Schools of translation theories
翻译理论知识概要
翻译理论知识概要第一部分：翻译术语1. Definitions of translationTranslation can be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language. Being a very complicated human activity, its whole picture is never easy to describe. Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives.(1). Linguistic Views on TranslationTranslation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that translation theory is a branch of linguistics, approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differences between source and target texts.Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language (the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (the target language). (Catford, 1965: 20).Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber,1969:12).Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics, and within linguistics, it is mainly an aspect of semantics; all questions of semantics relate to translation theory. (Newmark, 1982 /1988:5).(2). Cultural Views on TranslationIn the cultural approach, translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs, but also as a communication of cultures, i.e. translation is an "intercultural communication"; hence the terms of "intercultural cooperation", "acculturation", and "transculturation".Translation is a process which occurs between cultures rather than simply between languages {Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:35).A translator who uses a cultural approach is simply recognizing that each language contains elements which are derived from its culture (such as greetings, fixed expressions and REALIA), that every text is anchored in a specific culture, and that conventions of text production and reception vary from culture to culture (Shuttleworth & Cowie1997:35).For truly successful translating, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism, since words only have meanings in terms of the cultures in which they function. (Nida, 2001:82).翻译不仅涉及语言问题,也涉及文化问题。
翻译流派的划分(自己总结)
第一次《翻译理论》课作业:Cｌassificａｔioｎs of Schｏｏls of TｒanｓlatioｎTheoｒｉes参阅了美国翻译理论家根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》之后，了解到当代西方翻译理论可划分为5大流派,即：ＴhｅNorth AmericａｎTｒanｓｌａtｉon Woｒkｓhop, Ｔhｅ“Sc ｉｅnｃe”of Tｒanslatiｏｎ,Eaｒly ＴraｎslatｉoｎStｕｄｉes, Pｏlysyｓtem Tranｓla ｔion, Ｄecoｎstruction．(1)北美培训学派（ThｅＮortｈAｍericaｎTraｎslation Wｏrｋｓhop):侧重实践，强调译文的品味及文学价值,但译论局限于美学经验和指令性翻译规则，缺乏系统化理论。
代表人物有：策德内斯(创立培训班的前提）、理查兹(翻译的理论基础）、庞德（细节翻译理论)、威尔(翻译的矛盾）。
(2)翻译科学学派（Ｔｈe “Sciｅncｅ” of Traｎslａtion)：也可称额为翻译的语言学派，其特点就是有加强翻译的理论研究的意识,并想使之称为一门“学科”,但结果又并没有成为一门独立的学科而是成为了别的学科的附属，具体点就是成为语言学的一个分支,所以才有人把这段的翻译研究称为“语言学派”或“科学”学派。
代表人物有:Jａkoｂuson, Nida, Ｊ．C．Cａtforｄ, Ｗolｆｒam Ｗｉlls, Newｍark，Reiss,Ｖermeer(3)早期翻译研究派(EａrｌｙTrａnｓlaｔｉｏn Stuｄieｓ）：该学派兴起于7０年代的比利时、荷兰等国家，主要探讨译文产生与作用。
该学派主要采取译入文学文化研究手段，侧重直观法和文学翻译，到8０年代,该学派学者Jｏse Lamｂerｔ转向了译学客观描述个案研究，英国的SusaｎBasｓnett, 其著名代表作之一为Translａtion Stud ｉｅs 和比利时学者Ａndre Ｌefeｖere, 其著名代表作之一Trａnslation,Rｅｗriting ａnd the Manipulatiｏn of Ｌiｔｅrary Faｍｅ则转向文化研究模式(4)多元体系学派（Poｌysystem Transｌａtiｏn):其翻译理论反战与早期研究学派，是翻译研究学派合乎逻辑的延伸和发展。
论文An Overview of Translation in China
An Overview of Translation in China: Practice and Theory Vicky (刘学) 08英B 3008211041An Overview of Translation in China:Practice and Theory1. IntroductionChina has an over five thousand-year long history of human civilization and a three thousand-year history of translation. This paper is to provide a chronological review highlighting translation theory and practice in China from ancient to present times.2. Translation Practice and Theory in Ancient China2.1. Early Translation in China1) The earliest translation activities in China date back to the Zhou dynasty (周朝). Documents of the time indicated that translation was carried out by government clerks, who were concerned primarily with the transmission of ideologies.“五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同。
达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方日象，西方日狄鞮，北方日译。
”《礼记·王制》2) It was during the Han dynasty (汉朝)that translation became a medium for the dissemination of foreign learning. The Buddhist scriptures which were written in Sanskrit needed to be translated into Chinese to meet the need of Chinese Buddhists. Famous translators：An Shigao(高世安),Lou Jiachen(娄迦谶),Zhi Liang (支亮), zhi Qian(支谦)Practice: They translated Buddhist scriptures in a literal manner.Theories: A core issue rose ---- literal translation vs. free translation3) During the two Jin dynasties, Southern dynasty and Northern dynasty (两晋南北朝), translation of Buddhist scripture was officially organized on a large scale in China. A State Translation School was founded for this purpose.Famous translators:Dao An(道安), Kumarajiva(鸠摩罗什), Zhen Di(真谛), SengYou（僧佑）Practice: Translation of Buddhist scripture was officially organized on a large scale in China. A State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Theories: Dao An（道安）--- He advocated strict literal translation.Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）--- He emphasized the accuracy of translation.Therefore, he applied a free translation approach to transfer the trueessence of the Sanskrit Sutras. He was the first person in the history oftranslation in China to suggest that translators should sign their names tothe translated works.2 2. The First Peak of Translation in ChinaSui dynasty (隋朝) and Tang dynasty (唐朝): This period was the first peak of translation in China.Famous translators: Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks. E.g,Xuan Zang（玄奘）, Bu Kong(不空) Practice: The translations were still mainly of the Buddhist scriptures.Theories:Xuan Zang（玄奘）--- He set down the famous translation criteria that translation "must be both truthful and intelligible to the populace." In asense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best oftwo worlds—literal translation and free translation.2.3 Technical Translation during the Yuan and Ming DynastiesFrom the Yuan dynasty(元朝) to the Ming dynasty (明朝), the translation of sutras lost importance.Yuan dynasty(元朝):As the Yuan rulers directed their attention westward, Arabs began to settle in China, some of them translated scientific works from Arabic or European languages.Ming dynasty (明朝): With the arrival of western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. To facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated works of western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They also introduced the Chinese classics to the West.Famous translators:Al-Tusi Nasir Al-Din (纳西尔丁图西) , 拔合思巴, 智光；Matteo Ricci (利马窦), Xu Guangqi (徐光启)，Li Zhizao（李之藻）Practice: a. Translation of western scientific works. b. Introduction of Chinese classics to the West. (Translation activities in a collaborated way) Theories:As little quest for systematic translation theories, no distinguishing contribution to it.Translations during the Ming dynasty had two distinguishing characteristics: (1) The subject of translation shifted from Buddhist scriptures to scientific and technological knowledge; (2) translators in this period of time were mainly scientists and government officials who were erudite scholars, and the western missionaries who brought western knowledge to China. The effect of the translations was that China was opened to western knowledge, and translation facilitated the scientific and technical development.3. Translation in Contemporary China3.1 Technical Translation during the Qing DynastyIn Late Qing Dynasty(清朝), Chinese translators, trained in China or at foreign universities, gradually took over the transmission of western knowledge from the western missionaries.Famous translators:, Li Shanlan (李善兰)，Hua Hengfang（华蘅芳），JohnFryer (傅兰雅)，Alexander Wylies (伟烈亚力)Practice: a. Translation of western scientific works. b. Introduction of Chinese classics to the West. (Translation activities in a collaborated way)Theories:Fryer’s ‘Translation to meet the social urgent need’. See more below: Fryer, in his On the Various Methods of Translating, explained : (1) The fallacy that technical language could not be rendered into Chinese should be refuted; Chinese was expressive as any other languages in the world, and new technical terms could by various means be created in Chinese. (2) A database for technical terminology should be established for all the translators; the same technical terms should be identical in Chinese even if they were translated by different translators. (3) As for selecting the original texts for translation, a translator should translate those books which were in urgent need among the target language readers. He also explained that one should not translate unless one has understood every single word of the original text.3.2. Translation of Works of Social Science in Late Qing DynastyYan Fu (1853-1921) was the most influential translator and translation theorist in this period. Yan was a cultural intermediary who, at a critical moment in history, sought to make European works of political and social science accessible to the people. His most influential work are the1898 translation of Thomas Henry Huxley's Evolution and Ethics (《天演论》，1893). His list of translations includes Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776), published in Chinese in 1902, Herbert Spenser's The Study of Sociology (《原富》，1872) and John Stuart Mill's On Liberty (《群己权界论》1859), both translations published in 1904, writings by Edward Jenks published in Chinese in 1904, Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws (1748), l's A System of Logic (1843), translated in 1905, and William Stanley Jevon's The Theory of Political Economy (1878), translated in 1909.Famous translators： Yan Fu(严复)Practice: Translation of European political and social worksTheories:The triple criteria by Yan Fu--- "Faithfulness, Fluency and Elegance.""Faithfulness" requires that the meaning in the target language should befaithful to the meaning of the original; "Fluency"is the requirement ofintelligibility of the target language text, the translated text should be inaccordance with the language rules of the target language; "Elegance"requires a translation to be esthetically pleasing.3.3 Literary Translation in Late Qing DynastyDuring the late Qing dynasty, literary translation was popular and marked another peak of translation in China. Literary translation during the late Qing dynasty consisted mainly of the translation of western novels into Chinese.Famous translator： Lin Shu (林纾)Practice: Translation of European western novels （in a collaborated way）Theories:The development of translation theory during the late Qing dynasty remained a discussion and expansion of Yan Fu's theory, and literal vsfree translation was still the core issue.The most famous of Lin Shu’s translation works are: La Dame aux Camelias(《巴黎茶花女遗事》),Uncle Tom's Cabin(《黑奴吁天录》), David Copperfield(《块肉余生记》), and Hamlet《王子复仇记》.4. Translation in Modern China4.1 The Translation of Socialist and Communist WorksThe May 4th Movement which was the starting point of the new democratic revolution in China opened a new chapter in history of translation in China. The translation atmosphere was dynamic and active with a focus on the translation of Karl Marx's (1818-1883) and Lenin's (1870-19224) works on socialist and communist theories, and the translation and re-translation of western literature.Famous translator： Chen Qixiu(陈启修)，Guo Muoruo（郭沫若）Practice: Translation of Socialist and Communist WorksTheories: No more distinguishing characteristicsMarx's monumental work Das Kapital(Capital《资本论》,1859), the fundemental text of Marxist economics, was translated by Chen Qixiu in 1930, and in the next year Guo Muoruo translared Marx's Zur Kritik der Politischen Ökonomie(Critique of Political Economy《政治经济学原理》, 1852).4.2. Literary TranslationLiterary translation after the May 4th Movement and before 1949, made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. Translators in this period of time, by comparison with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective regarding source texts. The quality and quantity of literary translation greatly improved. Most of the world famous literary works, from both large and small nations, were translated into Chinese.Famous translator： Lin Yutang (林语堂), Lu Xun (鲁讯)，Qu Qiubai（瞿秋白）Practice:Translation of Chinese classics and poetry into English; Translation of Novels of other country into ChineseTheories: see more in 4.34.3. Developments in Translation TheoryTranslation theory, especially literary translation theory, was effectively developed during this period of time when large quantities of literary works were translated. Translation issues like:the necessity of translation, translatability and untranslatability, the relation between translation and literary creation, the improvement of translation quality etc. were raised and adequately discussed by translation practitioners. However, the heated topics on translation theory were still translation criteria, literary vs free translation.5. Translation in Present China5.1. Translation in China between 1949-1978The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter into a new era. Translation became a very important part of the national cultural and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators.Famous translator：Fu Lei（傅雷），Qian Zhongshu（钱钟书）Translation Practice:1) Large-scale translation: Marx and Lenin's works. 2) In the 1950s: scientific and technical works to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. 3) In the 1970s: translation of United Nations documents after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations.4) Literary translation: separated from general translation in China in this period, and literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel.Translation Theory: Most of the translators in this period (1949-1978) took a literary approach to the study of translation theory. The transfer of the original spirit was regarded as one of the main tasks of literary translation.5.2. Translation in China After 1978In 1978, two years after the end of disastrous "cultural revolution," China adopted its "open door and reform" policy. A new and dynamic atmosphere for translation emerged.Famous translator：Jin Di(金隄)Translation Practice:1)With the booming economy, although literary translation remains a very important part of translation practice, translations concerning international trade, foreign affairs, technology, information science etc. are the main tasks. 2) They not only translate into but also from Chinese for the promotion of Chinese culture in the world. 3) The authoritative organization for instructing and coordinating translation in China, China Translators Association, was organized in 1982 with the approval of and support from the State Council. The academic journal, China Translators' Journal, published by China Translators' Association has been acknowledged as the highest level translation studies journal in China with the aim to promote research in translation studies. 4) Higher educational institutions with foreign languages departments or foreign languages educational institutions establish translation as a degree course. 5)Translation as an M.A course started before its inception as a B.A course in China.Developments in Translation Theory: With the introduction of different views on translation from the west, Chinese translators are rethinking the theories they have followed, and research in translation theories has diversified. However, there are two main schools of translation theorists, namely, the linguistic school and the literal and cultural school. Those who take a linguistic approach to the study of translation may be influenced by Catford, Nida and others, and stress that translation theory is an independent linguistic discipline, derived from observation and providing the basis for practice, while those who take the literal and cultural approach mainly have read literature on translation by Chinese theorists. The main issues on translation they discussed continued to be the principles, criteria and methods of translation.VI. Conclusion: Translation in China ---- Facing a ChallengeLooking back over the history of translation of China, we find that, on the one hand, China has a long history of translation and the development of some translation theories; on the other hand, it is hard to find a systematic translation theory to guide translation practice although there are prescriptive explanations of how to translate. By comparing this situation with the west, we find that the development of translation, and especially translation theory, is lagging in China although it is now a major translation user. With its booming economy and the expansion of its political influence in the international community, China is now facing a challenge in the development of translation.Reference:1.Ma Zhuyi (马祖毅) A History of Translation in China 2006.Scan-WSDU2.BOOK400001Hubei Education Press , 2006.62-672.Li Nanqiu The History of Science Translation in China ISBN：731201177 ,University of Science and Technology of China, 2006,324-4673.Qian Zhongshu A Chapter in the History of Chinese Translation.From A Collection of Qian Zhongshu's English Essays,ISBN: 9787560050812, 2005, Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press.。
翻译理论与实践TranslationtheoriesandPractice
翻译理论与实践（汉译英）Translation Theories and Practice (Chinese-English Translation )Teaching Notes for Senior College Students（2005年9月）刘国忠2578706*************.cnTopics at first:1. 解读汉译英《教学大纲》2. 解读汉译英《考试大纲》3. 汉译英学习指导①重要性②特性③实践性汉译英精典教材：1. 《英汉翻译教程》张培基喻天根《汉英翻译教程》吕瑞昌喻天根上海外语教育出版社 1980.92.《汉英翻译基础》陈宏薇上海外语教育出版社 1998/23.《英汉互译实用教程》宋天锡等国防工业出版社2000/14.《实用翻译教程》（英汉互译）增订本冯庆华上海外语教育出版社2002/55.《实用汉英翻译教程》曾诚外语教学与研究出版社2002/46.《翻译教学：实务与理论》刘宓庆中国对外翻译出版公司2003/1•汉译英主要内容：•一、汉译英实务教学•二、历届TEM8汉译英试卷评析•三、汉译英练习与评析•—汉英翻译强化训练汉译英实务教学主要内容一、汉英词语对比二、汉英句法基本差异（一）汉英句子的主语比较三、汉英句法基本差异（二）汉语谓语动词的分析和翻译四、被动语态的翻译五、汉译英中的主谓定位六、汉译英中的句子整合问题增补内容：七、如何避免翻译中的Chinglish八、汉英翻译中的文化传递九、公示语的翻译十、历届TEM8汉译英试卷评析十一、汉译英练习与评析—汉英翻译强化训练汉译英学习指导（一）如何保证翻译课的教学效果1.以―正当程序‖保证翻译质量无论英译汉，还是汉译英，译文都需要准确、通顺，这是翻译的基本要求。
表达准确的基础是对原文的准确理解：译者必须准确地理解原文的每个词、每句话和作者的意图。
表达通顺的基础是对译入语的熟练运用。
我们在做汉译英时，存在一个天然的劣势：由于英语不是我们的母语，做到表达的准确和通顺相当困难。
中外翻译理论
. Brief Introduction of Eugene NidaDr. Eugene A. Nida (1914--) is one of the most distinguished contemporary translation theorists in the west. During his past fifty years of study in translation theory and practice, he has achieved great success in this field. His translation theory has exerted a tremendous influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries, especially in China. He is generally recognized as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists.He develops the communicative translation theory put forward by Newmark, who is a famous translation theorist of England. The communicative translation theory not only emphasizes language meaning transform, but also functional equivalence. Spreading and becoming popular in China in early 1980s, Nida’s translation theory is the debut for most of Chinese translators to contact the western systematic translation theories and has deeply influenced the translation theory research in China. In spite of the doubts on his theory appearing in late 1980s and early 1990s, it is certain that Nida’s translation theory gives significant inspiration to translation researchers.With the research fruits of modern linguistics, Nida has carries out a descriptive research on translation and contemplated deeply on the major problems of the practice and research of the translation theory. With an active mind, he frequently renews the translation theory and keeps rectifying and developing his thoughts and ideas about translation theory. His translation theory is mainly on the basis of the developments of contemporary linguistics, communication theory, information theory and semiotics.2. Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory2.1 Conception of Functional EquivalenceFunctional equivalence theory was first put forward in 1964. This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information instead of the direct formal equivalence in translation so as to keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. The functional feature of the translation depends on the balance of two relationships, that is, the relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to the relationship between the source language receptor and the source text, and it is the two relationships that provide the basis for functional equivalence.2.2 Literal Translation, Free Translation and Functional EquivalenceNida is the first person to handle the disputable problem between literal translation and free translation. He holds that effect is the most important element in translation. Regardless of the method of literal translation or free translation is followed, as long as the response of both source language reader and target language reader is somewhat equivalent, the best translation can be achieved.In traditional translation theory, literal translation focusing on form is called faithful, while translation emphasizing meaning is free. Nida insists translator focusing on form, especially in verses, sentences and concepts equivalence, is formal equivalence. It is dangerous in reproducing intention and meaning of original author, even worse, to result in reader’s misunderstanding. In his opinion, the translator following functional equivalence will be more faithful to the original text than following literal translation, for that the former strategy requires more fully and comprehensively understanding of the meaning of original text. Moreover.2.3 Four Levels of Functional Equivalence.Translation involves message transmission between two languages and cultures, and therestill exists lots of similarity among different language cultures, which is the objective basis. Because of the different location, history, cultural ground and education level, it is hard to be objective. The definition of translation Nida proposed shows that translation is not only related to equivalence of lexical meaning, but also the equivalence of text connotation and style, message translated in translation includes surface lexical message and deep cultural message. Functional equivalence includes four levels: lexical equivalence, sentence equivalence, passage equivalence and style equivalence.2.3.1 Lexical equivalenceThe meaning of a word lies in its usage in language. In translation practice, what confuse us is how to find the corresponding meaning in target language. Take Tension is building up as an example, tension and build up both have different explanations without consideration of context. Thus this sentence can be translated as several different editions:In English—Chinese translation, completely lexical equivalence lies in special terms and terminology, besides which there are five correspondences, word equivalence, synonymy, polysemy, lexical meaning overlap and zero equivalence.2.3.2 Sentence EquivalenceSentence equivalence is more complicated than lexical equivalence. In English- Chinese translation, singular and plural form is an important and evident problem. Plural meaning in Chinese is not expressed with any evident plural form, which is different in English. Moreover, for different target language, tender, number and tense should be taken into consideration in translation. Thus, translator should be clear about whether such a sentence grammar exists in the target language or not, and be clear about the frequency of such sentence grammar.2.3.3 Passage EquivalenceIn order to achieve passage equivalence, language is not the unique element we should consider, what we should also take into consideration is how the language represents meaning and performs its function in a specific context. Passage equivalence consists of three parts, passage context, scene context and cultural context. Passage context lies in analysis of language, which aims to judge the meaning of words and semantic units in original text, and is based on analysis of meaning and connotation of the passage. Scene context includes the concrete person and things involved in communication, the channel of communication, the relationship among participants and mental emotions.3. ConclusionNida’s translation theory has been popular in the world for nearly sixty years and it has become an indispensable part of translation studies. Holding a panoramic view of all the important points in Nida’s theory, we can conclude that the essence of his theory is that he insists the translator should pay prior attention to the meaning of the source text and should not be curbed by the expression form of the source text. Moreover, Nida’s translation theory is a genuine breakthrough and its influence and contribution to the translation field cannot be underestimated, and it dose render us a profound enlightenment that the excellent translation comes from practice.Nida has been a pioneer in the fields of translation theory and linguistics.His Ph.D. dissertation, A Synopsis of English Syntax, was the first full-scale analysis of a major language according to the "immediate-constituent" theory. His most notable contribution to translation theory is Dynamic Equivalence, also known as Functional Equivalence. For more information, see "Dynamic and formal equivalence." Nida also developed the"componential-analysis" technique, which split words into their components to help determine equivalence in translation (e.g. "bachelor" = male + unmarried). This is, perhaps, not the best example of the technique, though it is the most well-known.Nida's dynamic-equivalence theory is often held in opposition to the views of philologists who maintain that an understanding of the source text(ST) can be achieved by assessing theinter-animation of words on the page, and that meaning is self-contained within the text (i.e. much more focused on achieving semantic equivalence).This theory, along with other theories of correspondence in translating, are elaborated in his essay Principles of Correspondence,[6]where Nida begins by asserting that given that “no two languages are identical, either in the meanings given to corresponding symbols or in the ways in which symbols are arranged in phrases and sentences, it stands to reason that there can be no absolute correspondence between languages. Hence, there can be no fully exact translations.”[7] While the impact of a translation may be close to the original, there can be no identity in detail.Nida then sets forth the differences in translation, as he would account for it, within three basic factors: (1) The nature of the message: in some messages the content is of primary consideration, and in others the form must be given a higher priority. (2) The purpose of the author and of the translator: to give information on both form and content; to aim at full intelligibility of the reader so he/she may understand the full implications of the message; for imperative purposes that aim at not just understanding the translation but also at ensuring no misunderstanding of the translation. (3) The type of audience: prospective audiences differ both in decoding ability and in potential interest.Nida brings in the reminder that while there are no such things as “identical equivalents” in translating, what one must in translating seek to do is find the “closest natural equivalent”. Here he identifies two basic orientations in translating based on two different types of equivalence: Formal Equivalence (F-E) and Dynamic Equivalence (D-E).F-E focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content. Such translations then would be concerned with such correspondences as poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, and concept to concept. Such a formal orientation that typifies this type of structural equivalence is called a “gloss translation” in which the translator aims at reproducing as literally and meaningfully as possible the form and content of the original.The principles governing an F-E translation would then be: reproduction of grammatical units; consistency in word usage; and meanings in terms of the source context.D-E on the other hand aims at complete “naturalness” of expression. A D-E translation is directed primarily towards equivalence of response rather than equivalence of form. The relationship between the target language receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original (source language) receptors and the message.The principles governing a D-E translation then would be: conformance of a translation to the receptor language and culture as a whole; and the translation must be in accordance with the语言学派翻译理论奥古斯丁发展了亚里士多德的“符号”理论，提出了语言符号的“能指”、“所指”和译者“判断”的三角关系，开创了西方翻译理论的语言学传统。
大学翻译理论与实践 Lecture 2 Principles of Translation
返回章重点
6．Your loss is nothing to mine. A．你的损失与我无关。 B．你的损失和我的（损失）比较起来算不 了什么。 7．The patient is waiting to cross the Styx. A．这个病人正等着过斯蒂克斯河。 B．这个病人已经等死了。
Lecture 2 Principles/Criteria of Translation (翻译标准/原则)
2.1 关于翻译标准的争议
(Controversy on Principles of Translation)
Criteria
in China ：
严复(1853-1921)：信、达、雅 Triple Principle of Translation ⊙Faithfulness（忠实于原文/忠实准确） ⊙Expressiveness（文笔流畅/通顺流畅） ⊙Elegance(文风典雅/文字古雅<士大夫> --保持原文的风格)
16
返回章重点
再如：
Talent Professor Smith has. Money Professor Smith has not.
【译文】才能，史密斯教授有。钱，史密斯教授 没有。
Contrast is the spice of life. There can be no joy without sorrow, no summer without winter, no love without hate.
6
返回章重点
要达到完全的“信、达、雅” 或 “等值
（效果）” 只能是一种美好的理想或愿望。能 达七八成或八九成之忠实，已是十分的不错了。 因为任何一种文字都是有其声音之美，有其意 义之美，有其传神之美，有其文气文体形式之
History-of-translation-theory-翻译简史
（一）西方翻译实践史
第五次翻译高潮为文艺复兴后，从十七世纪 下半叶至十二世纪上半叶，西方各国的翻译 继续向前发展。虽然就其规模和影响而言， 这一时期的翻译比不上文艺复兴时期，但仍 然涌现出大量的优秀译著。其最大特点是， 翻译家们不仅继续翻译古典著作，而且对近 代的和当代的作品也发生了很大的兴趣。塞 万提斯、莎士比亚、巴尔扎克、歌德等大文 豪的作品都被一再议成各国文字，东方文学 的译品也陆续问世。
文艺复兴时期，（荷兰）伊拉斯谟的不屈从神 学权威、《圣经》的翻译靠译者的语言知识； （德国）路德的翻译必须采用民众语言的人文 主义观点；（法国）多雷的译者必须理解原作 内容、通晓良种语言、避免逐字对译、采用通 俗形式、讲究译作风格的“翻译五原则”。
第11页，共33页。
（二）西方翻译理论发展史
在十七至十九世纪，（法国）巴托的“作者是主人”（译者是 仆人）、译文必须“不增不减不改”的准确翻译理论；（英国） 德莱顿的“直译”、“意译”、“拟作”的翻译三分法和翻译 是艺术的观点；（英国）泰特勒的优秀译作的标准和“译作应 完全复写出原作的思想、译作的风格和手法应和原作属于同一 性质、译作应具备原作所具有的通顺”等翻译三原则； （德国） 施莱尔马赫的口译与笔译、文学翻译与机械性翻译的区分； （德国）洪堡的语言决定世界观和可译性与不可译性的理论； （英国）阿诺德的“翻译荷马必须正确把握住荷马特征”的观 点。
第三次翻译高潮出现在中世纪中期，即十一至十二世纪 之间，在西班牙的托莱多，把阿拉伯语翻译成拉丁语。早 在九世纪和十世纪，叙利亚学者就来到雅典，把大批希腊 典籍译成古叙利亚语，带回巴格达。在巴格达，阿拉伯人 又把这些著作译成阿拉伯语，巴格达一时成为阿拉伯人研 究古希腊文化的中心。后来，在托莱多译成拉丁语的许多 希腊典籍便是从这些阿拉伯文译本转译的。于是，托莱多 成为欧洲的学术中心（类似与巴格达的"翻译院"），翻译 及学术活动延续达百余年之久发展史
thenameandnatureoftranslationstudies《翻译学的名与实》
thenameandnatureoftranslationstudies《翻译学的名与实》I. 霍姆斯其人：1924-1986生平：霍姆斯出生在美国Iowa爱荷华州，后在宾夕法尼亚州的哈弗福德Haverford学院学习英语文学，1949年受富布莱特项目Fulbright Project资助来到荷兰，从此荷兰成为他的第二故乡。
他虽然一直保留美国国籍，但绝大部分时间是在荷兰度过的。
霍姆斯师从阿姆斯特丹大学荷兰文学系主任，接触了大量荷语文学作品。
他从五十年代处就开始将荷语文学介绍到英语世界，此间也没有间断自己的诗歌创作，他的翻译理论研究工作则始于60年代末期。
在他的老师改任阿姆斯特丹大学综合文学系主任后，霍姆斯被聘为该系教师，除教授文学翻译实践外，他还率先开设了翻译理论课程。
霍姆斯同时还在以培养翻译人才为目标的阿姆斯特丹翻译学院任教。
他极力促成将该学院并入阿姆斯特丹大学人文学院，但1982年二者正式合并并且成立翻译系以后，作为翻译领域最重要的学者，霍姆斯没有顺理成章地成为该系教授，原因之一是他没有博士学位，另一方面则是因为它的同性恋行为、反传统的着装及他在翻译方面的见解为该系一些教员所不容，而霍姆斯也无意为他人而改变自己的生活方式。
他于1985年辞去在阿姆斯特丹大学的教职，次年因艾滋病去世，时年62岁。
成就：霍姆斯在诗歌创作、诗歌翻译和翻译理论研究等方面都有突出成就。
首先，他是一个诗歌翻译家。
霍姆斯最大的贡献在于充当荷兰在英语世界中的文学大使，使世界认识到荷兰文学的存在。
他的第一部译作是1955年出版的《当代荷兰诗选》，在此后30多年的翻译生涯中，他介绍过荷语地区几乎所有重要诗人的作品。
早在1956年，霍姆斯获得象征荷兰文学翻译界最高荣誉的马丁内斯·那霍夫奖（Martinus Nijhoff Prize），成为第一位获此殊荣的外国人。
他还在晚年1984年获得弗兰芒地区首届荷兰语文学奖，是迄今为止唯一获得两个翻译奖项的人。
Introduction to the Course of Translation Theories and Practice
Introduction to the Course of Translation Theories and PracticeQuestions for discussion1. What is translation?2. How many categories do you think translation can be divided into, and what are they?3. What are the characteristics of translation? Describe it in detail, please.4. What is style and stylistics? What is the relationship between style and translation?5. What are we going to learn in this course?6. What is translation theory and what are translation techniques? What is the relationship between them?7. As a translator, what competence should you have? Can you describe it in detail?8. How can we learn the course well?·Translation is as old as a language itself , probably starting from thousands years ago . It has been used as an indispensable means of mediation , a useful aid to preaching and teaching , and to the social and culture , and commercial exchanges and mutual understanding between different peoples and different countries . It has become part of human life.Definitions of translation1) Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.所谓翻译，是在译语中用最切近的自然的对等语再现原语的信息，首先是意义，其次是文体.2) The replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL).翻译可作如下界定：用一种语言（目的语）的文本材料对等地再现另一种语言（出发语）的文本材料.3) A translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. The style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original. A translation should have all the ease of the original composition.Definitions of translation译文应完全复写出原作的思想。
FunctionalistTranslationTheories,功能派翻译理论(精)
Functionalist Approaches
• • • • Hans Vermeer, 1978 ☆ Reiss and Vermeer, 1984 ☆ Justa Holz-Mänttäri, 1984 ☆ Christiane Nord, 1988 2001: 126)
Function plus Loyalty
Nord:
“My personal version of the functionalist approach thus stands on two pillars: function plus loyalty. It is precisely the combination of the two that matters, even though there may be cases where they seem to contradict each other.”
• Fidelity rule:
Some relationship between ST and translatum must remain, once skopos principle and coherence rule have been satisfied.
Skopos theory
Skopos
Skopos theory
source-text producer source text source-text receiver
translator
initiator
Skopos
target text
receiver
commissioner
user
client
Skopos theory
• Skopos rule:
Translation theories 2009
Translation Theories
夏家驷 2009－2－9 Email: xiajiasi@
Some basic ideas of translation
The tower of Babel
The tower of Babel
The tower of Babel
And the Lord came down to see the city, and the tower, which the children of men builded. And the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do; and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do. Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another‘s speech. So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth; and they left off to build the city. Therefore is the name of it called Babel; because the Lord did there confound the language of all the earth; and from thence did the Lord scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth.
翻译理论研究之四——当代西方翻译理论流派评述：翻译科学派
• 乔姆斯基讨论的主要问题是围绕着形式属性的“深度”以及基础结构或 短语结构是否是一种普遍属性这两点而展开的。 • 在认为所有语言都具有形式普遍现象（formal universals）的同时，乔 姆斯基坚持认为这些形式属性并不是某种语言所特有的。
• 尽管在奈达的心目中，两种不同语言的句子可以具有同样的深层结构， 但乔姆斯基不认为深层结构具有普遍性。据他看来，一种语言的形式不 一定非要等同于另一种语言的形式。乔姆斯基警告说：
• 再则，无论转换生成语言学家将生成表层结构的生成规则描述得如何 精确，仍然会有一些语言现象不受其约束。人们完全可以假想地认为 没有一个句子会完全没有错误，语言的活力正是来自语言内在的不稳 定性。转换生成语法忽略所有可能的错误或认为错误与语法无关的倾 向使其试图揭示的语言结构再次变得模糊不清。 • 尽管文学翻译者对乔姆斯基理论持保留态度，而且乔姆斯基本人也曾 予以警告，但奈达仍围绕乔姆斯基所提供的模式着手建立一门翻译的 科学，他的研究成果逐渐成为这一领域里最具影响力的理论。
• 而且，乔姆斯基将说话主体（speaking subject）理想化，赋予其创造 性使用语言的特别能力。在理想化过程中，一些错误、意外及口误等 均被排除在乔姆斯基的模式之外，但是福科认为这些因素对于了解说 话主体及其内在性质具有和“正确的”表达同样的重要性。
• 尽管对乔姆斯基的理论存在许多批评意见，但翻译科学派学者仍运用 他的理论来支持自己的主张。 • 斯坦纳认为需要重视乔姆斯基的理论及其与翻译的关系。 • 奈达本人认为自己的理论基于一种与乔姆斯基的深层结构/表层结构模 式类似的模式，但他或许只是简化了乔姆斯基的模式以适应自己的需 要。 • 著名的德国翻译科学派学者威尔斯就认为他自己的模式并不是以乔姆 斯基的模式为基础，但他无意中对乔姆斯基理论的借用已远远超过了 他愿意承认的程度。
中英高级翻译-翻译概述概要
Dogs are men’s good friends.
• Every dog has its day. • 人人皆有得意日
• a lucky dog
• 幸运儿
• Love me, love my dog. • 爱屋及乌
• help a dog over a stilt • 助人度过难关
1) language activity 语言活动
source language
target language
• 翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另 一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。
（王克非，1997）
• 翻译是语际之间的信息传递和语族之间的 文化交流。（萧立明，2001）
• 翻译是一种跨文化的信息交流与交换的活 动，其本质是传播。 （吕俊，1997）
• 语际翻译（interlingual translation): an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.
• 语言学观点：
• Translation is “the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)” (J. C. Catford, 1965:20).
• Translation is “the transfer of ‘meaning’ from one set of language signs to another set of language signs” (Lawendowski, 1978:267).
国外翻译研究丛书简介
国外翻译研究丛书简介国外翻译研究丛书之一•文化构建——文学翻译论集Constructing Cultures—Essays on Literary Translation作者: Susan Bassnet & Andre Lefevere 著语种: 英语简介本书是“国外翻译研究丛书”之一，它第一次把翻译研究学派的创始人物——苏珊•巴斯内特和安德列•勒菲弗尔的论文集合成册，他们不仅回顾了翻译研究的发展历史，总结翻译理论研究、文化研究，描述翻译研究以及翻译教学方面的最新动态，而且两位学者、翻译家还进一步拓展翻译研究的疆域，指明这一学科将来的发展方向。
书中探讨的主题有：中西译论、可译性的限度、翻译何时并非翻译、翻译研究与文化研究的关系等等。
国外翻译研究丛书之二•跨文化交际——翻译理论与对比篇章语言学Communication Across Cultures—Translation Theory and Contrastive TextLinguistics作者: Basil Hatim 著语种: 英语简介本书是“国外翻译研究丛书”之一，是一部将对比语言学、篇章语言学和翻译理论结合起来研究跨文化交际的学术著作。
作者针对目前翻译理论、对比语言学、话语分析三个学科自成一体的学术局面，试图将三者融会贯通。
本书借助大量篇章文字，通过翻译实例，指出了在跨文化、跨语言的翻译中需要引起人们高度重视的焦点问题。
书中材料真实可信，具有深刻的理论价值，适用面广。
国外翻译研究丛书之三•目的性行为——析功能翻译理论Translating As A Purposeful Activity作者: Christiane Nord 著语种: 英语简介本书是“国外翻译研究丛书”之一，它讲述了功能派的形成过程、基本思想和作者本人提出的翻译的忠诚原则。
书中还涉及到该理论在译者培训、文学翻译、口译中的应用以及对译者翻译道德观念的影响。
翻译概论总结
多项选择：1. Roman Jakobson’s tripartite classification: intralingual translation (rewording), interlingual translation (translation proper), and intersemiotic translation (transmutation)2. text types: technical, institutional, literary translation3. outline of major theories of translation:(1) Chronologically (by the time of their birth or occurrence): the philological, hermeneutic, linguistic, communicative, sociosemiotic, skopos, manipulative, norm, post-structuralist, postcolonial(2) topologically (by the particular approach adopted or focus directed by their proponents): their approaches to translation may be grouped into the philological, linguistic, functionalist, semiotic, cultural, philosophical.重要概念：1. translation studies:(1). The paper “the name and nature of translation studies” written by James Holmes in 1988, marks the birth of the discipline of TS.The descriptive branch: product, process, function-orientedThe theoretical branch: general & partial which includes medium, area, rank, text type, time, and problem restrictedThe applied branch: translation aids, training and criticismNote: though being lucid and inspiring in his theory, it shall be noted that description and theorizing are usually inseparable from each other in research.(2). The internal studies and external studiesThe internal studies: the theoretical branch takes as its objects of study the nature, principles, and procedures of translation; the applied branch includes translation practice (text analysis and genre translation), T criticism, and the training of translators, development of the translation profession.Specifically, translation practice includes text analysis and genre translation, and the former covers such areas of research as: source text analysis, comparison of translations & their source texts, comparison of translations and non-translated texts (comparable texts), translation with commentary; while the genre translation covers texts like drama, poetry, prose fiction, religious text, tourism texts, and multimedia texts.The external translation studies are the derived or borderline parts of TS, covering areas where the internal TS interact or marry with other disciplines, such as history, sociology, cultural anthropology, philosophy, linguistics, psychology, theory of communication, computer science and technology, etc. For example, history of translation; sociology and cultural studies of T; T ethics; terminology management; language and translation technology…Or historical/cultural translation; translation ethics; terminology and glossaries; translation and technologyThe internal studies and the external studies of translation are related and complementary to each other in that the research results in the former provide the latter with both a theoretical basis and a practical focus of concern while the research findings in external studies contribute to the depth and breadth of internal studies by providing new observations and new perspectives.2. definition of translation:According to Wilss (1995), translation is an action directed toward both the source text and the reader of the target language. Its procedure is determined by its function and it pursues a goal of enabling understanding between individuals of different linguistic and cultural communities. Nida and Taber (1969) regard translation as a communication-based task and define it as: Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. (closest in meaning and style; acceptability; loss of information)-- translation as a kind of communication between different language group-- translation should communicate information or meaning3. theory:A theory, in the simplest sense, is just a view or understanding of something that concerns us. In modern science, it is generally understood or refers to a proposed explanation of empirical phenomena, made in a way consistent with scientific method. Theories are collections of hypotheses that are logically linked together into a coherent explanation of some aspect of reality and which have individually or jointly received some empirical support.The properties of a good theory: strong explanatory power that can effectively explain the subject matter it pertains to; strong predicative power which means it should proved a) reasonably adequate predictions about the properties not yet discovered of the specific object under investigation and b) a measure of predictability about the degree of success to be expected from the use of certain principles and procedures in the study of the subject matter.3. equivalence:A term used by many writers to describe the nature and the extent of the relationships which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller linguistic units.The nature of “equivalence”was successively discussed by prominent figures such as Jakobson, Eugene Nida, Peter Newmark, and Werner Koller.(1) Jakobson’s linguistic meaning and equivalence. He followed the relation set out by Saussure between the signifier (the spoken and written signal) and the signified (the concept signified). He stated that the signifier and signified form the linguistic sign, but the sign is arbitrary or unmotivated, thus there is ordinarily no full equivalence between ST and TT. He defined translation as “substituting messages in one language not for separate code-units (signifier) but to entire messages (signified) in some other language”.(2) Catford regarded the central task of translation as “defining the nature and conditions of translation equivalence” and there exists a distinction between textual equivalence and formal correspondence.(3) Nida, inspired by Noam Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar, put forward a three-stage system of translation and used back-transformation to analyze the kernels undersome complicated surface structure. In terms of equivalence, he stated that there areformal equivalence which focuses attention on the message itself in both form and content, the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.Dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect, where the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptor and the message.There are four basic requirements of a translation.(4) Newmark put forward the notions of communicative translation and semantic translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its reader an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.4. meaning:According to Nida, meaning is broke down into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning.In terms of traditional studies of meaning, the meanings of meaning are as follows:reference and sense: reference is the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for; sense is the place a which a word or phrase holds in the system of relationships with other words or phrases in the vocabulary of a language.From the perspective of sociosemiotics, there are 4 basic facts about meaning:1) meaning is a kind of relationship. Meaning is not really an entity (because words do not have meanings, people have meanings for words), but the relationship between a sign and something outside it2) there is a plurality of meaning: three kinds of relationship a sign may enter into –referential(semantic), pragmatic, syntactic (intralingual);a. Referential meaning (RM) (sign-real world entity)is chiefly connected with the topic of a communication. Its core elements are the external situation, the facts of the real world. Also known as informative, conceptual, cognitive meaning. But RM does not equal literal meaning (LM). E.g 挂号信；vice-chancellor；indian meal;国际学院；基础实验楼b.Pragmatic meaning (PM) (sign-user)may be divided into four subsets: identificational meaning (regional, historial background of the speaker); expressive meaning (emotional content of an expression might have in terms of the personality or individual creativity of the user, e.g murder & homicide); associative meaning(connotative meaning隐含意义); social meaning (channel of contact, e.g phatic forms of discourse; forms of address vous/tu; flatter; register); imperative meaning (conative meaning, operative or instrumental meaning)c. intralingual meaning (IM) (sign-sign) is related to the code: phonetic meaning; phonological meaning; graphemic meaning; morphological/lexemic meaning, syntactic meaning, discoursal/textual meaning3) style is meaning. S tyle in its linguistic sense is reduced to a group of pragmatic meaning and intralingual meanings.4) different meaning may carry different weight in different contexts.5. code: a system of signs or signals involved in the transmission of messages. Language as a code is a system of multiplicity, i.e. it is composed of diverse elements or has different aspects.6. sign: a thing that signifies or stands for another thing or things.7. signification: using signs to mean. A third item is included in the process of signification, that is, an abstract concept of the thing for which the sign stands.8. message: according to Nida and Taber, it consists of two aspects: meaning and style9. fusion of horizon: the meeting of different perspectives or backgrounds. So far as translation is concerned, this concept implies that a translator has to emerge from his own intellectual perspective and cultural background in order to assimilate what is foreign in a new light.总结自己学习情况：Taking the course “Introduction of Translation Studies” is conducive to the improvement of both my theoretical and practical inquiry on translation. It is a pity that we cannot cover all the items outlined in the syllabus such as the skopos theory and the manipulation school, which I find them an enlightening reading as I read them in Jeremy Munday’s “Introducing Translation Studies”.As far as I am concerned, the benefits by taking this course are twofold. First, owning to the systematic exemplifications and illustrations discussed in class, I have a better understanding of the major schools of translation chronologically and topologically. Equipped with the basic knowledge and systematic framework of translation studies, I can conduct my research or my future thesis paper from an in-depth perspective. The philological approach mainly concerning on the “word for word” or “sense for sense” debate, though案例分析：1. deep structure analysisThe surface structure is the syntactic structure of the sentence which a person speaks, hears, reads or writes. It is the actually observed structure of a sentence.The deep structure is much more abstract and it is considered to incorporate all information relevant to the single or unambiguous interpretation of a particular sentence.Nida believes that the English language possesses seven such basic structures, which he terms “kernels”–the minimal number of structures from which the rest can be most efficiently and relevantly derived.Nida advocated the back-transformation of complex surface structures onto an underlying level, in which the fundamental elements are objects, events, abstracts, and relationals.Four steps for analyzing and transferring complicated SL sentences(1) determine whether each word is an object, and event, an abstract, or a relational(2) identify the kernels, (making explicit the implicit constituent elements of the kernels: who are the recipient and agent?)(3) determine the semantic and logical relationships between kernels (grouping the kernels into related sets)(4) find out the most efficient way of representing the given relationships between kernels in the target language. (state these relationships in a form which will be optimal, i.e. closest to the form in the target language, for transfer into the target language)例子：the unique and mixed ethnic heritage of the population; the American defence of Bastogne sealed their (Nazi troops) fate; this land, which once barred the way of weary travelers, now has become a land for winter and summer vacation, a land of magic and wonder.2. transliteration 以义出音vs. translation: a terminological study of the rendition of a sutra text翻译：长答题（essay questions；optional）:1. the philological school, which lays emphasis on the source text, including its production, transmission, and history of interpretation, a typical question raised with this school being that of whether the translator should bring the original to the target reader (liberal translation) or the target language reader to the original (literal translation).Philological tradition in the western history can be illustrated chronologically:a) roman times –word for word vs. sense for sense. Cicero & Horace & Quintilian: liberal translation; St. Augustine: literal translationb) the middle ages –debate between translation and unacceptable interpretation. St. Jerome, father of the church, translated the Bible into Latin, and developed the Ciceronian distinction between the undesirable “word for word”translation and the desirable “sense for sense”translation. Translator such as King Alfred in England perceived the task of translating the Bible as linked to the task of elevating the status of the newly developing language known as English, i.e. the Old English.c) the Renaissance –“copying” an original, but also creating a new text with an individual voice. Focus on how to strike a balance in between and how to remain faithful without being subservient.d) Reformation – doctrinal fidelity vs. possible heretical “mistranslation”. Martin Luther elevated and disseminated the usage of German by his translation of the Bible. Etienne Dolet, burn at the stake for his addition to his translation of one of Plato’s dialogues, advocated five principles in translation.e) the 17th & 18th centuries – diversion of the activity of translation: translation as recovery or imitation of classical text; as language learning exercise; as commercial enterprise. John Dryden reduces all translation to three categories: the triadic model: metaphrase, paraphrase, and imitation. The Port- Royal grammar put forward that “accuracy” in translation could somehow be measured on a qualifiable basis. Alexander Tytler reacted against Dryden’s “paraphrase” (loose translation) and set up three basic and celebrated principles of translation: complete transcript of ideas, style and manner of the same character, and all the ease of the originalf) the 19th century – romanticism and “creative translation”, which centered around the problem of whether translation could be considered as a creative or a mechanical enterprise.g) the 20th century – the philological tradition enduredIn conclusion, the methodology of this school is introspective, impressionistic, relying heavily on the researchers’and practitioners’intuition. Its central concepts are too abstract to be unequivocally understood and too fuzzy to serve as a reliable basis on which detailed theoretical analysis can be conducted and universally accepted conclusion drawn simply because different people may have different views of these concepts.2. the hermeneutic school, which concerns the interpretative process of the ST.The term “hermeneutics” is used in two senses: the part of Christian theology解经学and theory of understanding and interpretation of the significance of human actions, utterances, products, and institutions 阐释学。
国外翻译理论图书简介
《翻译、重写、文学声誉之操纵》安德烈•列夫维尔著《翻译、重写、文学声誉之操纵》是苏珊•巴斯奈特（Susan Bassnett）和安德烈•列夫维尔（André Lefevere）主编的《翻译学丛书》（1992）之一；由安德烈•列夫维尔撰著。
1978年，列夫维尔建议学术界将Translation Studies作为翻译学的正式名称；他与霍姆斯（James Holmes）及巴斯奈特等人均为“翻译研究派”（Translation Studies）的中坚人物。
其后巴斯奈特和列夫维尔成为文化学派的代表人物；《翻译、重写、文学声誉之操纵》被视为列夫维尔的代表作。
该书以“重写”文学者而非文学创作者为对象。
著者认为，评论、选编、史学、编辑等都是重写；翻译也是一种重写，它使原文的生命得以延续，因而具有巨大力量。
正如《丛书》前言所云：“翻译确是一种对原文本实施的重写。
凡重写，不论其意图何在，均反映了某种意识形态及诗学传统（第五章；第六章），从而使文学以某种方式在社会中发挥作用。
重写乃借权力以施为；在促进文学及社会演进方面具有积极意义。
”该书揭示了重写如何在文学作品的接受、意识形态及诗学等方面产生重大影响。
例如作者坚持将文学的创作与接受置于文化及其历史大背景下进行考察，给读者展示了在后马克思主义意义上，文学的社会语境及其历史语境中的重写如何对文学领域中诸如原创性、灵感、臻美等神旨圣典产生颠覆发表了富有争议的看法。
此外，该书涉猎文献丰富，包括古典拉丁文、法文、德文；使有兴于文论、比较文学、文学史及翻译学的师生耳目一新。
该书章节目录如下：第一章：前言第二章：赞助体系第三章：诗学体系第四章：范畴之于翻译第五章：意识形态之于翻译第六章：诗学之于翻译第七章：话语之于翻译第八章：语言之于翻译第九章：史学第十章：文选第十一章：批评安德烈·列夫维尔：比利时人，曾先后在香港、安德卫普等地的大学、最后在美国得克萨斯大学奥斯汀（Austin）分校日尔曼语言及比较文学系任教。
《西方翻译理论》课程教学大纲
《西方翻译理论》课程教学大纲课程编号:024一、课程说明1. 课程代码ZZ04010042. 课程类别专业专长课3. 适应专业及课程性质英语(师范)专业选修4. 课程目的《西方翻译理论》是高年级的一门专业选修课，其课程目的如下:(1)了解不同翻译理论的基本内容，理解翻译学上的核心术语;2)清楚各个翻译理论之间的区别与联系，并且能够对各个理论作出中肯、客观的评(述;(3)能够运用不同的翻译理论对翻译现象作出合理性的解释;学时与学分 5.学时为30，学分为1.5.6. 建议先修课程英汉翻译教程、汉英翻译教程二、课程教学基本内容及要求Chapter One Dynamic Equivalence and Formal Equivalence计划学时:4.5学时基本要求:(1)掌握形式对等和动态对等的概念 (2)理解读者反应理论(3)运用奈达的翻译理论解释某些翻译现象教学重点及难点:重点:(1)形式对等和动态对等概念的区分和内涵难点:(1)读者反应理论基本内容:(1)形式对等和动态对等(2)著名的读者反应理论(3)理论基础: 乔姆斯基的转换生成语法思考题:(1)What’s your view about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence?(2)What are the principles that govern a translation which attempts to reproduce a formalequivalence?(3)What are the principles that govern a translation which attempts to reproduce a dynamicequivalence?Chapter Two Semantic and Communicative Translation 计划学时:2.5学时基本要求:(1)掌握语义翻译和交际翻译的概念(2)理解语义翻译和交际翻译的适用范围3)运用纽马克的语义翻译和交际翻译理论指导翻译实践 (教学重点及难点:重点:(1)语义翻译和交际翻译的概念、区别和联系(2)语义翻译和交际翻译的适用范围难点:(1)语义翻译和交际翻译理论在翻译实践中的运用基本内容:(1)语义翻译和交际翻译思考题:(1)What’s semantic translation? What’s communicative translation? What are differencesbetween them?(2)Why do the majority of texts require communicative translation rather than semantictranslation?(3)What kinds of text require semantic translation?Chapter Three Skopos Theory计划学时:5学时基本要求:(1)掌握目的论的具体内容(2)理解目的论产生的背景(3)运用维米尔的目的论解释翻译策略不同的现象教学重点及难点:重点:(1)目的论的具体内容难点:(1)指导译者翻译策略的三原则:目的原则、关联原则和忠实原则及三者之间的关系基本内容:(1)目的论的具体内容(2)指导译者翻译策略的三原则:目的原则、关联原则和忠实原则 (3)诺德的“功能加忠诚”的指导原则(4)目的论评述思考题:(1) What do “translational action”, “skopos” and “translatum” mean? (2) What is the skopos theory?What does translation commission comprise? (3)(4) What is Nord’s functional model? What a re its strengths or limitations?(5) Explain the translation process suggested by Nord. Do you find it useful?Chapter Four Polysystem Theory 计划学时:2学时基本要求:(1)掌握多元系统论的具体内容(2)理解多元系统的运作过程(3)运用佐哈尔的多元系统论看待翻译文学在多元系统中的地位教学重点及难点:重点:(1)多元系统论的具体内容难点:(1)多元系统的具体运作过程基本内容:(1)多元系统论的具体内容(2)多元系统的操作过程(3)多元系统论的评述思考题:(1) What is the dynamic process of evolution that is vital to the polysystem?(2) What are the relations between innovatory and conservative systems that are in aconstant state of flux and competition? (3) How is the relation between the position of translated literature and the translation strategy?Chapter Five Descriptive Translation Studies 计划学时:2学时基本要求:(1)掌握描述翻译研究产生的背景、内容和特点(2)理解描述翻译研究的核心概念翻译准则(3)运用图瑞的描述翻译研究方法进行翻译实证性案例分析教学重点及难点:重点:(1)描述翻译研究产生的背景、内容和特点难点:(1)描述翻译研究的核心概念翻译准则基本内容:(1)描述翻译研究产生的背景、内容和特点(2)描述翻译研究的核心概念翻译准则(3)描述翻译研究的评述思考题:(1) What is the relationship between descriptive translation studies and translation theories?(2) What are the general characteristics for descriptive studies asa common researchmethod?Chapter Six Foreignizing Translation Strategy 计划学时:3学时基本要求:(1)掌握异化翻译策略产生的背景和内容(2)理解异化翻译策略与政治意识形态的关系(3)运用韦努蒂的异化翻译策略解释某些翻译现象教学重点及难点:重点:(1)异化翻译策略产生的背景、内容和特点难点:(1)异化翻译策略与政治意识形态的关系基本内容:(1)异化翻译策略产生的背景、内容和特点(2)异化翻译策略与政治意识形态的关系(3)异化翻译策略的评述思考题:(1) What features does foreignizing translation possess? (2) Why does Venuti advocate foreignizing translation rather than domesticating translation?Chapter Seven A Feminist Perspective on Translation 计划学时:2学时基本要求:(1)掌握女性主义翻译观的内容(2)理解女性主义翻译策略(3)运用女性主义翻译观阐释女性主义翻译作品教学重点及难点:重点:(1)女性主义翻译观的内容难点:(1)女性主义翻译策略具体实施情况基本内容:(1)女性主义翻译观的内容(2)女性主义翻译策略(3)女性主义翻译观评述思考题:(1) What difficulties could translators encounter when translating experimental feministwriting? What translation strategies do they usually take to solve the problems?(2) Why do feminist translators tend to “correct” or intervene source texts in their translationpractice?(3) Why do feminist translators take manipulative measures when translating womenwritings from earlier period?(4) What are your comments about feminist translators?Chapter Eight Postcolonial Approach to Translation 计划学时:2学时基本要求:(1)掌握后殖民主义翻译观的内容(2)理解后殖民主义与权力、话语之间的关系(3)运用后殖民主义翻译观解释某些翻译现象教学重点及难点:重点:(1)后殖民主义翻译观的内容难点:(1)后殖民主义与权力、话语之间的关系基本内容:(1)后殖民主义翻译观的内容(2)后殖民主义理论的代表人物:斯皮瓦克、赛义德、巴巴(3)后殖民主义翻译观评述思考题:(1)What is the possible scope of postcolonial studies? Could you list three definitions of thepostcolonial and explain its significance to postcolonial studies?(2)Explain key concepts (hegemony, subjectification and interpellation) in the postcolonialstudy of empire and its aftermath.Chapter Nine Hermeneutic Approach to Translation 计划学时:2学时基本要求:(1)掌握阐释学派翻译观的内容(2)理解阐释的四个步骤与翻译过程的关系(3)运用阐释学派翻译观解释某些翻译现象教学重点及难点:重点:(1)阐释学派翻译观的内容难点:(1)阐释的四个步骤与翻译过程的关系基本内容:(1)阐释学派翻译观的内容(2)阐释学派翻译观的重要代表人物:斯坦纳(3)阐释学派翻译观评述思考题:(1)Can you explain the four stages of the hermeneutic act of translating as delineated bySteiner in your own words?(2)How do you explain the connotation of the expression “hermeneutic motion” in relationto the translation process?.(3)Why is the hermeneutic motion complete with compensation the enactment ofreciprocity?Chapter Ten Deconstructionist Translation Theory 计划学时:2学时基本要求:(1)掌握解构主义翻译理论的内容(2)理解解构主义翻译理论与传统译论的不同(3)运用解构主义翻译理论解释某些翻译现象教学重点及难点:重点:(1)解构主义翻译理论的内容难点:(1)解构主义翻译理论与传统译论的不同基本内容:(1)解构主义翻译理论的内容(2)解构主义翻译理论的重要代表人物:德里达(3)解构主义翻译理论评述思考题:(1)How did Derrida call attention to the relation between language and structure by usingthe myth of the “Tower of Babel”?(2)Does the logic of the story demonstrate that no structure can achieve such full closureand isolated self-identity and thus guarantee a determined meaning?.(3) Do you agree that meaning is not prior to language but is an effect of language?Chapter Eleven Corpus-based Translation Studies计划学时:3学时基本要求:(1)掌握语料库翻译学的基本内容(2)理解语料库翻译学的核心概念:翻译规范、翻译共性特征等 (3)运用语料库翻译学进行翻译文本实证研究教学重点及难点:重点:(1)语料库翻译学的基本内容难点:(1)语料库翻译学的核心概念:翻译规范、翻译共性特征等基本内容:(1)语料库翻译学的基本内容(2)语料库翻译学的重要代表人物:莫娜?贝克思考题:(1)Explain the notion of norms. How might corpus research be helpful in determining suchnorms in translation studies? (2)List some universal features of translation. How can corpora help translation studies be an autonomous discipline?.三、课程学时分配本课程计划30学时，其中理论教学26学时，课内实践4学时。
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现代西方翻译理论与翻译学派二战后，科技、语言学和翻译事业蓬勃发展，机器翻译也悄然兴起。
人们对翻译的看法也随之而改变。
翻译不仅是一门艺术或技巧，而且是一门科学，与文艺学、社会学、心理学、数控论和信息论等多种学科相关但又自成体系的科学。
翻译理论的研究，也不再局限于哲学家、文学家和翻译家，而成为语言和翻译研究专家进行系统探讨的严肃课题。
因此，西方的翻译理论得到进一步发展。
现代西方翻译理论的发展有两大特点：（1）理论研究纳入语言学范畴，受现代语言学和信息理论的影响，因而带有明显的语言学色彩，与传统的文学翻译理论形成鲜明对照；（2）以往理论家闭门造车、不相往来的局面被打破。
理论家通过论著、杂志、论文集等方式，充分发表各自的观点。
此外，由于交通手段、出版业的进步以及国际学术组织的出现，各国翻译理论家之间的交往不断密切，学术交流日益加强。
现代西方的翻译理论主要有四大学派：布拉格派、伦敦派、美国结构派和交际理论派。
一、布拉格学派该学派的创始人为马希修斯（Vilem Mathesius）、特鲁贝斯科伊（Nikolay S. Trubetskoy）和雅可布森（Roman Jakobson）。
主要成员有雅可布森、列维、维内等重要的翻译理论家。
这一学派的主要论点为：（１）翻译必须考虑语言的各种功能，包括认识功能、表达功能和工具功能等；（２）翻译必须重视语言的比较，包括语义、语法、语音、语言风格以及文学体裁的比较。
布拉格学派最有影响的翻译理论家是罗曼·雅可布森。
他原籍俄国，后移居捷克；二战时迁至美国，加入美籍。
作为学派的创始人之一，他对翻译理论的贡献主要体现在《论翻译的语言学问题》（On Linguistic Aspects of Translation）之中。
文章从语言学的角度，对翻译的重要性、语言和翻译的关系以及存在的问题给出精辟的论述。
自１９５９年发表后，此文一直被西方理论界奉为翻译研究的经典之一。
雅可布森的论述主要有五点：（１）翻译分为三类：语内翻译（intralingual translation）、语际翻译（interlingual translation）和符际翻译（intersemiotic translation）。
所谓语内翻译，是指在同一语言内用一些语言符号去解释另一些语言符号，即通常的“改变说法”(rewording)。
所谓语际翻译，是指在两种语言之间即用一种语言的符号去解释另一种语言的符号，即严格意义上的翻译。
所谓符际翻译，是指用非语言符号系统解释语言符号，或用语言符号解释非语言符号，比如把旗语或手势变成言语表达。
（２）对于词义的理解取决于翻译。
他认为，在语言学习和语言理解过程中，翻译起着决定性作用。
（３）准确的翻译取决于信息对称。
翻译所涉及的是两种不同语符中的对等信息。
（４）所有语言都具有同等表达能力。
如果语言中出现词汇不足，可通过借词、造词或释义等方法对语言进行处理。
（５）语法范畴是翻译中最复杂的问题。
这对于存在时态、性、数等语法形式变化的语言，尤其复杂。
二、伦敦学派伦敦学派是具有英国特色的语言学派，认为语言的意义是由语言使用的社会环境(the social context of situation)所决定的。
在翻译研究领域，译文的用词与原文等同与否取决于其是否用于相同的语言环境之中。
伦敦学派的创始人为福斯（J. R. Firth）。
有两篇文章集中反映出他的翻译理论，一篇为《语言学与翻译》（Linguistics and Translation），另一篇为《语言分析与翻译》（Linguistic Analysis and Translation）。
弗斯着重谈到三个方面：（１）语言分析是翻译的基础；（２）完全的翻译不等于完美的翻译；（３）在任何两种语言的翻译中，一种语言的某些意义的表达方式不可能译成完全对等的另一种语言。
卡特福德（John Catford）是该学派中比较系统提出翻译理论的学者。
任教于爱丁堡大学的卡特福德１９６５年发表《翻译的语言学理论》（A Linguistic Theory of Translation）一书，为翻译理论研究开拓新的途径，引起巨大反响。
卡特福德称其理论为“描写性”翻译理论。
他从翻译性质、类别、对等、转换、限度等方面阐述“什么是翻译”这一中心问题。
（１）翻译的性质。
翻译是“把一种语言（原语）的文字材料转换成另一种语言（译语）的对等的文字材料。
”（２）翻译的类别。
就其程度而言，可分为“全文翻译”（full translation）和“部分翻译”(partial translation)；就其语言层次而论，可分为“完全翻译”(total translation)和“有限翻译”(restricted translation)；就语言结构的登记来说，可分为“级受限”翻译和“级无限”翻译，即传统意义上的“逐字译”和“意译”，而“直译”介于两者之间。
（３）翻译的对等问题。
一方面，翻译对等是一种以经验为依据的现象，是基于对两种语言的比较而发现的；另一方面，翻译对等的产生必须看译文和原文是否具有相同或部分相同的实质性特征。
（４）翻译转换，是指把原文变成译文时偏离形式对应。
翻译转换主要分为层次转换和范畴转换，其中范畴转换又可分为结构转换、词类转换、单位转换和系统内部转换四种。
（５）翻译的限度，是指不可译性问题。
翻译中有两类不可译。
一是语言方面的不可译现象有双关语、歧意语法结构；二是文化方面的不可译性是由于不同的社会风俗、不同的时代背境等非语言因素引起的。
三、美国结构学派美国结构主义语言学派代表人物是布龙菲尔德。
他提出一种行为主义的语义分析法，认为意思就是刺激物和语言反应之间所存在的关系。
二十世纪五十年代，布龙菲尔德理论为乔姆斯基的转换生成理论所取代。
乔氏理论有三个观点：（１）人类先天具有语言能力；（２）语言是由规则支配的；（３）语言包括表层结构和深层结构。
该理论对翻译研究的影响主要在于其关于表层结构和深层结构的论述。
语言的不同主要在于各自的表层结构不同，而深层结构则具有共同特点。
在上述语言学理论的影响下，形成以沃哲林（C. F. Voegelin）、博灵格（D. Bolinger）、卡兹（J. J. Katz）、奎恩（W. V. Quine）和奈达（E. U. Nida）为代表的美国翻译理论界的结构学派，而以奈达最为杰出。
四、交际理论学派奈达是交际翻译理论的代表。
他的翻译理论可归纳为六个方面：（１）理论原则。
所有语言都具有同等表达能力，而翻译的首要任务就是使读者看译文可一目了然。
（２）翻译的性质。
按照奈达的定义，“所谓翻译，是指从语义到文体（风格）在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息”。
其中三点是关键：一是“顺乎自然”，译文不能有翻译腔；二是“最切近”，在“自然”的基础上选择意义与原文最接近的译文；三是“对等”，这是核心。
所以，翻译必须达到四个标准：（ａ）达意；（ｂ）传神；（ｃ）措词通顺自然；（ｄ）读者反应相似。
（３）翻译的功能。
从社会语言学和语言交际功能的观点出发，奈达认为翻译必须以读者为服务的对象。
（４）正确的翻译。
翻译正确与否取决于译文读者能在什么程度上正确理解译文。
（５）语义分析。
翻译的重要过程之一就是对原文进行语义分析。
语义可分为三种：语法意义、所指意义和内涵意义。
（６）翻译的程序和方法。
他认为，整个翻译程序分为四步：分析、传译、重组（按译语规则重新组织译文）和检验。
进入20世纪80年代，奈达的翻译理论出现较大变化。
主要的新观点有：（１）翻译不是科学，而是技术；（２）翻译才能是天生的；（３）翻译不仅是一种语言交际活动，更是一种社会符号相互作用（sociosemiotic interaction）的活动。
另外，比较有代表性的还有德国的莱比锡学派和前苏联的流派等。
总之，20世纪西方翻译理论发展的最大特征，是翻译研究被纳入语言学，与对比语言学、应用语言学和语义学等建立起内在的联系。
尽管西方的翻译理论取得重大成就，但都是在继承传统的基础之上，且并未形成一套完成的、放之四海而皆准的理论体系。
Schools of translation theories1.1‘World-for-word’ or ‘sense-for-sense’?1.2Martin Luther1.3Faithfulness, spirit and truth1.4Early attempts at systematic translation theory: Dryden, Dolet and Tytler1.5Schleiermacher and the valorization of the foreign1.6Translation theory of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in Britain1.7Towards contemporary translation theoryLinguistic-oriented approach to translation studies2.1Roman Jakobson: the nature of linguistic meaning and equivalence2.2Nida and ‘the science of translating2.3Newmark: semantic and communicative translation2.4Koller: Korrespondenz and Äquivalenz2.5Later developments in equivalence3. The translation shift approach3.1Vinay and Darbelnet’s model3.2Catford and translation ‘shifts’3.3Czech writing on translation shifts3.4Van Leuven-Zwart’s comparative-descriptive model of translation shifts4. Functional theories of translation3.5Text type3.6Translational action3.7Skopos theory3.8Translation-oriented text analysis4．Discourse and register analysis approaches4.1The Hallidayan model of language and discourse4.2House’s model of translation quality assessment4.3Baker’s text and pragmatic level analysis: a coursebook for taranslators4.4Hatim and Mason: the semiotic level of context and discourse4.5Criticisms of discourse and register analysis approaches to translationCultural-oriented approach to translation studies5. Systems theories5.1 Polysystem theory5.2 Toury and descriptive translation studies5.3 Chesterman’s translation norms5.4 Other models of descriptive translation studies: Lambert and van Gorp and theManipulation School 6. Varieties of cultural studies6.1Translation as rewriting6.2Translation and gender6.3Postcolonial translation theory6.4The ideologies of the theorists7. Translating the foreign: the (in) visiblity of translation7.1Venuti: the cultural and political agenda of translation7.2Literary translators’ accounts of their work7.3The power network of the publishing industry7.4Discussion of V enuti’s work7.5The reception and reviewing of translations8.1Steiner’s hermeneutic motion8.2Ezra Pound and the energy of language8.3The task of the translator: Walter Benjamin8.4DeconstructionInterdisciplinary-oriented approach to translation studies9.1Discipline, interdiscipline or sub-discipline?9.2Mary Snell-Hornby’s ‘integrated approach’9.3Interdisciplinary approaches9.4The future: co-operation or fragmentation?。