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10第十章外部性

第十章外部性一、名词解释1.外部性（externality）（北师大2004试；北航2004试；东南大学2003试）：也称为外溢性、相邻效应。

是指一个人的行为对旁观者福利的无补偿的影响。

如果对旁观者的影响是不利的，就称为负外部性（Negative Externalities）；如果这种影响是有利的，就称为正外部性（Positive Externalities）。

外部性的影响会造成私人成本和社会成本之间，或私人收益和社会收益之间的不一致，这种成本和收益差别虽然会相互影响，却没有得到相应的补偿，因此容易造成市场失灵。

外部性的影响方向和作用结果具有两面性，可以分为外部经济（？正外部性）和外部不经济（负外部性？）。

那些能为社会和其他个人带来收益或能使社会和个人降低成本支出的外部性称为外部经济，它是对个人或社会有利的外部性；那些能够引起社会和其他个人成本增加或导致收益减少的外部性称为外部不经济，它是对个人或社会不利的。

福利经济学认为，除非社会上的外部经济效果与外部不经济效果正好相互抵消，否则外部性的存在使得帕累托最优状态不可能达到，从而也不能达到个人和社会的最大福利。

外部性理论可以为经济政策提供某些建议，它为政府对经济的干预提供了一种强有力的依据，政府可以根据外部性的影响方向与影响程度的不同制定相应的经济政策，并利用相应的经济手段，以消除外部性对成本和收益差别的影响，实现资源的最优配置和收入分配的公平合理。

纠正的办法：（1）使用税收和津贴；（2）使用企业合并的方法；（3）规定财产权。

2.⑴负外部性：⑵正外部性结论：负外部性导致市场产量大于社会最优产量。

正的外部性导致市场产量小于社会最优产量。

为了解决这些问题，政府可采用外部性内部化方法：对于造成负的外部性的商品征税，而对具有正的外部性的商品给予补贴。

3.外部性内在化（internalizing the externality）：改变激励，以使人们考虑到自己行为的外部效应。

经济学原理英文版第九版课程设计

Principles of Economics, 9th Edition: Course Design Course OverviewThe Principles of Economics course is designed to introduce students to the fundamental concepts of economics. Students will learn about microeconomics, which studies the behavior of individual economic actors such as consumers and firms, and macroeconomics, which focuses on the aggregate behavior of the entire economy. The course is based on the 9th edition of Principles of Economics, written by N. Gregory Mankiw.The course is divided into 14 modules, with each module covering a different topic. The first part of the course covers microeconomics, while the second part focuses on macroeconomics. The modules are designed to build upon each other, so that students can develop a clear understanding of the concepts and theories that underpin economic behavior.Learning ObjectivesAt the end of this course, students will be able to:1.Expln the basic concepts of economics and how they relate toreal-world situations2.Analyze the behavior of individual economic actors such asconsumers, firms, and markets3.Understand the factors that influence the level of economicactivity and growth in the economy4.Evaluate fiscal and monetary policy and their effects on theeconomyCourse ContentModule 1: Ten Principles of EconomicsThis module introduces students to the ten basic principles of economics, such as how people make decisions and how markets work.Module 2: Thinking Like an EconomistThis module teaches students how to think like an economist, including how to make assumptions, use graphs, and analyze data.Module 3: Interdependence and the Gns from TradeThis module explores the concepts of interdependence and trade, and how countries can benefit from specialization and trade.Module 4: The Market Forces of Supply and DemandThis module explns the basic principles of supply and demand and how they interact in markets.Module 5: Elasticity and Its ApplicationThis module delves deeper into the concept of elasticity and how it affects the behavior of buyers and sellers in markets.Module 6: Supply, Demand, and Government PoliciesThis module looks at how governments can influence markets through policies such as price controls and taxes.Module 7: Consumers, Producers, and the Efficiency of MarketsThis module examines the concept of market efficiency and how it can be measured.Module 8: Application: The Costs of TaxationThis module applies the concepts of supply and demand to taxation, analyzing the effects of taxes on the behavior of buyers and sellers.Module 9: International TradeThis module explores the benefits and costs of international trade and analyzes the factors that influence trade patterns between countries.Module 10: ExternalitiesThis module introduces the concept of externalities and how they can affect market outcomes.Module 11: Public Goods and Common ResourcesThis module examines public goods and common resources, analyzingthe role of government in addressing the problems associated with their provision.Module 12: The Design of the Tax SystemThis module discusses the principles of tax design and how they can be applied to create an efficient and fr tax system.Module 13: The Costs of ProductionThis module explores the factors that determine the costs of production and how firms make decisions about production.Module 14: Firms in Competitive MarketsThis module looks at the behavior of firms in competitive marketsand analyzes the factors that influence their decisions about pricingand output.Course RequirementsStudents are expected to attend all lectures and complete all assignments on time. Assignments will include readings from the textbook, problem sets, and written assignments. Grades will be based on class participation, assignments, and exams.ConclusionThe Principles of Economics course provides students with a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental concepts and theoriesthat underpin economic behavior. Students will learn about micro and macroeconomics, market forces, taxation, international trade, and more. Through this course, students will be able to apply economic principles to real-world situations and make informed decisions about economic issues.。

10章外部性Externalities

C hapter TenExternalities一、名词解释（SOLUTIONS TO Key Concepts):1. externality外部性主要用来衡量单个消费者或者生产者的行为对社会上其他人福利的影响。

经济外部性是经济主体（包括厂商或个人）的经济活动对他人和社会造成的非市场化的影响。

分为正外部性和负外部性。

正外部性是某个经济行为个体的活动使他人或社会受益，而受益者无须花费代价，负外部性是某个经济行为个体的活动使他人或社会受损，而造成外部不经济的人却没有为此承担成本。

从定义中可以得到以下理解：1.外部性是一种人为的活动2.外部性应该是在某项活动的主要目的以外派生出来的影响 3.外部性包括对生态环境等与社会福利有关的一切生物或非生物影响。

所以，外部性的存在造成社会脱离最有效的成产状态，使市场经济体制不能很好的实现其优化资源配置的基本功能。

2. internalizing an externality外部性的内在化：通过改变激励，从而使得生产者或者消费者考虑到自己行为的外部效应。

即通过制度安排经济主体经济活动所产生的社会收益或社会成本，转为私人收益或私人成本，是技术上的外部性转为金钱上的外部性，在某种程度上强制实现原来并不存在的货币转让。

典型的办法有：1.征税与补贴；对负的外部性征收税负，正的外部性给予补贴。

征税可以抑制产生负的外部性的经济活动；补贴可以激励产生正的外部性的经济活动。

2.企业合并，这样原来别的企业产生的外部性现在就可以转化为新的公司的内部问题来处理，合并的新的公司必然会实行使得公司利润最大化的行为，从而解决原来的外部性问题。

3. Coase theorem科斯定理：如果私人各方可以无成本地就资源配置进行协商，则私人市场自身就能解决外部性问题，从而有效地进行资源配置。

这是以经济学家罗纳德、科斯的名字命名的，因为他最早提出了这个理论。

更通俗地讲，我们可以将其理解为：如果交易费用为零，不管产权初始如何安排，当事人之间的谈判都会导致那些财富最大化的安排，即市场机制会自动达到帕雷托最优。

经济学原理对应练习10

经济学原理对应练习10Chapter 10ExternalitiesMultiple Choice1. In a market economy, government interventiona. will always improve market outcomes.b. reduces efficiency in the presence of externalities.c. may improve market outcomes in the presence of externalities.d. is necessary to control individual greed.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative2. In the absence of externalities, the "invisible hand" leads a market to maximizea. producer profit from that market.b. total benefit to society from that market.c. both equity and efficiency in that market.d. output of goods or services in that market.ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative3. One advantage market economies have over other types of economies is that market economiesa. provide an equal distribution of goods and services to consumers.b. establish government economic control.c. solve the problem of scarcity.d. are more efficient.ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative4. The term market failure refers toa. a market that fails to allocate resources efficiently.b. an unsuccessful advertising campaign which reduces demand.c. ruthless competition among firms.d. a firm that is forced out of business because of losses.ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Definitional5. Market failure can be caused bya. too much competition.b. externalities.c. low consumer demand.d. scarcity.ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Interpretive6. An externality is the impact ofa. society's decisions on the well-being of society.b. a person's actions on that person's well-being.c. one person's actions on the well-being of a bystander.d. society's decisions on the poorest person in the society.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Definitional7. The impact of one person's actions on the well-being of a bystander is calleda. an economic dilemma.b. deadweight loss.c. a multi-party problem.d. an externality.ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-0389390 ?Chapter 10/Externalities8. An externalitya. is a type of market failure.b. causes markets to allocate resources efficiently.c. strengthens the role of the “invisible hand” in the marketplace.d. affects producers but not consumers.ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Interpretive9. Dog owners do not bear the full cost of the noise their barking dogs create and often take too few precautions to prevent their dogs from barking. Local governments address this problem bya. making it illegal to "disturb the peace."b. having a well-funded animal control department.c. subsidizing local animal shelters.d. encouraging people to adopt cats.ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative10. An externality isa. the costs that parties incur in the process of agreeing and following through on a bargain.b. the uncompensated impact of one person's actions on the well-being of a bystander.c. the proposition that private parties can bargain without cost over the allocation of resources.d. a market equilibrium tax.ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-011. An externality is an example ofa. a corrective tax.b. a tradable pollution permit.c. a market failure.d. Both a and b are correct.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative12. An externality exists whenevera. the economy can benefit from government intervention.b. markets are not able to reach equilibrium.c. a firm sells its product in a foreign market.d. a person engages in an activity that influences the well-being of a bystander and yet neither pays nor receives payment for that effect.ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Definitional13. When externalities are present in a market, the well-being of market participantsa. and market bystanders are both directly affected.b. and market bystanders are both indirectly affected.c. is directly affected, and market bystanders are indirectly affected.d. is indirectly affected, and market bystanders are directly affected.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Analytical14. Which of the following statements about a well-maintained yard best conveys the general nature of theexternality?a. A well-maintained yard conveys a positive externality because it increases the home's market value.b. A well-maintained yard conveys a negative externality because it increases the property tax liability of the owner.c. A well-maintained yard conveys a positive externality because it increases the value of adjacent properties in the neighborhood.d. A well-maintained yard cannot provide any type of externality.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative.15. Since restored historic buildings convey a positive externality, local governments may choose toa. regulation the demolition of them.b. provide tax breaks to owners who restore them.c. increase property taxes in historic areas.d. Both a and b are correct.ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative16. Externalitiesa. cause markets to fail to allocate resources efficiently.b. cause equilibrium prices to be too high.c. benefit producers at the expense of consumers.d. cause equilibrium prices to be too low.ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative17. When externalities exist, buyers and sellersa. neglect the external effects of their actions, but the marketequilibrium is still efficient.b. do not neglect the external effects of their actions, and the market equilibrium is efficient.c. neglect the external effects of their actions, and the market equilibrium is not efficient.d. do not neglect the external effects of their actions, and the market equilibrium is not efficient.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative18. Dioxin emission that results from the production of paper is a good example of a negative externality becausea. self-interested paper firms are generally unaware of environmental regulations.b. there are fines for producing too much dioxin.c. self-interested paper producers will not consider the full cost of the dioxin pollution they create.d. toxic emissions are the best example of an externality.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative19. If a paper manufacturer does not bear the entire cost of the dioxin it emits, it willa. emit a lower level of dioxin than is socially efficient.b. emit a higher level of dioxin than is socially efficient.c. emit an acceptable level of dioxin.d. not emit any dioxin in an attempt to avoid paying the entire cost.ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative20. One of the Ten Principles of Economics is that "markets are usually a good way to organize market behavior." Thisstatement does not imply which of the following?a. Some markets produce negative externalities.b. The invisible hand of the marketplace does not always lead buyers and sellers to maximize total benefit tosociety.c. Some markets are characterized by market failure.d. Other types of economies are more efficient than market economies.ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Interpretive21. Which of the following is an example of an externality?a. cigarette smoke that permeates an entire restaurantb. a flu shot that prevents a student from transmitting the virus to her roommatec. a beautiful flower garden outside of the local post officed. All of the above are correct.ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative.392 ?Chapter 10/Externalities22. Which of the following statements is not correct?a. Government policies may improve the market's allocation of resources when negative externalities are present.b. Government policies may improve the market's allocation of resources when positive externalities are present.c. A positive externality is an example of a market failure.d. Without government intervention, the market will tend to undersupply products that produce negativeexternalities.ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Interpretive23. Which of the following represents a way that a government can help the private market to internalize an externality?a. taxing goods that have negative externalitiesb. subsidizing goods that have positive externalitiesc. The government cannot improve upon the outcomes of private markets.d. Both a and b are correct.ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative24. When externalities are present in a market,a. the market equilibrium maximizes the total benefit to society as a whole.b. participants lose some market benefits to bystanders.c. firms produce too much output.d. the market fails to allocate resources efficiently.ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-0 | 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative25. If an externality is present in a market, economic efficiency may be enhanced bya. increased competition.b. weakening property rights.c. better informed market participants.d. government intervention.ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 1 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative26. If a sawmill creates too much noise for local residents,a. noise restrictions will force residents to move out of the area.b. a sense of social responsibility will cause owners of the mill to reduce noise levels.c. the government can raise economic well-being through noise-control regulations.d. the government should avoid intervening because the market will allocate resources efficiently.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative27. Private markets fail to account for externalities becausea. externalities don't occur in private markets.b. sellers include costs associated with externalities in the price of their product.c. decisionmakers in the market fail to include the costs of their behavior to third parties.d. the government cannot easily estimate the optimal quantity of pollution.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative28. When the government intervenes in markets with externalities, it does so in order toa. increase production when negative externalities are present.b. protect the interests of bystanders.c. make certain all benefits are received by market participants.d. reduce production when positive externalities are present.ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative.29. Research into new technologiesa. provides positive externalities because it creates knowledge others can use.b. results in negative externalities because government funding for research causes less government spending in other areas.c. is protected by patent laws, which eliminates the need for government intervention.d. should only be funded by the corporations that will receive the profits from the research.ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative30. At any given quantity, the willingness to pay in the market for gasoline is reflected in thea. height of the demand curve at that quantity.b. height of the supply curve at that quantity.c. value to the producer of the last unit of gasoline sold.d. total quantity of gasoline exchanged in the market.ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative31. The supply curve for a product reflects thea. willingness to pay of the marginal buyer.b. quantity buyers will ultimately purchase of the product.c. cost to sellers of producing the product.d. seller's profit from producing the product.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative32. Without government intervention, the market equilibrium for oranges willa. maximize the sum of producer and consumer surplus inthe market.b. be both efficient and equitable.c. be equitable but not efficient.d. be neither efficient nor equitable.ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative33. Since air pollution creates a negative externality,a. social welfare will be enhanced when some, but not all air pollution is eliminated.b. social welfare is optimal when all air pollution is eliminated.c. governments should encourage private firms to consider only private costs.d. the free market result maximizes social welfare.ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative34. The difference between social cost and private cost is a measure of thea. loss in profit to the seller as the result of a negative externality.b. cost of an externality.c. cost reduction when the negative externality is eliminated.d. cost incurred by the government when it intervenes in the market.ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative35. Which of the following statements is correct?a. Government should tax goods with either positive ornegative externalities.b. Government should tax goods with negative externalities and subsidize goods with positive externalities.c. Government should subsidize goods with either positive or negative externalities.d. Government should tax goods with positive externalities and subsidize goods with negative externalities. ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative.394 ?Chapter 10/Externalities36. When a market is characterized by an externality, the governmenta. can correct the market failure only in the case of positive externalities.b. can correct the market failure only in the case of negative externalities.c. can correct the market failure in the case of both positive and negative externalities by inducing marketparticipants to internalize the externality.d. cannot correct for externalities due to the existence of patents.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: InterpretiveFigure 10-137. Refer to Figure 10-1. This graph represents the tobacco industry. The industry createsa. positive externalities.b. negative externalities.c. no externalities.d. no equilibrium in the market.ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative38. Refer to Figure 10-1. This graph represents the tobacco industry. Without any government intervention, theequilibrium price and quantity area. $1.90 and 38 units, respectively.b. $1.80 and 35 units, respectively.c. $1.60 and 42 units, respectively.d. $1.35 and 58 units, respectively.ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative39. Refer to Figure 10-1. This graph represents the tobacco industry. The socially optimal price and quantity area. $1.90 and 38 units, respectively.b. $1.80 and 35 units, respectively.c. $1.60 and 42 units, respectively.d. $1.35 and 58 units, respectively.ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Externalities MSC: Applicative.40. Refer to Figure 10-1. This graph represents the tobacco industry. If the government uses a pollution tax, how much of a tax must be imposed on each unit of production?a. $1.90b. $1.80c. $1.60d. $0.30ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 3 REF: 10-3TOP: Corrective taxes MSC: Analytical41. Refer to Figure 10-1. This graph represents the tobacco industry. If the government uses a pollution tax, how much tax revenue will the government receive?a. $7.00b. $10.50c. $63.00d. $67.20ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: 3 REF: 10-3TOP: Corrective taxes MSC: AnalyticalFigure 10-242. Refer to Figure 10-2. Suppose that the production of soccer balls creates a social cost which is depicted in the graph above. Without any government regulation, how many soccer balls will be produced?a. 3b. 10c. 25d. 50ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Negative externalities MSC: Analytical43. Refer to Figure 10-2. Suppose that the production of soccer balls creates a social cost which is depicted in the graph above. Without any government regulation, what price will the firm charge per soccer ball?a. $3b. $5.50c. $7.50d. $10ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: 2 REF: 10-1TOP: Negative externalities MSC: Analytical.。

第10章外部性和冲突的权利

是出卖犯罪许可证
10.12效率和公平
在公平的框架下如何达成效率？答案是：产权明晰的条件下交易，交易可以促
进效率改进如果排放可以交易，即某工厂可以把污染物卖
给其它工厂处理
环保署可以让排污多、治污差的丙工厂承担污染成本（这是比较公平的）
丙工厂治污单位成本成本高，这又是效率比较差的
方案是：丙工厂把污染物交给甲、乙两厂处理，并支付一定的费用
这种方案还会使大企业没有积极性改进排污设备
10.10征收排污税
如果环保部门对污染排放量征收排放税
每单位排污征收X元税收
让企业针对自己的排污量和治污成本选择排放多少污染物，排的越多，缴税也越多
其意义在于让企业为自己的外部性买单
当税收为每单位污染物收2.01美元排污税时
甲、乙两个企业的治污成本比排污成本低，这两个企业会选择自己治污，不排放
负外部性需要内部化：如果每个人的行为都是 “自作自受”，就不会有人去祸害别人了
正外部性也需要内部化：如果每个人可以从无私的学雷锋行为中获益，学雷锋的人也就多了
《吕氏春秋·察微篇》：子贡赎人与子路受牛的故事
鲁国之法，鲁人为人臣妾于诸侯，有能赎之者，取其金于府。子贡赎鲁人于诸侯，来而让，不取其金。孔子曰：“赐失之矣。自今以往，鲁人不赎人矣。取其金则无损于行，不取其金则不复赎人矣。”
其次，应该让企业有尽量多的交易的自由，让其选择最经济的排污的方法，而不是简单的去关停某些企业
最后，产权稳定是重要的，规则要明确，人们才会协作而不是投机
假如某工厂搞定了政府就可以排污，它会降低污染吗？
10.15交通拥堵作为一种外部性
交通拥堵是开车人在提供外部性开车人自己也在承担这种外部性但选择了开车说明在拥堵的路上开车还是收益

英语中宏观经济常用词汇以及实际应用

英语中宏观经济常用词汇以及实际应用1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (国内生产总值)Sentence:The country's Gross Domestic Product grew by 3% this year, indicating economic expansion.中文翻译:该国今年的国内生产总值增长了3%，显示出经济的扩张。

2. Inflation (通货膨胀)Sentence:High inflation rates can erode consumers' purchasing power over time.中文翻译:高通货膨胀率会随着时间的推移侵蚀消费者的购买力。

3. Unemployment Rate (失业率)Sentence:The unemployment rate decreased to 5% last month, signaling a recovering labor market.中文翻译:上个月失业率下降至5%，表明劳动力市场正在恢复。

4. Fiscal Policy (财政政策)Sentence:The government implemented expansionary fiscal policy to stimulate economic growth.中文翻译:政府实施了扩张性的财政政策以刺激经济增长。

5. Monetary Policy (货币政策)Sentence:The central bank adjusted its monetary policy by lowering interest rates to encourage borrowing.中文翻译:中央银行通过降低利率调整了货币政策，以鼓励借贷。

6. Balance of Trade (贸易平衡)Sentence:A positive balance of trade occurs when a country's exports exceed its imports.中文翻译:当一个国家的出口超过进口时，就会出现贸易平衡顺差。

第10 章外部性

– 发行60张许可证，每一张许可证允许它的持有者排放1吨SO2 (60张总共可以排放60吨SO2) – 给每家企业发放30张许可证 – 建立交易许可证的市场
• 每家企业可以从以下选择中选择一种方案:
– 用完所有的许可证，排放30吨SO2 – 排放少于30吨的SO2，并出售未使用的许可证 – 购买许可证，以排放多余30吨的SO2
CHAPTER 10 EXTERNALITIES
以市场为基础的政策#1: 矫正性税收
• 除矫正税之外的其他税收扭曲了激励，并使经济发展偏离社会最优水平。 • 矫正性税收通过协调私人和社会激励，提高了经济效率。
CHAPTER 10 EXTERNALITIES
矫正税的一个例子：汽油税
汽油税针对三种负外部性:
– 限制污染排放量 – 要求企业必须采用某种设备以降低排污量
• 以市场为基础的政策提供某种激励，使私人决策者自己解决外部性问题。
CHAPTER 10 EXTERNALITIES
以市场为基础的政策#1: 政府规制与矫正性税收
• 例子: 顶点公司和美国电力两家煤炭发电厂。每家发电厂每月排放40吨SO2 。SO2 造成酸雨，并会造成其他有害人们健康的问题。政策目标：减少25%的SO2 排放量 • 政策选择
– 规制: 要求每家发电厂减少25%的排放量 – 矫正性税收: 对发电厂排放的每一吨SO2征税，并把征税额设定在能够达到政策目标的水平上。
EXTERNALITIES
CHAPTER 10
以市场为基础的政策#1: 政府规制
•在政府规制下，企业没有激励去把减排指标定在超过25%的水平。
CHAPTER 10 EXTERNALITIES
CHAPTER 10 EXTERNALITIES

曼昆经济学原理英文书

曼昆经济学原理英文书The Economics Principles by MankiwChapter 1: Ten Principles of EconomicsChapter 2: Thinking Like an EconomistChapter 3: Interdependence and the Gains from Trade Chapter 4: The Market Forces of Supply and Demand Chapter 5: Elasticity and Its ApplicationChapter 6: Supply, Demand, and Government Policies Chapter 7: Consumers, Producers, and Efficiency of Markets Chapter 8: Application: The Costs of TaxationChapter 9: Application: International TradeChapter 10: ExternalitiesChapter 11: Public Goods and Common Resources Chapter 12: The Design of the Tax SystemChapter 13: The Costs of ProductionChapter 14: Firms in Competitive MarketsChapter 15: MonopolyChapter 16: Monopolistic CompetitionChapter 17: OligopolyChapter 18: The Markets for Factors of Production Chapter 19: Earnings and DiscriminationChapter 20: Income Inequality and PovertyChapter 21: Introduction to MacroeconomicsChapter 22: Measuring a Nation's IncomeChapter 23: Measuring the Cost of LivingChapter 24: Production and GrowthChapter 25: Saving, Investment, and the Financial System Chapter 26: The Basic Tools of FinanceChapter 27: UnemploymentChapter 28: The Monetary SystemChapter 29: Money Growth and InflationChapter 30: Open-Economy Macroeconomics: Basic Concepts Chapter 31: A Macroeconomic Theory of the Open Economy Chapter 32: Aggregate Demand and Aggregate SupplyChapter 33: The Influence of Monetary and Fiscal Policy on Aggregate DemandChapter 34: The Short-Run Trade-Off between Inflation and UnemploymentChapter 35: The Theory of Consumer ChoiceChapter 36: Frontiers of MicroeconomicsChapter 37: Monopoly and Antitrust PolicyChapter 38: Oligopoly and Game TheoryChapter 39: Externalities, Public Goods, and Environmental Policy Chapter 40: Uncertainty and InformationChapter 41: Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply Analysis Chapter 42: Understanding Business CyclesChapter 43: Fiscal PolicyChapter 44: Money, Banking, and Central BankingChapter 45: Monetary PolicyChapter 46: Inflation, Disinflation, and DeflationChapter 47: Exchange Rates and the International Financial SystemChapter 48: The Short - Run Trade - Off between Inflation and Unemployment RevisitedChapter 49: Macroeconomic Policy: Challenges in the Twenty - First CenturyEpilogue: 14 Big IdeasNote: The chapter titles have been abbreviated for simplicity and brevity purposes.。

Chapter 10 - Externalities (1)

One type of market failure:
externality, the uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander.
市场失灵的情形之一：外部性，个人的行为对其他人福利的无补偿的影响
10
1
0 0 10
EXTERNALITIES
20 25 30 Q (gallons)
Analysis of a Negative Externality
P $5
4 S
The market for gasoline
Social cost
3
2 D
Market eq’m (Q = 25) is greater than social optimum (Q = 20). One solution: tax sellers $1/gallon, would shift S curve up $1.
contagious diseases protects not only you, but people who visit the salad bar or produce section after you.
R&D creates knowledge
others can use.
People going to college raise
In the presence of a positive externality,
the social value of a good includes 社会价值 private value 私人价值– the direct value to buyers external benefit 外部收益– the value of the positive impact on bystanders

经济学原理外部性

技术政策 Technology Policy
专利法是技术政策的一种，对个人或公司的创造发明的产权予以专利保护 Patent laws are a form of technology policy that give the individual (or firm) with patent protection a property right over its invention.
供给Supply (厂商成本private cost)
均衡点
Equilibrium
需求Demand (private value)
0
QMARKET
铝的数量 8
Quantity of Aluminum
铝市场与福利经济 The Market for Aluminum and
Welfare Economics
当对旁人的影响是有利的，外部性被称作是正外部性
When the impact on the bystander is beneficial, the externality is called a positive externality.
5
负外部性的例子 Examples of Negative
Externalities
免疫注射Immunizations 修复历史性建筑物 Restored historic buildings 研究新技术 Research into new technologies
7
铝市场
The Market for Aluminum...
铝的价格
Price of Aluminum
但是市场失灵依然会发生
But market failures can still happen.

微观经济学理论部分英文词汇

adj. 基本的；初级的；[化学] 元素的
46, sequences
n. [数][计] 序列，顺序；继起的事（sequence的复数形式）
Sequences: 序列 | 图形逻辑 | 数列
47, semester [sɪ'mestə]
n. 学期；半年
48, relatively ['relətɪvlɪ]
Reunited: 重遇 | 重聚 | 团聚
9, proofs [pru:fs]
n. 证明；证据（proof的复数）；校稿
10, proceeds ['prəʊsiːdz]
n. 收入，收益；实收款项
11, extension [ɪk'stenʃ(ə)n; ek-]
n. 延长；延期；扩大；伸展；电话分机
n. 筛选；放映；[物] 屏蔽；审查；防波
v. 筛选；拍摄（screen的ing形式）；遮蔽；隔挡
Screening: 场次 | 筛选 | 筛查
56, mechanism design
机制设计（微观经济学和博弈论的分支领域）；机构设计（学科名称）；机械设计
57, altered ['ɔːltəd]
27, Fixed Point Theorems
Fixed Point Theorems: 不动点定理
28, coverage ['kʌv(ə)rɪdʒ]
n. 覆盖，覆盖范围
coverage: 新闻报道 | 覆盖面 | 保险范围
29, instructors
n. 教练；讲师；指导书（instructor的复数）
adj. 人际的；人与人之间的

ap microeconomics 重点知识点超全整理

AP Microeconomics（微观经济学）的考试涵盖了多个重点知识点，包括但不限于以下部分：1. Scarcity, choice and opportunity cost（稀缺性、选择和机会成本）：这是微观经济学的基础，探讨在资源有限的情况下，如何做出最优的决策。

2. Production possibility curve（生产可能性曲线）：这条曲线表示在既定资源下，一个经济体生产不同商品的最大数量组合。

3. Comparative advantage, absolute advantage（比较优势、绝对优势）：比较优势和绝对优势是分析国家间贸易的基石，表明一个国家在生产某一商品时，相对于其他国家所拥有的优势。

4. Specialization and trade（专业化与贸易）：专业化生产可以带来效率提升和成本降低，而贸易则可以使得各国能够利用其他国家的资源和技术优势。

5. Economic systems, Property rights and the role of incentives（经济制度、产权与激励机制）：不同的经济制度会影响人们的经济行为和资源配置，而产权和激励机制则可以促进资源的有效利用。

6. The behavior of firms under different market conditions（企业在不同市场条件下的行为）：包括完全竞争市场、垄断市场、寡头市场和垄断竞争市场等，这些市场的特性会影响企业的行为和决策。

7. The role of government in markets（政府在市场中的作用）：包括政府的价格控制、反垄断政策、税收政策等，这些政策会影响市场的运行和企业的决策。

8. Consumer behavior and welfare（消费者行为与福利）：探讨消费者在有限的收入下如何做出最优的消费决策，以及政府政策对消费者福利的影响。

史蒂芬威廉森宏观经济学第四版课后题答案最新Solution_CH5

Chapter 5A Closed-Economy One-PeriodMacroeconomic ModelTextbook Question SolutionsQuestions for Review1. A closed economy is easier to work with. Opening the economy does not change most of theproperties of an economy. The closed economy is the correct model for the world as a whole.2. Government levies taxes and purchases consumption goods.3. In a one-period model, there can be no borrowing or lending. There is therefore no way to finance agovernment deficit.4. Endogenous variables: C , N s , N d , T , Y , and w .5. Exogenous variables: G , z , K .6. The representative consumer chooses C and N s to maximize utility.The representative firm chooses N d to maximize profits.Market-clearing: .s d N N N ==Government budget constraint: T = G .7. The slope of the production possibilities frontier is equal to .N MP − The slope of the productionpossibilities frontier is also identified as ,,l C MRT − where ,l C MRT is identified as the marginal rate oftransformation between leisure and consumption.8. The competitive equilibrium is Pareto optimal because it lies at a tangency point between theproduction possibilities frontier and a representative consumer’s indifference curve.9. The first theorem: A competitive equilibrium can be Pareto optimal. This theorem assures us that thecompetitive equilibrium is a good outcome. The second theorem: A Pareto optimum is a competitive equilibrium. This theorem allows us to directly analyze Pareto optima with the assurance that these points are also competitive equilibriums. The second theorem is useful because Pareto Optimaare often easier to work with than competitive equilibriums.Chapter 5 A Closed-Economy One-Period Macroeconomic Model 43 10. Externalities, noncompetitive behavior, and distorting taxes.11. , ,, , and .G Y C N l w ↑⇒↑↓↑↓↓ 12. Government competes with the private sector in buying goods. An increase in government spendingimplies a negative wealth effect, which results in lower consumption.13. , , and .z Y C w ↑⇒↑↑↑ The sign of the effects on N and l are ambiguous.14. The substitution effect of an increase in z is that the representative consumer works more hours. Theincome effect of an increase in z is that the representative household works more hours. The sign of the net effect is ambiguous.15. A distorting tax makes that households equalize their marginal rate of substitution between leisureand consumption to the after tax wage, which is different from the before tax wage that firms equalize their marginal rate of transformation to. Thus, one cannot achieve the Pareto optimum where thesame wage (before tax) is equal to both marginal rates above.16. The Laffer curve takes into account that higher proportional tax rates give incentives to households towork less. While tax revenue increases with the tax rate for a given tax base, that tax base is reduced by the tax rate.17. When the income tax rate falls, households are willing to supply additional labor more in suchquantities that the tax base increases more than what the tax rate decreases, thus increasing taxrevenue.44 Williamson • Macroeconomics, Fourth EditionProblems1. Although we often think about the negative externalities of congestion and pollution in cities, theremay also be some positive externalities. A concentrated population is better able to support the arts and professional sports; cities typically have a greater variety of good restaurants, etc. Perhaps a more basic issue is that there may be some increasing returns to scale at low output levels that makeindustrial production more costly in small towns. There may also be externalities in production in being located close to other producers. One example would be the financial industry in financialcenters like New York, London, Tokyo, etc. Another example would be large city medical centers that enhance coordination between primary physicians and specialists.One market test of whether productivity is higher in cities would be to look at the wages in cities versus the wages in smaller towns and rural areas. Wages are often higher in cities for individuals of comparable skills. Market efficiency suggests that the higher wages be reflective of a higher marginal product of labor, and that the higher wages compensate those choosing to live in cities for thenegative externalities that they face.2. In a one period model, taxes must be exactly equal to government spending. A reduction in taxes istherefore equivalent to a reduction in government spending. The result is exactly opposite of the case of an increase in government spending that is presented in the text. A reduction in governmentspending induces a pure income effect that induces the consumer to consume more and work less. At lower employment, the equilibrium real wage is higher because the marginal product of labor rises when employment falls. Output falls, consumption rises, employment falls and the real wage rises. 3. The only impact effect of this disturbance is to lower the capital stock. Therefore, the productionpossibility frontier shifts down and the marginal product of labor falls (PPF is flatter).(a) The reduction in the capital stock is depicted in the figure below. The economy starts at point Aon PPF1. The reduction in the capital stock shifts the production possibilities frontier to PPF2.Because PPF2 is flatter, there is a substitution effect that moves the consumer to point D. Theconsumer consumes less of the consumption good and consumes more leisure. Less leisure alsomeans that the consumer works more. Because the production possibilities frontier shifts down,there is also an income effect. The income effect implies less consumption and less leisure (more work). On net, consumption must fall, but leisure could decrease, remain the same, or increase,depending on the relative strengths of the income and substitution effect. The real wage must also fall. To see this, we must remember that, in equilibrium, the real wage must equal the marginalrate of substitution. The substitution effect implies a lower marginal rate of substitution. Theincome effect is a parallel shift in the production possibilities frontier. As the income effectincreases the amount of employment, marginal product of labor must fall from point D topoint B. This reinforces the reduction in the marginal rate of substitution from point A to point D.Chapter 5 A Closed-Economy One-Period Macroeconomic Model 45(b) Changes in the capital stock are not likely candidates for the source of the typical business cycle.While it is easy to construct examples of precipitous declines in capital, it is more difficult toimagine sudden increases in the capital stock. The capital stock usually trends upward, and thisupward trend is important for economic growth. However, the amount of new capital generatedby a higher level of investment over the course of a few quarters, of a few years, is very small incomparison to the existing stock of capital. On the other hand, a natural disaster that decreasesthe stock of capital implies lower output and consumption, and also implies lower real wages,which are all features of the typical business cycle contraction.4. Government Productivity. First consider the benchmark case in which 1,z = and there is no effect ofchanges in z on government activities. Now suppose that z increases. This case of an increase in z is depicted in the figure below. The original production possibilities frontier is labeled PPF 1 and the competitive equilibrium is at point A. If the increase in z only affects the economy through thechange in (,),zF K N then the new production possibilities frontier is PPF 2. The diagram shows a case in which the income and substitution effects on leisure exactly cancel out, and the economymoves to point B. The equation for the production possibilities frontier is (,).C zF K h l T =−− In the benchmark case, T G = and so we have (,).C zF K h l G =−− For this problem, /,T G z = and so the production possibilities frontier is given by (,)/.C zF K h l G z =−− When 1,z = the two PPFscoincide. When z increases, the vertical intercept of the PPF increases by /.G z Δ Therefore, the new PPF is PPF 3 in the figure below. The competitive equilibrium is at point C . There is an additional income effect that provides an additional increase in equilibrium consumption, and a reinforcedincome effect that tend to make leisure increase. Therefore, relative to the benchmark case, there is a larger increase in consumption, and either a smaller decrease in leisure or a larger increase in leisure.46 Williamson • Macroeconomics, Fourth Edition5. Change in preferences.(a) At the margin, the consumer decides that leisure is more preferred to consumption. That is, theconsumer now requires a bigger increase in consumption to willingly work more (consume lessleisure). In more intuitive language, the consumer is lazier.(b) To work out the effects of this change in tastes, we refer to the figure below. The productionpossibility frontier in this example is unchanged. The consumer now picks a new point at which one of the flatter indifference curves is tangent to the production possibilities frontier. That is,equilibrium will shift from point A to point B. Consumption falls and leisure rises. Therefore, the consumer works less and produces less. Because employment has fallen, it also must be the case that the real wage increases.Chapter 5 A Closed-Economy One-Period Macroeconomic Model 47(c) This disturbance, which some might characterize as a contagious outbreak of laziness, wouldhave the appearance of a recession, as output and employment both fall. The consequentreduction in consumption is also consistent with a typical recession. However, in this case thereal wage would rise, which is inconsistent with the business cycle facts. Therefore, this type ofpreference change is not a cause of recessions.6. (a) With conscription, the government reduces the time available for market work from h to h −a.The consumption given to conscript is not relevant, as it is taxed away. This only a transfer thatdoes not impact the production capacity of the economy.48 Williamson • Macroeconomics, Fourth EditionThe production possibilities frontier PPF1 moves to the left (PPF2), such that it originates at(−G, h−a). The equilibrium moves from A to B. The consequence is a drop in consumptionfrom C1 to C2, as well as in leisure from l1 to l2. As there is no change in G, aggregate outputdecreases as well. All this is the result of the economy having less labor available for production.(b) To finance the army, the government needs to levy new taxes to cover wages of soldiers, butreturns this in consumption. This is purely redistributive and thus does not change G, and thesame outcome as in (a) is obtained.(c) Both results highlight how military service drags the productive capacity of a country down. Butthe financing of this activity does not matter, all that is relevant is the loss of resources (in thiscase time).7. Production-enhancing aspects of government spending.(a) The increase in government spending in this example has two separate effects on the productionpossibilities frontier. First, the increase in government spending from G1 to G2 implies a paralleldownward shift in the production possibilities frontier. Second, the productive nature ofgovernment spending is equivalent to an increase in total factor productivity that shifts theproduction possibilities frontier upward and increases its slope. The figure below draws theoriginal production possibilities frontier as PPF1 and the new production possibilities frontier asPPF2. If the production-enhancing aspects of the increase in government spending are largeenough, representative consumer utility could rise, as in this figure.(b) There are three effects at work in this example. First, there is a negative income effect from theincrease in taxes needed to pay for the increased government spending. This effect tends to lower both consumption and leisure. Second, there is a substitution effect due to the productive effect of the increase in G, which is drawn as the movement from point A to point D. This effect tends toincrease both consumption and leisure. Third, there is a positive income effect from the increasein G on productivity. This effect tends to increase both consumption and leisure. In the figureabove, the movement from point D to point B is the net effect of the two income effects. Ingeneral, consumption may rise or fall, and leisure may rise or fall. The overall effect on output is the same as in any increase in total factor productivity. Output surely rises.Chapter 5 A Closed-Economy One-Period Macroeconomic Model 49 8. (a) If households dedicate a hours to education today, it reduces the hours available for leisure andwork to h−a. The PPF has to start form point (−G, h−a). Graphically, this corresponds to thefigure in the answer of question 6(b). The consequence is thus a reduction in consumption,leisure, employment, aggregate output, but an increase in the real wage.(b) In the future, workers will be more efficient, which corresponds to an increase in total factorproductivity. Thus we have the case described in Figure 5.9 of the textbook. There is an increasein future consumption, aggregate output and the real wage. Changes in employment and leisureare ambiguous.(c) An increase in education leads to an immediate loss in welfare, as both leisure and consumptionare reduced. But this is compensated by an increase in future consumption, and possibly ofleisure, too. Whether this is worth doing depends on the preferences of households over currentand future utility.9. The fact that government spending make firms more productive is similar to adding G to theproduction function. There are now two effects to an increase in government expenses: the standard crowding out of consumption, and now also an efficiency effect on production.(a) The figure below illustrates a particular situation where the welfare of the household is improved,as illustrated by a shift to the north-east of the indifference curve. The equilibrium shifts fromA toB as the PPF is lowered by the additional government expenses but is also getting steeperthanks to the same government expenses.(b) From previous results, we know that output increases with the increase in government expenses.This is now reinforced as G increases production efficiency. Regarding consumption and leisure, without this new effect, we obtained that an increase in G lead to a negative income effect andthus to decreases in both consumption and leisure. But as the real wage went down, there wasalso a substitution effect leading to an additional decrease in consumption and increase in leisure.The new effect on the production function adds opposite effects: a positive income effect and awage increase, thus possibly reversing, or not, anything that was concluded without the impact ofG on production.50 Williamson • Macroeconomics, Fourth Edition10. We need to analyze each case separately. Start with the good equilibrium. As government expensesincrease, more tax revenue needs to be raised, and thus the tax rate needs to be increased. As shown in the figure below, this tilts down the linear PPF. The new equilibrium leads to a lower indifferencecurve. This leads to a negative income effect and a lower wage (remember, it is z(1 − t)), thus asubstitution effect. The income effect lowers consumption and leisure, the substitution effectdecreases consumption and increases leisure. All in all, consumption is lower and leisure is higher, as we know that the substitution effect dominates the income effect. This means that the labor supply is reduced, and thus equilibrium labor and output.The story is different in the bad equilibrium. To increase tax revenue, one needs to reduce the tax rate.Then all the changes discussed above are exactly in the opposite direction.11. We know from previous analysis that an improvement in total factor productivity pushes up the PPF,and thus leads to an increase in consumption, a decrease in leisure, and thus an increase in thequantity of labor supplied. This increases the tax base, and thus allows a reduced tax rate to achieve the same tax revenue, or in other words, it pushes the left portion of the Laffer curve to the left. The reduction in the tax rate has then a further impact on the variables of interest: as we saw in question 7, first part with a reversal of all signs: consumption increases even more and leisure decrease yet more, leading to an even higher quantity of labor. All in all, as both labor and total factor productivityincrease, output increases.。

第十章_外部性

本章目录
外部性与市场无效率 10.2 针对外部性的公共政策 10.3 外部性的私人解决办法
10.1
在本章中，你将…
了解外部性的性质（概念与种类）说明为什么外部性会使市场结果无效率（量过大还是过小）考察有时私人如何可以自己解决外部性问题 ——主要是其中的科斯定理考虑为什么私人解决外部性的方法有时不起作用考察旨在解决外部性问题的各种政府政策因此本章重点在于三个：1、外部性四种类型、无效表现（量过大还是过小）；2、科斯定理；3、解决外部性问题的各种政府政策的比较：庇古税与管制的比较、庇古税与污染许可证的比较

从市场效率——市场失效（市场失灵）
“市场通常是组织经济活动的好方法”。亚当•
斯密“看不见的手”（invisible hand）（市场价格机制）能引导作为利己的“经济人”的市场买者和卖者实现社会福利的最大化。第七章通过福利经济学的工具表明了，竞争性市场下形成的供需均衡时的均衡价格和均衡数量能实现总剩余、社会福利和资源配置效率的最大化。
正负外部性的区分P163
当一个人的行为对旁观者的利益造成不利的
影响时，称为负外部性（negative externality）. 当一个人的行为对旁观者的利益造成有利的影响时，称为正外部性（positive externality）.
负外部性的例子
铝
化肥等生产污染 (P164) 汽车废气、污染（P163）吸烟（P176复习题6）狂吠的狗(宠物的噪音)（P174）公寓中高音量的音乐噪音（P177问题与
但市场效率是有条件的，当存在外部性时，“看不见的手”会失灵。因此 “政府有时可以改善市场结果”
市场失效: 外部性（Externalities）

曼昆《经济学原理》英文版完整讲义丛externalities

EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• Positive Externalities
• Immunizations • Restored historic buildings • Research into new technologies
路漫漫其悠远
曼昆《经济学原理》英文版完整讲义丛externalities
• The optimal output level is more than the equilibrium quantity.
• The market produces a smaller quantity than is socially desirable.
• The social value of the good exceeds the private value of the good.
路漫漫其悠远
曼昆《经济学原理》英文版完整讲义丛externalities
Figure 3 Education and the Social Optimum
Price of Education
Supply (private cost)
Social value Demand (private value)
Figure 1 The Market for Aluminum
Price of Aluminum
Supply (private cost)
Equilibrium
Demand (private value)
0
QMARKET
QuantityBiblioteka ofAluminumCopyright © 2004 South-Western

10-外部性

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt,用税收和补贴手段给私人部门以激励，实现社会效率。激励，实现社会效率。庇古税——用于纠正负外部性影响的税用于纠正负外部性影响的税庇古税收。
正外部性例子
免疫修复历史古迹新技术研究开发
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
福利经济
P $5
4 3 $2.50 2 1 0 0
CHAPTER 10
汽油市场
市场均衡最大 cs + ps.
外部性的私下解决方式
道德规范和社会约束慈善组织不同类型的企业一体化交易各方签订合同
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
科斯定理
科斯定理—— 一种观点，认为如果私人一种观点，科斯定理各方可以无成本地就资源配置进行协商，各方可以无成本地就资源配置进行协商，那么，他们就可以自己解决外部性问题。那么，他们就可以自己解决外部性问题。
为什么私下解决方式不能总是有效
交易成本协调问题顽固不化
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
解决外部性的公共政策当外部性问题严重且找不到私人解决方式时，当外部性问题严重且找不到私人解决方式时，政府也许采用以下方式试图解决外部性问题：政府也许采用以下方式试图解决外部性问题：命令和控制政策。命令和控制政策。以市场为基础的政策。以市场为基础的政策。

经济学原理第七版第10章外部性课件

4
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
Figure 1
The Market for Aluminum
2
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
Externalities
• Negative externalities
• Government – correct market failure
– Internalizing the externality
• Altering incentives so that people take account of the external effects of their actions
– What kinds of policies are likely to work best
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
Externalities
• Government action can sometimes improve upon market outcomes

范里安微观经济学外部效应Externalities

1
1
0
OA
yA
mA
0
yB
OB
mB
无效率与负外部效应
抽烟
抽烟
1
1
0
OA
yA
mA
0
yB
OB
mB
无效率与负外部效应
抽烟
抽烟
1
1
有效分配
0
OA
yA
mA
0
yB
OB
mB
无效率与负外部效应
假设没有办法使得金钱能够与抽烟水平进行交换。 A的最偏好的分配为什么？这个分配是否是有效率的？
无效率与负外部效应
抽烟
1
p(sB)
抽烟
1
sB
0
OA
yA
mA
0
yB
OB
mB
外部效应与财产权利
抽烟
1
p(sB)
抽烟
1 两个人的福利
状况都得到改 sB 善抽烟量也减
少了。
0
OA
yA
mA
0
yB
OB
mB
外部效应与财产权利
抽烟
1
p(sB)
抽烟
建议一个减少
1 抽烟的权利交
易市场导致了 sB 一个有效分配。
0
OA
yA
mA
0
yB
OB
mB
利润最大化的一阶条件为：
生产外部效应
m a x s(s ,x ) p ss c s(s ,x ).
s ,x
利润最大化的一阶条件为：
ps
cs(s,x) s
和
0 cs(s,x). x
生产外部效应
ps

经济学第十章,外部性、公共物品

案例2：案例：中毒的村庄
——《焦点访谈》：《焦点访谈》：2003年07月03日》： • 位于河北省保定市附近的喇喇地村是个人口一万五千多人的大村庄。据当地民众反映，村里大多数的孩子都表现出消瘦、易怒等奇怪现象。 • 经检查发现他们的每毫升血铅值都在300到500 左右毫克，而国家颁布的血液含铅的安全指数是每毫升血液中铅的含量不超过100毫克。因此可以得出结论，当地孩子属于严重的铅中毒。 • 据保定市儿童医院的医生证实，铅中毒的孩子这几年数量剧增，并且大多集中在喇喇地村以及周边地区。
鸭子怎么死了 ?
• 高两河养殖厂建于1994年，现有生猪存栏数达到 3000多头，每天都会积累下大量的粪便和冲刷猪舍的污水。这些粪便和污水，没有经过任何净化处理，就直接排到了围墙外的怀河里。这种可以造成河水有机污染的排污行为，是不允许的。怀柔县高两河养殖厂厂长李岩年：“这样往河里排，是不符合环保要求，确实是这样。但建厂时解决不了，这几年也想应该改进这办法，但现在来讲没有这个钱。” 那么，养殖厂排放的污水里，怎么会含有碱性物质呢？怀柔县环境监测站的负责人，做了如下解释。
案例3: 舍己救人、案例舍己救人、见义勇为
面临法律尴尬
• 遗憾的是，目前还没有哪条法律规定群众见义勇为受到侵害可以找国家（民政局）“赔偿”； • 司法实践中，有的法院判决受益人对见义勇为者实际赔偿，但无论是适当补偿还是实际赔偿，都不免使见义勇为者因受益人经济承受能力差而不能得到实际救济的尴尬，陷于“英雄流血又流泪”的窘境。
案例3: 舍己救人、案例舍己救人、见义勇为
面临法律尴尬
• 赣州市章贡区法院审理认为，原告钟崇祺、古金萍为挽救被告生命使自身受到损害，被告罗贤华应给予原告赔偿；鉴于被告在煤气事故中亦受伤，目前经济状况差等，只能适用公平原则，由被告适当补偿两原告。该院判决由被告罗贤华补偿原告钟崇祺、古金萍夫妇2万元。 • 钟崇祺夫妇不服上诉后，赣州中院经审理认为，钟崇祺、古金萍夫妇在无法定或约定义务的情况下，冒着生命危险救助罗贤华，属无因管理。判决罗贤华赔偿钟崇祺、古金萍夫妇因对其实施救助而受到实际损失医疗费及继续治疗费计224490元。 • 这起损害赔偿案件一、二审结果反差之大令人咋舌。

精编10externalities资料

• 当外部性对旁观者有利时，存在正外部性：
• The social value of the good exceeds the private value.
• 物品的社会价值超过私人价值。
Figure 3 Education and the Social Optimum
Price of Education
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• Negative Externalities 负外部性
• Automobile exhaust 汽车尾气 • Cigarette smoking 吸烟 • Barking dogs (loud pets) 狂吠的狗 • Loud stereos in an apartment building大楼里吵闹
• The Market for Aluminum
• The quantity produced and consumed in the market equilibrium is efficient in the sense that it maximizes the sum of producer and consumer surplus.
Figure 1 The Market for Aluminum
Price of Aluminum
Supply (private cost)
Equilibrium
Demand (private value)
0
QMARKET
Quantity of
Aluminum
Welfare Economics: A Recap
• 技术溢出是一种正外部性，一个企业的创新或设计不仅有利于这个企业，而且这种设计进入社会的技术知识宝库对整个社会也有利。