英汉禁忌语对比与翻译
英汉对比语言学之禁忌语--taboos
Common Features
生老病死
共性特征
Birth, senility, illness and death Tabooed numbers
禁忌数字
Religion and superstition
宗教和迷信
Birth or Death
Pregnancy
怀孕
E: She is expecting.
How are you doing ? What’s going on?
C: “你到哪儿去啊?”
“现在在哪工作啊?”
“你这衣服真好看,在哪买的?”
Harmonics
E: Have no special tபைடு நூலகம்boos
about the harmonics.
C: 伞(散)、分梨(分离)、
四(死)
Causes for taboos
(她在待产中)
C: 她有喜了 E: Pass away…Be in heaven… C: 去世…驾鹤西去…
Death
死亡
Tabooed numbers
E: 5 C: 3 / / 6 4 / 13 / 7
Religion and superstition
E: God / Devil / Christ
禁忌语出现的原因
Social systems
社会制度
Values
价值观念
Customs
风俗习惯
Lifestyle
生活方式
C:牛鬼蛇神、鬼东西
Different Characteristics
差异性特征
Social status and appellation
社会地位和称谓
浅析英汉禁忌语文化
浅析英汉禁忌语文化系别化学与生命科学学院班级12级06班学号20姓名丁香浅析英汉禁忌语文化摘要:禁忌语是一种普遍的社会现象和语言现象,它与人类的生活有着密切的联系。
由于中西方文化的差异,导致了禁忌语存在较大的差别。
本文着重介绍中西方禁忌语的相似与差异,有助于我们更好地了解中西方的文化,完美地掌握交流用语,不至于说出一些对方反感的言语。
关键词:禁忌语相似差异一、英汉禁忌语的概况禁忌语是语言的一部分,就是指在日常交际中不能涉及到的特有的话题,可以说凡是在交往和公共场合中那些引起对方或公众反感或不快的一些词或表达方式都属于禁忌语的范畴。
在英语中,“禁忌”(Taboos)一词源于波利尼西亚语,原意指“神圣的”和“非凡的”,后引申为“禁止的”和“危险的”。
夏威夷语指导禁忌读作“卡普”(Kapu)。
在波利尼西亚文化中,禁忌是指“任何与帝王有关的而普通百姓接触后会有危险的事,或者帝王碰过后,从而变得具有威力的任何事”。
甚至帝王的影子对他来说也是危险的。
除此之外,波利尼西亚人还对其他一些显示力量的地方和事物用禁忌予以表示,例如某些食物、山脉或泉水。
“禁忌”这个词历史悠久,在各类历史文献中均有记载。
汉王符《潜夫论·忠贵》:“贵戚惧家之不吉而聚诸令名,惧门之不坚而为铁枢,卒其所以败者,非苦禁忌少而门枢朽也,常苦崇财货而行骄僭,虐百姓而失民心尔。
”汉应劭《风俗通·正失·彭城相袁元服》:“今俗间多有禁忌,生三子者、五月生者,以为妨害父母,服中子犯礼伤孝,莫肯收举。
”《后汉书·郎顗传》:“臣生长草野,不晓禁忌,披露肝胆,书不择言。
”唐苏拯《明禁忌》诗:“阴阳家有书,卜筑多禁忌。
”随着社会的发展,禁忌语在发展变化。
比如在中国人的俗信中,以为人的影子既和人的身体相像又和人的身体相关。
身体为阳,影像为阴,觉得影子大约就是自己的灵魂,所以古代有禁忌别人踩踏自己的影子。
而现在,这种说法已经少为人所知了。
汉英禁忌语
汉英禁忌语一、禁忌语和委婉语语言禁忌 (Language Taboo),语言禁忌源于人类最初对自然现象和自然力的困惑和误解。
早在远古时代,人们因对日月交替风雨雷电、火山地震以及人和物的生老病死等自然现象和自然规律不理解,故幻想创造了神,认为神是万物的主宰、祸福的根源。
因此,神灵不可亵渎,与神灵有关的东西都应被尊为灵物,被列为禁忌,不可冒犯。
英语中,God(上帝)、Satan(魔王撒旦)等均有婉称,汉语中有国讳、圣讳、官讳或家讳。
疾病与死亡为人之大忌,无论是东方人,还是西方人,都十分忌讳疾病与死亡,所以在交际时都尽量回避这些字眼,以婉言称之。
禁忌语(taboo)是人们多数情况下不能说或不想说的话。
禁忌语多是与身体某些器官及功能或与宗教,崇拜有关,包括脏话(obscene)、粗俗语(vulgar)、和仵犯神灵的话(profane)。
禁忌语可以不用,可话不能不说,意思不可不表达,因而出现了大量的委婉语来代替禁忌语。
二、英语中委婉语英语中委婉语(euphemism)一词源自希腊语。
前缀“eu”的意思是“good”(好),词根“-phemism”意为“speech”(言语),合起来意思是“word of good omen”(吉言或好听的说法)。
委婉语是人类语言中普遍存在的一种语言现象,广泛应用于社会生活的各个方面。
由于语言交际是人类赖以维系社会关系和人际关系的重要手段,因此人们在交际中通常避免使用引起双方不快从而损害双方关系的语言,而采取迂回曲折的语言来表达思想、交流信息。
因此,委婉语自产生之日起,就担负着“润滑”交际的重任。
“如果没有委婉语,世界的运转会因摩擦而停止,人间将充满仇怨”。
正如美国学者Hugh Rawson 所描述的那样,委婉语“如此深深地嵌入我们的语言,以至我们中间没有谁——即便是那些自诩言谈直截了当的人——能够在不使用委婉语的情况下过完一天的”。
(一)有关“死亡”的委婉语人们生活中最忌讳的就是死亡,因此语言禁忌中关于死亡的委婉语大量存在。
英汉禁忌语对比分析
3、功能
英汉禁忌语均具有维护社会秩序、遵循社会规范的功能。通过使用禁忌语, 人们可以避免谈论令人尴尬或冒犯的话题,从而减少不必要的冲突和摩擦。此外, 禁忌语还可以起到警示和教育的作用,提醒人们在不同场合下应该保持适当的言 谈举止。例如,在汉语中,“妄议中央”是一个较为严重的禁忌语,旨在引导人 们不要随意发表不当言论。同样地,英语中的“鞭打禁锢”等禁忌语也旨在维护 社会道德和秩序。
英汉禁忌语对比分析的应用
1、语言教学
英汉禁忌语的对比分析在语言教学中具有重要意义。教师可以通过介绍英汉 禁忌语的异同点,帮助学生更好地理解两种文化背景下的语言表达和交际方式。 同时,学生也可以通过了解不同文化中的禁忌语,提高自己的跨文化交际意识和 能力。
2、翻译实践
在翻译实践中,英汉禁忌语的对比分析同样具有指导作用。译者需要具备跨 文化意识,了解两种语言中的禁忌语及其背后的文化内涵。只有这样,才能在忠 实原文的基础上,准确地传达原文中的信息。例如,在翻译过程中,遇到关于 “死亡”的禁忌语时,译者需要根据目标语言的文化背景,选择适当的词汇和表 达方式。
英汉禁忌语在修辞手法和篇章结构方面也有其独特之处。英语中的禁忌语多 采用委婉语和替代词,以避免直接提及禁忌话题,如用“pass away”代替 “die”。而汉语中的禁忌语则更多地体现为避讳和省略,如对年长者的称呼中 会避免使用不吉利的字眼。
四、应用实践:跨文化交流的技 巧
在跨文化交流中,了解英汉禁忌语的异同十分重要。在语言交流中,我们应 尊重对方的文化习惯,避免使用冒犯性的言辞。同时,掌握相应的交流技巧,如 采用间接、委婉的语言表达方式,可以有效地避免因文化差异引起的误解和冲突。 在翻译过程中,译者也需充分考虑原文中的禁忌语,确保译文准确、得体。
英汉文化中禁忌语的比较
《教学与管理》2008年8月20日语言是人类进行思维,沟通情感的工具。
尽管语言有任意性,但由于语言蕴含着难以形容的神奇力量,人们在使用某些词语时,这些词语所指代的事物往往会生动逼真地呈现在人们的眼前,并引起某种心理上的反映,像汉语成语中“望梅止渴”的故事就是一个典型的例子。
令人高兴、让人欢欣的词语往往能引起愉快、欢喜的心情,而令人沮丧、让人不快的词语同样也会引起相应的心理反映,使人产生恐惧、不安、悲伤或厌恶的情绪。
对此,人们总是期望避免或直接提及,这就是语言中的禁忌现象。
一、禁忌语产生的文化背景“禁忌”一词源于玻利尼西亚汤加语,意思是“需要极端注意的事”。
1777年,英国航海家JamesCock在南太平洋的汤加岛上发现了一种令人震惊的社会现象。
一些话在当地居民中禁止使用,他们称其为“Taboo”,意为“holy”,“untouchable”。
JamesCock记录了当地有关“taboo”的种种现象。
这些禁忌主要反映两个方面:一是受尊敬的神物不能随便使用;二是受鄙视的贱物不能随便接触。
禁忌语的产生有其时代原因。
在人类远古时代,人们迷信鬼神,信仰上帝、崇拜神祗。
有关帝、神的名字以及他们的话语是不能随便提及的神圣的东西,否则就被视为是对帝、神的不敬和对神力的亵渎。
人们往往认为某些话语与其所指称的人和事物之间存在着一种神秘的联系,说出这些词语,就会触犯其所指代的人或事物,招来灾祸,这就自然导致了语言的禁忌。
英汉文化中早期的禁忌语主要与迷信神力、崇拜神祗有关。
随着时代的变迁和社会的发展,除了宗教原因外,社会风俗、文化传统、个人修养、交际需要等因素对英汉禁忌语的发展也产生了很大的影响。
二、英汉文化中禁忌语的趋同性尽管英汉语言反映不同的社会习俗和历史文化,但不同民族的人们在交际中对语言的选用上会表现出一致的倾向性,交际中涉及禁忌语时,都采用了相同的交际策略,如避凶求吉等。
英汉两种语言的禁忌语有许多共同之处,英汉文化中共同的禁忌语及其委婉说法主要体现在以下几个方面:1.死亡英语中表达“死”的委婉说法有:gotoheaven,breatheone'slast,gotoanotherworld,kickthebucket等;汉语常用的表达有:逝世、寿终、牺牲、百年了等。
中西文化对比与应用之禁忌语
中西文化对比与应用之禁忌语某些词语和概念令人不快,最好不用,而换一种婉转的说法——这就是委婉语。
有些词语因传统习惯或社会风俗不同,会引起对方强烈反感,应避免使用——这就是禁忌语。
禁忌英语taboo,原义为“神圣”,“不许触摸”的意思。
一、禁亵渎性词语在西方国家,人们认为滥用上帝或上帝的名字是不敬的,所以与这类相关的词语一般是要避免的,而且也常常避免谈到魔鬼,如:上帝的名字JehovahGod(上帝)hell(地狱)devil( 魔鬼)Christ(基督)Jesus ChristHoly Mary如果要使用,则God说成Dod,Gom,Godfrey等,将Jesus Christ说成Caessar’Crutch等或是使用god of this world, the Big D( Lord of flies), the good man 等委婉语。
在中国,人们也尽量避免对“神”的不敬, 对自己信奉和崇拜的神仙不能在言语上有任何的轻慢和不敬。
但对于“鬼”却是不避讳的,如汉语中就有“牛鬼蛇神”、“妖魔鬼怪”、“鬼东西”、“扮鬼脸”等。
另外,在中国的封建社会,皇帝的名字,甚或与皇帝的名字同音或同形的字都在禁忌之列。
如中国的秦始皇名“嬴政”,为避其“政”名,一年的“正月”被该为“端月”;宋朝知州一官吏名“田登”,为避其“登”字,下令百姓不能说“点灯”,而说“放火”,因此有“只许州官放火,不许百姓点灯。
”之说。
二、禁辱骂性词语辱骂性语言在英语中属于淫秽性语言(obscene language),也可以说是脏话(dirty words),常常是人们避讳的。
如:son of bitch(狗娘养的)For Christ's sake! (为了基督!)God damned! (神啊,受诅咒吧!)Oh, damn it! (诅咒它吧!)英语里还有用动物的名称来骂人的,如骂某人为cow, swine, pig,stallion等等, 这些是禁止使用的。
英汉语言交流中的禁忌语及委婉表达
英汉语言交流中的禁忌语及委婉表达一、引言语言是人类社会中客观存在的特有的社会现象,是某一社会群体约定俗成的、通过学习获得的一种符号,是人们用来交流思想的工具。
语言和实物没有必要的联系。
然而,在远古时代,人类对自然现象缺乏科学的认识,不能够合理解释某种反常的自然力,语言就被赋予了它本身原本没有的超自然力量。
人们迷信语言有一种超常的魔力,能够给人类带来幸福和灾难,以至将语言所代表的事物和语言本身画上符号,于是,产生了语言的禁忌。
禁忌(taboo) 是人类社会普遍存在的一种复杂的文化现象,它存在于世界上已知的各种文化之中,无论是原始部落,还是高度文明的社会,无论在中国还是在西方,语言禁忌都普遍存在。
禁忌是人们对某些言行的自我限制,它不仅来源于人们对某种神秘力量的畏惧,而且也包含着人们在与大自然作斗争中长期积累的经验。
禁忌文化主要包括:社交禁忌,公共场合禁忌,饮食禁忌,节日禁忌,送礼禁忌,宗教禁忌,颜色禁忌,数字与日期禁忌,动植物禁忌等。
禁忌无处不在、无所不有,小至衣食住行、社会交往,大至政治、外交、文化等活动都有禁忌的身影。
二、语言禁忌现象文化传统使各种语言形成了各自的语言禁忌。
在汉文化中,姓名称呼方面的禁忌有着独特的历史发展轨迹。
例如,中国封建社会对君主的名字严加忌讳,唐代为避太宗李世民之讳把世改成代,把民改成人。
旧时对父母的名字也要避讳,唐朝大诗人杜甫,一生留下1400 首诗,却无一句涉及海棠花,因为他的母亲名海棠,正如他避父名“闲”之讳,诗中没有一个“闲”字。
因此,在中国,晚辈对长辈、下级对上级、学生对老师,决不能直呼其名,否则,会被视为唐突无礼、缺乏教养、大逆不道。
而在西方,除了某些特定工作头衔,如:教授、医生、博士、法官等外,一般是直呼其名,这反倒让人觉得亲切、友好和自然,就连父母与子女之间也是如此。
个人隐私在西方国家里也是人们最大的忌讳。
因此,在与西方人交流中,打听、询问关于个人的年龄,财产、收入、恋爱婚姻、宗教信仰、政治倾向等一些私事,即是用另一种方式侵犯了别人的隐私权。
中英人之间的语言禁忌差异
中英人之间的语言禁忌差异——不同的地域人们有着不同的文化,这些都是我们应该了解的知识。
由于中西方人的历史传统、风俗习惯、宗教信仰、价值观念的不同,禁忌语(verbal taboos)也有很多不同之处。
禁忌是指在一些特定的文化或是在生活起居中被禁止的行为和思想,被禁止的某些词汇就是禁忌语。
禁忌有两种解释:一为“因风俗习惯或个人理由等,对某些语言或举动有所顾及,久积成禁忌”,二为“对某些可能产生不利后果的事力求避免,不愿说出或听到某些引起不愉快的字眼”,禁忌的一般都是崇高、神圣而凛然不可侵犯的,或被社会认为是神秘、罪恶、肮脏的事物或内容。
在中英两国的交际中间,因为历史与风俗习惯的不同也有很多禁忌需要我们了解。
一、数字禁忌对于数字的禁忌,中国人通常用谐音和典故来解释数字的意思,就像中国人大都喜欢2、6、8、9等数字,2表示好事成双,6表示六六大顺,8表示发财,9是长久,7和8在一起就是“七上八下”,1、6、8在一起就是一路发……最明显的还有4,4与“死”谐音,所以4无形中也就成了一种禁忌,在选电话号码时也会优先2、6、7、8、9这样的数字。
在英国等西方国家,因典故形成的数字禁忌也普遍存在。
就如数字 13 在英国就是禁忌。
据《圣经》记载,在《最后的晚餐》中,耶稣对他的十二门徒弟说:“你们当中有一个人出卖了我”结果出卖耶稣,使耶稣被钉在十字架上而死的卑鄙小人就是第13位,犹大.从此,13就成了不吉祥、不道义的代名词。
因此,酒店不设13号房;重要的活动避开每月13号;请客人吃饭时,一桌的客人若满了12人,就不会再加人,因为他们认为第十三个人会给他们带来厄运。
5也是英国人所禁忌的,耶稣死的那一天正好是星期五,所以当星期五和十三号遇到一起时,就会被认为是最不吉利的。
英国人还不喜欢数字六,因为人是在第六天上帝被造出来的,拥有很多缺点。
二、称谓避讳制度中国,从商代开始就有“生名死讳”的制度,秦汉以后这种忌讳扩大到了活人身上,逐渐形成了“称谓避讳制度”。
英汉禁忌语异同之分析与比较
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汉英禁忌语的语用对比
汉英禁忌语的语用对比摘要禁忌是世界各民族之间普遍存在的一种文化现象,禁忌规范了人们的言语行为与社会交际。
而中西文化的巨大差异直接导致了汉英禁忌语的迥异。
所以,无论是在英语还是汉语中,我们都会遇到一些因传统或社会风俗不同,会引起对方强烈反感,结果导致了有些词语我们要避免使用,就是禁忌语。
跨文化交际是现代交际的重要组成部分,了解语言禁忌现象可以使跨文化交际更加得体。
汉语和英语中的禁忌语反映在社会生活中的各个方面,因此从语用角度看汉英禁忌语的异同对跨文化交际有重要意义。
本文主要分析了汉英禁忌语语用原则的共同性和差异性,总结出了三条共同的禁用原则并对汉英文学作品、动物习语以及称谓语等方面的禁忌语语用差异进行分析。
尝试从语形讳饰和语义讳饰两个方面进一步探讨汉英禁忌语的语用表达,通过语用的艺术解决跨文化交际中的禁忌问题。
关键词: 禁忌语;交际;语用;对比AbstractTaboo is a commonly existing cultural phenomenon among nations in the world which regulates people’s language and social communication .The great difference between Chinese and western culture directly results in the great difference between Chinese and English taboo .So ,taboo exiting both in Chinese and English .With the consideration of the different cultures and customs ,we should avoid using offensive expression: taboo, in international communication. Cross-cultural communication is the important part of modern communication. The phenomenon of the taboo can make the cross-cultural communication more appropriate. Taboos in both Chinese andEnglish reflect every corner of the different social life, so the pragmatic differences between the Chinese and English taboos can be of great help for cross-cultural communication. By analyzing the intercommunity and the otherness of the pragmatic principles, the thesis summarized three principles of using the taboos and discussed the pragmatic differences between Chinese and English taboos from angles of literature, animal idioms and the addressing words,trying to have a further discussion on the pragmatic expressions between the Chinese and English taboos.Key word: taboo; communication; pragmatic ;comparison语言既是文化载体,又是文化的一部分。
简析英汉禁忌语之异同
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科技信息
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
专题论述
色彩的多彩表达
扬州高等职业技术学校 孙 佳
[摘 要]在英语文化中,和颜色(即色彩)有关的词汇及其用法多不胜数,可见颜色是是极富表现力的词汇。 [关键词]颜色 色彩 用法
色彩在我们日常生活中无处不在,和颜色有关的词汇及其用法也 多不胜数。但有关颜色的知识比较零散,如颜色词的语用法、词汇构成 法、固定搭配等。本文拟就英语中与颜色相关的各种用法加以综合并做 浅显分析。
特征、名族心理和行为模式。在以下方面,英汉禁忌语存在较明显差异: 1.颜色禁忌 不同民族、不同文化背景下,颜色词承载着不同的感情色彩和文化
信息,因此,在跨文化交流中应该注意颜色词使用上的禁忌。例如,中国 人崇尚红色,国旗采用鲜艳的红色;在婚礼上通常都会采用红色礼服; 逢年过节时,多会贴红色对联,张挂红色灯笼等等。然而在西方文化中, 红色却容易使人联想到“暴力”和“流血”,因而,他们对红色有一定的禁 忌。例如,著名汉学家霍克斯在翻译《红楼梦》时采用了这部书原名《石 头记》的译名“The story of the stone”;白色在中国主要象征丧葬,所以在 喜庆的场合,白色礼服一般都会被禁忌。而在西方白色却倍受青睐,象 征着纯洁、无辜等褒义含义,白色礼服也经常在婚庆时使用;在汉语里 主要象征黑暗、邪恶和灾难的黑色,在西方却象征了威严和尊贵。
一、颜色的语用法 (一)询问颜色,注意表达习惯 正:What color is your bag? 你的书包是什么颜色? 正:What is the color of your bag? (同上) 误:What color has your bag? (二)上下文中表示颜色的含义比较清楚时,一般不用 color 一词 正:The bike is red. 那个自行车是红色的。 正:The bike is red in color. (去掉 in color 更自然) 误:The bike is red color. (三)上下文中表示颜色的含义不很确定时,通常用 color 一词,且 常与不定冠词连用 That thing is of a blue color. 那东西呈蓝色。 It was a blue-green color. 它是蓝绿的。 二、颜色词的词汇构成法 (一)英语中常见颜色 red(红色),black(黑色),blue(蓝色),white(白色),green(绿色),yellow(黄 色),grey (灰色),pink(粉红色),orange(橙色),purple(紫色),brown(棕色)等。 (二)这些基本颜色词和其他形容词一样,具有以下词法特征 1.比较级和最高级形式 red—— —redder—— —reddest green—— —greener—— —greenest blue—— —bluer— ——bluest 2. 加后缀 -en 构成动词 white + en: The house was whitened this summer. 房子在今年夏天被 粉刷成白色。 black + en:He blackened his hair in the barber shop. 他在理发店把头 发染黑了。 (三)如果表示颜色深浅不同程度,可有以下几种不同的构成方法 1.表示浅(淡)色,可在颜色词前加 light 或 pale。 如:light green(浅绿),pale yellow(淡黄),pale blue(浅蓝)等。 The sky was pale blue. 天空是浅蓝色的。 2.表示深色,可在颜色词前加 dark 或 deep。 如:deep red(深红),dark green(深绿)等。 She has a deep red hair. 她的头发是深红色的。 3.表示鲜明的、鲜艳的,可在颜色词前加 bright、vivid、burning、baby 等。 如:bright yellow(鲜黄)、baby pink (亮桃红)。 She wears a bright yellow coat today. 她今天穿了件鲜黄色的外套。 三、颜色词的固定搭配 颜色词的固定搭配是重点和难点。不同的文化背景赋予颜色不同 的文化内涵,有时相同的意思甚至使用了不同的色彩。例如汉语中的 “ 眼 红(嫉 妒)”用 英 语 表 达 为“green with envy”;英 语 词 组“black and
Comparison of English and Chinese Taboos 英汉禁忌语的比较
Comparison of English and Chinese Taboos英汉禁忌语的比较摘要禁忌语既是人类社会普遍存在的一种复杂的文化现象,又是不同社会的人们的一种约定俗成。
在禁忌的对象、禁忌习俗、禁忌心理等方面,不同民族既有独特性又有共同性。
在跨文化交际中,禁忌无处不在,并对人们有着强有力的现实约束力。
本论文在前人研究的基础上,比较英语和汉语中的禁忌语。
运用举例的方法,分析总结语音、词汇方面英汉禁忌语的共性,中西方在隐私、数字、称呼方面禁忌语的差异。
从民族文化和交际者自身情况两方面因素分析由英汉禁忌语引起的跨文化交际问题的原因,针对由禁忌语引起的跨文化交际冲突提出防范对策,从而帮助人们在中英跨文化交际中达到更好的交际效果。
关键词:禁忌语比较防范对策ABSTRACTTaboo is not only a complex cultural phenomenon of human society, but also established by usage. In the long-term practice, the human built and developed constantly with their own language and culture, while established different language patterns and cultural circles. In cross-cultural communication, taboo exists everywhere and has a strong practical binding to people.On the basis of previous studies, this thesis compares taboo words in English and Chinese. With the method of ensample, people can analyze and summarize the commonness between English and Chinese taboo words over voice, vocabulary, and the conceptual differences in privacy, number and name between China and English-speaking countries. This thesis analyzes the factors leading the differences among taboo words based on the impact of national culture on taboos words and the participants’ personal circumstances, and propose preventive measures to solve the conflicts caused by taboo words in intercultural communication. Thus the communication in cross-culture communication can achieve higher level.KEY WORDS: taboo words comparison preventive strategyCONTENTSAcknowledgements-------------------------------------------------------------------------------i Abstract (Chinese) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------ii Abstract (English) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------iii1. Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12. Aspects of Taboos----------------------------------------------------------------------3 2.1 Origin and History-----------------------------------------------------------------------3 2.2 Performance-------------------------------------------------------------------------------42.2.1 Appellation---------------------------------------------------------------------------42.2.2 Question Words----------------------------------------------------------------------42.2.3 Sensitive Topics----------------------------------------------------------------------52.2.4 Obscene, Profane and Abusive Words--------------------------------------------5 2.3 Pragmatic Features of Taboos in Intercultural Communication--------------------62.3.1 Universality--------------------------------------------------------------------------62.3.2 Transmutability----------------------------------------------------------------------62.3.3 Nationality----------------------------------------------------------------------------72.3.4 Succession----------------------------------------------------------------------------72.3.5 Class Character----------------------------------------------------------------------72.3.6 Circumbendibus---------------------------------------------------------------------83. The Similarities between Chinese and English Taboo Words---------------------------8 3.1 In Pronunciation--------------------------------------------------------------------------8 3.2 In V ocabulary----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 93.2.1 Death---------------------------------------------------------------------------------93.2.2 Toilet---------------------------------------------------------------------------------93.2.3 Curse---------------------------------------------------------------------------------93.2.4 Disease and Disability-------------------------------------------------------------93.2.5 Sexism-------------------------------------------------------------------------------104. The Differences between Chinese and English Taboo Words-------------------------10 4.1 In Privacy-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 4.2 In Numbers------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 114.3 In Names----------------------------------------------------------------------------------115. Reasons to Cause Conflict------------------------------------------------------------------11 5.1 The Impact of National Culture on Taboo Words---------------------------------- 12 5.2 The Impact of Participants’ Personal Circumstances------------------------------ 145.2.1 Age---------------------------------------------------------------------------------145.2.2 Sex---------------------------------------------------------------------------------145.2.3 Cultural Training-------------------------------------------------------------------145.2.4 Relationship between Communicators----------------------------------155.2.5 Occasions---------------------------------------------------------------------------155.2.6 Social Factors---------------------------------------------------------------------156. The Solutions to Avoid Conflicts----------------------------------------------------------15 6.1 Avoidance-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17 6.2 Euphemism------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 17 6.3 Hiding Truth-----------------------------------------------------------------------------186.4 Neutral------------------------------------------------------------------------------------187. Conclusion---------------------------------------------------------------------------------19 7.1 Summary--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19 7.2 Suggestions for Further Research---------------------------------------------------- 20 Bibliography-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------211.IntroductionLanguage is a social phenomenon, which determines that language system is not a closed system, but linked inextricably with others. Chomsky once said“People's language is always affected by various forms of social and cultural factors. When we study the language, it is of some people that might be called human nature of things, that the psychological characteristics with humans, as far as we know, these features are unique to humans.” Obviously, l anguage is the embodiment of human nature. It reflects a culture and the mode of thinking. As we all know, culture is the sum of beliefs, habits, living patterns and behaviors for different nationalities. Different nations have different cultural backgrounds, which influence the development of their language. As the carrier of culture, a language also shows the specific character to its nation. Meanwhile, language is a tool for human’s thought and communication. Though arbitrary is the nature of language, when certain words have been mentioned, certain scene will present in people's eyes and cause psychological reactions. As a result, people expect to avoid or indirect reference the unhappy words. This is the phenomenon of taboo language. For foreign language learners, learning a foreign language is not only to learn the language, but also to understand its culture. It is the combination of going through complex psychological processes and exploring ways of thinking and psychological characteristics under different cultural background.In the past two decades, with the process of human globalization and information, people in different regions with different cultural backgrounds communicated with each other more and more frequently. Cross-cultural communication has become an important feature to the world. In human’s lifetime, they receive or send information all the time. Verbal language becomes the most important form of communication. However, in cross-cultural communication, lacking the knowledge of foreign language and the understanding of alien culture often lead the failure and errors. For example, making a circle with the thumb and forefinger and straightening the other three fingers represent “Victory” in the United States, “Insulting” in Brazil and “Money” in Japan. If people only know its meaning as “Victory”, it will bring puzzle and misunderstanding to Japanese people and Brazilians.Clearly, cultural discrepancy of communicators has seriously affected communication, and is an important feature which causes the failure of cross-cultural communication. Taboo is one of the most important factors leading culture conflict.Therefore, the study of taboos is an important theoretical and practical issue in the study of cross-cultural pragmatic. Though, the study of taboos on intercultural communication has important theoretical significance and value in the studies of contemporary linguistics. The academia does not pay enough attention to this subject.Some western scholars began to focus on relevant topics from the 50th in the 19th century. Then, the study gradually expanded all around the world. From the contents view of cross-cultural communication study, mainly related to: the Cultural Differences of Speech Communication and the Differences of Non-verbal Communication. The emphasis of researches biased toward experience and practice. The substance is extensive, but the system is bulky. In brief, the study went according to linguistics-strict system with narrow content. Studies of cross-cultural pragmatics started relatively late in our country. He Daokuan and Hu Wenshi are the earliest scholars of this field at home. Together with other scholars promoting, the development of this field and plays an active role in this area. However, there are still problems on this subject in domestic research. Some researches talked in generalities. Lacking of profound and comprehensive on a particular topic is still restricted the development of the subject. This thesis discusses a particular topic on taboos in Sino-British cross-cultural issues.To let the readers understand clearly, it is necessary to inform the organization of this thesis at the beginning of discussion. First of all, talk about taboos from different aspects, including origin, performance, classification and pragmatic features. Secondly, compare taboos in Sino-British cross-cultural communication in terms of cultural traditions, personal training, social customs, communication needs and so on. Find out the differences and similarities of Chinese and English taboos under different cultural background. Finally, summarize the problems and causes led by taboos in Sino-British inter-culture conflicts, and put forward some constructive preventive strategies.Ultimately, the author hopes the study will help Chinese and English learners and users deepen the understanding of language and culture and achieve the desired effect in cross-culture communication.2.Aspects of TaboosTaboo is regarded as one of the greatest obstacles in cross-cultural communication. Neglecting taboo will result in cultural conflict or even serious consequences. In order to avoid cross-cultural communication conflicts, it is necessary for us to understand taboo completely.2.1 Origin and History“Taboo”, literally translated as “塔布” in Chinese, means “need extreme attention to do”. It belongs to Tonga in Polynesia. Researchers can also find the original form of the word in Micronesia and Melanesia. In the 18th century, an English navigator, named as James Cook (1728-1779), sailed to the South Pacific island of Tonga in 1777. He discovered and documented the various phenomena of “Taboo”. Later, he introduced the term from Polynesian to English. The original meaning of “Taboo” in Polynesian had strong sense of religious, which means “scared”, or “accursed”, including the following two aspects. Firstly, the respected biology cannot be used unceremoniously. Secondly, despised things can not be touched random. The so-called verbal taboo also includes two aspects: Fetishism and Taboo. As semiotic system, language is the tool of communication, which does not have mysterious force by itself. Why do people worship language? Why do the forbidden and the alternative of language exist? We can find the basis from people’s initial understanding of language. In ancient times, people can not have a clear understanding to the nature of language. They do not know what language is. They thought language has the same supernatural divine power as the wind and the rain in nature. They also believed that voice a nd semantic in language exist “a kind of internal correspondence”. Thus, there must be an equivalent relationship between language and certain things. Because of the extremely backward productivity, humans can not understand lots of phenomena in nature. As a result, they began to adore and fear the so-called “supernatural power”. It seems that the universe has magic power which is owned by God and Devil. With the influence of this thought, appeared the “Fetishism”. In this way, language becomes a symbol of super power. If the sailing people said words like “翻(帆),陈(沉)”, it will bring trouble or disaster. If the writing people separated the spelling of one’s name, it will take the person’s life, as the name and people belong to one unity. This kind of fetishism is the origin of “Taboo”. “Language” became the object of worship that can not be violated, so thatwas possible to avoid the harm from taboos, and appeared euphemisms and taboo words.With the development of society, international exchange has become increasingly frequent. Cross-cultural communication is increasingly important to all the countries. Meanwhile,taboos have already restricted cross-cultural exchange. Some taboos, like Achilles Heel’s ankle, are forbidden to touch. Moreover, the affecting fa ctors are no longer confined to religious. Social customs, cultural traditions, personal training, communication needs and other factors also had a great impact during the development of taboo words.2.2 PerformanceIn cross-cultural communication, by the influence of different cultural background, the performance of taboos is complex different. Main performed in the following aspects.2.2.1 AppellationAppellation is the beginning of communication. Different nationalities have different preferences and taboos. Based on traditional Chinese cultural background, Chinese people respect ancestors and seniorities. The juniors are forbidden to call the ancestors’ and the seniorities’ name. People decide how to call their ancestors and seniorities depending on their position in the family hierarchy and their relationship. In interpersonal communication, people do not call each other’s name out of respect. They would call “老师” or “师傅” instead of their name when they meet in the first time. To the seniorities, peop le could call the seniorities “爷爷”,“奶奶”,“叔叔”,“阿姨” and so on, even they are not consanguinity. In the western countries, there are no strict boundaries between young and old. In most informal occasions, people can call each other’s name, or even nickname. For the first time to meet, people generally call each other with Mr., Mrs., Miss., or Ms.. To “Doctor”, “Professor”, “Nurse”, “Judge”, “Pastor”, “President”, “Director” and “Soldier”, people call them depending on profession.2.2.2 Question WordsIt is normal for acquaintances or strangers to ask questions to each other. In China,people can talk about each other's age, wage, marriage or weight. In contrast, the above topics belong to private matters for westerners. People should not inquire unceremoniously, and privies do not have the duty to tell. As the old British proverb said, “Do not put your nose into your neighbor’s courtyard”, people should not interfere others’ privacy.2.2.3 Sensitive TopicsIn cross-cultural communication, some sensitive and unpleasant topics have become taboos, including death, invalidity, weight, age, private affairs, wealth, poverty, social level, occupation, deception, steal, murder, alcoholism, drug abuse, suicide and so on.2.2.4Obscene, Profane and Abusive WordsThis is the most important one,people should pay more attention to care about cross-cultural communication.(1) Obscene WordsThese words are related to sex and excretion. People are ashamed to talk about them,and considered them unrefined. In China, the issues about sex have always been restricted. When people talk about sexual organs or sexual intercourse, they would belie and be replaced with a specific word. In the west, though people keep an open mind on this problem, it is also clodhopping to talk about sex explicitly. They use “make love”, “sleep together” or “have relation” to replace direct description. For the excretion, Chinese people would say it directly, as “大便” or “小便”. Some authors call it “出恭”, “解手”. The westerns would say “go to the restroom” or “wash one’s hands”.(2) Profane WordsThese are blasphemous. For religious believers, God is sacred and inviolable. Devout religious beliefs and ideas, classic rituals and moral precepts make people worship and afraid to offend. Even people, who do not believe in ghosts, do not want to deliberately trespass against God or Devil. So, they replace God with Gosh, Golly or Gawd, replace Jessus with Gee, Jeeper or Criminey, and replace Devil with the Deuce, the Dickens or Old Nick.(3) Abusive WordsAnimal’s nam e often appears in this kind of words. For example, Chinese despise dogs, so they compare “Dog” to bad luck and use it to blame people, such as “狗腿子”, “狗仗人势”, “狗眼看人低”, “狗咬吕洞宾—不识好人心”. On the contrary, most westerners love dogs, so most of the idioms of dog are commendatory terms, such as, “Every dog has his day”, “be top dag”, “put on (the) dog”, “a lucky dog”, etc.In addition, taboo words can be divided into mention of gods, near-swearing, sex, death, disease and excretion. This thesis will not enumerate one by one. Because taboo words are reflected in all aspects of social life, different country, nationality and culture will have their specific taboos and produce different taboo words. However, the classification of taboos is not absolute. Researchers need to keep on concluding and summing up in daily life.2.3 Pragmatic Features of Taboos in Intercultural Communication Language is the representation of culture. All the language structures and language patterns are founded based on its cultural background, so as taboo words. Addition to the general characteristics of culture, there are also some specific features. This thesis analyze in six major respects.2.3.1 UniversalityTaboos exist in every field of social life and all sectors of society. No matter in which social rank, there are numerous kinds of taboos.2.3.2 TransmutabilityLanguage is in a dynamic process. It changes depending on the requirement and development of society, and the capacity of understanding and transforming of the world, so as taboo words. In the course of the evolution of taboo words, new words are emerging while old words are being phased out or given new meaning. The total number of taboos trend downward in contemporary society. The words, which used to be classified as taboo in the past, can be discussed or quoted in public. However, as long as humans could not fully understand nature, society and themselves, the phenomenon of taboo will not disappear, so as taboo words.2.3.3 NationalityIn the development progress of different nationalities, each of them has its specific characteristics which are owned by all of their national members and distinguish themselves from others. This feature has become a tradition, and affected the national members from age to age. Some taboo word has gone through many centuries, but still survives almost intact in one nation. Some ethnic descendants have moved to a new place, and lived together with other ethnic groups for years, but the taboo words of this nation are still preserved. The feature of nationality in taboo words makes people of different ethnic groups have different evaluations of the same phenomenon in cross-cultural communication.2.3.4 SuccessionHuman society evolves from one social formation to another or develops from one stage to another stage. Human activities and creativities are based on the original foundation and conditions, or dependent on the results of previous legacy. It is the same to language and culture. After forming the structure and mode of specific national la nguage and culture, it dominates people’s lives and impacts in mind and behavior. The tradition, which will not be easily changed, is known as the “Cultural Inertia”. People of all ethnic groups not only followed the previous model, but also received a set of taboo words from their ancestor, and will spread them from generation to generation.2.3.5 Class CharacterTaboos have class character. In class society, in order to pretend the political interest of certain class and social group, group members will need some taboo words to landscape themselves and to cover up the real purpose of their actions. In western society, the taboo words in magazines, newspapers and television keep strong political colors. Here are some examples. West medium replace “solitary confinement cell” with “quiet cells”. They replace “mental asylum” with “mental health center”, and called “the underprivileged”, “the have-nots”, “out of pocket” or “the disadvantaged” instead of “poor people”. When someone killed an enemy, the medium do not tell people that the army killed people, but call it “literate friends”.2.3.6 CircumbendibusImplication is the most obviously pragmatic feature in taboos. It performs as not make realistic judgments to a particular object or phenomenon, but to use the method of replacing to give equivocal answer. In order to let the two sides of communication reach a consensus that talk about things which should not be mentioned directly in an indirect way, the communicator could use metaphor, commendatory, or the opposite judgments of the concept of objective to smooth the conversation.3. The Similarities between Chinese and English Taboo WordsThere are different taboo words for religion, sex, death, disease, social bias and so on in both Chinese and Western cultures. The words are reflected in their respective language and become a kind of linguistic phenomenon. The similarities of Chinese and English- speaking countries on taboo words mainly embody in following aspects.3.1 In PronunciationBoth Chinese people and westerners believe that saying words that imply misfortunes or disasters may bring trouble. People consider that replacing taboo words with homophones would prevent misfortunes.In China, a lot of taboos are caused by superstitions. There is a custom in Shanxi province that mulberries cannot be planted in front of the house and willows cannot be planted behind the house. The reason is that the Chinese word “sang/桑” sounds the same like another Chinese word “sang/丧”, “liu/柳” sounds the same as “liu/绺”. These words may impact that there will be a funeral or something will be stolen. In China, clocks cannot be presented as gifts in ceremonies, because “clock” pronounces “zhong/钟” which has the same pronunciation as “zhong/终” which means death in Chinese. In the same way, gamblers will not say any words sound “shu”, because in Chinese they have the same sound as “shu/输” that means defeat. Many similar examples also can be found in western countries. When a word sounds the same as a taboo word, it needs to b e changed. For instance, “In earlier 18th century, the female in English and American countries always tried to avoid using the word arse (the bottom part of the body one sits on), which was considered inelegant, so people called the animal ass as donkey” (Xiang 2005:45).Anothertypical example is that “fuck (a sail)”, “feck” or “fack (fact)” are seldom used or even go out of use, because they pronounce the same as “fuck”.3.2 In V ocabulary“Roughly speaking, taboo words in English fall into three types, namely obscenities, profanities and vulgarities” (Zhuang 1990:28). Based on this classification, this part firstly analyzes the five types as follows.3.2.1DeathDeath is the most feared thing in the world. When people die, people do not use "dead" or “death” to directly talk about the death people. In China, people replace “death” with words as “安息”, “长眠”, “谢世”, “仙逝”, “夭折”, “永别”, “作古”, “逝世”, “辞世”, “寿终”, “牺牲”, “百年了”, “走了”, “出远门”, “过世”, “过辈了”, “不在了”, “没了”. Westerners have similar words to avoid “death”. Th ey would say he/she “go to heaven”, “breathe one's last”, “go to another world” or “kick the bucket”. When someone drown, people would use “落水” in Chinese and “He was los tat sea” in English to tell the misfortune.3.2.2 ToiletIn English, the commonly expression of "toilet" are washroom,Gents and the John, etc. When people want to go to the toilet, they would say “I am going to wash my hands.” In China, people would say “去方便”, “去洗手间”, “大恭” and so on to express the same mind.3.2.3 CurseMost curses in English have close relation with the name of religion and sex organs, such as “Jesus Christ”, “Shit”, “God damn you”, etc. Westerners often use animal’s name, as swine, pig, boar and stallion, to humiliate others. In China, people would say “狗娘养的” or “狗日的” to revile others.3.2.4 Disease and DisabilityBoth in Chinese and in English, the name of some serious disease and people’sdisability are looked as taboo. When someone got sick, others would say “Are you feeling OK?” to skip over “ill” or “sick”. In China,people do not say “他生病了”, but replace it with “他不舒服”, “不安乐” or “不得劲儿”. To protect the dignity of disabilities, they use “残疾人” instead of “残废人”.3.2.5 SexismBoth in English and Chinese, there is existing male-centered language. The most obvious example is, when people have to refer to the person of gender unknown in communication, it is ordinary to use “he/his” instead “she/her” in English and replace “她” with “他” in Chinese. No matter in China or western countries, women were in low status both in society and in family. The sexism shows obviously in taboo language. Some of the animal’s names are used to describe women. Ugly women and prostitutes are addressed as “bat”. The familiar young women are called “chicken”. The women with many children would be called as “cow”. Chinese men usually call their wives as “家里的”, “内人”, “后头的”or “贱内”. There are many derogatory terms with PianPang of “女(means women in Chinese)”, such as “奸”, “嫉”, “妒”, “婪”, “妖”, “嫖”, “婊”, “媚”, “姘”, etc. However, with the advancement of women, the denigration of women has generally become taboo words in public in China.4. The Differences between Chinese and English Taboo WordsAlthough there are some similarities in English and Chinese taboo words, different views on the definition of taboo words can be found in two cultures. Differences between Chinese and English taboo words embody in following aspects.4.1 In PrivacyEnglish people place a high value on privacy. “The English have a saying ‘A man’s home is his castle, meaning a man’s home is sacred to him; no one should come in without permission. So it is also with his life and personal affairs’”(Deng, Liu 2005:101). Chinese people often greet to each other like “Have you had a meal?” This common greeting indicates people to begin a conversation with acquaintance, just as foreigners say “How nice the weather!” But the Chinese greeting will make the foreigners suspect that you want to invite him to join the dinner. Talking about salary, marriage, performance or other private topics is a good way to express care to。
中英文禁忌语之异同及文化内涵
中国外语类核心期刊CSSCl2000年度入选刊物《中文社会科学引文索引》源刊WAIYU XUEKANFOREIGN LANGUAGES RESEARCH 2003.5中英文禁忌语之异同及文化内涵李景艳(哈尔滨工业大学,哈尔滨150001)提要:在跨文化交际中,有些词语因传统习惯或社会风俗不同,会引起对方强烈反感,应避免使用,这就是禁忌语。
然而,各国人民所忌讳的行为和词语并不一致,了解这些差异对于学习外语或对外交流的人来说至关重要。
因此本文采用对比手法全方位地阐述禁忌语,作为一种世界各民族共有的社会现象,它的概念、产生和发展、它所具有的时代性以及它在社会某些领域和方方面面的表现。
旨在通过这些论述透视中英语系的不同、社会和文化的差异以及禁忌语的存在促进了语言的发展,丰富了英语词汇这一不争的事实。
关键词:禁忌语;宗教;歧视;忌讳:文化内涵中圈分类号:HO-05 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1000—0100(2003)05—0015—04 1.禁忌语的概念英语taboo一词的含义是禁忌,也有人将其译为“塔布”。
在中文里禁忌即是指“犯忌讳的话或行动”,其近义词还有忌讳、顾忌、避讳、避忌等。
忌讳有两个解释;一为“因风俗习惯或个人理由等,对某些言语或举动有所顾忌,积久成为禁忌”,二为“对某些可能产生不利后果的事力求避免”,顾忌则指“恐怕对人或对事情不利而有所顾虑”。
避讳也有两个解释:一是“封建时代为了维护等级制度的尊严,说话、写文章时遇到君主或尊亲的名字都不直接说出或写出,叫避讳”;二是指“不愿说出或听到某些会引起不愉快的字眼”。
避忌则与避讳同义。
从以上中文各条目的解释(均取自《现代汉语词典》)可以归纳出英文taboo的综合含义是“在一定的社会条件下,由于无知、迷信或社会文化的需要,人们被禁止说某些话,做某些事,使用某些器物,进人某些地区或见某些人等”。
这里所说的“被禁止说某些话”,这些话就是禁忌语。
比如,中国古代的帝王,位及至尊,其名字便是禁忌语,避免说出帝王的名字就是避讳。
禁忌语中文解释
1、introduction在人们的社会交往中,尤其是跨文化的交往中常常会遇到一个十分敏感的问题,这就是禁忌,禁忌像一种无形的戒律束缚着人们的语言和行为,使他们在禁忌区内不敢越雷池一步。
禁忌几乎是无处不在的,而语言禁忌则是社会禁忌的重要组成部分。
在任何一种文化、任何一个社会中,都存在语言禁忌,英美社会自然也不例外。
在同一种文化中,由于地区或者次文化的差异,禁忌有相同之处,也有不同之处。
在不同的文化中,禁忌的差异就更大了。
由于这一点,禁忌就更为人们的交际活动,尤其是跨文化交际设置了一个不大不小的障碍,使人们不得不注意它,不得不避开它,以期交际的顺利进行。
实际上,中国人自古代起就十分注意这个问题了。
《礼记·曲礼上》就明确记载着“入境问禁”的礼仪规范。
而且随着历史的演进,人们甚至把某些重要禁忌写成条例公布于众,以引起人们的注意。
英语国家的人们同样十分注重禁忌。
在日常交往中,如果谁触犯了禁忌,轻者表示不快,重者翻脸不认人,甚至断绝来往。
因此,我们不难看出,了解中西禁忌有助于国际交往的顺利进行。
2、the evolution of linguistic taboo 语言禁忌最初是从塔布产生的。
塔布是因人类还不理解或不能理解自然现象和自然力的本质产生的。
18世纪英国航海家James Cook到了南太平洋的汤加群岛Tonga,发现那里的居民有很多奇特的社会现象,如某些东西只允许特定的头等任务(神、僧侣、国王、酋长)实用,而不允许一般人使用;或只许作特定的用途,而不准用于一般目的;或不需某一社会集团或某些人(如妇女)使用等等。
那里的居民称这种禁忌为塔布。
塔布这个词后来就进入了人类学、人种学和社会学领域。
作为一种特殊的社会现象(禁忌)的专用名词而被广泛使用。
塔布现象包括两个方面:一方面是受尊敬的神物不许随便使用,另一方面是受鄙视的贱物不能随便接触。
因此,语言塔布,实质上也包括两个方面,一是语言的灵物崇拜,二是语言的禁用或代用。
汉英禁忌语之异同
汉英禁忌语之异同周刊2010年第20期1967.5:161-170.[2]Day,E.and Shapson,S. Integrating formal and functional approaches to language teaching in French immersion:an experimental nguage Learning,1991,(41):25-50.[3]Ellis,R.The Study of Second Language Acquisition.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1994.摘要:“禁忌”一词在国际学术界统称为“塔布”,它源于中太平洋波里里西亚群岛土语,英语音译为Taboo,现在已成为人类学、民俗学通用的词语。
作为一种社会文化现象,禁忌的产生、存在和延续有着明显的历史和社会文化根源,但在不同文化背景下禁忌的内容和形式往往大相径庭。
因此,在跨文化交际中,了解和掌握不同文化背景下的禁忌语有助于交流,避免文化冲突。
关键词:禁忌语差异英语汉语英国航海家James Cook(1728—1779)于1777年航行到南太平洋,发现并记录了该地有关taboo的种种现象。
“taboo”现象包括两个方面:一是受尊敬的神物不能随便使用,二是受鄙视的贱物不能随便接触。
而所谓verbal taboo也包括两个方面:语言的灵物崇拜和语言的禁用或代用。
不同的国家、不同的民族、不同的文化都有其特定的禁忌对象并产生不同的禁忌语。
一、英汉禁忌语的相似之处(一)宗教方面的禁忌语。
在西方文化中,一些与上帝及宗教方面有关的词只能用于宗教场合,其他场合则为禁忌。
人们在谈及上帝时,常用Old Harry,Golly等代替。
美国语言学家Leonard Bloomfield在其名著《语言》一书中谈到禁忌语时说:英语中的各种宗教词语,如God(上帝),devil(魔鬼),heaven(天堂),hell(地狱),Christ(基督),Jesus(耶稣),damn(该死)等只有在严肃的讲话中使用才合时宜。
跨文化交际之中英禁忌语比较
• 1)单数与双数 • 双数在汉语中事成双 ,渴望双喜临门,人际交往与文学中皆体 现出汉民族对偶数情有独钟。如:形容处 事有方是“四平八稳”,形容交通便利为 “四通八达”,称美不可言的境界为“十 全十美”
• 然而,中国人也并非绝对排斥单数,个别单数也 备受青睐。如:数字“三”在汉文化中被视为神 圣、尊贵和吉祥的象征。人们称天、地、人为三 刚或三灵;日、月、星为三元或三光。前生、今 生、来生为三生。生活中我们会说“三”次为满 。可见“三”是个终极数。 • 在西方,人们则往往视单数(13 除外)为吉利数。 无独有偶,最受偏爱的单数是“三”,人们把“ 三”看作完美的数字。他们认为世界有大地、海 洋、天空三部分组成。大自然包括动物、植物、 矿物三方面内容,人体有肉体、心灵、精神三重 性。基督教主张圣父、圣子、圣灵三位一体。
• 4 “性” • 中西方文化都有禁忌,但方式和程度不同。汉民 族是比较保守的民族,无论是在公共场合还是在 日常生活中,关于性的词汇都是在禁忌之列。 • 在英美国家,性教育早已实施,性观念比较开放, 有部分词汇受到禁忌,如“同性恋”一词很少用 homosexual ,而多用gay或者queer 。
• 2)四与十三 • 在中国,“四”常常被视为不吉祥的数字,因为它与汉字“死”谐 音,所以在选择车牌号码、电话号码时人们尽量避免尾数是“4”的号 码。尤其要避开“14”(谐音“要死”)、“514”(谐音“我要死”)、44 、444、4444 等数字。然而,西方人对“4”极为崇拜,认为“四”是 公平、正义、力量的象征。早期的基督教象征主义者则认为,“4”代 表福音传教士,象征着统一、坚韧和稳定。在西方,“13”是个令人 恐惧不安的数字,象征着“不吉,倒霉”。中古时代的西方,绞人的 绞环有13 个绳圈,绞台有13 个台阶,刽子手薪金是13 个钱币。西方 人忌讳13 就像逃避瘟疫一样。高层建筑隐去第13 层的编号;医院不 设13 号病房;飞机、火车、剧场等都无第13 排、13 座;重大的事情 也都不在13 号那天去做。 • 在汉文化中“十三”不具有凶义,相反,具有积极的文化内涵。北方 戏曲的押韵都定为“十三辙”;中国佛教宗派为十三宗;中国古建筑 塔多为十三层;儒家的经典《十三经》;明朝皇帝的陵墓有十三座, 统称“十三陵”;北京同仁堂药店有十三种最有名的中成药,号称“ 十三太保”。行政十三级及其以上者为“高干”等等。
中英禁忌语比较
中英禁忌语比较禁忌语是语言的一部分,而语言又是社会现象的的重要组成部分,所以禁忌语也是学习社会文化的一种工具。
禁忌语就是指在日常交际中所不能涉及到的特有话题,可以说凡是在交往和公共场合中那些引起对方或公众反感或不快的一些词或表达方式都属于禁忌语的范畴。
通过对比分析英汉两种语言中禁忌语的异同之处,能深刻地理解东西方不同的文化内涵和价值观念,能帮助我们更准确地理解和使用英语,有助于跨文化交流的成功,对对外汉语教学的展开有很大帮助。
在中国,“禁忌”一词历史悠久,早在汉朝《汉书·艺文志》等一些史料典籍中就有出现。
对于“禁忌”的含义《说文解字》中的记载可谓简明扼要:“忌,憎恶也。
在西方,禁忌语的英文说法是“taboo”,最早是南太平洋波里西亚汤加岛人的土语,意思“需要极端注意的事情”。
禁忌语的产生是与一个民族的社会文化发展息息相关的。
中国古代由于生产力低下和文明落后,受封建迷信思想的影响,人们对上天、鬼、神都有所避讳。
西方国家,特别是信奉基督教的国家,出于对上帝的信仰,对于“God、Christ”这些词都是不能随便说的。
下面我们具体来看看中英禁忌语的异同。
中英禁忌语相同点:1)神灵圣人名的禁忌。
在中国,自古就有皇族名避讳,凡是涉及到与皇公贵族名字谐音或是相近的音时,就要换一个说法。
例如秦代为避秦始皇的名“赢政”而将“正月”改为“端月;西方则用委婉动听或迂回曲折的表达方式来指代与鬼神有关的词,如:上帝魔鬼撒旦一般要用:God of this world, the big D和the good man等委婉说法。
2)令人难以启齿或难过之事。
如“怀孕”英语中的表达方式有She is expecting.(她在待产中。
)She is well-along(她心满意足)等;而汉语中人们通常说“她有了”或者说“她有喜了”等。
在汉语中,我们一般说患了癌症的人得了“不治之症”。
英文中人们用C.C或Big C或是long disease代替癌症(cancer),艾滋病AIDS (可传染的社会疾病);汉语中“上厕所”有“方便”、“去一号”等委婉的说法。
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我们知道 , 禁忌语是委婉语的前身 , 委婉语在指称事物 方面与
禁忌语似是而非 , 它既是 在指称禁 忌语 指称的事物 , 又好像不 是在 指称禁忌语指称 的事 物。对于此类 禁忌语 , 有 时可 以采 取此译 法 既保 留了原语 的文化禁忌色彩 , 又易于被译 文读者所接受 。例如 : w h i t e m e a t 应译为 : 鸡胸 肉( 注: 维多 利亚时代 , 受过 良好 教育 的上层社会侍女在社交场合忌用 b r e a s t、 l e g s、 t h i g h这一类 含有淫 秽含义 的词语 。因此用 w h i t e m e a t 指餐桌上的鸡胸 肉) 。
忌语。
词 可以借用 , 可 以采用删 除原语 的禁忌形 象的方 法。此方 法又具
体分 为两种 :
2 .英汉禁忌语的相异之处 Nhomakorabea首先 , 中西方在命名 、 称谓 方面 的禁 忌是 不 同的。在 中国 , 受
封建制度的影响 , 阶级和等 级 之分很 明 显 , 与之相 应 的禁 忌也很
3 . 1 删除原语 的禁忌形象 , 直接将其 隐含 意义翻译 出来
异, 这 些均在 英汉 禁忌语 中有 所体 现 。本 文主 要 探 讨 了在跨 文化 交 际 中, 英 汉禁 忌语 的异 同 , 以及在 这 些异 同基 础 上二者 的互译 。
受文化的影响 , 英汉禁忌语 既有共 同性 又有独特性 。基于此 ,
对于二者的翻译 , 笔 者 试 提 出 以下 几 种 途 径 :
“死 ”:
1 . 英汉禁忌语 的相 同之处
辩证 唯物 主义认 为任 何事物都 是共性 和个性 的统一 体 , 虽然 社会 环境 和文 化价值不 同 , 但英汉禁忌语有着许多相似之处 , 对 同
一
t o d e p a r t t h e w o a d o f s h a d o w s 命 归 黄 泉
由 于 文 化背 景 不 同 , 如 果 采 取 保 留禁 忌 形 象 的翻 译 方 法 , 一 些 禁 忌 语 的 隐 含 意 义会 很 难 被 理 解 。此 时 , 只需 抓 住 原 禁 忌 语 的 隐
多 。这从中 国人的名字避讳 中可 以略见一斑 。 比如 : 晚辈 取名 时
都要避讳与家 中任 何一 个长 辈 的名字 中 的任何 一个 字谐音 或 重
O h . G o s h天 啊
意味着不 中用 、 青春 已逝 , 故老人被称为“ a s e n i o r c i t i z e n ” 。但在 中
国, “ 老” 往往 被看 成是 有经 验 的象 征 , 反应 在语 言 中有 “ 老骥 伏
英 汉 禁 忌 语 对 比与 翻 译
曹润 霞
( 西安 文理 学院外 国语 学院 7 1 0 0 6 5 )
【 摘 要】 禁忌是 一种 普遍 的社 会 文化 现 象, 并反 映在 各 民族 语 言 中。
题, 以表示关心和 亲密 。
二. 禁 忌语 的翻 译
不 同民族 的禁忌 既有共 性也 有个性 , 这 是 因为世 界各 民族 存在 着明 显 不 同的文化 和 习俗 。 同样 , 中西方在 禁忌 方 面有 相 同之 处 也存 在 着 差
内容在 表达 上也 有着不谋 而合之 处。总的来说 , 英汉 禁忌语 在
t o b r e a t h o n e ’ S l a s t 咽气 2 .保 留原语的禁忌形象并添加注释
下面几个 方面有共性 。
其一 , 英语和汉语 中都有 一些 与疾 病 、 死 亡有 关 的禁 忌语 , 比 如, 英语 中不说 d i e , 却说成 p a s s a w a y , b e g o n e , 等, 在汉语 中, 则用 “ 牺牲 ” , “ 与世长辞 ” 等代替 “ 死亡” 。 其二 , 英汉语 中均把与性 、 人体排 泄等有关 的猥亵性 词语 当作
对长辈直呼其名也被认 为是关 系亲密 的表现。再者 , 英汉 语 中对 老年人 的称呼也不 同。英语国家的人忌说“ 老” 这个 字 , 认 为“ 老”
讲究, 故汉译时就要删 除其禁忌形象而将 隐含 的意义直接译 出来 。
例如:
T h e L i g h t o f t h e Wo r l d世 界 之 光 — — 上 帝
1 .保 留原语的禁忌形象 英汉禁忌语在某些禁忌方 面存在 着共性 , 翻译 时保 留原语 的
【 关 键词 】 禁忌语 ; 跨 文化 交际 ; 翻 译
一 .
禁忌形象不仅可 以保持生动性和原汁原味 , 还可以丰富译语语 言 ,
跨文化交际 中英汉禁忌语的比较
便于译语读者感受到原语 的意境 。英汉语 中有许多相似甚 至相 同 的禁忌语 , 我 们 可 以在 翻译 中发现 它 们 的对 等功 能 。比如 关 于