Consumers and risk of nanomaterials
纳米材料与微型机器外文文献翻译、中英文翻译
外文资料Nanotechnology and Micro-machine原文(一):NanomaterialNanomaterials and nanotechnology have become a magic word in modern society.Nanomaterials represent today’s cutting edge in the development of novel advanced materials which promise tailor-made functionality and unheard applications in all key technologies. So nanomaterials are considered as a great potential in the 21th century because of their special properties in many fields such as optics, electronics, magnetics, mechanics, and chemistry. These unique properties are attractive for various high performance applications. Examples include wear resistant surfaces, low temperature sinterable high-strength ceramics, and magnetic nanocomposites. Nanostructures materials present great promises and opportunities for a new generation of materials with improved and marvelous properties.It is appropriate to begin with a brief introduction to the history of the subject. Nanomaterials are found in both biological systems and man-made structures. Nature has been using nanomaterials for millions of years,as Disckson has noted: “Life itself could be regarded as a nanophase system”.Examples in which nanostructured elements play a vital role are magnetotactic bacteria, ferritin, and molluscan teeth. Several species of aquatic bacteria use the earth’s magnetic field to orient thenselves. They are able to do this because they contain chains of nanosized, single-domain magnetite particles. Because they have established their orientation, they are able to swim down to nutriments and away from what is lethal to them ,oxygen. Another example of nanomaterials in nature is that herbivorous mollusks use teeth attached to a tonguelike organ, the radula, to scrape their food. These teeth have a complexstructure containing nanocrystalline needles. We can utilize biological templates formaking nanomaterials. Apoferritin has been used as a confined reaction environmentfor the synthesis of nanosized magnetite particles. Some scholars consider biologicalnanomaterials as model systems for developing technologically useful nanomaterials.Scientific work on this subject can be traced back over 100 years.In 1861 theBritish chemist Thomas Graham coined the term colloid to describe a solutioncontaining 1 to 100 nm diameter particles in suspension. Around the turn of thecentury, such famous scientists as Rayleigh, Maxwell, and Einstein studied colloids.In 1930 the Langmuir-Blodgett method for developing monolayer films wasdeveloped. By 1960 Uyeda had used electron microscopy and diffraction to studyindividual particles. At about the same time, arc, plasma, and chemical flame furnaceswere employed to prouduce submicron particles. Magnetic alloy particles for use inmagnetic tapes were produced in 1970.By 1980, studies were made on clusterscontaining fewer than 100 atoms .In 1985, a team led by Smalley and Kroto foundC clusters were unusually stable. In 1991, Lijima spectroscopic evidence that 60reported studies of graphitic carbon tube filaments.Research on nanomaterials has been stimulated by their technologicalapplications. The first technological uses of these materials were as catalysts andpigments. The large surface area to volume ratio increases the chemicalactivity.Because of this increased activity, there are significant cost advantages infabricating catalysts from nanomaterials. The peoperties of some single-phasematerials can be improved by preparing them as nanostructures. For example, thesintering temperature can be decreased and the plasticity increased on single-phase,structural ceramics by reducing the grain size to several nanometers. Multiphasenanostructured materials have displayed novel behavior resulting from the small sizeof he individual phases.Technologically useful properties of nanomaterials are not limited to theirstructural, chemical, or mechanical behavior. Multilayers represent examples ofmaterials in which one can modify of tune a property for a specific application bysensitively controlling the individual layer thickness. It was discovered that the resistance of Fe-Cr multilayered thin films exhibited large changes in an applied magnetic field of several tens of kOe.This effect was given the name giant magnetoresistance (GMR). More recently, suitably annealed magnetic multilayers have been developed that exhibit significant magnetoresistance effects even in fields as low as 5 to10 Oe (Oersted). This effect may prove to be of great technological importance for use in magnetic recording read heads.In microelectronics, the need for faster switching times and ever larger integration has motivated considerable effort to reduce the size of electronic components. Increasing the component density increases the difficulty of satisfying cooling requirements and reduces the allowable amount of energy released on switching between states. It would be ideal if the switching occurred with the motion of a single electron. One kind of single-electron device is based on the change in the Coulombic energy when an electron is added or removed from a particle. For a nanoparticle this enery change can be large enough that adding a single electron will effectively blocks the flow of other electrons. The use of Coulombic repulsion in this way is called Coulomb blockade.In addition to technology, nanomaterials are also interesting systems for basic scientific investigations .For example, small particles display deviations from bulk solid behavior such as reductios in the melting temperature and changes (usually reductions) in the lattice parameter. The changes n the lattice parameter observed for metal and semiconductor particles result from the effect of the surface free energy. Both the surface stress and surface free energy are caused by the reduced coordination of the surface atoms. By studying the size dependence of the properties of particles, it is possible to find the critical length scales at which particles behave essentially as bulk matter. Generally, the physical properties of a nanoparticle approach bulk values for particles containing more than a few hundred atoms.New techniques have been developed recently that have permitted researchers to produce larger quantities of other nanomaterials and to better characterize these materials.Each fabrication technique has its own set of advantages anddisadvantages.Generally it is best to produce nanoparticles with a narrow size distribution. In this regard, free jet expansion techniques permit the study of very small clusters, all containing the same number of atoms. It has the disadvantage of only producing a limited quantity of material.Another approach involves the production of pellets of nanostructured materials by first nucleating and growing nanoparticles in a supersaturated vapor and then using a cold finger to collect the nanoparticle. The nanoparticles are then consolidated under vacuum. Chemical techniques are very versatile in that they can be applied to nearly all materials (ceramics, semiconductors, and metals) and can usually produce a large amount of material. A difficulty with chemical processing is the need to find the proper chemical reactions and processing conditions for each material. Mechanical attrition, which can also produce a large amount of material, often makes less pure material. One problem common to all of these techniques is that nanoparticles often form micron-sized agglomerates. If this occurs, the properties of the material may be determined by the size of the agglomerate and not the size of the individual nanoparticles. For example, the size of the agglomerates may determine the void size in the consolidated nanostructured material.The ability to characterize nanomaterials has been increased greatly by the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and other proximal probes such as the atomic force microscope (AFM), the magnetic force microscope, and the optical near-field microscope.SMT has been used to carefully place atoms on surfaces to write bits using a small number of atmos. It has also been employed to construct a circular arrangement of metal atoms on an insulating surface. Since electrons are confined to the circular path of metal atoms, it serves ad a quantum ‘corral’of atoms. This quantum corral was employed to measure the local electronic density of states of these circular metallic arrangements. By doing this, researchers were able to verify the quantum mechanical description of electrons confined in this way.Other new instruments and improvements of existing instruments are increasingly becoming important tools for characterizing surfaces of films, biological materials, and nanomaterials.The development of nanoindentors and the improvedability to interpret results from nanoindentation measurements have increased our ability to study the mechanical properties of nanostructured materials. Improved high-resolution electron microscopes and modeling of the electron microscope images have improved our knowledges of the structure of the the particles and the interphase region between particles in consolidated nanomaterials.Nanotechnology1. IntroductionWhat id nanotechnology? it is a term that entered into the general vocabulary only in the late 1970’s,mainly to describe the metrology associated with the development of X-ray,optical and other very precise components.We defined nanotechnology as the technology where dimensions and tolerances in the range 0.1～100nm(from the size of the atom to the wavelength of light) play a critical role.This definition is too all-embracing to be of practical value because it could include,for example,topics as diverse as X-ray crystallography ,atomic physics and indeed the whole of chemistry.So the field covered by nanotechnology is later narrowed down to manipulation and machining within the defined dimensional range(from 0.1nm to 100nm) by technological means,as opposed to those used by the craftsman,and thus excludes,for example,traditional forms of glass polishing.The technology relating to fine powders also comes under the general heading of nanotechnology,but we exclude observational techniques such as microscopy and various forms of surface analysis.Nanotechnology is an ‘enabling’ technology, in that it provides the basis for other technological developments,and it is also a ‘horizontal’or ‘cross-sectional’technology in that one technological may,with slight variations,be applicable in widely differing fields. A good example of this is thin-film technology,which is fundamental to electronics and optics.A wide range of materials are employed in devices such as computer and home entertainment peripherals, including magnetic disc reading heads,video cassette recorder spindles, optical disc stampers and ink jet nozzles.Optical and semiconductor components include laser gyroscope mirrors,diffraction gratings,X-ray optics,quantum-well devices.2. Materials technologyThe wide scope of nanotechnology is demonstrated in the materials field,where materials provide a means to an end and are not an end in themseleves. For example, in electronics,inhomogeneities in materials,on a very fine scale, set a limit to the nanometre-sized features that play an important part in semiconductor technology, and in a very different field, the finer the grain size of an adhesive, the thinner will be the adhesive layer, and the higher will be the bond strength.(1) Advantages of ultra-fine powders. In general, the mechanical, thermal, electrical and magnetic properties of ceramics, sintered metals and composites are often enhanced by reducing the grain or fiber size in the starting materials. Other properties such as strength, the ductile-brittle transition, transparency, dielectric coefficient and permeability can be enhanced either by the direct influence of an ultra-fine microstructure or by the advantages gained by mixing and bonding ultra-fine powders.Oter important advantages of fine powders are that when they are used in the manufacture of ceramics and sintered metals, their green (i.e, unfired) density can be greatly increased. As a consequence, both the defects in the final produce and the shrinkage on firing are reduced, thus minimizing the need for subsequent processing.(2)Applications of ultra-fine powders.Important applications include:Thin films and coatings----the smaller the particle size, the thinner the coating can beElectronic ceramics ----reduction in grain size results in reduced dielectric thicknessStrength-bearing ceramics----strength increases with decreasing grain sizeCutting tools----smaller grain size results in a finer cutting edge, which can enhance the surface finishImpact resistance----finer microstructure increases the toughness of high-temperature steelsCements----finer grain size yields better homogeneity and densityGas sensors----finer grain size gives increased sensitivityAdhesives----finer grain size gives thinner adhesive layer and higher bond strength3. Precision machining and materials processingA considerable overlap is emerging in the manufacturing methods employed in very different areas such as mechanical engineering, optics and electronics. Precision machining encompasses not only the traditional techniques such as turning, grinding, lapping and polishing refined to the nanometre level of precision, but also the application of ‘particle’ beams, ions, electrons and X-rays. Ion beams are capable of machining virtually any material and the most frequent applications of electrons and X-rays are found in the machining or modification of resist materials for lithographic purposes. The interaction of the beams with the resist material induces structural changes such as polymerization that alter the solubility of the irradiated areas.(1) Techniques1) Diamond turning. The large optics diamond-turning machine at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory represents a pinnacle of achievement in the field of ultra-precision machine tool engineering. This is a vertical-spindle machine with a face plate 1.6 m in diameter and a maximum tool height of 0.5m. Despite these large dimensions, machining accuracy for form is 27.5nm RMS and a surface roughness of 3nm is achievable, but is dependent both on the specimen material and cutting tool.(2) GrindingFixed Abrasive Grinding The term“fixed abrasive” denotes that a grinding wheel is employed in which the abrasive particles, such as diamond, cubic boron nitride or silicon carbide, are attached to the wheel by embedding them in a resin or a metal. The forces generated in grinding are higher than in diamond turning and usually machine tools are tailored for one or the other process. Some Japanese work is in the vanguard of precision grinding, and surface finishes of 2nm (peak-to-valley) have been obtained on single-crystal quartz samples using extremely stiff grinding machinesLoose Abrasive Grinding The most familiar loose abrasive grinding processes are lapping and polishing where the workpiece, which is often a hard material such asglass, is rubbed against a softer material, the lap or polisher, with abrasive slurry between the two surfaces. In many cases, the polishing process occurs as a result of the combined effects of mechanical and chemical interaction between the workpiece, slurry and polished.Loose abrasive grinding techniques can under appropriate conditions produce unrivalled accuracy both in form and surface finish when the workpiece is flat or spherical. Surface figures to a few nm and surface finishes bettering than 0.5nm may be achieved. The abrasive is in slurry and is directed locally towards the workpiece by the action of a non-contacting polyurethane ball spinning at high speed, and which replac es the cutting tool in the machine. This technique has been named “elastic emission machining” and has been used to good effect in the manufacture of an X-ray mirror having a figure accuracy of 10nm and a surface roughness of 0.5nm RMS.3）Thin-film production. The production of thin solid films, particularly for coating optical components, provides a good example of traditional nanotechnology. There is a long history of coating by chemical methods, electro-deposition, diode sputtering and vacuum evaporation, while triode and magnetron sputtering and ion-beam deposition are more recent in their wide application.Because of their importance in the production of semiconductor devices, epitaxial growth techniques are worth a special mention. Epitaxy is the growth of a thin crystalline layer on a single-crystal substrate, where the atoms in the growing layer mimic the disposition of the atoms in the substrate.The two main classes of epitaxy that have ben reviewed by Stringfellow (1982) are liquid-phase and vapour-phase epitaxy. The latter class includes molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE), which in essence, is highly controlled evaporation in ultra high vacuum. MBE may be used to grow high quality layered structures of semiconductors with mono-layer precision, and it is possible to exercise independent control over both the semiconductor band gap, by controlling the composition, and also the doping level. Pattern growth is possible through masks and on areas defined by electron-beam writing.4. ApplicationsThere is an all-pervading trend to higher precision and miniaturization, and to illustrate this a few applications will be briefly referred to in the fields of mechanical engineering,optics and electronics. It should be noted however, that the distinction between mechanical engineering and optics is becoming blurred, now that machine tools such as precision grinding machines and diamond-turning lathes are being used to produce optical components, often by personnel with a backgroud in mechanical engineering rather than optics. By a similar token mechanical engineering is also beginning to encroach on electronics particularly in the preparation of semiconductor substrates.(1) Mechanical engineeringOne of the earliest applications of diamond turning was the machining of aluminum substrates for computer memory discs, and accuracies are continuously being enhanced in order to improve storage capacity: surface finishes of 3nm are now being achieved. In the related technologies of optical data storage and retrieval, the toler ances of the critical dimensions of the disc and reading head are about 0.25 μm. The tolerances of the component parts of the machine tools used in their manufacture, i.e.the slideways and bearings, fall well within the nanotechnology range.Some precision components falling in the manufacturing tolerance band of 5～50nm include gauge blocks, diamond indenter tips, microtome blades, Winchester disc reading heads and ultra precision XY tables (Taniguchi 1986). Examples of precision cylindrical components in two very different fields, and which are made to tolerances of about 100 nm, are bearing for mechanical gyroscopes and spindles for video cassette recorders.The theoretical concept that brittle materials may be machined in a ductile mode has been known for some time. If this concept can be applied in practice it would be of significant practical importance because it would enable materials such as ceramics, glasses and silicon to be machined with minimal sub-surface damage, and could eliminate or substantially reduce the need for lapping and polishing.Typically, the conditions for ductile-mode machining require that the depth of cutis about 100 nm and that the normal force should fall in the range of 0.1～0.01N. These machining conditons can be realized only with extremely precise and stiff machine tools, such as the one described by Yoshioka et al (1985), and with which quartz has been ground to a surface roughness of 2 nm peak-to-valley. The significance of this experimental result is that it points the way to the direct grinding of optical components to an optical finish. The principle can be extended to other materials of significant commercial importance, such as ceramic turbine blades, which at present must be subjected to tedious surface finishing procedures to remove the structure-weakening cracks produced by the conventional grinding process.(2) OpticsIn some areas in optics manufacture there is a clear distinction between the technological approach and the traditional craftsman’s approach, particul arly where precision machine tools are employed. On the other hand, in lapping and polishing, there is a large grey area where the two approaches overlap. The large demand for infrared optics from the 1970s onwards could not be met by the traditional suppliers, and provided a stimulus for the development and application of diamond-turning machines to optic manufacture. The technology has now progressed and the surface figure and finishes that can be obtained span a substantial proportion of the nanotechnology range. Important applications of diamond-turned optics are in the manufacture of unconventionally shaped optics, for example axicons and more generelly, aspherics and particularly off-axis components. Such as paraboloids.The mass production(several million per annum) of the miniature aspheric lenses used in compact disc players and the associated lens moulds provides a good example of the merging of optics and precision engineering. The form accuracy must be better than 0.2μm and the surface roughness m ust be below 20 nm to meet the criterion for diffraction limited performance.(3) ElectronicsIn semiconductors, nanotechnology has long been a feature in the development of layers parallel to the substrate and in the substrate surface itself, and the need for precision is steadily increasing with the advent of layered semiconductor structures.About one quarter of the entire semiconductor physics community is now engaged in studying aspects of these structures. Normal to the layer surface, the structure is produced by lithography, and for research purposes ar least, nanometre-sized features are now being developed using X-ray and electron and ion-beam techniques.5. A look into the futureWith a little imagination, it is not difficult to conjure up visions of future developments in high technology, in whatever direction one cares to look. The following two examples illustrate how advances may take place both by novel applications and refinements of old technologies and by development of new ones.(1) Molecular electronicsLithography and thin-film technology are the key technologies that have made possible the continuing and relentless reduction in the size of integrated circuits, to increase both packing density and operational speed. Miniaturization has been achieved by engineering downwards from the macro to the micro scale. By simple extrapolation it will take approximately two decades for electronic switches to be reduced to molecular dimensions. The impact of molecular biology and genetic engineering has thus provided a stimulus to attempt to engineer upwards, starting with the concept that single molecules, each acting as an electronic device in their own right, might be assembled using biotechnology, to form molecular electronic devices or even biochip computers.Advances in molecular electronics by downward engineering from the macro to the micro scale are taking place over a wide front. One fruitful approach is by way of the Langmure-Biodgett (LB) film using a method first described by Blodgett (1935).A multi-layer LB structure consists of a sequence of organic monolayers made by repeatedly dipping a substrate into a trough containing the monolayer floating on a liquid (usually water), one layer being added at a time. The classical film forming materials were the fatty acids such as stearic acid and their salts. The late 1950s saw the first widespread and commercially important application of LB films in the field of X-ray spectroscopy (e.g, Henke 1964, 1965). The important properties of the films that were exploited in this application were the uniform thickness of each film, i.e.one molecule thick, and the range of thickness, say from 5to 15nm, which were available by changing the composition of the film material. Stacks of fifty or more films were formed on plane of curved substrates to form two-dimensional diffraction gratings for measuring the characteristic X-ray wavelengths of the elements of low atomic number for analytical purposes in instruments such as the electron probe of X-ray micro-analyzer.(2) Scanning tunneling engineeringIt was stated that observational techniques such as microscopy do mot, at least for the purposes of this article, fall within the domain of nanotechnology. However,it is now becoming apparent that scanning tunneling microscopy(STM) may provide the basis of a new technology, which we shall call scanning tunneling engineering.In the STM, a sharp stylus is positioned within a nanometre of the surface of the sample under investigation. A small voltage applied between the sample and the stylus will cause a current to foow through the thin intervening insulating medium (e.g.air, vacum, oxide layer). This is the tunneling electron current which is exponentially dependent on the sample-tip gap. If the sample is scanned in a planr parallel to ies surface and if the tunneling current is kept cnstant by adjusting the height of the stylus to maintain a constant gap, then the displacement of the stylus provides an accurate representation of the surface topographyu of the sample. It is relevant to the applications that will be discussed that individual atoms are easily resolved by the STM, that the stylus tip may be as small as a single atom and that the tip can be positioned with sub-atomic dimensional accuracy with the aid of a piezoelectric transducer.The STM tip has demonstrated its ability to draw fine lines, which exhibit nanometre-sized struture, and hence may provide a new tool for nanometre lithography.The mode of action was not properly understood,but it was suspected that under the influence of the tip a conducting carbon line had been drawn as the result of polymerizing a hydrocarbon film, the process being assisted by the catalytic activity of the tungsten tip. By extrapolating their results the authors believed that it would be possible to deposit fine conducting lines on an insulating film. The tip would operatein a gaseous environment that contained the metal atoms in such a form that they could either be pre-adsorbed on the film or then be liberated from their ligands or they would form free radicals at the location of the tip and be transferred to the film by appropriate adjustment of the tip voltage.Feynman proposed that machine tools be used to make smaller machine tools which in turn would make still smaller ones, and so on all the way down to the atomic level. These machine tools would then operate via computer control in the nanometre domain, using high resolution electron microscopy for observation and control. STM technology has short-cricuired this rather cumbrous concept,but the potential applications and benefits remain.原文(二)Micro-machine1. IntroductionFrom the beginning, mankind seems instinctively to have desired large machines and small machines. That is, “large” and “small” in comp arison with human-scale. Machines larger than human are powerful allies in the battle against the fury of nature; smaller machines are loyal partners that do whatever they are told.If we compare the facility and technology of manufacturing larger machines, common sense tells us that the smaller machines are easier to make. Nevertheless, throughout the history of technology, larger machines have always stood ort. The size of the restored models of the water-mill invented by Vitruvius in the Roman Era, the windmill of the middle Ages, and the steam engine invented by Watt is overwhelming. On the other hand, smaller machined in history of technology are mostly tools. If smaller machines are easier to make, a variety of such machined should exist, but until modern times, no significant small machines existed except for guns and clocks.This fact may imply that smaller machines were actually more difficult to make. Of course, this does not mean simply that it was difficult to make a small machine; it means that it was difficult to invent a small machine that would be significant to human beings.。
化工专业科技英语作文
化工专业科技英语作文英文回答：As a chemical engineering student, I've had the privilege of delving into a fascinating and ever-evolving field that shapes our technological advancements and everyday lives. One aspect that particularly piques my interest is the development of sustainable and renewable energy sources to address the challenges of climate change and ensure a cleaner future.In this regard, I'm particularly excited about the potential of solar energy. With its abundance and environmental friendliness, solar power holds immense promise as a viable alternative to fossil fuels. Theability of solar cells to directly convert sunlight into electricity through the photovoltaic effect has opened up countless possibilities for clean energy generation.One of the most significant breakthroughs in solartechnology has been the development of perovskite solar cells. Perovskites, a class of crystalline materials, exhibit exceptional light-absorbing properties and have demonstrated remarkable efficiencies in converting solar energy into electricity. This discovery has revolutionized the field, offering the potential for cheaper and more efficient solar panels.Another promising area of research is the exploration of artificial photosynthesis. This innovative approach aims to mimic the natural process of photosynthesis, where plants convert sunlight and water into glucose. By designing artificial systems that can perform similar reactions, we can potentially harness the power of sunlight to produce clean and renewable fuels, such as hydrogen and methanol.Furthermore, the development of nanotechnology is playing a pivotal role in advancing solar energy technologies. Nanoparticles and nanostructures can enhance the efficiency of solar cells by manipulating light absorption and charge transport properties. By tailoringthe size, shape, and composition of these nanomaterials, scientists can optimize the performance of solar devices.The integration of solar energy into our energy grids presents challenges and opportunities alike. Smart grid technologies, combined with energy storage systems, will be essential in managing the intermittent nature of solar power and ensuring a reliable and resilient energy supply. Additionally, the development of smart homes and buildings that incorporate solar energy generation and storage will empower consumers to take a more active role in their energy consumption and contribute to a more sustainable future.In conclusion, the pursuit of sustainable and renewable energy sources through chemical engineering is acaptivating endeavor that holds the key to addressing the urgent challenges of climate change while ensuring a brighter future for our planet. As a student in this field, I'm eager to contribute to these advancements and make a meaningful impact on the world.中文回答：身为一名化工专业的学生，我很荣幸能够深入钻研这个迷人且不断发展的领域，它塑造了我们的技术进步和日常生活。
英语作文新闻报道范文
英语作文新闻报道范文As we all know, news reporting is an important part of English writing. It requires writers to be objective, accurate, and concise in order to deliver the latest information to the public. In this article, we will provide a sample English composition of a news report, to help you understand the structure and language features of this genre.Title: English Composition - Sample News ReportDate: October 15th, 2022Headline: New Technology Revolutionizes Solar Energy IndustryIn recent years, the solar energy industry has been undergoing a significant transformation, thanks to the development of a groundbreaking technology called "solar paint". This innovative product, developed by a team of scientists at the University of California, promises to make solar energy more accessible and affordable for consumers worldwide.The solar paint, which is made from a combination of nanomaterials and conductive polymers, can be applied to any surface, effectivelyturning it into a solar panel. This means that buildings, vehicles, and even clothing could potentially become energy-generating assets. The implications of this technology are immense, as it could revolutionize the way we harness and utilize solar energy in our daily lives.According to Dr. Emily Chen, the lead researcher behind the solar paint project, the technology has the potential to address some of the key challenges facing the solar energy industry. "Traditional solar panels are bulky, expensive, and require a significant amount of space. With solar paint, we can overcome these limitations and integrate solar energy into our environment in a seamless and cost-effective manner," she explained.The commercial applications of solar paint are vast. In addition to its potential use in residential and commercial buildings, it could also be integrated into public infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, and public transportation. This means that cities and communities could generate clean energy from their existing infrastructure, reducing their reliance on fossil fuels and lowering their carbon footprint.The development of solar paint has already attracted significantattention from investors and industry leaders. Several major construction and technology companies have expressed interest in partnering with the University of California to further develop and commercialize the technology. This could potentially accelerate the adoption of solar paint and bring it to market within the next few years.In conclusion, the emergence of solar paint represents a major milestone in the evolution of solar energy technology. Its potential to transform the way we generate and utilize solar energy is truly groundbreaking, and it holds the promise of a more sustainable and environmentally friendly future. With further research and development, solar paint could become a ubiquitous feature of our built environment, ushering in a new era of clean and renewable energy.。
Investigating the Properties of Nanofluids
Investigating the Properties ofNanofluids随着科技的发展，人类对于纳米技术的应用越来越深入。
其中一项应用就是纳米流体（nanofluids）技术。
纳米流体就是将微米或纳米级别的颗粒分散于传统的流体中。
这个技术在热传导、摩擦损失等领域有着广泛的应用。
在工程领域中，纳米流体的热传导性能引起了我们的特别关注。
热传导系数决定了材料的导热性能，它的值越大表明材料导热能力越好。
因此，热导率也被广泛地应用在各种领域，例如电池、半导体等。
通过添加纳米颗粒到传统的流体中，可以极大地提高流体的热传导性能。
研究表明，与传统的热传导介质相比，纳米流体的热传导系数要高得多。
这是因为纳米颗粒具有巨大的比表面积；微米或者更大的颗粒的表面积更小，因此纳米颗粒的比表面积较大，导致表面能更强，从而对周围的流体产生更多的振动和搅拌，提高了流体的热导率。
在进行纳米流体的研究时，需要通过一系列的实验来测试纳米流体的物理和化学特性。
以下我们将介绍一些测试方法：1. 热导测试热导测试是测试纳米流体中热传导性能的重要方法。
通常采用热板法或热阻法进行测试。
在热板法中，将一个热板加热至一定的温度，待热板温度稳定后，将添加不同纳米颗粒的流体涂在热板上，并通过传感器进行测试。
在热阻法中，测量热板两面的温差来计算材料的热导率。
2. 稳定性测试稳定性测试是指纳米颗粒在流体中的分散情况。
稳定性好的纳米流体在使用时更为方便和可靠。
通常采用离心法、显微镜、光学薄膜厚度检测器等进行测试。
3. 流变性测试流变性测试是指测量纳米流体的黏度、流动性等指标。
黏度的大小反映了流体内部分子之间的摩擦力大小。
流动性的指标反映了流体内部分子的运动速度。
具有良好流动性的纳米流体在传输和运用时更为方便。
总结：纳米流体技术是一项有潜力的应用技术。
通过添加纳米颗粒到传统的流体中，可以大大提高流体的热传导性能。
但同时需要进行一系列的测试，以确保纳米流体的物理和化学特性稳定，促进其在各个领域的应用。
纳米技术在我们生活中的哪些地方英语作文
纳米技术在我们生活中的哪些地方英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Nanotechnology: A Tiny Revolution in Our Daily LivesHave you ever wondered how our computers and phones can get smaller and more powerful each year? Or how certain fabrics can resist stains and wrinkles so effectively? The answer lies in the extraordinary world of nanotechnology – a field that manipulates matter at an unimaginably small scale, one billionth of a meter. While it may sound like something straight out of a science fiction novel, nanotechnology is already integrated into countless aspects of our everyday lives, revolutionizing industries and enhancing our quality of living in ways we often overlook.At its core, nanotechnology deals with the precise control and manipulation of materials at the nanoscale, which is approximately 1 to 100 nanometers. To put that into perspective, a single strand of human hair is around 80,000 nanometers wide! By operating at such minuscule dimensions, scientists canengineer materials with unique properties and functionalities that are simply not possible at larger scales.One of the most prevalent applications of nanotechnology is in the realm of electronics. The relentless pursuit of miniaturization and increased computing power has been driven by our ability to fabricate transistors and other components at the nanoscale. Modern microprocessors, for instance, contain billions of tiny transistors, each measuring just a few nanometers in size. This incredible feat of engineering has allowed us to carry powerful computers in our pockets and have access to vast amounts of information at our fingertips.Nanotechnology has also made significant strides in the field of medicine, offering promising solutions for early disease detection, targeted drug delivery, and advanced medical imaging techniques. Nanoparticles, which are incredibly small particles ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers in size, can be engineered to carry drugs directly to diseased cells, minimizing the harmful side effects associated with traditional treatments. Additionally, nanobiosensors are being developed to detect the presence of specific molecules in the body, enabling early diagnosis and more effective treatment of various diseases.Another area where nanotechnology has made a profound impact is in the world of materials science. By precisely manipulating the structure and composition of materials at the nanoscale, researchers have created innovative materials with remarkable properties. For instance, carbon nanotubes, which are cylindrical structures composed of carbon atoms, are incredibly strong and lightweight, making them ideal for applications ranging from aerospace engineering to sports equipment.Even in our clothing and textiles, nanotechnology has found its way. Certain fabrics now incorporate nanoparticles that repel water, stains, and wrinkles, ensuring our clothes stay fresh and clean for longer periods. This technology has been agame-changer in the fashion and apparel industry, offering consumers greater convenience and durability.Nanotechnology has also made significant strides in the field of energy production and storage. Researchers are developing nanomaterials that can enhance the efficiency of solar cells, allowing for more effective conversion of sunlight into electricity. Additionally, nanostructured materials are being explored for use in next-generation batteries, offering improved energy density and faster charging times.While the potential applications of nanotechnology are vast and exciting, it is essential to acknowledge and address the potential risks and ethical concerns associated with this emerging field. Nanoparticles, due to their incredibly small size, can potentially penetrate biological barriers and accumulate in living organisms, raising concerns about their potential toxicity and environmental impact. Furthermore, the unprecedented control over matter at the nanoscale raises ethical questions about the responsible development and use of these technologies.Despite these challenges, nanotechnology remains a fascinating and rapidly evolving field with the potential to reshape our world in profound ways. As students and future leaders, it is our responsibility to educate ourselves about this transformative technology and its implications. We must engage in open and informed discussions, encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration among scientists, engineers, policymakers, and ethicists to ensure the responsible and sustainable development of nanotechnology.In conclusion, nanotechnology is no longer a concept confined to the realm of science fiction – it is a reality that permeates our daily lives in ways both visible and invisible. Fromthe electronics we use to the clothes we wear, this tiny revolution is reshaping industries and offering innovative solutions to some of the most pressing challenges we face. As we continue to explore and harness the vast potential of nanotechnology, we must do so with a deep sense of responsibility, ensuring that its benefits are maximized while mitigating potential risks. Embracing this transformative technology with open minds and ethical considerations will be crucial in shaping a future where nanotechnology enhances our quality of life in ways we can scarcely imagine.篇2Nanotechnology: The Tiny Revolution Changing EverythingYou may not realize it, but nanotechnology is all around us, quietly transforming our lives in countless ways. Thiscutting-edge field focuses on manipulating matter at the nanoscale - dealing with structures between 1 and 100 nanometers. To put that into perspective, a single strand of human DNA is around 2.5 nanometers wide. By harnessing nanotechnology, scientists and engineers can create new materials and products with vastly superior properties compared to their traditional counterparts.As a student, I find nanotechnology endlessly fascinating because it bridges the gap between different scientific disciplines like chemistry, physics, biology, and materials science. The potential applications seem to be limited only by our imagination. Let me take you on a tour through some of the areas where nanotechnology is already making an impact on our daily lives.Consumer ElectronicsOne of the most visible places you'll find nanotechnology is in the electronic gadgets we use every day. The microchips and processors that power our computers, smartphones, and gaming systems rely heavily on nanotechnology. By using nanocircuits and nanocomponents, manufacturers can pack more transistors onto a microchip, leading to greater computing power and energy efficiency.Nanotechnology also enables new display technologies like OLED (organic light-emitting diode) and quantum dot displays found in high-end TVs and monitors. These offer superior color reproduction, brightness, and contrast ratios compared to traditional LCDs. Quantum dots, which are semiconductor nanocrystals, can precisely emit light at specific wavelengths based on their size, enabling richer, more vibrant images.Medicine and HealthcareHowever, some of the most exciting and life-changing applications of nanotechnology are in the medical field. Nanomedicine promises to revolutionize the way we detect, treat, and potentially cure many diseases.Imagine nanorobots swimming through your bloodstream, detecting cancerous cells at an incredibly early stage and delivering targeted treatments directly to those cells while leaving healthy ones unharmed. This could allow for far more effective cancer therapies with fewer harsh side effects. Researchers are also investigating using nanoparticles to deliver drugs precisely to specific organs or across the blood-brain barrier.Nanotechnology-based diagnostic tools can provide quicker and more accurate disease detection from just tiny samples of blood or other biomarkers. For example, nanobiosensors can identify the presence of particular proteins or other molecules associated with diseases like Alzheimer's or Parkinson's long before clinical symptoms appear.The applications extend beyond treating diseases too. Nanomaterials are being used to develop more lifelike artificiallimbs and superior bone/joint replacements that are stronger, lighter, and integrated better with the body.Environment and EnergyAnother area where nanotechnology is poised to have a huge positive impact is the environment and energy sectors. Nanostructured catalysts and membranes can make industrial processes far more energy efficient by improving chemical reactions or separating specific molecules. For example, nanocatalysts could lead to cheaper and more eco-friendly production of hydrogen as a clean fuel source.Likewise, nanotechnology is central to developing better batteries and solar cells with higher storage capacities and energy conversion rates. Nanostructured electrodes and carbon nanotubes can significantly boost battery performance.Ultra-thin nanofilms and nanowires can capture a wider range of solar energy while using less material.Nanoengineered filters and remediation systems show great promise at filtering out toxic pollutants from air and water far more effectively than current methods. Self-cleaning surfaces using nanoscopic coatings that are dirt and water-resistant could lead to longer-lasting, lower maintenance buildings and vehicles.The Food IndustryYou might be surprised to learn that nanotechnology even has applications in the food we eat. An emerging field called "nanofoods" aims to engineer nanostructures that can make foods healthier, tastier, more sustainable, and longer-lasting.Nanoemulsions, for instance, can be used to reduce the amounts of oil, salt, sugar, and other unhealthy ingredients in foods without sacrificing taste and texture. Nanoencapsulation, meanwhile, allows nutrients, antioxidants, or flavors to be delivered in perfectly measured doses within foods.Nanocomposite coatings could extend the shelf life of perishable foods by providing better moisture and gas barriers. Nanoparticles added during food processing could even allow for interactive "smart" food packaging that lets you know when your food has truly spoiled.The Challenges AheadOf course, like any new and powerful technology, nanotechnology also raises some concerns and ethical questions around safety and regulation. As we engineer materials at tinier and tinier scales, their properties and interactions can change in unpredictable ways that may have unintended consequences onhuman health and the environment if not properly studied and contained.There are also concerns around "nanopollution" and the potential toxicity of some nanoparticles if they are able to cross biological barriers. Strict guidelines and responsible development overseen by international bodies and independent agencies will be necessary.Furthermore, the pace of innovation often outstrips our ability to fully understand the societal, ethical, and security implications of new technologies. Could nanotechnology be misused to create advanced weapons or invasive surveillance systems? How will nanotech impact the economy as entire industries are disrupted? These issues will require ongoing public discourse and governance frameworks.Looking to the FutureDespite these hurdles, the future of nanotechnology burns brighter than ever. As our ability to manipulate matter at the atomic and molecular scales grows more refined and sophisticated, I can hardly fathom what other "nano-revolutions" lie on the horizon.Perhaps self-healing materials and dirt-repellent clothes that never need washing will become commonplace. Or nanosensors embedded in our bodies and smart environments will be able to continuously monitor our health and warn us of any issues before they become serious. Nanoelectronics may push Moore's Law to its ultimate limits and yield hyper-efficient quantum computers that solve problems modern computers can't.Maybe one day, we'll even develop molecular machines and nanorobots that can literally rearrange molecules and reshape the physical world around us, allowing us to manufacture virtually any material from the atoms up. Far-fetched as that may sound, the foundations are already being laid in the amazing science happening in university and corporate labs around the globe.The nanotech revolution has only just begun. While invisible to the naked eye, I'm certain these infinitesimal innovations will cast a long and profound shadow that ripples across every facet of the human experience in the decades ahead. As a student, I feel incredibly fortunate to bear witness to the unleashing of nanotechnology's vast potential to reshape our world.篇3Nanotechnology in Our Daily LivesHave you ever stopped to think about how incredibly small a nanometer is? It's a billionth of a meter - just about the size of a few atoms lined up in a row. That's almost incomprehensibly tiny! Yet nanotechnology, which involves manipulating matter at the nanoscale level, is all around us and deeply integrated into many aspects of our modern lives. In this essay, I'll explore some of the ways nanotechnology impacts our daily routines and experiences.One area where nanotechnology is ubiquitous is in the electronics we rely on every single day. The transistors and processors in our computers, laptops, tablets, and smartphones are made using nanotechnology that allows the components to be miniaturized down to the nanometer scale. This miniaturization is what enables the powerful computing capabilities and compact form factors of our devices. As another mind-blowing example, there are nanoparticles in the coatings of phone and TV screens that make them water-repellent and easier to keep clean!The field of medicine and healthcare is also being revolutionized by advances in nanotechnology. Nanoparticles are used as contrast agents for better medical imagingtechniques like MRIs and CT scans, allowing doctors to pinpoint tumors and deliver targeted cancer treatments with higher precision. Researchers are even developing nanorobots that could one day precisely diagnose and treat disease at the cellular level by traveling through the bloodstream. How incredible is that?Moving to our clothing and textiles, you might be surprised to learn that nanotechnology is woven right into the fabrics. Some dress shirts and pants incorporate nanoparticles that help repel stains and wrinkles, while active wear like athletic shoes and gym clothes utilize nanofibers to wick away moisture and prevent odors or bacteria buildup. These "nano-textiles" make our clothes more durable, comfortable and functional.And what about good old sunscreen? Most modern sunblocks take advantage of nanotechnology too. They contain nanoparticles of compounds like zinc oxide or titanium dioxide which act as more efficient UV blockers while being transparent so you don't end up looking pasty white. Being able to protect our skin from the sun's harmful rays while avoiding that classic white smear across the face - thanks nanotech!Another interesting application of nanotechnology is in the world of sports equipment. Golf balls utilize nanomaterials andnanocomposite materials to control factors like ball spin, trajectory, and energy transfer for greater distance. Similarly, the coatings on tennis balls incorporate nanoparticles to increase their durability and consistent bounce. Even automobile manufacturers are getting in on the action by using nanoceramics to put a protective and anti-scratch finish on the outer paint.I think one of the coolest areas where nanotechnology is making its mark is in environmental solutions and sustainability efforts. Advanced water filtration systems utilize nanomembranes with microscopic pores to remove toxic chemicals, bacteria, and salt from drinking water in a much more efficient and cost-effective way than traditional methods. Looking ahead, nanostructured photocatalysts may allow us to create self-cleaning surfaces that use light to break down dirt and organic materials. We're even seeing early applications of nanotechnology in fuel cells and solar panels to boost their energy generation capabilities.Of course, like any powerful technology, there are also ethical concerns around the implications of nanotechnology that we as a society need to carefully consider. Some experts worry about the potential toxicity of certain nanomaterials if they arereleased into the environment or inadvertently ingested by humans. There are also concerns about nanoscale machines being weaponized or used for unethical surveillance purposes if the technology falls into the wrong hands. It's a fascinating issue of balancing scientific advancement with social responsibility.In closing, I hope this essay has opened your eyes to some of the many domains where nanotechnology is quietly but powerfully at work in our daily lives, from our electronic gadgets and medical treatments to our clothing and sports gear. While it may operate on an almost inconceivably small scale, nanotechnology is truly a giant enabler of modern life and conveniences. As both a scientist and an ethicist in training, I'm excited to see how this incredible field continues to evolve and shape our future in the coming decades - responsibly harnessing the power of the ultra-small for huge benefits to humanity.。
原料材料的英语
原料材料的英语Ingredients and MaterialsThe world we live in is a vast and interconnected one, where the products and technologies we rely on are often the result of a complex web of raw materials, resources, and manufacturing processes. From the clothes we wear to the devices we use, the materials that make up these everyday items are as diverse as the natural world itself. In this essay, we will explore the importance of ingredients and materials, delving into their origins, their roles in shaping our lives, and the challenges and opportunities that come with their use.At the heart of any product or technology lies a collection of raw materials, each with its own unique properties and characteristics. These ingredients, whether they are natural resources extracted from the earth or synthetic compounds developed in laboratories, form the building blocks of the things we use and consume. The extraction, processing, and refinement of these materials are crucial steps in the creation of the products we rely on.One of the most fundamental and ubiquitous materials in our lives ismetal. From the steel that frames our buildings to the copper wiring that powers our electrical grids, metals are essential components in a vast array of applications. The mining and smelting of ores, the alloying of different metals, and the shaping of these materials into usable forms are all part of the complex process that brings these materials to life.Similarly, the textile industry is heavily reliant on a diverse range of natural and synthetic fibers, each with its own unique properties and uses. Cotton, wool, silk, and linen are just a few examples of the natural fibers that have been used for centuries to create clothing and other textiles. In recent decades, the development of synthetic fibers like polyester, nylon, and spandex has expanded the range of options available to manufacturers and consumers.The chemical industry is another sector that is heavily dependent on the careful selection and manipulation of ingredients and materials. From the pharmaceuticals that keep us healthy to the plastics that shape our everyday objects, the compounds and molecules that make up these products are the result of extensive research, development, and manufacturing processes.One of the key challenges facing the use of ingredients and materials in modern society is the issue of sustainability. As the global population continues to grow and our demand for resourcesincreases, there is a pressing need to find ways to extract, process, and use these materials in a more environmentally-friendly and responsible manner. This has led to the development of new technologies and approaches, such as the use of renewable materials, the recycling and reuse of existing resources, and the exploration of alternative sources of raw materials.Another challenge is the issue of supply chain transparency and traceability. In an increasingly globalized world, the materials and ingredients that go into the products we use often come from a wide range of sources, making it difficult to ensure that they are produced and sourced in an ethical and sustainable manner. This has led to increased scrutiny and pressure on companies to be more transparent about their supply chains and to ensure that their practices align with social and environmental standards.Despite these challenges, the use of ingredients and materials also presents a wealth of opportunities for innovation and progress. The development of new materials with unique properties, such as advanced composites, nanomaterials, and smart materials, has opened up new avenues for product design and development. Additionally, the increasing focus on sustainability has driven the search for alternative, renewable, and environmentally-friendly materials, which has the potential to transform entire industries and create new economic opportunities.In conclusion, the world of ingredients and materials is a complex and multifaceted one, with far-reaching implications for our daily lives, the environment, and the future of our societies. As we continue to grapple with the challenges and opportunities presented by these essential building blocks of our world, it is crucial that we approach their use with a deep understanding of their origins, their properties, and their impacts. By doing so, we can work towards a more sustainable, equitable, and innovative future, where the materials that shape our world are harnessed in a responsible and thoughtful manner.。
纳米技术在实际生活中还运用作文
纳米技术在实际生活中还运用作文英文回答：Nano technology has been widely applied in various aspects of our daily lives, making our lives more convenient and efficient. One of the most common applications of nanotechnology is in the field of electronics. For example, the use of nanomaterials in the production of electronic devices has greatly improved their performance and durability. Nanotechnology has also played a significant role in the development of medical treatments and diagnostic tools. Nanoparticles are used in targeted drug delivery systems, allowing for more precise and effective treatment of diseases.In addition, nanotechnology has revolutionized the textile industry by creating fabrics with unique properties such as stain resistance and UV protection. Nanoparticles are incorporated into the fabric during the manufacturing process, providing long-lasting benefits to the consumers.Moreover, the use of nanotechnology in the food industryhas led to the development of innovative packagingmaterials that help extend the shelf life of perishable goods. For instance, nanocomposites are used to create food packaging that is both lightweight and strong, reducingfood waste and environmental impact.Overall, the applications of nanotechnology in ourdaily lives continue to expand and improve, offering solutions to various challenges we face. From electronicsto healthcare to food packaging, nanotechnology has become an integral part of our modern world.中文回答：纳米技术已被广泛应用于我们日常生活的各个方面，使我们的生活更加便利和高效。
211091482_新兴食品安全潜在风险因子生物碱成分的研究进展
刘慧，穆同娜，林立，等. 新兴食品安全潜在风险因子生物碱成分的研究进展[J]. 食品工业科技，2023，44（8）：485−494. doi:10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022070090LIU Hui, MU Tongna, LIN Li, et al. Research Progress on Alkaloids as Emerging Potential Risk Factors for Food Safety[J]. Science and Technology of Food Industry, 2023, 44(8): 485−494. (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022070090· 专题综述 ·新兴食品安全潜在风险因子生物碱成分的研究进展刘 慧，穆同娜，林 立，耿健强，姜 洁*（北京市食品检验研究院（北京市食品安全监控和风险评估中心），国家市场监管重点实验室（食品安全重大综合保障关键技术），北京 100094）摘 要：生物碱（alkaloids ）是植物中较大的一类次级代谢产物，具有显著的药理活性，是许多中草药的有效成分，在临床用药上有很大的应用价值。
然而，大部分生物碱具有明显的毒性作用，并可经食物链传递进入人体，成为危害公众健康的新兴潜在风险因子。
本文对食品中的具有潜在危害的高风险生物碱的种类、来源以及分析方法等方面进行综述，旨在为此类生物碱的检测研究及相关监管部门的政策制定提供警示和参考依据。
关键词：食品，安全，生物碱，潜在风险，危害性本文网刊:中图分类号：TS207.5 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1002−0306（2023）08−0485−10DOI: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022070090Research Progress on Alkaloids as Emerging Potential Risk Factorsfor Food SafetyLIU Hui ，MU Tongna ，LIN Li ，GENG Jianqiang ，JIANG Jie *（Beijing Institute of Food Inspection (Beijing Municipal Center for Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment), Key Laboratory of Key Technologies of Major Comprehensive Guarantee of Food Safety for State Market Regulation,Beijing 100094, China ）Abstract ：Alkaloids are a large class of secondary metabolites in plants with significant pharmacological activity. As the active ingredients of many Chinese herbal medicines, they have great application value in clinical medicine. However, most alkaloids have obvious toxic effects and can be transmitted into the human body through the food chain, becoming an emerging potential risk factor for public health. This article reviews the types, sources and analytical methods of high-risk toxic and harmful alkaloids in food, aiming to provide warnings and reference for the detection and research of toxic and harmful alkaloids and the policy formulation of relevant regulatory authorities.Key words ：food ；safty ；alkaloids ；potential risk ；harmfulness生物碱（alkaloids ）是主要存在于植物中的一类含氮碱性有机化合物，约占植物次生代谢产物的20%，广泛分布于毛茛科、防己科、罂粟科、木兰科、芸香科、紫草科、菊科、豆科、樟科等植物中。
纳米技术运用到生活方面写一篇英语作文
纳米技术运用到生活方面写一篇英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Nanotech Revolution: How Tiny Particles Are Transforming Our Daily LivesNanotechnology sounds like something out of a science fiction movie - the ability to manipulate and control individual atoms and molecules. However, this cutting-edge field of applied science has gone mainstream and is rapidly changing the world around us in profound ways. As a student studying nanotechnology, I've become fascinated by its vast potential to revolutionize everything from electronics and energy production to healthcare and environmental protection.At its core, nanotechnology involves materials, devices, or other structures with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter - unimaginably small. To put that scale into perspective, a single strand of human DNA is around 2.5 nanometers wide. Working at the nanoscale allows scientists and engineers to leverage theunique physical, chemical, and biological properties of materials in this tiny realm.While nanotechnology may seem abstract, its impacts are extremely tangible in our everyday lives as consumers. One of the earliest commercial applications has been in the electronics sector through transistors, memory chips, and processors constructed with nanoparticles. This nano-engineering has enabled the relentless miniaturization of electronics and incredible increases in computing power aligned with Moore's Law over recent decades.Chances are the smartphone, laptop, or other device you're viewing this on contains nanomaterials and components. However, nanotech's influence extends far beyond modern gadgets. It is being infused into household goods like food containers designed with nanocomposites to keep contents fresher for longer. Some plastic storage products utilize nanoparticles that destroy microbes, acting as antimicrobials.The apparel industry has enthusiastically embraced nanotechnology as well. Nanofibers and nanowhiskers enhance the strength of fabrics while providing stain resistance, water repellency, and wrinkle-free properties. From dress shirts to athletic wear, nanotechnology is making our clothes performbetter and last longer. Feet clad in socks woven with nanoparticles even benefit from odor control.In our homes, nanotech is being applied to improve insulation, make cleaning products moreenvironmentally-friendly yet powerful, and construct stronger, lighter components for appliances, furniture, and other goods. Windows, paints, and tiles can be coated with nanoparticle films to become self-cleaning by making surfaces hydrophobic so water easily rinses away dirt. Nanostructured materials have also enabled more energy-efficient lighting such as LED bulbs.The beauty and personal care industry may be one of the biggest adopters of nanotechnology. From cosmetics and sunscreens to anti-aging creams and hair products, nanoparticles are enhancing product efficacy and performance. For instance, using nanosized zinc oxide and titanium dioxide enables transparent sunblock formulations that block ultraviolet rays yet remain invisible on the skin. Nanoparticles of minerals can also improve the look and feel of make-up while providing longer-lasting coverage.Beyond the cosmetic benefits, some nanoparticles function as antioxidants and anti-inflammatories. Scientists are investigating anti-aging skin care treatments that utilizenanocarriers to transport antioxidants deeper into the epidermis layer of the skin. Dendrimers and nanoemulsions are two emerging classes of nanoparticles being explored for targeted drug delivery through the skin's barrier.Stepping outside the home, nanotechnology is impacting modern automobiles and transportation systems. Nanocomposites have enabled manufacturers to produce stronger, lighter vehicle bodies and components to improve fuel efficiency. Tires with nanofillers roll with less resistance, also boosting gas mileage. Nanocoatings applied to automotive glass and ceramic surfaces make them hydrophobic and resistant to fogging. Looking ahead, innovators are developing nanostructured batteries and fuel cells with higher energy density for electric vehicles.While the consumer-oriented applications are remarkable, nanotechnology is poised to transform many other vital sectors that touch our lives. Nanomedicine is an exciting field harnessing nanodevices for advanced disease diagnosis and targeted drug delivery with precise spatial and temporal control. Researchers envision fleets of nanorobots one day being able tonon-invasively screen for diseases, deliver therapeutic agents, and even perform microscopic surgery.Advanced nanomaterials and nanoengineered surfaces are being developed to radically improve water purification systems, catalysis, and sensing for environmental monitoring and remediation. The unique properties of nanoparticles allow capture of contaminants and reactions to occur much more efficiently. Innovations in nanotech membranes and filters can desalinate water with considerably less energy than conventional methods.In the energy sector, nanostructured photovoltaics, fuel cells, and thermoelectrics could provide cleaner power generation solutions. Utilities companies are exploring nanocomposite coatings for shipping and storing natural gas. The oil and gas industry is investigating applications of nanotechnology for enhanced exploration, drilling, and refining processes. Some areas I'm particularly interested in are zero-emission nanocomposite batteries and ultracapacitors for electric vehicles and energy storage.Admittedly, some risks of nanotechnology in consumer products raise reasonable concerns around human and environmental impact, requiring further study. Cosmetic products that contain nanoparticles and don't label them properly have sparked backlash. There are also debates aroundethical implications of nanobiotechnology applications. However, advocates emphasize nanotech enables highly efficient use of raw materials and production processes, promising more sustainable practices overall.Numerous agencies, companies, universities, and other organizations are diligently working to assess and mitigate potential risks while responsibly advancing the capabilities of nanotechnology. Regulatory frameworks and safety guidelines are being established. As a student, I believe education and public dialogue will be crucial for responsible development of nanotechnology to ensure it progresses safely while unlocking its tremendous societal benefits.In conclusion, nanotechnology is proving to be one of the most transformative and cross-cutting fields in modern science. From shattering the limits of industrial manufacturing and computing to enabling breakthrough products that improve our health and quality of living, nanotech's mind-boggling innovations are rapidly permeating nearly every aspect of our lives. While challenges remain, the future possibilities are as enormous as the nanoscale itself. For students like myself, it's an incredibly exciting time to study and help shape this nanorevolution.篇2The Nanotech Revolution: How Tiny Particles Are Transforming Our LivesNanotechnology is often viewed as an abstract scientific concept that doesn't impact our everyday lives. However, the reality is that this incredible technology involving the manipulation of matter at the atomic and molecular scale has already seeped into many aspects of modern society. From the clothes we wear to the food we eat, nanotechnology is revolutionizing various industries and changing the world in subtle yet profound ways.As a student fascinated by science and technology, I have been intrigued by the vast potential of nanotechnology and its ability to solve real-world problems. In this essay, I will explore some of the most exciting applications of nanotechnology in our daily lives, showcasing how this cutting-edge field is making our world better, safer, and more efficient.One of the most significant areas where nanotechnology has made its mark is in the realm of textiles and clothing. Nanoparticles are being incorporated into fabrics to create stain-resistant, water-repellent, and wrinkle-free materials. These"smart fabrics" are not only more durable and easier to maintain, but they also have the potential to regulate body temperature, provide UV protection, and even monitor vital signs. Imagine wearing a shirt that can adjust its insulation based on the weather conditions or a sports jersey that can track your heart rate and hydration levels during a workout!Another area where nanotechnology is making waves is in the field of food production and packaging. Nanoparticles are being used to develop more effective food packaging that can extend the shelf life of perishable items, reduce spoilage, and even detect the presence of harmful bacteria or pathogens. Additionally, nanomaterials are being explored for their potential to enhance the nutritional value of foods, improve food safety, and increase crop yields through more efficient delivery of nutrients and pesticides.In the realm of consumer electronics, nanotechnology is enabling the development of smaller, more powerful, and energy-efficient devices. Nanostructured materials are being used to create flexible and transparent displays, high-capacity batteries, and more efficient solar cells. Imagine having a smartphone with a foldable display that fits in your pocket or alaptop that can run for days on a single charge thanks to its nanotech-enhanced battery.Nanotechnology is also making significant strides in the field of medicine and healthcare. Nanoparticles are being used to develop targeted drug delivery systems that can precisely transport medications to specific areas of the body, reducing side effects and increasing efficacy. Nanobiosensors are being developed to detect diseases at an early stage, enabling more timely and effective treatment. Furthermore, nanomaterials are being explored for their potential to regenerate tissue, create artificial organs, and even deliver gene therapy more efficiently.Beyond these applications, nanotechnology is also playing a crucial role in addressing environmental challenges. Nanostructured membranes are being used to purify water and remove pollutants more efficiently, while nanoparticles are being employed in air filters and catalytic converters to reduce air pollution. Additionally, nanotechnology is being explored for its potential to create more efficient and cost-effective renewable energy sources, such as solar cells and fuel cells.However, it is important to acknowledge that nanotechnology, like any emerging technology, also comes with potential risks and challenges. There are concerns about thepotential toxicity and environmental impact of certain nanomaterials, as well as questions about the long-term health effects of exposure to nanoparticles. Additionally, there are ethical considerations surrounding the use of nanotechnology in areas such as human enhancement, surveillance, and weaponry.Despite these concerns, the potential benefits of nanotechnology are too significant to ignore. As a student, I am excited about the prospect of being part of a generation that will witness the full realization of this revolutionary technology. I believe that with proper regulation, research, and ethical guidelines, nanotechnology can be harnessed to create a better, more sustainable, and more prosperous world for all.In conclusion, nanotechnology is no longer a futuristic concept; it is a reality that is transforming our lives in ways both visible and invisible. From the clothes we wear to the food we eat, from the devices we use to the medical treatments we receive, nanotechnology is making our world smarter, more efficient, and more advanced. As a student, I am eager to be a part of this nanotech revolution and contribute to the development of this incredible technology that has the potential to solve some of the world's most pressing challenges.篇3The Nanotech Revolution: How Tiny Particles Are Transforming Our WorldAs students, we're constantly bombarded with new technological terms and buzzwords that can be tough to grasp. One concept that has been generating a lot of excitement in recent years is nanotechnology. But what exactly is it, and how is it impacting our daily lives? That's what I aim to explore in this essay.At its core, nanotechnology refers to the manipulation and control of matter on an incredibly small scale – we're talking about materials measured in nanometers, or billionths of a meter. To put that into perspective, a single sheet of paper is about 100,000 nanometers thick! By working at this minuscule level, scientists and engineers can create innovative materials, devices, and products with unique and enhanced properties.Now, you might be thinking, "That's all well and good, but how does nanotechnology actually affect me?" Well, let me tell you – the applications of this cutting-edge field are already all around us, and they're only going to become more prevalent in the years to come.Let's start with something we all use every day: our gadgets and electronics. Nanotechnology is playing a crucial role inmaking our devices smaller, faster, and more energy-efficient. For example, the processors in our computers and smartphones rely on tiny transistors and circuits that are now being manufactured at the nanoscale. This allows for more compact designs without sacrificing performance.But it's not just about cramming more components into a smaller space. Nanotech is also enhancing the capabilities of our devices in exciting ways. Take the screens on our phones and laptops, for instance. Manufacturers are incorporating nanoparticles into display coatings to improve brightness, contrast, and energy efficiency. Some models even featureself-cleaning coatings that use nanomaterials to repel dirt and fingerprints.Speaking of cleaning, nanotechnology is revolutionizing the way we keep our homes and surroundings tidy. Nanotech-based fabrics and surfaces are being developed that can actively repel stains, odors, and bacteria. Imagine having a shirt or a couch that never gets dirty or smelly – that's the kind of magic nanotechnology promises!But the applications go far beyond just making our lives more convenient. Nanotechnology is also playing a vital role inaddressing some of the world's most pressing challenges, such as healthcare and environmental sustainability.In the medical field, researchers are exploring the use of nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery, where medications can be transported directly to diseased cells or tissues, reducing side effects and improving efficacy. Nanotech-based biosensors are also being developed that can detect diseases like cancer at their earliest stages, allowing for timely treatment and better outcomes.When it comes to the environment, nanotechnology is offering innovative solutions for clean energy production, water purification, and waste remediation. For instance, nanostructured materials are being used to create highly efficient solar cells and batteries, while nanomembranes can filter out contaminants from water sources with unprecedented precision.And that's just the tip of the iceberg! Nanotechnology is also making waves in fields as diverse as agriculture, construction, and even space exploration. Researchers are developing nanoparticle-based pesticides and fertilizers that can be more effective and environmentally friendly. Nanocomposites are being used to create stronger, lighter, and more durable buildingmaterials. And NASA is exploring the use of nanotech for everything from self-cleaning spacesuits to advanced propulsion systems.Of course, like any revolutionary technology, nanotechnology comes with its own set of concerns and challenges. There are legitimate questions about the potential health and environmental risks of nanomaterials, as well as ethical considerations around their use in certain applications (like human enhancement or military applications).But rather than shying away from these challenges, it's important that we, as students and future leaders, engage with these issues head-on. We need to support continued research into the safety and ethical implications of nanotechnology, while also fostering public education and dialogue around this complex topic.At the end of the day, nanotechnology represents a transformative force that has the potential to reshape virtually every aspect of our lives. From the devices we use to the medicines we take, from the clothes we wear to the buildings we live and work in – the nanotech revolution is already underway, and it's up to us to shape its trajectory.So, embrace your curiosity, stay informed, and get excited about the possibilities that nanotechnology holds. Who knows? Maybe one day, you'll be the one developing the next big nanotech breakthrough that changes the world.After all, when it comes to innovation, sometimes the smallest things can have the biggest impact.。
关于nanomaterials引用缩写的文章
关于nanomaterials引用缩写的文章Nanomaterials: Revolutionizing the World of Science and TechnologyNanomaterials, a term derived from the words \"nano\" meaning one billionth and \"materials,\" refer to materials that have at least one dimension measuring less than 100 nanometers. These materials possess unique properties and characteristics due to their small size, making them highly soughtafter in various fields of science and technology. The abbreviation \"nanomaterials\" has become a buzzword in recent years, representing a new era of innovation and discovery.The field of nanomaterials has witnessed remarkable advancements, thanks to their exceptional properties. These materials exhibit enhanced mechanical, electrical, thermal, and optical properties compared to their bulk counterparts. For instance, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) possess remarkable strength and electrical conductivity, making them ideal for applications in electronics and energy storage devices. Similarly, nanoparticles have shown great potential in drug delivery systems due to their ability to penetrate cell membranes more efficiently.The abbreviation \"nanomaterials\" has become an integral part of scientific research across various disciplines. Researchers are actively exploring the potential applications of these materials in fieldssuch as medicine, electronics, energy storage, environmental remediation, and many more. The versatility of nanomaterials allows scientists to tailor their properties for specific applicationsby manipulating their size, shape, and composition.One area where nanomaterials have madesignificant contributions is in the field of medicine. Nanoparticles can be engineered todeliver drugs directly to targeted cells or tissues within the body. This targeted drug delivery system minimizes side effects and increases the efficacyof treatments for diseases such as cancer. Additionally, nanomaterial-based biosensors arebeing developed for early detection of diseases by detecting specific biomarkers with high sensitivity. In the electronics industry, nanomaterials have revolutionized device fabrication and performance. Graphene, a two-dimensional nanomaterial composedof a single layer of carbon atoms, has exceptional electrical conductivity and mechanical strength.Its unique properties have paved the way for the development of flexible and transparent electronics, wearable devices, and high-performance batteries.The energy sector is also benefiting from nanomaterials. Nanomaterials are being used to improve the efficiency of solar cells by enhancing light absorption and charge transport. Additionally, nanomaterial-based catalysts are being explored for more efficient energy conversion processes, such asfuel cells and hydrogen production.Despite the numerous advantages of nanomaterials, their potential impact on human health and the environment cannot be overlooked. The small size of these materials allows them to penetrate biological barriers easily, raising concerns about their toxicity. Researchers are actively studying the potential risks associated with nanomaterial exposure to ensure their safe use.In conclusion, nanomaterials have become adriving force behind scientific advancements in various fields. The abbreviation \"nanomaterials\" represents a world of endless possibilities and opportunities for innovation. As researcherscontinue to explore their potential applications,it is crucial to strike a balance betweenharnessing their benefits and ensuring their safe use. Nanomaterials are undoubtedly shaping thefuture of science and technology, promising a world of exciting discoveries yet to come.。
纳米食物作文20字
纳米食物作文20字英文回答：In the realm of culinary innovation, manipulating foodat the nanoscale holds immense potential to revolutionize our eating habits, improve human health, and address global food challenges.Nanotechnology, involving the manipulation of matter at the atomic and molecular level, offers unprecedented opportunities to design and fabricate novel food materials with tailored properties. By precisely controlling the size, shape, and structure of nanostructures, scientists can engineer food particles that possess enhanced nutritional value, improved bioavailability, targeted delivery capabilities, and tailored sensory experiences.The ability to encapsulate nutrients within nano-sized carriers enables targeted nutrient delivery to specific tissues or organs, enhancing absorption and optimizinghealth outcomes. This targeted approach holds promise for treating nutrient deficiencies, improving drug delivery, and managing chronic diseases.Nanotechnology also paves the way for the development of smart foods that respond to external stimuli or perform specific functions in the body. For instance, "smart" nanoparticles can release bioactive compounds in response to changes in pH, temperature, or the presence of specific enzymes, delivering nutrients or therapeutic agents precisely when and where they are needed.Furthermore, the ability to manipulate food structure at the nanoscale allows for the creation of novel textures and flavors, offering consumers a wider range of culinary experiences. By controlling the size, shape, and arrangement of nanostructures, scientists can design foods with tailored mouthfeel, release profiles, and sensory properties.However, the use of nanotechnology in food applications must be approached with caution. Thorough safetyassessments are essential to ensure that nanomaterials do not pose any risks to human health or the environment. Regulatory frameworks need to be established to guide the responsible development and use of nanotechnology in the food industry.Overall, the integration of nanotechnology into thefood sector holds immense promise for revolutionizing food production, enhancing nutrition, and improving human health. With careful consideration and responsible implementation, nanotechnology can contribute to a more sustainable, healthier, and enjoyable culinary landscape.中文回答：纳米食物是指利用纳米技术对食物进行加工制作而成的食品。
Applications of nanomaterials as vaccine adjuvants
This article was downloaded by: [Karolinska Institutet, University Library]On: 09 February 2015, At: 23:03Publisher: Taylor & FrancisInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UKClick for updatesHuman Vaccines & ImmunotherapeuticsPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:/loi/khvi20Applications of nanomaterials as vaccine adjuvantsMotao Zhu ab, Rongfu Wang b& Guangjun NieaaCAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety; National Center for Nanoscience and T echnology of China; Beijing, PR ChinabCenter for Inflammation and Epigenetics; Houston Methodist Research Institute; Houston,TX USAAccepted author version posted online: 01 Nov 2014.Published online: 17 Nov 2014.PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLEApplications of nanomaterialsas vaccine adjuvantsMotao Zhu 1,2,*,Rongfu Wang 2,and Guangjun Nie 11CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety;National Center for Nanoscience and Technology of China;Beijing,PR China;2Center for In flamma-tion and Epigenetics;Houston Methodist Research Institute;Houston,TX USAKeywords:nanomaterials,vaccine adjuvant,immune response,nanotechnology,antigen deliveryIntroductionAdjuvants have been widely applied to increase the magnitude of an antigen-specific immune response by vaccination.Incorpo-ration of an adjuvant into a vaccine can amplify,guide and/or accelerate the immune response toward the most effective form for each infection or malignancy.1,2With the growing under-standing of the essential role of adjuvants in vaccines,the devel-opment of novel adjuvants is urgently needed due to increasing demands for unmet clinical needs.The expectations for a new generation of vaccine adjuvants are concentrated on the increased immunization efficacy of weak antigens,enhanced T cellresponses of desired types and generation of multifaceted broad-ening immune responses without compromising safety.With the growing advances in material science and nanotechnology,the rational design and manufacture of novel adjuvants with desired activity and safety are becoming possible.Nanotechnology has been a rapidly developing area since the last decade of the 20th century.To date,significant breakthroughs have been made in the design and manipulation of materials at the nanoscale to impact their performance in biomedical applications.Many types of substances,including chemical drugs,proteins as well as vaccines can be delivered by nanomaterial-based delivery systems to meet the criteria of high bioavailability,sustained and controlled release profiles,targeting,imaging and so forth.3-6Antigens delivered by nanomaterials can be protected from degra-dation and released in a sustainable manner,and their uptake by antigen-presenting cells (APCs)is more efficient.7-11Further-more,a number of studies have shown the inherent regulatory activity of nanomaterials in cellular and humoral immune responses.9,11-14Therefore,integration of both delivery and immunomodulatory effects of nanomaterials in adjuvant applica-tions will largely benefit the immune outcomes of vaccination.The applications of nanomaterials as vaccine adjuvants have been increasingly investigated for immune protection and immu-notherapy for infectious diseases and malignant cancers,and these materials have shown implicational advantages.15-19In this review,we will address the current achievements of nanotechnol-ogy in the development of novel adjuvants.Nanomaterials that perform adjuvant activity by enhancing antigen delivery for anti-gen presentation and via their inherent immunoactivation effect will be reviewed.We also aim to elucidate the underlying mecha-nisms for how nanomaterials impact the immune responses to a vaccine.Because physicochemical properties are believed to largely determine the adjuvant activity of nanomaterials,12-14,20the major properties of nanomaterials,including size,surface charge and sur-face modification,that impact their immunological outcomes will be discussed.We hope this review and discussion will provide new insights for the development of novel adjuvant formulations.Current Understanding of Adjuvants and the Development of Nano-AdjuvantsAdjuvants are essential components in vaccines for enhancing or directing antigen-specific immune responses to immunization.An adjuvant is necessary in a vaccine mainly for thefollowing 2761Human Vaccines &ImmunotherapeuticsREVIEWD o w n l o a d e d b y [K a r o l i n s k a I n s t i t u t e t , U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ] a t 23:03 09 F e b r u a r y 2015reasons:(1)dose sparing,which means the adjuvant helps to pro-mote sufficient immune responses with less antigen or fewer numbers of immunization;(2)enabling a broad antibody response against pathogens with antigenic drift or variations;(3)the ability to shape the immune response toward a functionally appropriate type to provide qualitative and durable protection against infection;and (4)promotion of a more rapid immune response.1,2Although numerous molecules and materials have showed immunomodulatory activities,only a small percentage of candidates have been licensed or applied in clinical tests.Indeed,many adjuvant candidates have failed due to their low efficacy,poor stability,unacceptable tolerability,and difficulty to manu-facture or toxicity.Adjuvants currently licensed in the US and Europe in human vaccines include alum (aluminum salts),squalene-in-water emul-sions (MF59,AS03,and AF03),virosomes and AS04(monophos-phoryl lipid A preparation [MPL]plus alum).1,11Among the licensed adjuvants,MF59(Novartis)is a nano-adjuvant which is 165nm in diameter with the ability to recruit neutrophils,mono-cytes and dendritic cells (DCs)and enhance antigen uptake.In particular,MF59has shown more potent adjuvant activity than alum in inducing humoral and T helper type 1(Th1)immune responses.21,22Other nano-adjuvants,including virus-like nano-particles (VLNs)(15–30nm),poly(lactide-co-glycolide)(PLGA)nanoparticles (100–200nm),cationic liposomes,nanoemulsion W 805EC (400nm),and cholesterol-bearing nanogel (30–40nm),are under investigation in clinical trials nearing completion.11Emerging evidence shows that the ability to engineer and integrate desired properties and functions into nanomaterials will signifi-cantly contribute to generating novel adjuvants.For example,15–30nm VLNs mimic the structure of viruses,and their size and sur-face structure facilitate tissue penetration and lymph node (LN)targeting and also activate toll-like receptor (TLR)signaling.23,24Based on the function and application,adjuvants can be divided into three major categories:immunomodulatory mole-cules,non-immunostimulatory delivery systems,and combina-tions of the former two.A number of immunomodulatory molecules have been applied in widespread experimental use or clinical trials.In particular,ligands of innate immune signaling receptors,including TLRs,Nod-like receptors (NLRs)and reti-noic acid-inducible gene 1(RIG-I)-like receptors,are the major types of immunomodulatory adjuvants.1,2,25For other classes of adjuvants,the delivery system mainly works to enhance antigen presentation to immune cells.8,11,14,15,26-28The two most well-developed delivery systems for vaccines are liposomes and viro-somes.Other unconventional delivery systems are also rapidly being developed,including lipid-based particles,dendrimers,polymers,assembling structures of biomolecules,etc.8,11,14,26,27To develop an ideal adjuvant,both the immunomodulatory activity and delivery function of an adjuvant should be consid-ered.Next-generation adjuvants should be optimized for both activities by virtue of their multifunctional materials,and nanomaterials can represent a promising platform for combin-ing delivery and immunostimulatory functions.As a versatile system for antigen delivery,nanomaterials can enhance antigen presentation through more efficient uptake by APCs.Due tothe precise design of the surface of nanoparticles,DC targeting can be achieved via conjugation with the ligands of the man-nose receptor,Fc receptor (FcR),CD11c/CD18receptor,and DC-SIGN onto the nanoparticle surface.29-37To further facil-itate antigen entry into a cell,cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs)and viral-like nanosurfaces have been applied.23,24,38-40More recently,smart nanoparticles have been manufactured using pH-sensitive or redox-sensitive materials;23,24,40-43these envi-ronment-responsive nanoparticles enable controlled release of antigens at target sites and more adequate release of antigens from endo-lysosomal compartments,thus enhancing antigen presentation.In addition to their delivery function,a great number of nanoparticles have shown immunomodulatory effects,particularly for innate immune signaling.For example,nanoparticles can induce inflammasome activation in macro-phages and DCs,44-46enhance antigen presentation and APC maturation,33,34recruit immune cells,21,22,47,48direct T cell differentiation to a particular subtype,and activate the com-plement system.12,13,49-51Therefore,nanomaterials constitute a multifunctional unit to integrate target delivery and immu-nomodulation effects for clinical use in vaccination.Recent Progress on Nanomaterials in AdjuvantDevelopmentNanomaterials for vaccine deliveryNanomaterials for vaccine delivery are designed to enhance antigen uptake by APCs and/or obtain a controlled release or sustained release for antigen presentation.52These nanomate-rial delivery systems,which we abbreviate as nanocarriers,offer several advantages for antigen delivery compared with soluble antigen inoculation.First,antigens entrapped in nanocarriers can be protected from proteolytic degradation in vivo,which generally causes the antigen dose required for immunization to be increased.Second,nanocarriers provide a sustainable release profile for antigens prior to their internali-zation by APCs or within the endosome-lysosomal compart-ment after internalization.Nanocarriers thus serve to provide a long-lasting depot of antigen to boost the immune system.Third,the particulate form of antigen,either entrapped within nanocarriers or bound to nanoparticles,facilitates APC sensing and uptake compared with the soluble form.In addition,nanocarrier surface modification of ligands or anti-bodies targeting pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)can enhance antigen delivery to specific APCs through active st,nanocarriers enable co-delivery of different immunostimulatory components along with antigens to obtain a synergistic effect.Numerous nanomaterial delivery systems,including solid lipid nanoparticles,polymeric nano-particles,co-polymer nanogels and liposomes,have been developed for antigen delivery.7,9-11,13,15,27,53Recent develop-ments related to nanocarriers for vaccine delivery can be broadly divided into three groups:(1)passively APC-target-ing nanocarriers,(2)actively APC-targeting nanocarriers,and (3)cytosolic delivery and smart nanocarriers.2762Volume 10Issue 9Human Vaccines &Immunotherapeutics D o w n l o a d e d b y [K a r o l i n s k a I n s t i t u t e t , U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ] a t 23:03 09 F e b r u a r y 2015Passively APC-targeting nanocarriersThe antigen sensing and uptake of a particulate form by APCs are superior to those for small soluble proteins.1,2,14,15Therefore,antigens bound to or encapsulated in nanoparticles can be more efficiently internalized compared with free antigens.By cova-lently conjugating bovine serum albumin (BSA)or Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (PA)protein to the outer surface of nanoparticles,the antibody responses in mice were increased after immunization.In particular,the anti-BSA antibody response was 6.5-fold stronger than that induced by BSA adjuvanted with alum,and the anti-PA antibody response following immuniza-tion of PA-conjugated nanoparticles elicited a quicker,stronger,and more durable protective immune response against a lethal dose of anthrax in mice.54Moreover,immunization with human Nogo-66receptor Fc (hNgR-Fc)fusion protein conjugated to 15-nm gold nanoparticles generated higher titers of anti-NgR antibody,and the antibody responses were stronger than those following immunization adjuvanted with Freund’s adjuvant.55Other attempts have focused on encapsulating antigens within the nanocarrier,as this strategy can protect the antigen from pro-teolytic degradation in addition to providing the antigen in a par-ticulate form.PLGA is an FDA-approved biodegradable polymer widely used for controlled drug release for human uses.28,56In previous research,peptide Hp91encapsulated within PLGA nanoparticles induced 5-fold more potent immune responses compared with the free peptide.57Moreover,when delivering protective antigen domain 4(PAD4)of Bacillus anthracis via PLGA nanoparticles to Swiss Webster outbred mice,following single-dose immunization with PAD4-PLGA nanoparticles,a robust IgG response of the mixed IgG1and IgG2a subtypes was induced,whereas the free recombinant PAD4only elicited a low IgG response of the IgG1subtype.58Furthermore,upon compar-ing the efficacy of these formulations to induce protective immune responses against a lethal challenge with Bacillus anthra-cis spores,the median survival of mice immunized with PAD4-PLGA nanoparticles was 6d,whereas the survival time was only 1d for mice immunized with free PAD4.58Using the co-delivery capability of nanocarriers,double TLR ligands were encapsulated in nanoparticles with antigens to obtain synergistic enhancement and long-lasting antibody responses in mice.59,60Kasturi et ed 300-nm PLGA nano-particles containing MPL (TLR4ligand)or R837(TLR7ligand)or both,along with an antigen for immunization.Antigens including ovalbumin (OVA),hemagglutinin (HA)from avian influenza H5N1virus,and protective antigen (PA)from Bacillus anthracis were investigated.59Immunization of mice with PLGA (MPL C R837)plus PLGA(antigen)induced a synergistic enhancement of the primary and secondary antigen-specific anti-body responses compared with PLGA(antigen)alone or together with single PLGA(MPL)or PLGA(R837).Furthermore,PLGA (antigen)plus PLGA(MPL C R848)yielded at least a 5-fold dose-sparing effect compared with antigen alone in the first immuniza-tion,and this result was still evident upon secondary immuniza-tion.Strikingly,immunization with PLGA(OVA)and PLGA (MPL C R837)induced persistent germinal center formation and stimulated long-lived plasma cell responses in the LN for morethan 1.5y.The triggering of TLRs on both B cells and DCs was believed to contribute to the synergistic enhancement of antibody responses.59,60Another advantage of nanocarriers for delivery is that their surface chemistry can be easily manipulated.For example,anti-gen uptake can be further enhanced by altering the nanocarrier’s surface charge,hydrophobicity and functional groups for APC targeting.To further enhance antigen uptake by adjusting the surface charge,cationic nanocarriers have been applied.Because the cell membrane has a negatively charged hydrophilic outer face,positively charged particles are preferable for cell membrane binding and internalization due to their higher binding affinity than neutral and negatively charged nanoparticles.61,62In partic-ular,one study showed that the cellular uptake of cationic polye-thyleneimine (PEI)-coated mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNP)was considerably enhanced compared with unmodified MSNP (silanol surface)or particles coated with phosphonate or PEG groups (neutral charge).63In addition,the rate and amount of cellular uptake were both positively correlated with the posi-tive surface charge.64Wegmann et al.showed that the DC uptake of herpes simplex virus type-2glycoprotein (gp140)alone was much lower compared with gp140-PEI complexes.At 24h after intranasal administration,gp140was primarily found asso-ciated with DCs in draining LN.The antigen-specific IgG titers in the serum were about 100-fold higher when gp140was admin-istered with PEI than alone and up to 6-fold higher than those elicited by another licensed mucosal adjuvant cholera toxin B subunit (CTB).Herein branched PEI forms of 750kD (B750)and 25kD (B25)gave higher titers of antigen-specific mucosal IgA than linear PEI forms (L40and L160).65Self-assembled cat-ionic poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(L -lysine)-b-poly(L -leucine)(PEG-PLL-PLLeu)hybrid polypeptide micelles also showed high efficiency as a simple and potent vaccine delivery system,as OVA encapsulated in this cationic polypeptide micelle stimulated robust specific antibody production that was up to 70–90-fold greater than that generated using free OVA.These cationic poly-peptide micelles were also capable of inducing immature DC (iDC)maturation,enhancing antigen presentation and promot-ing the formation of a germinal center.Furthermore,by simulta-neously co-delivering OVA with polyribocytidylic acid (PIC),a TLR3agonist,this vaccine formulation synergistically aug-mented the tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL)response.66Several other examples of passive target delivery of antigens by nanocarriers and the relevant immunological out-comes are listed in Table 1.67-73Actively APC-targeting nanocarriersA number of nanocarriers are functionalized with a specific ligand or antibody to target DCs because DCs are the main APCs in the primary immune response.Antigens are first taken up by iDCs in peripheral tissues and processed and presented as major histocompatibility complex (MHC)/anti-gen peptide complexes to activate the adaptive immune sys-tem.Therefore,DC has become an attractive cellular target for vaccine delivery.Specific ligands or antibodies allow the vaccine material to interact with specific DC membrane 2763Human Vaccines &Immunotherapeutics D o w n l o a d e d b y [K a r o l i n s k a I n s t i t u t e t , U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ] a t 23:03 09 F e b r u a r y 2015Table 1.Nanomaterials for antigen delivery Function NanocarrierAntigenMolecular targetImmunological outcomesReferencesPassively target APCsPLGA nanoparticlesHuman gp100(25–33)TRP2(180–188)Stronger antigen-speci fic T cell responses than peptides mixed with Freund ’s adjuvant,delayed growth of subcutaneously inoculated B16melanoma67PLGA nanoparticles Hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg)Altered the Th2-biased peptide-induced immune responses toward the Th1type 87PLGA nanoparticlesProtective antigen domain 4(PAD4)Robust IgG response of mixed IgG1and IgG2a subtypes;the median survival of PAD4-PLGA nanoparticle-immunized mice was 6d,as opposed to 1d for free PAD458Cationic micellespoly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(L -lysine)-b-poly(L -leucine)(PEG-PLL-PLLeu)hybrid polypeptides OVA70–90-fold enhanced antibodyproduction;synergistically augmented tumor-speci fic CTL responses when encapsulating a TLR3agonist (PIC)simultaneously66PLGA nanoparticle Hp915–20-fold more potent immune response than free Hp9157Lipid-based nanoparticlesPlasmodium vivax circumsporozoite antigen,VMP001,Expansion of follicular T helper cells;antibody responses more durable than traditional adjuvants,even when using 10-fold less antigen68Poly(methylmethacrylate)(PMMA)co-polymer HIV-1Tat protein Long-lasting cellular and humoral responses69PLGA coated iron oxide-zinc oxide nanoparticles Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)Visible on MRI,faster antigen uptake 70Amphiphilic poly (g -glutamic acid)nanoparticlesOVA25–50-fold higher DC uptake,10–40-fold stronger cellular immune response 88Poly(propylene sul fide)(PPS)nanoparticlesOVA Ef ficient accumulation within the draining LN;expansion of memory CD8C T cells 71Poly(lactide)(PLA)polymer TT Sustained anti-TT antibody response (more than 5mo)72Quantum dotsOVADynamic monitoring and greateref ficiency in T cell proliferation and IFN-g production in vivo compared with free antigen73Lecithin-based nanoparticlesBSA or Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (PA)proteinFaster and 6.5-fold stronger antibody responses than BSA adsorbed onto aluminum hydroxide54Actively target APCMannosylated cationic liposomePor A (antigen ofNeisseria meningitides)Mannose receptorIncreased localization in draining LNs and increased antibody responses and IL-12production32Mannosylated liposomeTetanus toxoid (TT)OVAMannose receptorEnhanced expression of MHC class II,CD80,CD86and CD83;and 6-fold greater uptake and 2.5-fold greater T cellproliferation compared with non-targeted liposomes33Mannosylated polyamidoamine (PAMAM)dendrimerOVA Mannose receptorEnhanced OVA-speci fic CD4C /CD8C T cell responses and antibody responses;cross-presentation of OVA74Mannosylated PLGA nanoparticlesOVA Mannose receptorEnhanced antigen-speci fic T cellresponses;upregulation of CD80,CD86,CD40,HLA-DR and CD83expression on DCs;increased IL-12production34Lipid calcium-phosphate (LCP)nanoparticles,mannose-modi fiedTyrosinase-relatedprotein 2(TRP-2)peptide Mannose receptorProtected against later-stage B16F10melanoma35Liposome,Fc fragments modi fiedOVAFcRMHC class I-restricted presentation;increased IL-2secretion149(Continued on next page )2764Volume 10Issue 9Human Vaccines &Immunotherapeutics D o w n l o a d e d b y [K a r o l i n s k a I n s t i t u t e t , U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ] a t 23:03 09 F e b r u a r y 2015receptors,resulting in receptor-mediated endocytosis.Surface modifications targeting the mannose receptor,FcR,DEC-205receptor and DC-SIGN have been widely utilized for devel-oping targeted-delivery nanocarriers.29-36,74-78A luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH)vaccine was first developed for the treatment of prostate cancer over 20years ago.In particular,synthetic LHRH-TT (tetanus toxoid fragment)immunogens have been linked to gold nanoparticles or encapsulated in liposomes to enhance antigen presentation.29Fc fragments have also been added onto both gold and liposome nanoparticles for targeting the IgG FcR.The uptake of LHRH-TT,either conjugated to gold nanoparticles or encapsulated by liposomes,was enhanced by the Fc fragment-targeting motif,thereby inducing increased antigen presentation in DCs.In addi-tion,gold nanoparticle conjugation has enabled the monitoring of peptide intracellular localization by transmission electron microscopy.29Surface modification of OVA-encapsulated par-ticles by anti-DEC-205anibody can enhance OVA uptake by DCs almost 2-fold compared with non-targeted particles.In addition,mice injected with anti-DEC-205-conjugated particles showed 30%fluorescent DEC-205-containing DCs in the drain-ing inguinal LN,indicating efficient uptake of the particles by DCs.Accordingly,CTL responses against MHC class I/OVA peptide-expressing cells from mice vaccinated with anti-DEC-205-conjugated particles were greater than those from mice vacci-nated with free OVA.78Because the interaction strength between the nanoparticle surface ligand and the membrane receptors can be controlled by the type of ligand (i.e.,affinity)and by changing the surface ligand density (i.e.,avidity),nanomaterials with an optimum ligand surface density can actually improve binding and cellular uptake,which may be preferred for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes.Other approaches to enhance targeted deliv-ery of antigen for antigen presentation and the relevant immuno-logical outcomes are listed in Table 1.Cytosolic delivery nanocarriers and smart nanocarriersAPCs process and present antigens through MHC class I mol-ecules and/or MHC class II molecules,depending on the intra-cellular localization.Endogenous antigens (i.e.,those produced by viral pathogens)degraded by the proteasome are released into the cytosol and presented by MHC class I molecules for CD8C T cell recognition.In contrast,exogenous antigens (those inter-nalized from the extracellular environment)are degraded in the endo-lysosomal system,and the resulting peptides are loaded onto MHC class II molecules and transported to the plasma membrane for CD4C T cell recognition.Some particular APCs,such as CD8C DCs,can also cross-present exogenous antigens through MHC class I molecules.Therefore,by regulating the intracellular location of engineered nanocarriers,the choice of antigen-presentation MHC molecules as well as the resulting antigen-specific responses can be modulated.1,2,9In addition,PRRs,which sense pathogens and endogenous danger signals and function as co-stimulators of the T cell response,also exist in different locations within the cell.For example,TLR4and TLR2,members of the TLR family,appear on the plasma mem-brane for sensing lipopolysaccharide (LPS)and lipoteichoic acid,respectively,whereas TLR7,TLR8,and TLR9are mainly present on the endosomal compartment for recognizing bacterial RNA or DNA.NLRs,such as NLRP3(NACHT domain-,leucine-rich repeat-,and PYD-containing protein 3)are present in the cytosol for sensing crystalline particles and endogenous danger sig-nals.1,2,9Therefore,utilizing nanocarriers for vaccine delivery can guide antigen presentation by specific MHC molecules as well as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)to activate PRR signaling.The majority of nanomaterials are taken up via endocytosis or phagocytosis,and nanomaterials present in early endosomes are either targeted to late endosomes or lysosomes.79Therefore,nanocarriers used to deliver antigens to lysosomal compartments for MHC class II presentation are more easily accessed.However,cytosolic target delivery is performed if the intracellular target is in the cytoplasm,especially for DNA vaccines that require expression in the cytosol for antigen production.Several strate-gies have been developed to overcome the endosomal barrier using viral capsids or non-viral delivery systems.40,80For non-viral delivery systems,pH-responsive nanoparticles,cationic nanoparticles,and nanoparticles functionalized with CPPs have been explored for this cytosolic delivery purpose.38,39Table 1.Nanomaterials for antigen delivery (Continued)FunctionNanocarrierAntigenMolecular target Immunological outcomesReferencesLiposome,Fc fragments modi fiedLuteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH)FcRIncreased iDC uptake;2-fold greater lymphocyte proliferation29Gold nanoparticles,Fc fragments modi fied LHRHFcR Increased iDC uptake;visible;greater lymphocyte proliferation 29Quantum dotsLe X ligand,HIV envelop gp 120DC-SIGN Visible;more ef ficient uptake75PLGA nanoparticles modi fied with antibody hD1TT/BSADC-SIGN10–100-fold less antigen for induction of antigen-speci fic T cell responses than non-targeted PLGA3637Glycan-modi fied liposome OVA DC-SIGNEnhanced antigen uptake30,31Liposome conjugated with DEC-205antibody OVA DEC 205receptor 6-fold greater uptake by DCs than non-targeted liposome76,77Monomer cross-linked with DEC-205antibodyOVA DEC 205receptorIncreased IFN-g production and OVA-speci fic CTL activation78 2765Human Vaccines &Immunotherapeutics D o w n l o a d e d b y [K a r o l i n s k a I n s t i t u t e t , U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ] a t 23:03 09 F e b r u a r y 2015Nanoparticles modified with pH-responsive peptides or linkers undergo structural deformation or degradation under acidic pH,which disrupts their transfer across the endosomal mem-brane.81,82For example,OVA encapsulated within pH-sensitive liposomes was shown to be 3–6times stronger in inducing CTL responses compared with pH-insensitive liposomes.83In addi-tion,OVA conjugated to the pH-sensitive poly(propylacrylic acid-co-pyridyldisulfide acrylate)(PPAA-PDSA)polymeric car-rier was tested for the presentation of OVA by the MHC class I pathway,and OVA conjugated to PPAA-PDSA showed pH-sen-sitive membrane-disruptive properties at pH values between 6–6.5.Furthermore,the polymer-OVA conjugates induced 22-fold increases in MHC class I presentation and OVA-specific CTL activation compared with free paratively,conjugates of OVA to pH-insensitive poly(methylacrylic acid)(PMAA)did not induce CTL activation because they did not display mem-brane-disruptive activities.Together,this study suggested that the pH-sensitive properties of the polymer that allowed it to destabilize the endosomal membrane were critical in increasing MHC class I presentation and CTL activation.84Polycations,such as PEI polymers,can also mediate their endosomal escape to cytoplasm through the “proton-sponge effect,”where the pro-ton-absorbing polymer induces osmotic swelling of the endo-some and its eventual rupture.65,85DCs exposed to OVA-PEI complexes significantly enhanced the response of B3Z T cells,a T-cell hybridoma activated by recognition of H-2K b in associa-tion with OVA(257–264)peptide,indicating the PEI’s ability to enhance antigen cross-presentation in vitro.65Another approach for cytosolic delivery is to regulate the transport of nanocarriers through CPP functionalization.38,80CPPs are short peptides typ-ically composed of positively charged amino acids such as lysine or arginine or have sequences that contain alternating patterns of charged amino acids and non-polar,hydrophobic amino acids.CPPs facilitate the bonding of nanoparticles to negatively charged membranes to facilitate cell penetration.38,80Tat-modi-fied gold nanoparticles (»14nm)can negotiate intracellular membrane barriers;these particles are initially found in the cyto-sol but later enter the nucleus,mitochondria and vesicles.39In another study,octaarginine (R8,also a CPP)was attached to lip-osomes to investigate the cytosolic delivery of OVA for MHC class I paring OVA-encapsulated R8lipo-somes to pH-sensitive and cationic liposomes,R8liposomes showed superior ability to increase MHC class I presentation,OVA-specific CTL responses and antitumor responses over other formulations.86Immunomodulatory Effects of NanomaterialsIn addition to the delivery uses of nanomaterials for improv-ing antigen presentation and immune responses to vaccines,nanomaterials themselves have intrinsic immunomodulatory activity that makes them potentially applicable as adjuvants.12,13,21,22,44-46,50,51Their nanoscale size,with all three dimensions ranging from 0.1to 100nm,happens to be the size range of the fundamental building blocks of biology (includingDNA,proteins,viruses,ultrastructures and organelles).Thus,the ways in which engineered nanomaterials may interfere with the function of the host immune system and how these immuno-modulatory activities may affect vaccines are increasingly impor-tant questions.In the following sections,the immunomodulatory activities of nanomaterials,including inflammasome activation,recruitment of immune cells and com-plement system activation,will be introduced.12,13,21,22,33,34,44-51,87-90The potential mechanisms for these effects will also bediscussed to facilitate an in-depth understanding of the inherent adjuvant activity of nanomaterials.Inflammasome activationThe adjuvant effect of particulate matter in the promotion of vaccine-specific immunity has been recognized for over 80y.91Alum,one of the most common adjuvants in vaccines,has been applied in clinical use for many years,92although its mechanisms of action are not fully understood.Our current understanding of how alum enhances antigen-specific antibody responses acknowl-edges its ability to induce NLRP3inflammasome activation.93,94Inflammasomes are caspase-1-activating platforms assembled by self-oligomerized scaffold proteins.Upon exposure to whole pathogens,danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs),PAMPs,or environmental irritants,NLRP1,absent in melanoma 2(Aim2),NLRP3,and other members of the NLR family self-oligomerize via NACHT domain interactions.95,96Formation of these high-molecular-weight complexes triggers the autocleavage of caspase-1,which in turn controls the maturation and secretion of interleukin-1b (IL-1b )and IL-18for downstream signaling.The NLRP3inflammasome is the most fully characterized inflammasome and consists of the NLRP3scaffold,the ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain)adaptor protein and caspase-1.Alum adju-vant-induced NLRP3inflammasome activation is considered to be critical for eliciting antigen-specific antibody responses,and this inflammasome has also been shown to link innate immunity to adaptive responses targeting tumor growth.In addition,an in vivo study showed that mice deficient in NLRP3,ASC,or cas-pase-1failed to elicit a significant antibody response to OVA adsorbed to Imject alum adjuvants (commercial adjuvant prod-uct,a mixture of aluminum hydroxide and magnesium hydrox-ide),whereas the OVA-specific antibody response to complete Freund’s adjuvant remained intact.97,98Numerous particulates have been reported to activate the NLRP3inflammasome,including alum,Imject Òalum,asbestos,silica,gout-associated uric acid crystals,calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD)and particulate wear debris.93,99-102Several nanoparticles have also shown the ability to activate the inflam-masome,including carbon nanotubes (CNTs),carbon black nanoparticles,PLGA and polystyrene nanoparticles,titanium dioxide (TiO 2)nanoparticles,silicon dioxide (SiO 2)nanopar-ticles,and aluminum oxyhydroxide nanoparticles.44-46,103,104Crystalline or particulate matter is thought to trigger the inflam-masome complex by providing a danger signal such as lysosomal destabilization and reactive oxygen species (ROS)production upon endocytosis of particulates.93,94,99-102Lysosome contents,2766Volume 10Issue 9Human Vaccines &Immunotherapeutics D o w n l o a d e d b y [K a r o l i n s k a I n s t i t u t e t , U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ] a t 23:03 09 F e b r u a r y 2015。
纳米外衣作文英语
纳米外衣作文英语Nano-clothing。
With the rapid development of science and technology, the application of nanotechnology in various fields has become more and more extensive. One of the most promising applications is the development of nano-clothing. Nano-clothing refers to clothing that has been treated with nanotechnology to improve its performance in terms of durability, comfort, and functionality. This technology has the potential to revolutionize the textile industry and change the way we think about clothing.One of the key benefits of nano-clothing is its durability. By treating the fabric with nanomaterials, it becomes more resistant to wear and tear, making it last longer than traditional clothing. This is especially important in today's fast fashion industry, where clothing is often discarded after only a few wears. Nano-clothing has the potential to reduce the environmental impact of thefashion industry by creating longer-lasting, more sustainable clothing.In addition to durability, nano-clothing also offers improved comfort. Nanotechnology allows for the creation of fabrics that are more breathable, moisture-wicking, and temperature-regulating. This means that nano-clothing can keep the wearer cool in hot weather and warm in cold weather, making it more versatile and comfortable to wear in a variety of conditions. This is especially importantfor outdoor enthusiasts and athletes who rely on their clothing to perform under demanding conditions.Furthermore, nano-clothing can also offer additional functionality. For example, nanotechnology can be used to create fabrics that are water-repellent, stain-resistant, and even antibacterial. This means that nano-clothing can stay clean and fresh for longer, reducing the need for frequent washing and extending the life of the garment. Additionally, nano-clothing can be designed with built-in UV protection, making it ideal for outdoor activities and protecting the wearer from the harmful effects of the sun.Overall, the development of nano-clothing has the potential to revolutionize the textile industry and change the way we think about clothing. By improving durability, comfort, and functionality, nano-clothing has the potential to create longer-lasting, more sustainable clothing that meets the needs of today's consumers. As nanotechnology continues to advance, we can expect to see even more innovative applications of nano-clothing in the future.。
国际化妆品纳米原料监管和安全评估现状及趋势
在国际化妆品工业中，13%以上的产品含有纳米技术。
未来三年，纳米产品对全球化妆品经济的贡献将超过1万亿美元，纳米技术在广阔的化妆品领域有着巨大的发展空间。
纳米材料（Nanomaterials ，以下简称NMS）在不同用途的化妆品配方中的使用，也导致了全球范围内与皮肤直接接触和间接与环境有关的废物管理方面的安全问题。
本文主要探讨化妆品中NMS使用的监管和安全指南的现状，强调监管机构在全球范围内协调一致的必要性，以及未来化妆品及其成分安全和质量评估的趋势，和对化妆品中使用NMS可能会增强或抑制其成分对皮肤吸收的讨论。
可以说，纳米技术的使用引起了欧盟、美国、加拿大、日本等组织和国家的关注。
NANOMATERIALS STATUS AND TRENDS 国际化妆品纳米原料监管和安全评估现状及趋势文/刘 铮 叶 蓉 刘 毅INDUSTRY REVIEW 行业观察纳米技术在国际上的应用自1982年，国际商业机器公司苏黎世实验室的葛.宾尼(Gerd Bining)博士和海·罗雷尔(Heinrich Rohrer)博士及其实验室的其他工作人员，研制成功了世界第一台新型表面分析仪器——扫描隧道显微镜（Scanning Tunneling Microscope，简称STM）以来，纳米技术（Nanotechnology）在材料、系统、设备和技术方面日新月异地发展。
如今，被用于个人保健品、化妆品和非处方药OTC等之中的就有使用纳米材料（NMS）；此外，纳米技术已经彻底改变了临床实践，由于其潜在的优势，人们对它的期望值相当高。
当然，纳米颗粒的定义仍在发展，不同国家的监管机构根据其用途和治疗应用，以不同的方式对其进行定义。
目前，各种基于NMS的化妆品正在研发中，并可能在未来进入市场（表1详细给出了化妆品中NMS的一些不同专利）。
一些化妆品正利用NMS作为活性成分、载体或赋形剂。
另外，NMS还被用于化妆品的制造设备和包装（详见表2）。
Materials Characterization
Materials Characterization Materials characterization is a crucial aspect of scientific research and industrial development. It involves the study and analysis of the properties and behavior of materials, with the aim of understanding their structure, composition, and performance. This information is essential for making informed decisions about the selection, design, and use of materials in various applications, such as in manufacturing, construction, and healthcare. In this response, I will delve into the significance of materials characterization from different perspectives, including its role in advancing scientific knowledge, enabling technological innovation, and ensuring the safety and reliability of materials and products. From a scientific standpoint, materials characterization plays a fundamental role in advancing our understanding of the natural world. By studying the properties and behavior of different materials, scientists can uncover new insights into the underlying principles of matter and its interactions. This knowledge not only contributes to the development of new theoretical frameworks and models but also paves the way for the discovery of novel materials with unique properties and functionalities. For instance, the characterization of nanomaterials has led to the emergence of nanotechnology, which has revolutionized various fields,including electronics, medicine, and energy storage. Therefore, materials characterization is essential for pushing the boundaries of scientific knowledge and driving innovation. In the realm of technological innovation, materials characterization is indispensable for the development of new and improved materials with enhanced performance characteristics. By analyzing the structure, composition, and properties of materials at the micro and nano scales, researchers and engineers can gain valuable insights into their behavior under different conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and mechanical stress. This information is critical for designing materials that meet the specific requirements of advanced technologies, such as high-performance alloys for aerospace applications, durable composites for automotive components, and biocompatible materials for medical implants. Without a thorough understanding of the characteristics of materials, it would be challenging to develop cutting-edge technologies that drive progress and improve the quality of life. Moreover, materials characterization isessential for ensuring the safety and reliability of materials and products in various industries. By subjecting materials to rigorous testing and analysis, manufacturers and regulatory agencies can verify their compliance with industry standards and regulations, as well as assess their performance and durability over time. This is particularly important in sectors such as healthcare, where the use of materials in medical devices, implants, and pharmaceuticals must meet stringent criteria for biocompatibility, sterility, and reliability. Inadequate materials characterization can lead to the use of substandard materials, which may compromise the safety and efficacy of products, putting the health and well-being of consumers at risk. Furthermore, materials characterization is crucial for addressing environmental and sustainability challenges. By understanding the environmental impact of materials and their life cycle, researchers and policymakers can make informed decisions about resource utilization, waste management, and the development of eco-friendly materials. For instance, the characterization of renewable materials, such as bioplastics and bio-based composites, is essential for assessing their potential as alternatives to traditional petroleum-based plastics and composites. Additionally, the analysis of the degradation behavior of materials can help identify opportunities forrecycling and reusing materials, thereby reducing the environmental footprint of industrial processes and products. In conclusion, materials characterization is a multifaceted discipline that plays a pivotal role in advancing scientific knowledge, driving technological innovation, ensuring the safety and reliability of materials and products, and addressing environmental and sustainability challenges. Its significance extends across various domains, from fundamental research to industrial applications, and its impact is felt in diverse sectors, including healthcare, aerospace, automotive, and consumer goods. As we continue to push the boundaries of materials science and engineering, the need for comprehensive materials characterization will only grow, underscoring its critical importance in shaping the future of technology and society.。
Nanomaterials Advances and Applications
Nanomaterials Advances and Applications Nanomaterials have become increasingly important in various fields due to their unique properties and potential applications. From medicine to electronics, nanomaterials have shown great promise in advancing technology and improving our quality of life. However, their use also raises concerns about potential health and environmental impacts. In this response, we will explore the advances and applications of nanomaterials, as well as the associated challenges and ethical considerations.One of the most exciting aspects of nanomaterials is their potential to revolutionize medicine. Nanoparticles, for example, have been used in targeted drug delivery systems, allowing for more precise and effective treatment of diseases such as cancer. Additionally, nanomaterials have shown promise in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, offering new solutions for repairing and replacing damaged tissues and organs. These advancements have the potential to significantly improve patient outcomes and quality of life.In the field of electronics, nanomaterials have also made significant contributions. For instance, the unique electrical, optical, and mechanical properties of nanomaterials have led to the development of more efficient and smaller electronic devices. Nanomaterials have also been used in the production of high-performance batteries and supercapacitors, contributing to the advancement of renewable energy technologies. These applications have the potential to lead to more sustainable and efficient energy solutions.Despite their potential benefits, the use of nanomaterials also raises concerns about their potential impact on human health and the environment. For example, there is still limited understanding of the long-term effects of exposure to certain types of nanomaterials. Additionally, the production and disposal of nanomaterials may have environmental implications that are not yet fully understood. As such, it is important to carefully consider the potential risks and benefits of nanomaterials in order to ensure their safe and responsible use.Ethical considerations also play a significant role in the advancement and application of nanomaterials. As with any emerging technology, it is important to consider the potential societal implications of nanomaterials. This includes issues such as access to nanotechnology, potential disparities in its distribution and use, and the ethical implications of using nanomaterials in areas such as surveillance and warfare. It is crucial to engage in thoughtful and inclusive discussions about the ethical implications of nanomaterials in order to ensure that their development and application align with societal values and priorities.In conclusion, nanomaterials hold great promise in advancing various fields, from medicine to electronics. Their unique properties and potential applications have the potential to significantly improve our quality of life and contribute to technological advancements. However, it is important to carefully consider the potential risks and ethical implications of nanomaterials in order to ensure their safe and responsible use. By engaging in thoughtful and inclusive discussions about the ethical implications of nanomaterials, we can work towards harnessing their potential while minimizing potential harm.。
纳米衣物作文英语
纳米衣物作文英语Title: The Revolutionary Potential of Nanotechnology in Clothing。
In recent years, the integration of nanotechnology into various industries has sparked significant advancements and transformations, and the realm of clothing is no exception. Nanotechnology, with its ability to manipulate materials at the nanoscale, has paved the way for the development of nanofabrics, revolutionizing the textile industry in numerous ways.First and foremost, nanotechnology has enabled the creation of fabrics with remarkable properties, such as enhanced durability, stain resistance, and water repellency. By engineering materials at the molecular level, scientists and engineers have been able to imbue fabrics with these desirable attributes without compromising comfort or breathability. For instance, the application of nanocoatings to textiles can create a protective barrierthat repels liquids and prevents stains from setting in, thus extending the lifespan of garments and reducing the need for frequent washing.Moreover, nanofabrics offer unparalleled possibilitiesin the realm of functionality and performance. Through the incorporation of nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes or graphene, clothing can acquire conductive properties, enabling the integration of wearable electronics and smart textiles. Imagine garments capable of monitoring vital signs, regulating body temperature, or even generating electricity from movement—all made possible by the incorporation of nanotechnology.Beyond functionality, nanotechnology holds immense potential for sustainability in the textile industry. Traditional textile manufacturing processes often involve resource-intensive methods and the use of harmful chemicals. However, nanotechnology offers greener alternatives by enabling the development of eco-friendly nanomaterials and innovative production techniques. For example, researchers are exploring the use of nanocellulose derived fromrenewable sources like wood pulp to create biodegradable and recyclable textiles, reducing the environmental footprint of the fashion industry.Furthermore, the application of nanotechnology in clothing extends beyond individual garments to the realm of fashion design and customization. Nanofabrication techniques allow for precise control over material properties and the creation of intricate patterns and textures at the nano level. This opens up new avenues for designers to unleash their creativity and craft garments that are not only aesthetically stunning but also tailored to meet the specific needs and preferences of consumers.However, as with any technological advancement, the widespread adoption of nanotechnology in clothing also raises important considerations regarding safety, regulation, and ethical implications. Concerns have been raised about the potential health risks associated with nanoparticles in textiles, particularly in terms of skin irritation or environmental exposure. Therefore, rigorous testing and regulation are essential to ensure the safetyof nanofabricated clothing for both consumers and the environment.Additionally, the ethical implications of nanotechnology in clothing encompass issues such as labor practices, intellectual property rights, and socioeconomic disparities. As nanotechnology continues to reshape the fashion industry, it is crucial to address these ethical concerns and strive for equitable and sustainable practices throughout the supply chain.In conclusion, the integration of nanotechnology into clothing represents a paradigm shift with profound implications for the textile industry and beyond. From enhancing functionality and sustainability to enabling new avenues for design and customization, nanofabrics hold immense promise for the future of fashion. However, realizing this potential requires careful consideration of safety, regulation, and ethical considerations to ensure that nanotechnology benefits society as a whole. By harnessing the power of nanotechnology responsibly, we can unlock a future where clothing is not just a means ofcovering the body but a platform for innovation, expression, and sustainability.。
Nanotechnology and Nanoscience
Nanotechnology and Nanoscience Nanotechnology and Nanoscience: Unlocking the Potential of the MicroscopicWorld Nanotechnology and nanoscience are two interrelated fields that have revolutionized various industries and hold immense potential for the future. These fields deal with the manipulation and understanding of matter at the nanoscale, which is roughly 1 to 100 nanometers in size. This is a realm where the laws of classical physics no longer apply, and the behavior of materials becomes highly unique and intriguing. One perspective on nanotechnology and nanoscience is their impact on the field of medicine. The ability to manipulate matter at the nanoscale has opened up new possibilities in drug delivery, diagnostics, and even tissue engineering. Nanoparticles can be designed to target specific cells or tissues, delivering drugs directly to the site of action and minimizing side effects. Additionally, nanosensors can be used for early detection of diseases, enabling timely interventions and improved patient outcomes. The potential ofnanotechnology in medicine is truly awe-inspiring and has the potential to revolutionize healthcare as we know it. Another perspective to consider is the environmental impact of nanotechnology and nanoscience. While these fields offer numerous benefits, they also raise concerns about their potential environmental risks. Nanoparticles, due to their small size, can easily enter the environmentand potentially cause harm to ecosystems and organisms. It is crucial to conduct thorough research and ensure responsible use of nanomaterials to minimize any potential adverse effects. Striking a balance between harnessing the potential of nanotechnology and safeguarding the environment is a challenge that needs to be addressed. From an economic standpoint, nanotechnology and nanoscience have the potential to drive innovation and create new industries. The development of nanomaterials with unique properties opens up opportunities for the manufacturingof advanced materials, electronics, and energy storage devices. This can lead tothe creation of high-value jobs and economic growth. Governments and industries around the world are investing heavily in nanotechnology research and development, recognizing its potential to transform various sectors and enhance competitiveness. Ethical considerations also come into play when discussing nanotechnology and nanoscience. The ability to manipulate matter at the atomic and molecular levelraises questions about the potential misuse of this technology. There is a needfor comprehensive regulations and guidelines to ensure responsible use and prevent any unintended consequences. Additionally, the equitable distribution of the benefits of nanotechnology should be a priority, ensuring that it does not exacerbate existing social and economic inequalities. Lastly, it is important to acknowledge the societal implications of nanotechnology and nanoscience. These fields have the potential to greatly impact our daily lives, from the development of new consumer products to advancements in energy storage and transportation. Public awareness and engagement are crucial to ensure that the benefits and risks of nanotechnology are understood by all. It is essential to foster a dialogue between scientists, policymakers, and the public to shape the future of nanotechnology in a way that aligns with societal values and aspirations. In conclusion, nanotechnology and nanoscience offer immense potential for various fields, including medicine, the environment, the economy, ethics, and society. While the possibilities are exciting, it is essential to address potential risks and ethical considerations. Responsible development and deployment of nanotechnology require collaboration and dialogue among stakeholders. By harnessing the power of the microscopic world, we can unlock new frontiers and pave the way for a brighter future.。
国际癌症研究署关于某些天然存在物质研究组会议的报告
国际癌症研究署关于某些天然存在物质研究组会议的报告Vaino,H;寻建华
【期刊名称】《国外医学：肿瘤学分册》
【年(卷),期】1993(020)005
【摘要】国际癌症研究署(IARC)于1992年6月9～16日在法国里昂召开了一次癌症研究及有关学科研讨会,讨论人类饮食中的致癌危险因素,包括某些食物、天然植物成分、烹调鱼肉时产生的某些物质及某些霉菌毒素.食谱食谱中被讨论的食物是腌鱼和泡菜.腌鱼通过在某些地区和特定民族中鼻咽癌特别流行的调查报告发现,这些居民的某些共同生活方式是导致这一癌症发生的危险因素.在中国南方。
【总页数】3页(P292-294)
【作者】Vaino,H;寻建华
【作者单位】不详;不详
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】R730.2
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美国巨资支持纳米材料风险研究
近 年 来 ，Ｅ Ａ 已经 数 次 拨 专 款 用 于 研 究 人 造 纳 米 材 料 Ｐ 对 环 境 的 影 响 。 另 外 ，Ｅ ＰＡ 还 通 过 小 型 企 业 创 新 研 究 项 目 资 助小 型企 业进 行纳 米 技术研 究 。
江 苏纳 米器 件重 点 实验 室揭牌 园 区将投
会 危 害 人 体 健 康 、破 坏 环 境 。 ２ ０ 年 ，美 国 伍 德 罗 ・ 尔 将 在 科 教 创 新 区 内 规 划 建 设 ２ ０７ 威 ０万 平 方 米 载 体 ， 重 点 引 进 国
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Regulatory aspects of nanomaterials (COM 2008) consumer NGO view
1. immediate review ought to be addressed also in: REACH, Novel Foods, Cosmetics, quality of water and waste.. 2. Coherent and comprehensive approach needed ( now it is fragmented and limiting, i.e.cosmetics ..) 3. “no data no market” principle 4. Common harmonised definition for all relevant EU legislation: - size: 100 nm or less - Substances having nanomaterilas properties included - All, not just insoluble and bioacumulative 5. transparancy, traceability and information to consumers through labelling and mandatory inventory public registry of products and nanomaterials
Thank you
?will legs be enough? ?will precautionary principle be enough?
John F. Kennedy, 15th March 1962
«Consumers by definition, include us all. They are the largest economic group, affecting and affected by almost every public and private economic decision. Yet they are the only important group... whose views are often not heard»
Consumers by definition buy products for own use..
Consumers and risk
poor knowledge - limits to choice Which? Consumer survey : 61% of people surveyed had never heard of nanotechnologies Slovene consumer hasn’t been asked yet
Gap - consumer vs. product use
Risk of nano particles vs benefit of consumer product use Should be demonstrated!
After market useage gap
What is risk? harmful, undesired product properties and/or harmful, undesired product useage properties
Research: Tekstilec, vol 51/2008
Elementary nano silver as antibacterial agent – original scientific paper No benefit shown:
The bacterial reduction was too low to assure effective antimicrobial activity
(end of consumer product use) Socks with nano silver washed out Sewer treatment problems Ecotoxic/toxic heavy metal Biocide Already widely used (wash mashines, fridges..)
Gaps or limited understanding of the potential effects
Numerous warnings tabled: UK Royal society and Royal Academy of Engineering (2004) SCENIHR (2006) UK Council for Science and Technology (2007) SCCP (2007) + DG Enterprise recent letter to cosmetics sector FP7 research BfR Defra Etc…………… ………………..
Consumers and risk who is a consumer?
Consumers are not a statistical test Child Youth Elderly Sick …….
Consumers and health risk
communication on the labell – is it enough? Toothpaste with Ca Limited use – labelling ?bleeding gums Ca blood homeostasis – 48 h Too much Ca in blood: respiratory and heart failure
Consumers and health risk
communication on the labell – is it enough? Silicon dioxide : E551, aditive Can penetrate human epithelial cell Titanium dioxide: E 171 Lethal to water fleas (only?) Carbon nano tubes C60 in bass penetrates blood brain barriers Zinc oxide Phototoxic effect of nano zinc oxide is known
Hazard can be intrinsic, extrinsic, technological , environmental and also moral (malpractice)
Gap –
Consumer - complex and diverse is a risk
In the context of risk, consumers and specially vulnerable groups should present a measure to limits Elderly population that is on the rise, Children, Pregnant women Sick …..
But there is not enough regulation in:
Definition of nano only covers biopersistent and insoluble nanomaterials Risk assessed for certain specific purposes, but not for all nano in cosmetics We regret that the safety requirements will only start in 2012
Consumers and risk of nanomaterials
marjana.peterman@zps.si
CONFERENCE ON NANO-SAFETY 22-24.April, Slovenia, Ljubljana
Consumers
ZPS BEUC CONSUMERS INTERNATIONAL Tps – legislation as a minimum
Cosmetics directive/regulation – consumer NGO’s welcome inclusion of nano
Labelling Catalogueing chemicals, substances and products
Consumer and gap in communication nano risk
Warning labell:
May cause...... Use only if..
Need for
Education Information Empowerment
But when??
Nano and the environment