争市场条件
(1)厂商数目较多(存在激烈竞争); (2)产品具有差别; (3)进出比较容易。
8.2.2 垄断竞争厂商的短期均衡
(参见“完全垄断”)
2021/4/6
· D=AR=P 总收益 TR=OQ×OP
E MR
利润额 TЛ=TR-TC
Q
( Л>0 ,□PNGF)
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4
第二种情况:P=AC
依MR=MC确定Q和P
MC AC
最优产量Q0=OQ
P
·F
最优价格P0=OP 总成本 TC=OQ×QF
总收益 TR=OQ×OP
·E
D=AR=P 利润额 TЛ=TR-TC
第8章 不完全竞争市场
8.1 完全垄断市场 8.2 垄断竞争市场
2021/4/6
Hale Waihona Puke 18.1 完全垄断市场

中级微观经济学课件-Chapter8_Slutsky_Equation

中级微观经济学课件-Chapter8_Slutsky_Equation

Units of good Y
f
h
g
总效应
替代效应
收入效应B1
B’1
QX1
QX2 QX3
Income effect
Substitution effect
I2
B2
I1
UUnits of Good XX
问题解析
消费x,y两种商品的消费者的效用函数为: U=XY,x,y的价格分别为4,消费者的收入为144。 (1)求该消费者的需求及效用水平; (2)若x的价格上升为9,对两种商品的需求有何变 化? (3)x的价格上升为9后,若要维持当初的效用水平, 消费者的收入最少应达到多少? (4)求x价格上升为9,所带来的替代效应和收入效 应。
❖ 讨论纯收入效应的时候要控制相对价格 变化的影响,即在控制了替代效应以后, 看实际收入变化对消费需求的影响。
考虑收入效应
x2
x2’
(x1’’’,x2’’’)
x2’’
x1’ x1’’
x1
收入效应
x2
收入效应所导致的变化为
(x1’’,x2’’) (x1’’’,x2’’’).
x2’
(x1’’’,x2’’’)
p2
也即消费者的收入增加了$y - $y’.
x1
价格改变的效应
由于这一额外收入的上升所导致的消费 数量的改变叫价格改变的收入效应。
价格改变的效应
斯勒茨基发现由价格改变所导致的消费 者消费数量的改变是单纯的收入效应和 替代效应的数量改变的总和。
真实收入改变
斯勒茨基断言假如在新价格水平下: – 购买原有消费数量所需收入减少,那
第八章
斯勒茨基方程
❖ 价格效应 ❖ Hicks方法 ❖ Slutsky方法 ❖ 几个例子 ❖ 一般化的Slutsky方程

萨缪尔逊《经济学》第8章

萨缪尔逊《经济学》第8章
企业在收入刚好抵补它的可 变成本或者损失正好等于 固定成本时,停业点就会 出现。
当价格低于该水平,致使收 精品资料
AC MC
零利润和停业(tíng yè)的价格
P
MC
价 格 ,d ,
PS
零利润点 M M’
AC
d AVC
停业点
0
q
产量
企业的供给(gōngjǐ)曲线沿MC曲线向下延伸到停业点
精品资料
• 关于停业点的分析,我们可以得到一个出 人意料的结论:
0 1 000
(2)
总成本 润
55000 85000
(3) 每单位
(4) (5) (6)
(7)
平均成本 价格 总收入 利
边际成本
27
85
40
40 000 -45000
2 000 110000
22
55
40
80 000 -30000
3 000 130000
21
43.33 40
120 000 -10000
精品资料
A.竞争企业的供给(gōngjǐ)行为
竞争企业的行为(xíngwéi) 两点注意
基本假设:竞争企业追求利润最大化。 完全竞争的世界是由原子式的企业所构
成的.且它们都是价格接受者( pricetaker ).
精品资料
利润(lìrùn)最大化
• 为什么一个企业会追求利润最大化?

利润=总收入-总成本
• 需求变动(biàndòng)对均衡价格和数量的影响在短 期和长期是不同的,即长期和短期供给曲线是不同的 。
• • 短期,企业在提高或降低产量时,所用的是固定数量的
厂房和设备; • 长期,资本和所有的要素都是可变的,从而企业可以自

《经济学第八章》PPT课件

《经济学第八章》PPT课件
❖ 注意:GDP的内容不包括本国国民在国外工作的 收入,但包括外国人在本国境内所获得的收入。
1.国民收入的计算方法
1.3名义GDP与实际GDP
❖ 直接以市场价格计算的GDP称为名义GDP, 名义GDP减去通货膨胀率为实际GDP
❖ 人均GDP是一国GDP除以常住人口数后所 得的 数字,代表国内人均收入。一国人口 增长率对人均GDP有很大影响。
1.国民收入的计算方法
1.4什么是GNP
❖ 除 GDP 外 , 另 一 种 统 计 国 民 收 入 的 方 法 称 作 GNP(国民生产总值),是指在一段时间内,一个 国家的国民所生产的最终产品和劳务的市场价值 总和。
❖ 与GDP不同,GNP包括本国国民在国外工作的收 入,但不包括外国人在本国境内所获得的收入。
结束语
谢谢大家聆听!!!
12
3.经济增长
3.1什么是经济增长率
❖ 经济增长率高,表示该国当年的生产情况 良好,全国财富增加的幅度高;而经济增 长率低表示经济状况不佳。因此,经济增 长率是观察经济繁荣与否的重要指标。
3.经济增长
3.2影响经济增长的因素
❖ 生产商品与服务的劳动力增加 ❖ 提供生产所需设备的资本迅速积累 ❖ 技术进步使生产力增加 ❖ 制度创新。 ❖ 一项重要的决定因素:人力资本
2.国内生产总值可以衡量社会进步的 全貌吗
2.1未纳入GDP的经济活动
1.家务 2.地下经济 3.环境破坏的损失 4.计算人均GDP时未考虑个人收入分配因素,因此不
能反映贫富差距。
2.国内生产总值可以衡量社会进步的 全貌吗
2.2应排除在GDP之外的经济活动
❖ 一些转移性支出
❖ 一些对生产活动无贡献、不能产生最终产品价值 的 交易活动,如二手货的价值、摊位租金,证 券交易中的佣金等,还比如中国市政建设中的统 筹缺乏所产生的活动及支出。

[经济学]第八章 货币需求

[经济学]第八章  货币需求

一、规模变量
• (二)财富变量
• 财富有人力财富和非人力财富之分。 非人力财富即物质资本,可以用统计方法测得;人 力财富是指个人在将来获得收入的能力,而这种能力 转化为非人力财富要受很多因素的制约,无法准确估 计。 • 收入与财富的关系 存量与流量的关系,财富是过去收入及未来期望收 入折为现期的时点量。永久收入是一个比较稳定的变 量,可以用来代表财富变量。
货币 需求 量大
待续
广东金融学院多媒体课件 2019/1/30
收入
4000元
2000元
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 时间
Finance 第八章8
广东金融学院多媒体课件 2019/1/30
三、货币需求的决定因素
• (二)信用的发达程度
• 信用越发达,货币需求量相对越少。 • 因为:信用发达条件下,一方面,大量债权债务相互抵消, 减少了作为交易媒介的货币的需求。另一方面,投融资渠 道相对畅通,人们不再需要为流动性需求而持有较多的货 币。
Finance 第八章18 广东金融学院多媒体课件 2019/1/30
一、古典学派的货币需求理论
• (二)现金余额数量说
• 由马歇尔(A.Marshall)、庇古(A.C.Pigou)等剑桥学派 的经济学家创立。
• 观点:1、人们将货币视为一种资产,通过资产选择决定货 币持有量。 • 2、持有多少,取决于: *个人财富总额 *持币机会成本,即其他资产收益率 *未来收入、支出和物价的预期。 • 3、对全社会来说
• 微观收入变量主要是指个人和家庭的收入。这种收入可划 分为过去收入、现期收入、期望收入和永久收入。
过去收入和现期收入是已知的资料,可以通过统计方法取得 期望收入是在理性预期理论基础上形成的对未来收入水平的 估计;永久收入是过去收入和期望收入的加权平均。

西方经济学第八章课件

西方经济学第八章课件
第9页/共21页
二、欧洲联盟 1.发展情况 1952年,欧洲煤钢共和体成立; 1957年,法、意、荷、德、比和卢森堡签订条约,成立了欧洲 原子能共和体; 1958年1月1日,欧洲共同体成立; 1992年 ,欧洲联盟和欧洲自由贸易区的七个国家达成协议, 并于1993年1月1日建立“欧洲经济区”,此时成员已达19个 国家; 1993年1月,统一欧洲法案变为法律,欧洲共同体发展为欧洲 联盟; 到2004年5月,其成员达25个。 2.控制机构: 部长理事会; 欧洲议会; 欧洲委员会。 3.政策领域:竞争政策、农业政策、结构政策、贸易和国际收 支政策、货币政策、工商政策等。
第10页/共21页
三、世界贸易组织 1.概况: 负责国际贸易多边谈判,推动世界贸易发展的最大国际条约和组织 机构是世界贸易组织,其前身为关税与贸易总协定。 关贸总协定于1947年签署,最初签约的共有23个国家; 到了1994年,其成员国增至148个,总部高在瑞士日内瓦,总协定 的最高权力机构是缔约国大会,一般每年召开一次会议,讨论和决 定重大问题。 2.宗旨: 通过降低贸易壁垒,取消歧视性的贸易行为来提高各缔约国的生活 水平。 3.原则: 非歧视性原则; 降低和最终取消贸易壁垒的原则; 磋商调解原则。
第17页/共21页
第五节 政府调节国际经济往来的措施
一、国际贸易政策简述 国际贸易理论所体现的一种基本思想就是各国都能从国际
贸易中获益。然而现实中,自由贸易却受到许多国家各种政策 的干预。其中最主要的就是限制进口和鼓励出口。
1.限制进口:是指一国或地区以产品进口水平所设定的一系列 措施。 其最主要的政策工具有:进口关税和进口配额。 进口关税是指产品运抵一国时所须缴纳的税款。 进口配额是指一国对特定产品进口数量和金额的限制。 此外,除了关税和配额外,一国可能还有其他非关税壁垒包括: 苛刻的技术标准、繁琐的海关手续、歧视性的政府购买、进出 口的垄断经营、外汇管制等。

经济学基础第8章

经济学基础第8章

第八章市场失灵和微观经济政策第一节垄断与反垄断政策一、垄断造成的净损失与合并的福利效应(一)垄断造成的净损失消费者剩余的损失减去生产者剩余的增加,这就是垄断造成的净损失。

(二)合并的福利效应垄断一方面会造成社会福利的净损失,另一方面,也有可能会产生净社会效益。

假定两家合并后:1、会获得垄断势力,使价格上升;2、会产生规模经济,使成本节约。

二、政府对垄断的管制(一)价格管制1、垄断条件下的价格高于竞争,对于政府来说,解决这一问题的一个方法就是对垄断厂商可能索取的价格进行管制,以便降低消费者使用该产品的成本。

2、在一个竞争市场上实行最高限价会导致产量减少,从而造成在控制价格下的短缺和非价格配给。

然而,垄断厂商对最高限价的反应方式与竞争行业不同,事实上,在一定条件下,对垄断价格的强制降低,可能会导致垄断产量的增加。

3、垄断厂商限制产量的目的就是为了索取较高的价格。

实施最高限价意味着限制产量不能导致较高的价格,所以,最高限价消除了垄断厂商限制产量的理由。

4、当实际价格管制时,垄断势力造成的净损失减少了。

当管制价格进一步下降时,产量则进一步增加,净损失也会进一步下降。

当价格处于平均收益与边际成本相交时,产量已提高到完全竞争的水平,垄断势力引起的净损失已被消除。

若再进一步降低管制价格,则会导致产量下降,这相当于对完全竞争行业实行最高限价,其结果会造成相应的短缺。

5、价格管制常用于自然垄断行业。

6、可行的最佳方案是将价格定在平均成本与平均收益相交处,此时,厂商没有垄断利润,且产出已尽可能大到正好不至于使厂商退出经营。

(二)反托拉斯法的实施对垄断实行管制的第二个措施就是通过反托拉斯法来实现的。

在美国,实施反托拉斯法有三种途径:1、第一种途径是通过美国司法部的反托拉斯署。

作为行政部门的一部分,它将执行的政策密切反映了政府的观点。

2、第二种途径是通过联邦贸易委员会(FTC)的行政程序。

3、第三种途径也是最常用的途径,它是通过秘密程序进行的。

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二、交换的一般均衡
消费者A的无差异曲线 消费者 的无差异曲线 Y Y 消费者B的无差异曲线 消费者 的无差异曲线
UA3 UA2 UA1
0 X 0
UB3 UB2 UB1
X
交换契约线[Exchange Contract Curve] 交换契约线
X XB Y YA

OB YB
E3

C

E2
UA3 UB1 UA2
生产和交换的帕累托最优条件 生产和交换的帕累托最优条件
对于不同消费者来说, 对于不同消费者来说,任意两种商品之间的边际 替代率都相等;对于不同生产者来说, 替代率都相等;对于不同生产者来说,生产任意 两种产品的边际转换率都相等; 两种产品的边际转换率都相等;且边际替代率等 于边际转换率。 于边际转换率。即:
——资源在某种配置下,不可能通过重新组合生产和 资源在某种配置下, 资源在某种配置下 分配增加一个人或多个人的福利而不使其他人的福利 减少。 减少。
资源最优配置与福利最大化的统一
资源最优配置或经济效率最高与福利最大化相统 一。 如果一个经济到达这样境况: 如果一个经济到达这样境况:
已经不可能通过重组或贸易等手段, 已经不可能通过重组或贸易等手段,既提高某一人的 效用或满足程度, 效用或满足程度,而又不降低其他人的效用或满足程 那么,这个经济就实现了福利最大化。 度。那么,这个经济就实现了福利最大化。
E1

OA
UB3 XA异曲线的斜率 : 边际替代率 无差异曲线的斜率]: 无差异曲线的斜率 MRSXY 或 MRSYX 交换契约线
——由两个消费者的无差异曲线相切点的轨迹 由两个消费者的无差异曲线相切点的轨迹 所组成的曲线。 所组成的曲线。
在交换契约线上的任意一点, 在交换契约线上的任意一点,表示交换处 于均衡状态。 于均衡状态。 若沿着契约线进行交换, 若沿着契约线进行交换,一方效用的增加 以另一方效用减少为代价; 以另一方效用减少为代价; 若离开契约线进行交换,总效用将减少。 若离开契约线进行交换,总效用将减少。
(Y)
四、生产和交换的一般均衡
生产可能性曲线[Production-Possibility Frontier] 生产可能性曲线
——表示在资源或要素量既定前提下,社会所能生产 表示在资源或要素量既定前提下, 表示在资源或要素量既定前提下 的两种产品的各种最大产量组合。 的两种产品的各种最大产量组合。
一般均衡[General Equilibrium] 一般均衡
——经济处于整体均衡状态,即此时所有的商品和要素市场 经济处于整体均衡状态, 经济处于整体均衡状态 都同时处于均衡。作为一种分析方法, 都同时处于均衡。作为一种分析方法,考虑各种市场和价格 的相互作用。 的相互作用。 ——相对于局部均衡[Partial-Equilibrium]而言,以市场上所 相对于局部均衡[ 而言, 相对于局部均衡 而言 有商品的价格、供给和需求都是相互影响、相互制约为前提, 有商品的价格、供给和需求都是相互影响、相互制约为前提, 考察各种商品的价格、 考察各种商品的价格、供给和需求同时达到均衡状态时价格 与产量决定,追求社会福利的最大化。 与产量决定,追求社会福利的最大化。
消 费 者
MRSXY= MRTXY ⊿Y ⊿Y = ⊿X ⊿X MUX MCX = MCY MUY
生 产 者
第三节 帕累托最优状态的实现
实质: 实质:
对既定总收入进行再分配是否能使总福利即总效用增 加。
旧福利经济学的两个基本命题:
庇古根据边际效用基数论提出两个基本的福利命题。 庇古根据边际效用基数论提出两个基本的福利命题。 根据边际效用基数论提出两个基本的福利命题
国民收入总量愈大,社会经济福利就愈大; 国民收入总量愈大,社会经济福利就愈大; 国民收入分配愈是均等化,社会经济福利就愈大。 国民收入分配愈是均等化,社会经济福利就愈大。
他认为, 他认为,
经济福利在相当大的程度上取决于国民收入的数量和国民收 入在社会成员之间的分配情况。 入在社会成员之间的分配情况。 因此,要增加经济福利,在生产方面必须增大国民收入总量, 因此,要增加经济福利,在生产方面必须增大国民收入总量, 在分配方面必须消除国民收入分配的不均等。 在分配方面必须消除国民收入分配的不均等。
帕累托最优状态就是福利最大化状态。 帕累托最优状态就是福利最大化状态。
新福利经济学的福利命题: 新福利经济学的福利命题:
新福利经济学根据帕累托最优状态和效用序数 新福利经济学根据帕累托最优状态和效用序数 论提出了自己的福利命题: 论提出了自己的福利命题:
个人是他本人的福利的最好判断者; 个人是他本人的福利的最好判断者; 社会福利取决于组成社会的所有个人的福利; 社会福利取决于组成社会的所有个人的福利; 如果至少有一个人的境况好起来, 如果至少有一个人的境况好起来,而没有一个人的境 况坏下去,那么整个社会的境况就算好了起来。 况坏下去,那么整个社会的境况就算好了起来。
艾奇沃斯盒状图的基本假定: 艾奇沃斯盒状图的基本假定:
①社会上只存在两个消费者[A,B]和两种产品 社会上只存在两个消费者 和两种产品 [X,Y]; ; 社会上只存在两个生产者[生产 生产X和 ②社会上只存在两个生产者 生产 和Y] 和两种 生产要素[L,K]; 生产要素 ; 资源(生产要素) ③资源(生产要素)的总量和产品与要素的价 格既定; 格既定; 人们所追求的是效用最大化和利润最大化。 ④人们所追求的是效用最大化和利润最大化。
对于社会福利大小与分配无关的观点, 对于社会福利大小与分配无关的观点,西方仍 社会福利大小与分配无关的观点 然存在争议。
第二节 帕累托最优的一般均衡分析
一、一般均衡的几何分析工具
——艾奇沃斯盒状图 艾奇沃斯盒状图
二、交换的一般均衡 三、生产的一般均衡 四、生产和交换的一般均衡
一、一般均衡的几何分析工具 ——艾奇沃斯盒状图 艾奇沃斯盒状图
产品市场与要素市场的同时均衡
—— 各种产品和生产要素之间又存在着相互影响的关系。一 各种产品和生产要素之间又存在着相互影响的关系。 般均衡就是产品市场与要素市场的同时达到均衡。 般均衡就是产品市场与要素市场的同时达到均衡。
二、 福利经济学
1、福利经济学的性质与特点 、 2、资源最优配置与福利最大化 、 3、帕累托最优状态 、
生产的帕累托最优条件 生产的帕累托最优条件
任意两种要素之间的边际技术替代率, 任意两种要素之间的边际技术替代率,对于所有 生产者来说都必须是相等的。 生产者来说都必须是相等的。 即:
MRTSLK(X) = MRTSLK (Y)
⊿K ⊿L
(X)
=
⊿K ⊿L
(Y)
MPL MPK
MPL = MPK (X)
3、帕累托最优状态 、
帕累托(Pareto,1848-1923) 帕累托
——意大利经济学家,新福利经济学的代表人物。 意大利经济学家,新福利经济学的代表人物。 意大利经济学家 在序数效用论的基础上, 在序数效用论的基础上,以效率作为福利分析的唯一 目标。 目标。
帕累托最优状态[Pareto Optimum] 帕累托最优状态
艾奇沃斯盒状图 [Edgeworth-Box Diagram]
艾奇沃斯(Francis Y. Edgeworth,1845-1926) 艾奇沃斯
——英国经济学家,“无差异曲线”几何分析方 英国经济学家, 无差异曲线” 英国经济学家 法的先驱者之一。 法的先驱者之一。
艾奇沃斯盒状图用于表示两种经济活动的交 艾奇沃斯盒状图用于表示两种经济活动的交 互作用[Interaction],最初仅用于消费领域, 互作用 ,最初仅用于消费领域, 后被用于生产领域, 后被用于生产领域,成为一般均衡理论的重要 工具。 工具。
以一定的价值判断为出发点, 以一定的价值判断为出发点,即根据已确定的社会目 建立理论体系; 标,建立理论体系; 以边际效用论为基础,建立福利概念; 以边际效用论为基础,建立福利概念; 以社会目标和福利理论为依据,制定经济政策方案。 以社会目标和福利理论为依据,制定经济政策方案。
2、资源最优配置与福利最大化 、
⊿Y ⊿X
生产与交换的一般均衡
消费者的无差异曲线 消费者的无差异曲线 生产者的生产可能性曲线 生产者的生产可能性曲线
Y
Y
0
X
0
X
Y
生产与交换的一般均衡 生产与交换的一般均衡
Y0

B
A
X0
X
生产可能性曲线的斜率]MRTXY 当边际转换率[生产可能性曲线的斜率 边际转换率 生产可能性曲线的斜率
等于
边际替代率[无差异曲线的斜率 边际替代率 无差异曲线的斜率]MRSXY 时, 无差异曲线的斜率 生产和交换同时达到均衡, 生产和交换同时达到均衡,即生产和交换均没有 必要再调整。 必要再调整。 此时,资源配置的效率达到最大, 此时,资源配置的效率达到最大,使消费者的 满足程度达到最大。 满足程度达到最大。
E1

Y3 Y2 Y1

E2 E3

0
X1
X2
X3
X
边际转换率[生产可能性曲线的斜率] 边际转换率[生产可能性曲线的斜率] [Marginal Rate of Transformation]
dY MRTXY = 或= dX ∵ ⊿Y 和⊿X所消耗的资源相等 所消耗的资源相等 假定该资源的价格既定, ∴ 假定该资源的价格既定,则: MCX MRTXY = MCY
1、福利经济学的性质与特点 、
福利经济学[Welfare Economics] 福利经济学
作为一种规范经济学, 一定的价值判断标准下, 作为一种规范经济学,在一定的价值判断标准下, 研究整个经济的资源配置与个人福利的关系。 研究整个经济的资源配置与个人福利的关系。
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