Psychology:An Exploration 第四章 学习
《 特殊儿童心理与教育》-课程教学大纲
《特殊儿童心理与教育》课程教学大纲一、课程基本信息课程代码:16034302课程名称:特殊儿童心理与教育英文名称:Psychology and education for exceptional children课程类别:专业必修学时:32学时学分:2学分适用对象: 应用心理学专业考核方式:开卷先修课程:生理心理学,普通心理学、发展心理学,社会心理学,临床心理学,心理咨询学二、课程简介《特殊儿童的心理与教育》课程,是发展心理学的一个分支学科,也是变态心理学对童年期特殊问题的探讨和研究;由于要论及特殊儿童的教育问题,所以这门课程也会涉及到教育心理学,以及教育学理论和特殊教育的诸多方面。
《特殊儿童的心理与教育》是一门偏向应用的课程,在探讨特殊儿童及其教育领域的心理学基本理论的基础上,试图为各种主要类型的特殊儿童的突出心理特征做出准确的描述,并提出相应的教育教学措施和康复训练的方法。
Psychology and Education of Exceptional Children is a branch of developmental psychology. It is the exploration and research of special childhood issues by abnormal psychology. This course involves the educational issues of exceptional children, so it is closely related to educational psychology, education theories and special education. It is an application-oriented course that attempts to give an accurate description of the conspicuous psychological features of the main types of exceptional children and provide the corresponding methods of teaching and rehabilitation training on the basisof relevant psychological theory.三、课程性质与设置目的(一)、课程性质与特点在个体发展过程中,由于多种复杂的原因,特殊儿童的心理活动与行为表现出极为丰富的多样性和显著的差异性。
十本心理学入门书籍
十本心理学入门书籍心理学是一门研究人类心理和行为的学科,它对于我们了解自己和他人的思想和行为有着重要的作用。
如果你对心理学感兴趣,那么以下这十本心理学入门书籍将会为你提供一个很好的开始。
1.《心理学导论》(Introduction to Psychology)作者:James W. Kalat这本书是一本经典的心理学入门书籍,它涵盖了心理学的各个领域,包括感知、学习、记忆、思维、情感、人格和社会心理学等。
它的语言简单易懂,适合初学者阅读。
2.《心理学与生活》(Psychology and Life)作者:Richard J. Gerrig这本书是一本通俗易懂的心理学入门书籍,它将心理学的概念与实际生活联系起来,让读者更容易理解和应用心理学知识。
3.《心理学:科学与实践》(Psychology: Science and Practice)作者:Robert A. Baron这本书是一本介绍心理学科学方法和应用的入门书籍,它涵盖了心理学的各个领域,包括感知、学习、记忆、思维、情感、人格和社会心理学等。
它还介绍了心理学的应用,如临床心理学、工业心理学和教育心理学等。
4.《心理学:一种探究人类行为的科学》(Psychology: An Exploration)作者:Saundra K. Ciccarelli和J. Noland White这本书是一本全面介绍心理学的入门书籍,它涵盖了心理学的各个领域,包括感知、学习、记忆、思维、情感、人格和社会心理学等。
它还介绍了心理学的历史和方法。
5.《心理学:科学与行为》(Psychology: Science and Behavior)作者:Neil R. Carlson这本书是一本介绍心理学科学方法和应用的入门书籍,它涵盖了心理学的各个领域,包括感知、学习、记忆、思维、情感、人格和社会心理学等。
它还介绍了心理学的应用,如临床心理学、工业心理学和教育心理学等。
6.《心理学:探索人类思维与行为》(Psychology: Exploring Human Mind and Behavior)作者:David G. Myers这本书是一本通俗易懂的心理学入门书籍,它将心理学的概念与实际生活联系起来,让读者更容易理解和应用心理学知识。
AP psychology总结Unit4
A red shirt reflects red light and absorbs other colors.Pinna: to collect sound waves.Ear/auditory canal: through which the waves travel.Eardrum: a thin membrane that vibrates when sound waves hit it.The ossicles: the first of which is attached to eardrum.Hammer/malleus is conne cted to anvil/incus, which then connects to the stirrup/stapes.1.investigates the effects of the distractions and interference we experience while pto determine what part is the ground and what part is the figureGestalt psychologists:whole > part1.Proximity: Objects that are close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group.Similarity: Objects that are similar in appearancesed as belonging in the same group.Continuity: Objects thatas belonging in the same group.Closure: Objects that make up a recognizable imageOur ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite these changes is call ed constancy.Size constancy:Objects closer to our eyes will produce bigger images on our retinas, but we take distance into account in our estimation of size. We keep a constant size in mind f or an object and know that it does not grow or shrink in size as it moves closer orMonocular cues3.Binocular cues1)Binocular disparity/retinal disparityEach of our eyes sees any object from a slightly different angle. The brain gets bo th images. It knows that if the object is far away, the images will be similar, but t he closer the object is, the more disparity there will be between the images coming from each eye.2)ConvergenceAs an object gets closer to our face, our eyes must move toward each other to kee p focused on the object. The more eyes converge, the closer the object must beMost perceptual rules apply in all culture, but some of the perceptual rules are learned and vary between cultures.Study it byCross-cultural research1.ESP:Perceive a sensation “outside” the senses ofvision/hearing/smell/taste/touch/vestibular balance system2.Are better explained by deception, magic tricks or coincidence.3.Skeptical 持怀疑态度的。
最新[理学]心理学-第四章记忆与学习课件PPT
第二节 记忆系统
记忆三存模型(three-store model),该模 型认为记忆加工有三个不同的阶段,他们分别是 感觉记忆、短时记忆和长时记忆。
再学习(relearning)就是让被试先后两次 学习同一个材料,每次达到同样的熟练水平, 再次学习所需要的练习次数或时间必定要少 于出次学习,两次所用的时间或次数的差, 就表示了保存的数量。再学习很好的证明了 记忆痕迹不会完全消失。
陈述性记忆和程序性记忆
陈述性记忆(declarative memory)处理陈述性知 识,即事实类信息,包括字词、定义、人名、时间、 事件、概念和观念等。陈述性记忆可以用言语表达。
我注视着它们飘落的全过程,坐在那里向后伸着脖子直到嘴 巴张开,并且伸出手去以防万一,但是他们从来没有落在上面。 当一个豆荚着地的时候,我将再来一次仰视,我的眼睛飞快转 动着、等待着下一个奇迹的来临,阳光温暖着我头上的黄色头 发。
我就是那样期待着下一个奇迹的出现,那是一个美妙的瞬间, 和后来的65年间里发生的我能记得的美好瞬间一样。
组块(chunk)是指具有某种意义的刺激的组合, 即人们最熟悉的认知单元,是人们通过对刺激的不 断编码所形成的稳定的心理组合。组块的大小可变, 学会将更多的项目组成一个有意义的组快,可以大 幅度地提高记忆广度。
程序性记忆(procedural memory)又称技能记忆, 记忆程序性知识,如怎样做事或如何掌握技能,通 常包含一系列复杂的动作过程,既有多个动作间的 序列联系,也包括在同一瞬间同时进行的横向联系, 这两方面共同构成的复合体是无法 用语言清楚表述 的。游泳、骑车
耶鲁大学心理学导论(第四课)
心理学导论第四课我想在这节课的开始先回头讲讲弗洛依德I actually want to begin by going back to Freud解决一下上节课遗留的几个问题and hitting a couple of loose ends.我周三上课的时候跳过了部分内容There was a point in my lecture on Wednesday where I skipped over some parts.我当时说"没时间讲了" 就跳过没讲I said, "We don't have time for this" and I just whipped past it.可整个周末我都因此而寝食难安And I couldn't sleep over the weekend. I've been tormented.我不该跳过它们所以现在我要讲一下I shouldn't have skipped that and I want to hit--先告诉大家我当时为什么跳过没讲Let me tell you why I skipped it.我所跳过的是关于The discussion I skipped was the discussion of"我们为何会有无意识" 的讨论why we would have an unconscious at all.我当时正在讲So, I was talking about在科学上颇有名望的弗洛依德理论the scientifically respectable ideas of Freud 我想给大家讲一些新的and I want to talk about some new ideas关于"无意识为何会存在"的理论about why there could be an unconscious.我之所以没讲是因为Now, the reason why I skipped it is我不能肯定这是考虑这个问题的最佳方式I'm not sure this is the best way to look at the question.正如我们将会在这门课中了解到的As we will learn throughout the course,尤其是绝大多数的大脑活动by far the vast majority of what our brains do, 绝大多数的心理活动the vast majority of what our minds do,其实都是无意识的是无法察觉到的is unconscious and we're unaware of it.因此问题或许不该是So the right question to ask may not be,"为什么有些心理活动是无意识的""Why are some things unconscious?"而应该是"为什么心理活动的一小部分but rather, why is this tiny subset of mental life--为什么这一小部分是有意识的"why is this conscious?另一方面On the other hand,这些关于无意识功能的主张these claims about the utility of unconsciousness, 是很具有煽动性很有趣的I think, are provocative and interesting.所以我想很快地来给你们大家讲一下So I just wanted to quickly share them with you.那么从进化的观点来看So, the question is, from an evolutionary standpoint,要问的问题便是"无意识为何得以进化""Why would an unconscious evolve?"一些心理学家与生物学家们所给出的答案And an answer that some psychologists and biologists have given是欺骗is deception.大多数动物都会有一些欺骗行为So, most animals do some deception.而广义上的欺骗是以愚弄的方式And deception defined broadly is simply使他人相信虚假之事to act or be in some way认为虚假之事是真实的that fools others into believing or thinking或是使他人对虚假之事做出反应or responding to something that's false.举一个欺骗的实例There's physical examples of deception.当黑猩猩受到威胁When threatened, chimpanzees--它们的毛发会竖起来their hair stands up on end使得他们看上去更加强壮and that makes them look bigger从而使其他黑猩猩误以为它们to fool others to thinking they're more dangerous 比原先想象中更加危险than they are.在深海中生活着琵琶鱼There's an angler fish at the bottom of the ocean这种鱼的头顶会长出鱼竿状的长刺that has a rod sticking up from the top of its head用于引诱和捕获其他鱼类with a lure to capture other fish让它们误认为那是食物to fool them in thinking that this is something edible 然后它们自己就被吃掉了and then to themselves be devoured.总的来说灵长类动物特别是人类But humans, primates in general but particularly humans,都是欺骗大师are masters of deception.我们不断地利用我们的心理We use our minds行为和动作and our behaviors and our actions去哄骗他人相信那些虚假的事情continually to try to trick people into believing what's not true.比如我们总是试着去欺骗他人We try to trick people, for instance,使他人相信我们比实际更加into believing that we're强壮聪明性感tougher, smarter, sexier,更加可靠或是更加值得信赖等等more reliable, more trustworthy and so on, than we really are.社会心理学中也有很大一部分内容And a large part of social psychology在关注我们向他人展现自己的方式concerns the way in which we present ourselves 人们会尽力使积极印象最大化to other people so as to make the maximally positive impression即使留下的印象是虚假的even when that impression isn't true.但同时At the same time,though,我们也进化出了很好的欺骗检测机制we've also evolved very good lie detection mechanisms.因此不仅存在着要求我对你说谎So not only is there evolutionary pressure for me的进化压力to lie to you,比如如果我们之间存有冲突 for me to persuade you for instance, that if we're going to have a conflict-当你威胁我时if you are threatening me我会说"别吓唬我我可不是吃素""Don't threaten me, I am not the sort of man you could screw around with"而且还存在着要求你辨别谎言的进化压力But there's evolutionary pressure for you to look你会说 "不你肯定不行and say, "No. You are the sort of man you could screw around with.我看得出来的"I can tell."那么怎样才能成为一个好骗子呢So how do you become a good liar?无意识在这里扮演了重要的角色And here's where the unconscious comes in.我们假定The hypothesis is:最好的谎言是能够骗到我们自己的谎言the best lies are lies we tell ourselves.一个行骗高手在通常情况下You're a better liar, more generally,会对自己所说的谎言深信不疑if you believe the lie that you're telling.阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克的一个故事 This could be illustrated很好地阐释了这个道理with a story about Alfred Hitchcock.故事是这样的The story goes--他痛恨与童星共事但又时常被迫合作He hated working with child actors but he often had to.有一次And the story goes--和他合作的一个小演员竟哭不出来He was dealing with a child actor who simply could not cry.最后他沮丧极了走到那个小演员身边And, finally frustrated, Hitchcock went to the actor,俯下身子凑到他耳边说leaned over, whispered in his ear,"你爸妈刚把你丢在这了"Your parents have left you他们再也不回来了"and they're never coming back."那孩子立刻泣不成声The kid burst into tears.希区柯克说"开拍" 录制顺利进行Hitchcock said, "Roll'em" and filmed the kid.如果你能看到那个孩子你一定会说And the kid, if you were to see him, you'd say, "天呐这孩子看起来真伤心啊""That's--Boy, he's--he really looks as if he's sad"因为他本来就伤心because he was.如果我在这里举行一个竞赛If I had a competition谁最能将痛苦表演的和真的一样where I'd give $100,000 to the person谁就能拿到10万美元who looks the most as if they are in pain,那么最好用的一招莫过于拿根笔it is a very good tactic to take a pen狠狠地戳进你的腹股沟and jam it into your groin因为此时的你看上去真的because you will look extremely persuasively足以使他人相信你非常痛苦as if you are in pain.如果我想让你相信我爱你If I want to persuade you that I love you,永远都不离开你你什么都可以信任我would never leave you, you can trust me witheverything,或许最好的策略便是我自己对此深信不疑it may be a superb tactic for me to believe it.所有对于无意识进化的解释And so, this account of the evolution of the unconscious便是某些动机和目标is that certain motivations and goals,尤其是那些邪恶的动机和目标particularly sinister ones,最好是无意识的are better made to be unconscious因为如果个体察觉不到because if a person doesn't know他们所拥有的动机和目标的话they have them这些动机和目标也就不会被他人识破they will not give them away.这个我们先放在这里等到我们探讨And this is something I think we should return to later on社会交往与社会关系的时候再回头来看when we talk about social interaction and social relationships.弗洛依德的另一个故事--One other thing on Freud--其实是个恶搞他的故事just a story of the falsification of Freud.周日我带我的小儿子去玩回家的路上I was taking my younger child home from a play date on Sunday他突然问我and he asked me out of the blue,"你为什么不能和你的父母结婚?""Why can't you marry your mother or your father?"向一个孩子解释这个问题其实挺困难的Now, that's actually a difficult question to ask-- to answer for a child,但我还是尽力给了他一个答案but I tried my best to give him an answer.之后我又想到弗洛依德的理论And then I said--then I thought back on the Freud lecture然后我就问他and so I asked him,"如果你谁都能娶你会选择娶谁?""If you could marry anybody you want, who would it be?"我想根据俄狄浦斯情结imagining he'd make explicit the Oedipal complex他会毫不犹豫地选择他的妈妈and name his mother.不过出乎意料的是他想了一会说Instead, he paused for a moment and said, "我想娶一只驴子"I would marry a donkey和一大包花生"and a big bag of peanuts."他的父母都是心理学家Both his parents are psychologists他恨透了这些问题and he hates these questions所以他会时不时的忽悠我们一下and at times he just screws around with us.好了Okay.上一堂课我们从弗洛依德讲起Last class I started with Freud现在我要开始讲斯金纳了and now I want to turn to Skinner.斯金纳的理论And the story of Skinner and science与弗洛依德的理论有些不同is somewhat different from the story of Freud.弗洛依德是精神分析的Freud developed and championed提出者与拥护者the theory of psychoanalysis by himself.就像是一个科学发明的专利享有者It is as close as you could find in science to a solitary invention.显然他利用了各种资源Obviously, he drew upon all sorts of sources还总结了前人的成果and predecessors但精神分析依然被认为but psychoanalysis is identified是由弗洛伊德提出的as Freud's creation.行为主义则不同Behaviorism is different.行为主义学派Behaviorism is a school of thought远在斯金纳提出他的理论之前就已经存在that was there long before Skinner,受到了众多心理学家的拥护championed by psychologists比如约翰·华生like John Watson, for instance.斯金纳算是这一学派中的晚辈了Skinner came a bit late into this但是何斯金纳能够被我们所熟知but the reason why we've heard of Skinner能够声名远播的原因就在于and why Skinner is so well known他将这些观点进行了一番整理is he packaged these notions.他扩展了先前的观点He expanded upon them;并将它们出版发行he publicized them;他科学地发展了这些观点he developed them scientifically并同时将这些观点呈现给了and presented them both to the scientific community 学术界和社会大众and to the popular community.在上世纪60到70年代之间的美国社会And sociologically in the 1960s and 1970s, in the United States,行为主义极为盛行behaviorism was incredibly well known斯金纳也得以名声大噪and so was Skinner.他就像现在上脱口秀的明星一样有名He was the sort of person you would see on talk shows.他的书登上了畅销榜首His books were bestsellers.言归正传行为主义的核心Now, at the core of behaviorism由三个非常极端又很有趣的观点组成are three extremely radical and interesting views.第一个观点是它非常强调学习的作用The first is a strong emphasis on learning.行为主义的观点认为The strong view of behaviorism你的知识你的一切is everything you know, everything you are,都是经验的产物is the result of experience.人性是根本不存在的There's no real human nature.相反人类是具有无限可塑性的Rather, people are infinitely malleable.约翰·华生有一段非常有名的话There's a wonderful quote from John Watson这段话是约翰·华生根据and in this quote john Watson is paraphrasing耶稣会所宣扬的一段著名鼓吹改写而来a famous boast by the Jesuits.耶稣会曾宣称The Jesuits used to claim,"给我一个孩子待他7岁之时"Give me a child until the age of seven我会将他锻造成一个男人"and I'll show you the man,"也就是说他们能够把一个孩子that they would take a child培养成他们想要的任何样子and turn him into anything they wanted.华生将此鼓吹加以扩展他说到And Watson expanded on this boast,给我一打健全的婴儿Give me a dozen healthy infants,只要给予合适的条件well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up 我就可以and I'll guarantee to take any one at random把他们变成and train them to become any type of specialist I might select 医生律师艺术家企业家—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant,乃至乞丐和小偷chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief,而不用去考虑他的天赋倾向regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, 能力祖先的职业与种族abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.你们可以从中看出Now, you could imagine— you could see in this这是一个极具感染力的观点a tremendous appeal to this view因为在某种意义上because Watson has华生是一个极端的平等主义者an extremely egalitarian view in a sense.如果不存在人性If there's no human nature,那么一群人因种族或性别then there's no sense in which one group of humans 优于另一群的人的说法by dint of their race or their sex便纯属无稽之谈could be better than another group.华生明确地指出了这一点And Watson was explicit.人类的自然属性并不存在任何差异None of those facts about people will ever make any difference.个体差异源于他所受到的不同教育与待遇What matters to what you are is what you learn and how you're treated.因此华生断言And so, Watson claimed他只需通过一定的方式he could create anybody in any way simply便能将婴儿培养成各种类型的人by treating them in a certain fashion.行为主义的第二个观点A second aspect of behaviorism是反心理主义was anti-mentalism.我的意思是And what I mean by this is行为主义者沉迷于"科学"的理念之中the behaviorists were obsessed with难以自拔the idea of doing science他们主要针对的是弗洛依德and they felt, largely in reaction to Freud,他们认为那些所谓的内在心理状态that claims about internal mental states如欲望意愿目标情感等等like desires, wishes, goals, emotions and so on, 都是不科学的are unscientific.这些不可见定义模糊的东西These invisible, vague things不能被划入严谨的科学范畴里can never form the basis of a serious science.因此行为主义者的目标And so, the behaviorist manifesto是建立一门科学would then be to develop a science将一切不可观测的事情都排除在外without anything that's unobservable取而代之的是应用and instead use notions诸如刺激反应强化惩罚like stimulus and response and reinforcement and punishment以及表示现实世界和客观事件的环境and environment that refer to real world 之类的概念来进行研究and tangible events.最后行为主义者认为Finally, behaviorists believed生物种群之间并不存在太大的差别there were no interesting differences across species.行为主义者可能会承认人类能够做到A behaviorist might admit that a human can do things一些老鼠或鸽子无法做到的事情that a rat or pigeon couldn't但他们或许只会说but a behaviorist might just say,"它们只不过是在一般性联想学习能力上"Look. Those are just general associative powers有所差异而已"that differ"甚至他们干脆否认Or they may even deny it.他们会说 "人和老鼠根本没有区别They might say, "Humans and rats aren't different at all.只不过相较于老鼠It's just humans tend to live人类生活在刺激更加丰富的环境中罢了"in a richer environment than rats."从这个理论观点中From that standpoint, from that theoretical standpoint, 可以得出一种研究方法comes a methodological approach即如果人类与动物并无差别which is, if they're all the same那你就能通过研究非人类动物的学习过程then you could study human learning 来研究人类的学习过程by studying nonhuman animals.这也是行为主义者的常用研究方法And that's a lot of what they did.好了下面我们来讲讲Okay. I'm going to frame my introduction— my discussion 行为的三个主要的学习原则of behaviors in terms of the three main learning principles这三个学习原则被认为能够解释that they argue can explain所有的人类心理活动all of human mental life,所有的人类行为all of human behavior.之后我还想讲讲对行为主义的反对And then, I want to turn to objections to behaviorism但这三个原则是非常重要的but these three principles are powerful也是很有意思的and very interesting.第一个原则是习惯化The first is habituation.这是最简单的学习形式This is the very simplest form of learning.它在学术上被描述为And what this is is technically described as由于重复暴露在刺激环境中a decline in the tendency to respond to stimuli 而造成对该刺激反应倾向的降低that are familiar due to repeated exposure."喂""Hey!""喂""Hey!"突如其来的噪音吓了大家一跳The sudden noise startles but as it—但听到第二声的时候就没那么吃惊了as you hear it a second time it startles less.第三遍时就变成我自己在这犯傻了The third time is just me being goofy.这是因为你对这些事情已经习惯了It's just--It's--You get used to things.习惯化在我们的日常生活中随处可见And this, of course, is common enough ineveryday life.我们习惯了钟的滴答声和车来人往的噪音We get used to the ticking of a clock or to noise of traffic但这却是一种非常重要的学习形式but it's actually a very important form of learning我们不妨试想一下无法进行习惯化的情形because imagine life without it.试想你在生活中无法习惯任何事情 Imagine life where you never got used to anything,要有人突然跳出来向你挥手where suddenly somebody steps forward and waves their hand你肯定吓得惊叫 "哇"and you'd go, "Woah,"然后他们再跟你挥手你又惊叫"哇"and then they wave their hand again and you'd go, "Whoah,"然后你就不停地--and you keep--或是在你听到响亮的钟摆声后很惊奇地说And there's the loud ticking of a clock and you say,"嗯""Hmmm."但实际上人类和动物都不会这个样子And that's not the way animals or humans work.你会习惯于很多事情You get used to things.而习惯化实际上也是至关重要的And it's actually critically important to get used to things因为这是一种非常有用的适应机制because it's a useful adaptive mechanism可以让你注意到新鲜事物to keep track on new events and objects.能够注意到新鲜事物的出现是非常重要的It's important to notice something when it's new因为你需要确定它是否会对你造成伤害because then you have to decide whether it's going to harm you,需要确定如何去处理这个新鲜刺激how to deal with it, to attend to it,但你不能一直去注意它but you can't keep on noticing it.事实上And, in fact,如果它在环境中出现的时间足够长久的话you should stop noticing it你就不该再去一直注意它了after it's been in the environment for long enough.所以习惯化算是一种学习So, this counts as learning是因为这种学习是基于经验而发生的because it happens through experience.习惯化是通过经验而进行学习的一种方式It's a way to learn through experience, 是通过经验改变你思维方式的一种方法to change your way of thinking through experience.而且它还是非常有用的And also, it's useful因为危险刺激会吸引到你的注意because harmful stimuli are noticed但当某物被视为环境的一部分时but when something has shown itself to be part of the environment你便不会再去注意到该物体you don't notice it anymore.习惯化的存在非常重要原因有很多The existence of habituation is important for many reasons.原因之一就是One thing it's important for is聪明的发展心理学家们将习惯化clever developmental psychologists have used habituation作为研究人类as a way to study people,研究诸如非人类动物或是婴儿这样creatures who can't talk无法进行言语表达的生物like nonhuman animals,的一种方式and young babies.等我们在周三探讨发展心理学时And when I talk on Wednesday about developmental psychology我会向大家讲述心理学家们I'll show different ways应用习惯化in which psychologists have used habituation来研究婴儿心理的不同的方法to study the minds of young babies.学习的第二种形式The second sort of learning被称为经典条件作用is known as classical conditioning.一般来说And what this is in a very general sense经典条件作用是指在一个刺激is the learning of an association和另一个刺激之间形成联结between one stimulus and another stimulus,这里的刺激是一个专业术语where stimulus is a technical term意思是环境中出现的事件meaning events in the environment比如某种味道声音或景观like a certain smell or sound or sight.经典条件作用是巴甫洛夫提出的It was thought up by Pavlov.这便是巴甫洛夫的那条著名的狗This is Pavlov's famous dog这是一个科学研究中的意外and it's an example of scientific serendipity.在研究的最初巴甫洛夫Pavlov, when he started this research,对学习行为毫无兴趣had no interest at all in learning.他研究的是唾液的分泌He was interested in saliva.为了弄到唾液他找来了几条狗And to get saliva he had to have dogs.他给狗套上了一些装置And he had to attach something to dogs来收集狗的唾液用以研究so that their saliva would pour out so he could study saliva.他研究唾液分泌的初衷我们不得而知No idea why he wanted to study saliva,但他却因为这个研究而有所发现but he then discovered something.他的做法是What he would do is给狗喂食让狗分泌唾液he'd put food powder in the dog's mouth to generate saliva.他注意到But Pavlov observed that当给它喂食的人when somebody entered the room进屋时who typically gave him the food powder,狗便开始分泌唾液the dog--the food powder saliva would start to come out.稍后And later on if you—在喂食前或者喂食过程中right before or right during you give the dog some food 你摇铃you--you ping a bell铃声就会加速唾液的分泌the bell will cause the saliva to come forth.这是他在研究时所使用的仪器And, in fact, this is the apparatus that he used forhis research.他通过区分两种条件作用He developed the theory of classical conditioning两种刺激反应关系by making a distinction between two sorts of conditioning, 提出了经典条件作用理论two sorts of stimulus response relationships.一个是无条件作用One is unconditioned.无条件作用是指An unconditioned is when an unconditioned stimulus无条件刺激会引起无条件反应gives rise to an unconditioned response.这是我们的本能And this is what you start off with.如果有人用棍子戳你So, if somebody pokes you with a stick and you say,你会因为疼而叫出来"Ouch," because it hurts,戳的动作和你的喊叫the poking and the "Ouch"这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反射is an unconditioned stimulus causing an unconditioned response.这些行为无需学习You didn't have to learn that.巴甫洛夫给狗喂食When Pavlov put food powder in the dog's mouth狗会分泌唾液and saliva was generated,这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反应that's an unconditioned stimulus giving rise to an unconditioned response.但学习会在条件刺激与条件反应之间But what happens through learning is that another association develops建立起另一种联结that between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.比如So when Pavlov, for instance--比如在条件作用形成之前Well, when Pavlov, for instance, started before conditioning只是简单的存在着无条件刺激即食物there was simply an unconditioned stimulus, the food in the mouth,以及无条件反应即唾液and an unconditioned response, saliva.此时的铃声什么都不是The bell was nothing.只是一个中性刺激The bell was a neutral stimulus.但是如果铃声和食物多次同时出现But over and over again, if you put the bell and the food together,很快铃声便也能促使狗分泌出唾液pretty soon the bell will generate saliva.开始时呈现无条件刺激And now the bell--When--You start off with the unconditioned stimulus,会出现无条件反应unconditioned response.当条件刺激与非条件刺激When the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus同时且多次反复出现are brought together over and over and over again,条件刺激很快也能引起条件反应pretty soon the conditioned stimulus gives rise to the response.这就是所谓的And now it's known as the conditioned stimulus条件刺激引起了条件反应giving rise to the conditioned response.这在教材中已有详细的叙述This is discussed in detail in the textbook但我还是想给你们but I also--I'm going to give you—如果一下子理解不了也不用担心Don't panic if you don't get it quite now.我会再多给你们举些例子I'm going to give you further and further examples.这里的意思是说So, the idea here is,无条件刺激与条件刺激的反复匹配repeated pairings of the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus会引起条件反应will give rise to the response.但强化尝试和非强化尝试是不一样的And there's a difference between reinforced trials and unreinforced trials.强化尝试是指条件刺激A reinforced trial is when the conditioned stimulus 与无条件刺激同时出现的时候and the unconditioned stimulus go together.简单地说You're--and to put it in a crude way,你在让狗知道you're teaching the dog铃声和食物是一起出现的that the bell goes with the food.非强化尝试是只有食物而没有铃声的时候An unreinforced trial is when you get the food without the bell.这就不需要你去教了You're not teaching the dog this.事实上条件反射形成以后And, in fact, once you teach an animal something, 如果得不到强化if you stop doing the teaching条件反应就会逐渐消失the response goes away这就是消退and this is known as extinction.这里有张图标But here's a graph.图标记录了分泌出的唾液量If you get--They really count the number of cubic centimeters of saliva.经过训练当狗听到铃声The dog is trained so that when the bell comes on—我讲错了Actually, I misframed it.重讲一遍I'll try again.当铃声和食物形成了联系When the bell comes connected with food,狗会因为铃声的出现而分泌大量唾液there's a lot of saliva.非强化反应是有铃声但却没食物的时候An unreinforced response is when the bell goes on but there's no food.想想你就是那条狗So, it's like--Imagine you're the dog.有人喂你食物So, you get food in your mouth,"铃声食物"Bell, food,铃声食物"bell, food,"而现在只有"铃声"and now "Bell."但等到下次你再听到"铃声"的时候But next you get "Bell, bell, bell."你就不会再去等待食物You give it up.不再分泌唾液You stop.不再对铃声进行反应You stop responding to the bell.教材中讨论了一件奇怪的事情A weird thing which is discussed in the textbook is 如果你稍等一会if you wait a while在几个小时之后用铃声重新去尝试and then you try it again with the bell after a couple of hours,狗会重新开始分泌唾液the saliva comes back.这种现象叫做自发恢复This is known as spontaneous recovery.经典条件作用似乎是关于动物的So, this all seems a very technical phenomena 科学现象related to animals and the like但其实典条件作用发生but it's easy to see how it generalizes及其相关概念都简单易懂and how it extends.刺激泛化是个很有意思的概念One interesting notion is that of stimulus generalization.刺激泛化是And stimulus generalization is the topic《诺顿读本》中一篇文章的主题of one of your articles in The Norton Reader, 作者为约翰·华生著名的行为主义者the one by Watson, John Watson, the famous behaviorist,他记述了一项奇怪的实验who reported a bizarre experiment对象则是一名叫做小阿尔伯特的婴儿with a baby known as Little Albert.实验是这样的And here's the idea.小阿尔伯特原本喜欢老鼠Little Albert originally liked rats.实际上我要给你们看一段In fact, I'm going to show you a movie小阿尔伯特原先喜欢老鼠时的录像of Little Albert originally liking rats.看到吧他很好没问题See. He's okay. No problem.现在华生做了件有意思的事情Now, Watson did something interesting.小阿尔伯特正在和老鼠玩耍As Little Albert was playing with the rat,"噢我喜欢老鼠""Oh, I like rats, oh,"华生走到婴儿身后Watson went behind the baby—教材中是这么说的this is the--it's in the chapter—重击那里的金属棒and banged the metal bar right here .婴儿"啊"了一声开始大哭The baby, "Aah," screamed, started to sob.好了Okay.这里的无条件刺激是什么What's the unconditioned stimulus?有人知道吗Somebody.那个响声重击金属棒发出的声音The loud noise, the bar, the bang.无条件反应是什么What's the unconditioned response?哭泣悲伤以及痛苦Crying, sadness, misery.这样做导致的结果就是And as a result of this,小阿尔伯特开始惧怕老鼠Little Albert grew afraid of the rat.那么条件刺激又是什么老鼠So there--what would be the conditioned stimulus? The rat.条件反应又是什么恐惧很好What would be the conditioned response? Fear. Excellent.而且这种恐惧还会扩散到其他的事物上Moreover, this fear extended to other things.这段影片看上去很奇怪So, this is a very weird也没什么说服力and unpersuasive clip.但关键是这段影片试图说明But the idea is--the clip is to make the point 恐惧是会扩散到小白兔身上去的that the fear will extend to a rabbit, a white。
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理科学
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理 科学
莱比锡心理学实验室
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理 科学
莱比锡心理实验仪器
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理 科学
莱比锡心理实验仪器
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理 科学
冯特的书桌
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理 科学
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理 科学
你很需要别人喜欢并尊重你。 你有自我批判的倾向。 你有许多可以成为你优势的能力没有发挥出来,同时你 也有一些缺点,不过你一般可以克服它们。 你与异性交往有些困难,尽管外表上显得很从容,其实 你内心焦急不安。 你有时怀疑自己所做的决定或所做的事是否正确。 你喜欢生活有些变化,厌恶被人限制。 你以自己能 独立思考而自豪,别人的建议如果没有充分 的证据你不会接受。 你认为在别人面前过于坦率地表露自己是不明智的。 你有时外向、亲切、好交际,而有时则内向、谨慎、沉默 。
第10章 压力管理与心理健康
第11章 心理异常与心理治疗
第12章 人际交往与社会心理
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理 科学
推荐书目
[美]格里格.津巴多著,王垒等译:心理学与生活( 第16版),北京大学出版社,2003.
[美]弗里德曼,[中]黄希庭等著:心理学与我们, 人民邮电出版社,2008.
[美]Dennis Coon著,郑钢等译:心理学导论,中 国轻工业出版社,2004.
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理 科学
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理 科学
心理学家在研究什么
心理学的研究领域
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理 科学
心理学与生活大学选修课第章走进心理 科学
2021心理咨询师笔记《认知心理学》(第四章)
2021心理咨询师笔记《认知心理学》(第四章)自己整理的2021心理咨询师笔记《认知心理学》(第四章)相关文档,希望能对大家有所帮助,谢谢阅读!第四章,注意(2)一、负启动现象Neill(1977)使用Stroop的颜色词任务的变体进行实验,因为他在第一次完成选择性注意过程时就关注了无关信息的命运,这一研究被认为是开创性的。
实验:尼尔创造并比较了两个条件。
在一种情况下,当前刺激单词的打印颜色与先前刺激单词的含义相匹配。
例如,受试者首先看到用红色墨水打印的“绿色”(意思是“绿色”),然后看到用绿色墨水打印的“蓝色”(意思是“蓝色”)。
另一方面,当前刺激词的印刷颜色与先前刺激词的含义不匹配。
尼尔对前一种情况很感兴趣。
后一种情况实际上只是作为基线。
尼尔让受试者说出斯特劳普刺激词的印刷颜色。
他发现,在前一种情况下,给受试者的颜色命名特别困难。
尼尔认为,斯特劳普刺激词的含义,如用红墨水印刷的“绿色”的含义,已经被压制。
其逻辑是,如果被抑制的意义(如“绿色”)恰好与后面的任务有关,如果后面用绿色墨水打印刺激“BLUE”,则被试较难在后面说出刺激词的打印颜色。
Tipper将上述现象命名为消极创业。
范式:一种实验方法稳定下来。
二、负开始反转:(1)尼尔(1977)在实验中发现,当使用松散的手指时,(2)当使用手指时,(3)返回抑制(简称IOR):一般来说,有效的提示会促进处理,但是如果外围提示延迟300ms以上,则该位置的目标感知不会得到促进,反而会变得更慢。
这种效应被称为返回抑制(IOR)。
为什么视觉系统需要这种返回抑制机制?研究人员认为,这种抑制可以保证高效的视觉搜索。
具体来说,一旦注意力指向某个位置,该位置就会被标记,因此没有必要再回去搜索该位置。
如果没有这样的记录,搜索过程将有一次又一次地重复访问同一个位置的危险。
第四,脑损伤患者的注意力缺陷1.视觉忽视:视觉忽视患者通常在右半球顶叶受伤。
这种损伤导致他们在简单的定向任务中有困难,换句话说,他们不能注意对侧空间。
英语一自学教程2012年版Unit4 Text A
Ⅱ.Vocabularies
1. psychological adj. 心理学的
Psychological factors often play an important part in winning a competition.
(在赢得一场比赛中,心理因素常常起着重要作用。)
Make sure all the kids are psychologically healthy.(确保孩子们心理健康。)
He has good speaking ability, but his writing ability
is poor.(他说的能力很好,但写的能力差。)
He is a man of outstanding ability.(他是一个有非凡才
能的人。)
11. random adj. 胡乱的,任意的,随意的 n. 无目的或目标
The picture reminded me of my brief association
with the old lady years ago.(这幅画使我想起了多年前
我与那位老太太的短暂交往。)
It is really difficult for me to associate the two
ideas. (对我来说把这两个观点联系起来很困难。)
He spent all his spare time associating with
boys from the neighboring community.(他把所有的
业余时间都花在与邻近社区男孩的交往上。)
an associate professor 副教授
mean v. 表示…意思,意味着;打算 meaning n. 意思,意义
荣格的原型思想研究【最新哲学类】
摘要荣格是二十世纪最伟大的思想家之一,其分析心理学的理论体系博大精深,错综复杂,有非常深刻的思想内涵,它不仅对探索人类的深层心理和维护精神的价值作出了巨大的贡献,而且对东西方意识形态的诸领域产生了重大影响。
自1919年,他首次在《本能与无意识》中提出原型的概念,国际上对荣格及其理论的关注与研究一直兴盛不衰。
本文试图对荣格的原型学说作出一个相对清晰而有条理的梳理。
全文共分四章:第一章是原型理论的背景性分析。
荣格的原型理论并非空穴来风,而是有着鲜明的时代特色和丰厚的思想渊源。
十九世纪中叶以后,资本主义经济取得了高速的进步,推动了社会各种文明的发展。
但随之而来的是各种危机,这些危机的严重性迫使荣格对心灵世界作深刻的探讨,同时,荣格对人类心灵的探索与他丰富的哲学知识,和对西方现代人文科学的研究分不开的。
第二章原型理论的内涵性分析。
本部分从荣格原型理论中最重要的概念——集体无意识入手,通过对原型的涵义,原型的等级结构、表达方式和流传机制等方面的梳理,从而透视原型理论在荣格分析心理学中深刻的思想内涵。
第三章原型理论的应用性分析。
本部分重点从心灵治疗、宗教和文学评论等领域对荣格的原型理论进行阐释。
原型理论在不同领域中的应用,是分析心理学中最有价值的部分,因此,它是荣格思想的真髓。
最后一章原型理论的评价性分析。
本部分主要从原型理论假设的重大潜在意义和自身存在着不可克服的矛盾性这两个纬度进行展开,对荣格的原型学说进行简单地评价。
总之,通过对原型学说深入的探讨,尽可能地揭开笼罩在它身上的神秘面纱。
关键词:荣格;原型;原始意象;个人无意识;集体无意识ABSTRACTJung was one of the greatest thinkers in the 20th century, the theory on psychological analysis is complicated and complex, holding very profound ideological connotations; it makes contributions to not only exploring the deep human psychological and spiritual values, also impacting the East-West ideological spheres. Since 1919, his first mentioned the archetype concept of civilization in the book of “instinct and intention”, the international attention at Jung and research on Jung’s theory has flourished ceaselessly. This article attempts to make Jung’s theory of archetype relatively clear and structured ideas.The whole article is divided into four chapters: Chapter I is a background analysis on archetype theory. Jung’s archetype theory is not groundless at all, but a distinctive character and rich ideological origin. Since the Middle of the 19th century, the capitalist economy has made rapid progress, and fastened the development of different social civilizations. Various crises arose, which forced Jung to seek the deep exploration to souls of the world, meanwhile the exploration of the human is inseparable with his rich philosophical knowledge and modern Western humanities research.Chapter II is the content analysis on archetype theory. The first part starts with the collective unconscious, the most important concept of archetype theory. Through the meaning of the archetype; the archetype’ hierarchical structure; presentation and circulation drew to the conclusion analysis of Jung’s archetype theory in psychology.Chapter III is an applied analysis of archetype theory. It focuses on the treatment of soul, the areas of religion and literary criticism to explain Jung's archetype theory. Application of archetype theory is the most valuable part of the analysis of psychology, it is ideological authenticity civilization.The final chapter is evaluative analysis of archetype theory. It makes a simple assessment on Jung’s archetype theory from the main part of the major theoretical assumptions of the archetype and the potential insurmountable contradiction of the existence.In short, through the doctrine of in-depth discussions on the archetype, it was shrouded in as much as possible a mysterious veil.Key words: Jung; archetype; primitive imago; personal unconscious;collective unconscious第一章原型理论的溯源卡尔·古斯塔夫·荣格(Carl Gustav Jung , 1875~1961),瑞士著名的心理学家,分析心理学的创始人。
大学思辨英语教程 精读2课件Unit 4
Background Knowledge
Munro had a penchant for mocking the popular customs and manners of Edwardian England. He often did so by depicting characters in a setting and manner that would contrast their behavior with that of the natural world; often demonstrating that the simple and straightforward rules of nature would always trump the vanities of men. This is demonstrated gently in The Toys of Peace where parents from Edwardian England are taught a lesson that is still familiar to modern parents. And it is demonstrated with striking clarity in the highly recommended story The Interlopers. The Open Window is a fine example of his more humorous work is a highly recommended read.
While Framton is waiting for Mrs. Sappleton to come down, her fifteen-year-old niece tells him why the French window is kept open. Framton tries to distract Mrs. Sappleton’s attention from the window by talking about his health. Framton runs off at seeing Mrs. Sappleton’s husband and brothers, leaving the Sappletons puzzled except the niece.
心理讲座英语作文
心理讲座英语作文Psychological Lecture: An Enriching Exploration of the MindThe human mind is a magnificent and complex construct, a realm that has captivated the curiosity of individuals throughout history. From the ancient philosophers to the modern-day psychologists, the study of the inner workings of the mind has been a source of fascination and a key to unlocking the mysteries of human behavior. In this essay, we will delve into the intricacies of a psychological lecture, exploring the insights and revelations that can emerge from such an enriching experience.A psychological lecture is a powerful platform for the dissemination of knowledge and the fostering of understanding. It provides a unique opportunity for individuals to engage with the latest research, theories, and practical applications in the field of psychology. Whether the lecture focuses on the intricacies of human cognition, the complexities of emotional processing, or the nuances of social interactions, the audience is presented with a wealth of information that can profoundly influence their perspectives and shape their understanding of the human experience.One of the primary benefits of attending a psychological lecture is the exposure to diverse perspectives and the opportunity to challenge one's own preconceptions. Renowned scholars and experts in the field, each with their unique backgrounds and areas of expertise, offer insights that can shatter long-held beliefs and encourage critical thinking. This exposure to diverse viewpoints encourages the audience to step outside their comfort zones, to question their assumptions, and to embrace a more holistic understanding of the human mind.Moreover, a psychological lecture often serves as a platform for the presentation of cutting-edge research and groundbreaking discoveries. As the field of psychology continues to evolve, new findings and empirical evidence emerge, shedding light on the inner workings of the mind and challenging traditional assumptions. Attending such a lecture provides an opportunity to stay at the forefront of these advancements, to gain a deeper appreciation for the complexities of human behavior, and to consider the practical implications of these discoveries.Beyond the intellectual stimulation, a psychological lecture can also have a profound impact on personal growth and self-awareness. By delving into the various aspects of the human mind, from the cognitive processes to the emotional and social dimensions, individuals can gain a greater understanding of their own thoughts,feelings, and behaviors. This self-reflection can lead to enhancedself-awareness, the identification of areas for personal development, and the cultivation of more effective coping strategies in the face of life's challenges.Furthermore, a psychological lecture can serve as a catalyst for meaningful discussions and the exchange of ideas. The audience is often encouraged to participate, to ask questions, and to engage in thought-provoking dialogue with the presenter and fellow attendees. This interactive nature of the lecture creates a dynamic and enriching environment, where individuals can share their own experiences, perspectives, and insights, ultimately contributing to a broader understanding of the human condition.In conclusion, a psychological lecture is a remarkable opportunity to venture into the captivating realm of the human mind. It offers a platform for the dissemination of knowledge, the exploration of diverse perspectives, and the fostering of personal growth and self-awareness. By attending such a lecture, individuals can expand their understanding of the complexities of human behavior, challenge their own preconceptions, and gain valuable insights that can enhance their personal and professional lives. The journey of exploring the human mind is an endless one, and a psychological lecture serves as a crucial step in this fascinating and enlightening endeavor.。
有关心理学概念的英文作文
有关心理学概念的英文作文Title: Unleashing the Power of Psychology: An Unstructured Exploration。
1. Embracing the Unpredictable: In the realm of human thought, psychology delves into the uncharted depths of our inner workings. It's not about following a linear path, but rather a rollercoaster ride of emotions, behaviors, and cognition. Imagine a kaleidoscope of thoughts, where every twist and turn is a unique experience.2. The Art of Self-Discovery: In the art of psychology, every question is a puzzle piece, waiting to be placed in the intricate puzzle of our psyche. It's not about asking "Who am I?", but rather "Who am I becoming?" a continuous journey of self-exploration, where every insight is a fresh revelation.3. The Power of Mindfulness: Mindfulness, a concept borrowed from Eastern psychology, is not about being still,but about being present in the moment. It's a dance with the chaos of thoughts, where every thought is a fleeting emotion, not a fixed identity. It's a reminder that our minds are fluid, not rigid.4. The Role of Relationships: Psychology isn't just about individuality, but about the intricate web of connections we weave. It's about understanding how our interactions shape us, how love, empathy, and conflict mold our character. It's a tapestry woven with threads of human connection.5. The Art of Change: Change is the essence of psychology it's about understanding that we are not static, but constantly evolving. It's about embracing the uncertainty that comes with growth, and learning to adapt to the ever-changing landscape of our lives.6. The Power of Hope: In the face of adversity, psychology offers a beacon of hope. It teaches us that resilience, optimism, and a growth mindset can transform even the darkest moments into opportunities for growth.7. The Journey of Self-Healing: The journey through psychology is not a linear one, but a winding path of healing. It's about acknowledging pain, processing it, and finding the strength to rise from the ashes.So, in the realm of psychology, ask not who you are, but how you can be. It's a vibrant, ever-evolving tapestry of life, where every thread holds a story waiting to be told.。
学习对我的启示英语作文语句优美
学习对我的启示英语作文语句优美英文回答:Learning is a lifelong journey that transcends the confines of classrooms and textbooks. It is an insatiable pursuit of knowledge, an exploration of the unknown, and a continuous process of self-discovery. Throughout my educational odyssey, I have encountered countless moments of profound revelation, each illuminating my path and deepening my understanding of the world around me.In the hallowed halls of academia, I delved into the mysteries of science and the complexities of the human psyche. Through meticulous observation and experimentation, I unraveled the intricate workings of nature, marveling at its beauty and precision. Psychology classes unlocked the enigmatic depths of the human mind, revealing the intricate web of emotions, thoughts, and behaviors that shape our experiences.Beyond the ivory tower, I sought knowledge in the wider world. My travels across diverse cultures exposed me to different perspectives, broadening my worldview and fostering a deep appreciation for the richness of human diversity. Through conversations with individuals from all walks of life, I gained invaluable insights into their customs, beliefs, and aspirations.The pursuit of knowledge has not only expanded my understanding of the external world but has also led to a profound transformation within myself. By grappling with new ideas and perspectives, I have become more tolerant, empathetic, and open-minded. Learning has ignited a thirst for lifelong inquiry, driving me to continuously seek new experiences and explore uncharted territories.中文回答:学习,是一场没有尽头的旅程,它超越了教室和课本的范畴。
最新[理学]心理学-第四章记忆与学习课件PPT
第二节 记忆系统
记忆三存模型(three-store model),该模 型认为记忆加工有三个不同的阶段,他们分别是 感觉记忆、短时记忆和长时记忆。
视象帮助我们把相继出现的一组图片看成是 一个连续的画面,大多数视象持续的时间不 会超过一秒种,大多半秒钟,但取决于刺激 的强度(如亮度),视觉刺激的强度越大, 视象消失的越慢。
声象记忆与视象记忆基本上具有相同的性质, 只是在感觉记忆中持续的时间较长,可达510秒钟。
短时记忆
短时记忆(short term memory,STM)也称 工作记忆(working memory),是信息加工系 统的核心。经过感觉记忆中编码的信息进入短时 记忆后经过进一步的加工,再从这里进入长时记 忆。信息在短时记忆中一般保持20-30秒,加以 复述便可以继续保存。
现在再读下面的一系列字母,进行相同的记 忆测验:
JБайду номын сангаасRSOFLPTZB
(三)储存的持久性
在短时记忆中,信息的保持时间是有限的。 如果得不到复述,就会很快消失。复述是使信 息保存的必要条件。
复述的两种形式:保持性复述不一定能进入长 时记忆,精细复述是指将识记的材料与长时记 忆中储存的信息建立起联系。
再学习(relearning)就是让被试先后两次 学习同一个材料,每次达到同样的熟练水平, 再次学习所需要的练习次数或时间必定要少 于出次学习,两次所用的时间或次数的差, 就表示了保存的数量。再学习很好的证明了 记忆痕迹不会完全消失。
陈述性记忆和程序性记忆
陈述性记忆(declarative memory)处理陈述性知 识,即事实类信息,包括字词、定义、人名、时间、 事件、概念和观念等。陈述性记忆可以用言语表达。
Chapter 4 Toward a Psychology of Stress:4章对心理应激
Wayne Dyer
(continued)
• Erroneous zones
– Emotional zones that waste energy
• Left-over guilt • Self-imposed guilt • “The art of worrying”
Leo Buscaglia (The lessons of self-love)
Stages of Death and Grieving
1. Denial (This isn’t happening) 2. Anger (I am furious this is happening) 3. Bargaining (Well, OK, as long as…) 4. Withdrawal (silence) 5. Acceptance (OK, this is it, now let’s get on
• This internal tension can be decreased, but because of the power of human instincts, it is never fully extinguished.
Carl Gustav Jung
• Proposed many theories of the mind and consciousness
Sigmund Freud
• Freud believed that humans maintain a level of (instinctual) tension that arises from both internal sources (instinctual impulses) and external sources that attack our ego or identity.
Unit4ExploringliteratureReading课件高中英语牛津译林版(2020)
--Reading
1. Students can learn some words and phrases. 2. Students can get the main idea of this passage. 3. Students could develop a positive attitude literature.
重点词汇 quality 质量 ; 品质 unnoticed 被忽视 ; 未被注意到的 just as 正像 ; 正在…的时候 poet 诗人 be capable of 可以…的 ; 能…的
Take notes quickly!
The second quality of literature is its appeal to our feelings and imagination.Its attraction lies more in what it awakens in us than what it says. When Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus asks in the presence of Helen,"Was this the face that launched a thousand ships?" he opens a door through which our imagination enters a new world, a world of love, beauty and heroism.
文学的第一个特质是它对真与美的描写。一些真与美一直被忽视,直到一个敏 锐的人类灵魂让它们引起我们的注意,正如贝壳捕捉到了我们未曾注意的声音一 样。一百个人走过田野,眼中所见的可能都只是枯草,而诗人驻足,看得更深, 他看到了真与美,遂写下:“昨日之花即是我。”读了这句诗的人便能看到以前 隐匿在眼前的美。
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上还是同一种反应。因为这种反应是对条件刺激做出的反射,说以它被称作条件反射 (conditioned response,CR) 。 综合起来:Pavlov 的经典实验
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Pavlov 进行了一项经典的实验,他把节拍器(一种用来制造有节奏的嗒嗒声的装置)的嗒 嗒声与呈现食物匹配起来, 并观察狗最终是否会在听到嗒嗒声时分泌唾液 (Pavlov, 1927) 。 由于节拍器发出的声音通常情况下不会引起唾液分泌, 这是一种中性刺激。 将中性刺激和非 (图片) 形成条件作用前 中性刺激 →没有分泌唾液 节拍器的声音 形成条件作用的过程中 中性刺激 →非条件刺激→非条件反射 节拍器的声音 食物 分泌唾液 形成条件作用之后 条件刺激 →条件反射 节拍器的声音 分泌唾液 图 4-1 经典条件作用 在条件作用发生之前,节拍器的声音不会引起唾液分泌,这就是一个中性刺激。在形成 条件作用的过程中,节拍器的声音出现后紧接着就给狗呈现食物,即非条件刺激。食物 会引起唾液分泌,即非条件反射。在节拍器和食物进行几次匹配之后,条件作用就出现 了,这时,在没有食物的情况下节拍器也将引起狗分泌唾液的反应。这就是一种学习, 此时节拍器发出的声音成为了条件刺激,对铃声做出的分泌唾液的反应就是条件反射。 条件刺激反复匹配这个过程常被称为习得, 因为生物体在这个过程中得到学习。 图 4-1 展示 了在 Pavlov 的实验中,条件作用中的几个要素之间的关系是如何产生作用的。 注意那些反应, 条件反射和非条件反射其实是同样的反应——分泌唾液。 二者的区别只 在于它们是针对哪个刺激做出的反应。 一个非条件刺激总是引发非条件反射, 一个条件刺激 引起的是条件反射。 这是高深学问吗?其实并非如此。 经典条件作用实际上是最简单的学习形式之一。 这种 形式如此的简单, 以至于人们甚至没有意识到它一直在发生。 你在看到电视上播放你最爱吃 的食物的广告时嘴里会不会流口水?每次听到牙医的钻头发出高频的嘎嘎声你的腹部会不 会感到不适?以上两个都是经典条件作用的例子。 在了解了狗的实验后, 在看到电视广告时分泌唾液这种反应可能就不太需要过多解释了, 但是关于牙医的钻头呢?人们在接受痛苦的牙科治疗 (非条件刺激) 时通常会感到焦虑或害 怕(非条件反射) ,在拜访了几次牙医以后,身体就会将钻头的那种声音(条件刺激)与焦
为什么小丑会吓人? Angelic 刚刚 5 岁,父母带着她去马戏团。小姑娘享受着动物和杂技演员的表演,但她 并不了解小丑。 一个小丑突然跳到她面前试图逗小姑娘开心, 小丑大声笑着并做了个有趣的 鬼脸。但突然出现的动作和噪音,伴随着一副陌生的“小丑式”装扮,可把小 Angelic 吓坏 了。
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学习目标 4.1 学习的含义是什么? 4.2 最初对经典条件反射的研究是怎样的?经典条件反射有哪些重要的因素和特征? 4.3 什么是条件化情绪反应,认知心理学家如何解释经典条件作用? 4.4 操作性条件作用如何产生,Thorndike 和 Skinner 的贡献是什么? 4.5 操作性条件作用包含哪些重要概念? 4.6 什么是强化程序? 4.7 惩罚如何与强化区别? 4.8 使用惩罚会有哪些问题? 4.9 操作性条件刺激如何控制行为?还有哪些概念讲到加强或限制操作性条件反射? 4.10 什么是行为矫正?如何利用行为技术矫正非自主生理反应? 4.11 潜伏学习、习得性无助、顿悟与认知学习理论的联系是什么? 4.12 观察学习的过程中发生了什么?Bandura 经典的波波娃娃研究如何进行? 4.13 现实世界中有哪些应用条件作用的例子?
学习的定义 4.1 学习的含义是什么? 学习是一个放在实际语境下才有清晰含义的术语,像“学习是你学到东西的时候” , “学习是 学如何做事情” 。下面这个定义更有用:学习是经验或实践引起的任何行为上的相对稳定的
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改变。 “相对稳定的”是什么意思?经验如何改变我们做的事情? 定义中的“相对稳定”的部分指的是当人们学习了一样东西,他们大脑中的某些部分会 发生生理变化来记录他们学到的东西。实际上这是一个记忆的过程,不能记得发生的事情, 人就不能学到任何东西。 尽管没有结论性的证据, 但研究充分表明一旦人们学到了什么东西, 那它总是存在于记忆中的某些地方(Barsalou,1992;Smolen et al.,2008) 。人们也许找 不到它,但它确实在那里。链接到第五章:记忆,171 页 至于经验或实践的含义, 想一想你最近一次所做的引起你剧烈疼痛的事情吧。 你还会再做吗? 你不想再体验那种疼痛了, 所以你改变了你的行为来避免疼痛的结果。 孩子们也是这么学会 不去碰烧热的炉子 之后的事情就不奇怪了,Angelic 开始害怕任何小丑,包括她曾经最喜欢的快餐店墙上 的小丑图片!Angelic 对小丑的恐惧是一种特定形式的学习,我们称之为经典条件反射。在 这种学习模式下,事物或情境(例如马戏团里一个吓人的小丑)与其他情境(例如饭店里的 小丑图片)产生了关联。这种关联一旦产生,相似的事物或情境就能引起与先前情境中相同 的反应(例如恐惧) 。 记得本章开头的 Angelic 吗?有过被马戏团小丑惊吓的经历之后, 她对小丑 (例如快餐 店墙上的那个)的反应就变为了恐惧。相反,如果一个人做了一些事情,带来令人开心的结 果, 那个人就更可能再去做同样的事情。 这是另一种行为上的变化, 并且可以用效果律 (131 页)来解释。 并不是所有的改变都是通过学习来实现的。像体重和大脑体积的增长就是另一种变化, 这是通过基因蓝图控制的。这种变化称为成熟,依据的是生物特性,而不是经验。例如,孩 子会在该学会的时候学会走路, 这是因为他们的神经系统、 肌肉强度和平衡感已经达到了让 行走成为可能的程度,这些 孩子已经为走路进行了多 漫画,学习的例子 因素都是被成熟过程控制的,而不是 少练习。在成熟使走路成为可能之前,
第四章 学习
为什么要研究学习呢? 如果我们不能学习, 我们将会像很久以前的物种一样灭绝。 学习的过程促使我们去适应 周围环境的变化。我们会不断改变行动,直到我们找到带来生存机会和获得奖励的行为;同 时, 我们也可以消除那些过去没有成功的行为。 没有学习, 就不会有安居之所, 不会有农业, 不会有拯救生命的药物,当然就不会有人类文明。 章节概要 学习的定义 它使你流口水:经典条件反射 我会得到什么?操作性条件反射 心理学话题:儿童中打屁股和攻击行为之间的联系 心理学经典研究:操作性条件反射的生物限制 认知学习理论 观察学习 将心理学应用到日常生活:你真的能对猫进行如厕训练吗?
乎所有类型的刺激都可以与非条件刺激产生联结。 例如在最初的研究中, 在食物被送到狗的 嘴边之前,狗看到装食物的盘子就是一种刺激。每次狗吃到食物(狗自然的反应就是分泌唾 液) ,它就会看到盘子。此时,盘子被称作中性刺激(neutral stimulus,NS) ,因为盘子对 唾液腺不起作用。 在盘子与食物一起出现如此多的次数之后, 盘子开始产生与食物本身一样 的作用,虽然这种作用会弱一些,但确实引起了唾液腺的反应。当先前的中性刺激反复与非 条件刺激匹配出现,这个中兴刺激就会开始引发相同的反射反应,这样就出现了学习。这个 时候,中性刺激就可以被称作条件刺激(conditioned stimulus,CS) 。 ( “非条件的”意思 就是“非学习获得的” , “条件的”意思就是“学习获得的” ) 条件反射 这种对条件刺激做出的反应通常没有原始的非条件反射那么强烈, 但是实质
经验或再多的练习都不能帮助孩子行走——即使有些着急的家长希望如此。
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它会使你流口水:经典条件反射 4.2 最初对经典条件反射的研究是怎样的?经典条件反射有哪些重要的因素和特征? 在 19 世纪早期,心理学家主要关注心理活动,而科学家们对此并不满意。链接到第一 章:心理学的科学性,10~11 页。那时很多人正在寻找将客观性和科学的调查引入心理学领 域的途径。 先驱者对一种特定学习方式的基本原则进行了实验研究, 这个人正是 Ivan Pavlov (1849.1936) ,一位俄国生理学家(研究躯体运作的科学家) 。 在研究狗的消化系统时,Pavlov 制作了一种装置,当他们给狗一定量的食物时,该装 置能够精确地测量狗所产生的唾液量。 将食物放到任何动物的嘴里, 动物的唾液腺通常都会 自动开始分泌唾液来帮助咀嚼和消化。 这是动物和人类都有的一种正常反射 (非自主的反应) , 即食物会引起唾液腺的特定反应。 刺激就是任何能够引起一个生物体的反应的客体、 事件或 经验。对 Pavlov 的狗而言,食物就是刺激,分泌唾液就是反应。 照片 Ivan Pavlov 博士和学生们正在实验室工作。 Pavlov 是一个俄国生理学家, 他最先研究和记 录了经典条件作用的基本规律。 Pavlov 与分泌唾液的狗 Pavlov 很快就发现,这些狗开始在不该分泌唾液的时候流口水。一些狗会在它们看到 实验室助理拿来食物的时候就分泌唾液, 另一些在它们听到从厨房传来的食物器皿发出的声 音就会分泌唾液,并且还有一些狗到了每日例常的投食时间就会分泌唾液。Pavlov 将自己 接下来的研究生涯投入到了这项研究, 并最终将其命名为经典条件作用, 即学会对一种刺激 进行反应,但这种刺激并非通常引起该反应的那些原始的、自然的刺激。 经典条件作用的要素 Pavlov 最终确定了几个关键要素,要让经典条件作用发生,这 些要素就必须具备并且按特定的方式产生影响。 非条件刺激 前面提到的原始的、自然发生的刺激称为非条件刺激(unconditioned
stimulus,UCS) 。 “非条件的”意思是指“非习得的”或“自然发生的” 。这种刺激一般情况 下会引起非自主的反射反应。在 Pavlov 的狗这项研究中,食物就是非条件刺激。
4Hale Waihona Puke 非条件反射对非条件刺激做出的反应就是非条件反射(unconditioned response,
UCR) 。这种反应不是通过学习获得的,它的发生就像是基因将它“写入”神经系统中一样。 例如,在 Pavlov 的研究中,唾液腺对食物的反应就是非条件反射。 条件刺激 Pavlov 确定了只要一个刺激与非条件刺激匹配出现的频率足够高,那么几
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虑或害怕(非条件反射)联结起来。于是,不管这个人是躺在治疗椅上还是在外面等候,钻 头的声音都会引起焦虑不安的感觉(条件反射) 。 虽然经典条件作用很容易发生, 但 Pavlov 和其他研究者还是发现了一些基本的规律 (尽 管我们将看到这些规律还是会有一些例外) : 1.条件刺激必须发生在非条件刺激之前。 如果 Pavlov 在给狗食物后再启动节拍器, 就不会形成条件作用(Rescorla,1988) 。 2.条件刺激和非条件刺激出现的时间必须非常接近,间隔时间最好不要超过 5 秒。 当 Pavlov 试图将条件刺激和非条件刺激的时间间隔延长到几分钟时,二者之间就不再 形成联结或联系。 时间间隔较长, 可能发生的事情就太多, 这会干扰条件作用 (Pavlov, 1926; Wasserman&Miller, 1997) 。 近来的研究发现, 刺激间隔 (Interstimulus Interval, ISI,条件刺激与非条件刺激之间的时间间隔)会根据形成条件作用的任务特性或要形 成条件作用的生物体而变化。这些研究已经发现,更短的刺激间隔(少于 500 毫秒)是 形成条件作用的理想条件。 3.中性刺激必须与非条件刺激匹配出现几次。 通常都是在很多次的匹配之后条件作 用才会形成(Pavlov,1926) 。 4.条件刺激通常是一些与其他同时存在的刺激具有区别性的或突出性的刺激。 例如 节拍器发出的嗒嗒声并不是实验室中经常出现的声音, 因此, 这种刺激是具有区别性的 (Pavlov,1926;Rescorla,1988) 。 刺激的泛化和分化 Pavlov 确实发现,相似的声音会引发实验狗相同的反射。他和其他研究者发现,虽然 针对与原刺激相似的刺激做出的反射反应在强度上不如针对原刺激的反射, 但其他的声音刺 激(不管是节拍器发出的声音或其他类型的声音)与原刺激越相似,其引发的反射强度也越 接近原刺激(Siegel,1969) 。看图 4-2,当其他刺激与形成条件反射的原始刺激具有相似 性时,生物体对这个刺激也会做出反射,这种现象称为刺激的泛化。例如,一个人如果听到 牙医的钻头声会有焦虑反应,那其他发出相似声音的机器(例如电动咖啡研磨机)也可能会 导致他有一丝焦虑感。当然,Pavlov 不会在相似声音刺激后给狗任何食物。这样用不了多