Combinatorial and High-Throughput Screening of Materials Libraries Review of State of the Art

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Cognitive Science versus Cognitive Ergonomics: A dynamic tension or an inevitable schism? Jean-Michel Hoc, Pietro C. Cacciabue, and Erik Hollnagel (Eds.)Expertise and technology: Cognition and human-computer cooperation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1995. 289 pp. ISBN 0-8058-1511-2. $45 hardback.Review byWayne D. Gray & Brian D. EhretIn their foreword, the editors give a nod toward the “internationally based human-computer interaction (HCI) community, at the level of research as well as at the level of application” (p. xi). This is the community to which the reviewers belong and as such we eagerly awaited this volume of chapters reporting on the work of the mainly European “large-system” cognitive ergonomics community. After witnessing first-hand the excitement and challenge of applying cognitive theory to HCI, we were more than a little curious as to the successes of and challenges to cognitive theory when it is applied to larger scale applications. Alas, for the most part, we were disappointed. While this book contains several excellent chapters, on the whole we came away with the impression of a community that has isolated itself from mainstream cognitive theory and has little interest in testing or contributing to that theory. Indeed, it is not clear for whom, other than the large-systems community, this book is intended. It is heavily laden with jargon and makes little attempt to establish contact with any other tradition. In addition, the book is somewhat “user-unfriendly” containing a meager 2.5 page subject index and no author index (references are listed only at the end of the chapter in which they are cited).Although our review of the book is primarily negative, several of the chapters are quite good and would justify having your library buy it.The book is organized into three sections, the first pertains to cognition in dynamic environments, the second addresses expertise, and the third deals with human-computer cooperation. These sections are preceded by an overview chapter and are followed by a conclusion chapter.Chapter 1 by Hollnagel, Cacciabue, and Hoc organizes and summarizes the large-system perspective and provides pointers into the literature. Of particular note is the importance given to the role of models and simulations in understanding the complex interactions among humans, systems, and tasks.Section 1 includes four chapters and seems intended to be the theoretical foundations section. Chapter 2, by Hoc, Amalberti, and Boreham, provides a very high level discussion of diagnosis that could benefit from a lessor scope and concrete examples. Chapter 3, by Kjaer-Hansen, is a largely out of date review of “Unitary Theories of Cognitive Architectures.”The two chapters by Caccibue & Hollnagel (ch. 4) and Woods & Roth (ch 5) would like to distinguish between their use of computational cognitive modeling and everyone else’s. The nub of the distinction seems to be between models of “toy tasks” that the authors claim are based in cognitive theory and models of important, real-world tasks that the authors claim must eschew cognitive theory.It is interesting that computational cognitive modeling has flourished in the HCI community by taking an approach opposite to that advocated here. In a tradition going back at least to Card, Moran, & Newell (1983), the HCI community has paid close attention to theories of what Caccibue and Hollnagel refer to as “micro-”cognition with the successful goal of applying suchtheories to real-world HCI tasks. In recent years the HCI community has embraced cognitive architectures such as Soar, ACT-R, and construction/integration with emerging success (Kirschenbaum, Gray, & Young, in press).Although we do not like the distinctions made in these two chapters, we understand the authors’ motivations and offer some distinctions of our own. It is important to distinguish between modeling done for scientific or theoretical purposes versus that done for engineering purposes (the latter has been referred to in the HCI literature as “approximate modeling," Card, et al., 1983). However, we maintain that approximate models can be built upon the foundations established by scientific or theoretical modeling. Modeling not based upon cognitive theory may work well for complex tasks as long as these tasks involve relatively simple cognition (such as much of expert systems where the complexity is in the task not in the head). However, there are dangers to this approach. The entire infrastructure is arbitrary and less constrained than one based upon a cognitive architecture. Also, if more than one cognitive mechanism is required (complex cognition) it is not clear whether the various mechanisms will be able to interact correctly. That degree of coordination would require an architecture. While we do not disagree with their goals, we wish our “large-systems” colleagues were more interested in drawing from and contributing to cognitive theory.Section 2 looks at the development of competence and expertise. The section begins with a clearly written chapter by Boreham on expert-novice differences in medical diagnosis. The remaining chapters are less successful, tending to share three negative characteristics. First, they seem largely out of touch with the mainstream research on expertise as represented, forexample, by the Ericsson & Smith (1991) collection of chapters. Second, many seem intent on developing domain-specific theories that make little contact with existing cognitive theory. Third, in their attempt to make theory-based, taxonomic distinctions they neglect to include case studies and examples that would make these distinctions concrete.Section 3 turns to “Cooperation between humans and computers” and contains the best and worst chapters in the book. In chapter 10, Benchekroun, Pavard, & Salembier present an interesting use of cognitive modeling to predict the influence of a new software system on the communication efficiency of an emergency center. Chapter 11 by Moray, Hiskes, Lee, & Muir is a lovely chapter that shows the application of the social psychology construct of “trust” to human-machine interaction. We left this chapter inspired to read more of the literature on process control.Chapter 12, by Rizzo, Ferrante, & Bagnara presents a collection of categories and anecdotes on human error. Chapter 13, by Millot & Mandiau promises to compare the distributed AI (DAI) approach and the “more pragmatic human engineering approach” (p. 215) to “implementing a cooperative organization” (p 215). The experiment presented to this end seems poorly motivated or maybe just poorly explained.Hollnagel’s chapter 14 sheds much heat and smoke but little light on a number of tangential issues while demonstrating a lack of understanding for much of contemporary cognitive theory. For example, on page 230 he talks about “the useless automaton analogy” and “A particular case is the use of the information processing metaphor (Newell & Simon, 1972) - or even worse,assuming that a human being is an information processing system (as exemplified by Simon, 1972; Newell, 1990).” Later on the same page he says,I will not argue that the automaton analogy is ineffectual as a basis fordescribing human performance per se; I simply take that for granted. (This pointof view is certainly not always generally accepted and often not even explicitlystated, for instance, by the mainstream of American Cognitive Science; it isnevertheless a view which is fairly easy to support.)On page 240 we are subjected to a rather glib and unmotivated, “the lack of proven theories or methods is deplorable. . . . There are many practitioners, and they all have their little flock of faithful followers” and another, in a similar vein, about AI work on adaptive systems.While we believe that theories exist to be challenged, we also believe that in the scientific community challengers need to substantiate their assertions. Indeed, not only is such substance missing, but in the pages that follow Hollnagel proposes a theoretical explanation that sounds in keeping with the Newell and Simon account.We had a better time with the next two chapters. Both Boy in chapter 15 and Lind & Larsen in chapter 16 embrace contemporary cognitive theory with interesting results. While clearly discussed, Boy’s theory nevertheless remains vague due to the lack of a worked example. Lind and Larsen work us through a detailed example of one of their multilevel flow models.The summary chapter is generally well written but, for us, Hollnagel’s smoke (for example, pp. 281-282 and his unmotivated attacks on Simon, page 284) obscures any light the chapter may have been intended to shed.ConclusionsIf the goal of this book was to communicate large-systems cognitive ergonomics to a larger community then we judge that it has missed its mark. While there are several interesting (e.g., chapters 6, 10, 11, 15, and 16) and intellectually stimulating (e.g., chapters 4 and 5) chapters the majority are neither. Some seem intended as “in-house” communications, while others build domain-specific theories with numerous abstract theoretical distinctions without ever embedding the distinctions in example. Worse still, others confuse unsubstantiated assertions and innuendos for intellectual discourse.Cognitive theory is far from sacrosanct. Indeed, in recent years the dynamicism of mainstream cognitive theory has been shown by its adaptation and incorporation of the connectionist challenge from below and its recent response to the challenge of situated action from above (e.g., Vera & Simon, 1993). We firmly believe that applied cognition must be based upon cognitive theory. Any other approach runs one of two risks, either the applied endeavour becomes bogged down with constructing task-specific theories or it tends to the vacuous empiricism that is the bane of much human factors work.ReferencesCard, S. K., Moran, T. P., & Newell, A. (1983). The psychology of human-computer interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, J. (Eds.). (1991). Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits. New York: Cambridge.Vera, A. H., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Situated action: A symbolic interpretation. Cognitive Science, 17(1), 7-48.Kirschenbaum, S. A., Gray, W. D., & Young (in press, 1996). Cognitive architectures for human-computer interaction. SIGCHI Bulletin.。

2024年教师资格考试高级中学学科知识与教学能力英语试题及答案指导

2024年教师资格考试高级中学英语学科知识与教学能力复习试题及答案指导一、单项选择题（本大题有30小题，每小题2分，共60分）1、According to the National Curriculum Standards for English, which of the following is not a key objective for senior high school English teaching?A. Developing students’ comprehensive language skillsB. Enhancing students’ critical thinking and problem-solving abilitiesC. Fostering students’ appreciation of Chinese cultureD. Promoting students’ cultural awareness and intercultural communication答案：C解析：根据《普通高中英语课程标准》，高中英语教学的关键目标包括：培养学生综合语言运用能力、提高学生的思维能力和解决问题的能力、培养学生的文化意识和跨文化交际能力。

选项C提到的“培养学生的中国文化的欣赏”并非高中英语教学的关键目标。

因此，答案为C。

2、In a lesson on “Fahrenheit 451”, the teacher wants to guide students to analyze the novel’s themes. Which of the following meth ods would be the most effective in this situation?A. Directly explaining the themes to studentsB. Giving a detailed summary of the novelC. Encouraging students to create their own summaries of the novel and discuss the themesD. Asking students to write a critical essay about the novel答案：C解析：在分析《 Fahrenheit 451》这部小说的主题时，教师应该鼓励学生主动参与，培养他们的批判性思维。

PerliteInstitute-PerliteasAnAbsorbentorCarrier

What is Perlite?Perlite is not a trade name but a generic term for a naturally occurring siliceous volcanic rock. The distinguishing feature which sets perlite apart from other volcanic glasses is that when heated to a suitable point in its softening range, it expands four to twenty times its original volume.This expansion is due to the presence of two to six percent combined water in the crude perlite rock. When quickly heatedto above 870° C (1600° F) the crude rock pops in a manner similar to popcorn as the combined water vaporizes and created lightweight particles with countless internal cells and high surface area. It is this multicellular nature and high surface area which accounts for the excellent absorption properties of perlite.Expanded Perlite ParticleExpanded perlite can be used to control and clean up liquid spills. The perlite may also be used to provide rapid deodorization and dehydration of animal waste liquids. In these applications the perlite may be used in granular form and compressed into pellets of the desired size and shape. Perlite is also suggested as an absorbent media in enclosed containers for the disposal of liquid toxic waste substances.By activating the expanded perlite with hydrochloric acidand/or sulfuric acid the material can be used as a purifying agent for waste and process waters. Three stages of Perlite production is shown above.The expansion process also creates on of perlite’s most distinguishing characteristics: its white color. While the crude rock may range from transparent to light gray to glossy black, the color of expanded perlite ranges from snowy white to grayish white.Expanded perlite can be manufactured to weigh from 32 kg/m³ (2 lb/ft³) to 240 kg/m³ (15 lb/ft³) making it adaptable for numerous uses, including filtration, horticulture applications, insulation, inert carriers and a multitude of filler applications.Perlite as a CarrierExpanded perlite is recommended as a carrier for pesticides, feed concentrates, herbicides, and other similar applications.As a carrier for feed concentrates perlite will readily absorb the concentrate while remaining free flowing (anti-caking), and chemically resistant to micro-biological degradation. The perlite also permits quick liquid movement between the carrier surface and the recipient of the feed concentrate.。

科技英语

Collecting fresh sentences in literature published in 20121 Collecting 10 classic staring sentences in introduction section1) Hydrogen production from ethanol steam reforming (ESR) has been studied extensively in recent years. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2335−23482) Combinatorial- and high-throughput experimentation methods are of importance for efficient materials research and demand for the development of new scientific instrumentation.ACS Comb. Sci. 2012, 14, 531−5363) Recently carbon dioxide has received increasing attention, because of its role in a series of problems such as global warming and acid rain. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 239–2454) Propylene is a petrochemical raw material commonly used for producing substances such as isopropyl alcohol, polypropylene, acrylonitrile, propylene oxide and acrylic acid. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 253–2585) Lung cancer is responsible for over one-third of cancer related deaths in the United States, with the non-small cell variant being a particularly aggressive form. Org. Process Res. Dev. 2012, 16, 1558−15656) Replacement of fossil sources for the generation of fuels from biologically derived feedstocks has several challenges that still need addressing.ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2316−23267) Pyridine is one of the most important nitrogen heterocycles both in academic and industrial environments, and this has led to the development of a huge number of methods for its synthesis, which have been reviewed recently.ACS Comb. Sci. 2012, 14, 551−5578) The application of a universal set of green metrics to assess material efficiencies of chemical reactions and synthesis plans is well described. Org. Process Res. Dev. 2012, 16, 1482−15069) We have proposed thatγ-valerolactone (GVL) could be considered as a sustainable liquid,1 since it is renewableand has several very attractive physical and chemical properties. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2247−224910) It is estimated that 346 million people worldwide have diabetes, and the World Health Organization (WHO) anticipates that diabetes deaths will double between 2005 and 2030. Org. Process Res. Dev. 2012, 16, 1538−15432 Collecting 10 good sentences in abstract section1) The effect of iridium and iron impregnation of HZSM-5 zeolite on the methanol to propylene reaction(MTP) was investigated.Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 253–2582) In contrast to the Canizzarro reaction, this reaction appears to be catalyzed by the supported Pt and not the support or in solution (through base catalysis).ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2316−23263)For an Au-coated MGH membrane a temperature drop from 605 to 100 °C was measured over a distance of 965 μm, resulting in an average temperature change of0.52 K/μm. ACS Comb. Sci. 2012, 14, 531−5364) A critical discussion is presented on the limitations of the method with respect to proper decision making in route selection, particularly the availability and reliability of key parameters, and the importance of obtaining experimental data for key parameters rather than relying solely on computational methods. Org. Process Res. Dev. 2012, 16, 1482−15065) A double-ternary combinatorial chemistry (combi-chem) library was visualized in terms of structure, PL intensity, and color chromaticity for a nitride phosphor system, ARSi4N7:Eu2+ (A = Sr, Ca, Ba; R = Y, La, Lu), so as to obtain a quantitative structure and property relationship (QSPR) in a systematic manner. ACS Comb. Sci. 2012, 14, 537−5446) Simulations are also presented to show that our aberration-free designs are applicable to high-numerical aperture lenses such as flat microscope objectives. Nano Lett. 2012, 12, 4932−49367) This transformation leads to the formation of one C−C and two C−N bonds in asingle synthetic operation and involves up to five individual steps. ACS Comb.Sci. 2012, 14, 551−5578) This review discusses the application of operando spectroscopy such as high pressure infrared and NMR to obtain in-depth mechanistic understanding of transition metal catalyzed carbonylation reactions.ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2357−2370 9) As with other material efficiency metrics, the benign index is defined as a fraction between 0 and 1 so that it may be added as another radial axis to produce an overall radial hexagon diagram that can be used to evaluate the “green” merits of any given chemical reaction. Org. Process Res. Dev. 2012, 16, 1482−150610) The results indicate that HZSM-5 zeolite modified by iron and iridium increasedpropylene selectivity by 6.3% and 8%, respectively.Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 253–2583 Collecting 10 sentences in introduction section1)In recent years, phosphorus has repeatedly been tested, leading t o increasing propylene selectivity.Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 253–2582)Thus, it is desirable to remove most if not all of the oxygen from these organic compounds to produce a more stable product with both a higher energy content (less oxidized) and a chemical structure closer to that of current fossil fuels. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2316−23263) Here we briefly describe its approaches and how the present analysis differs from it. Org. Process Res. Dev. 2012, 16, 1482−15064) Other than morphology control, chemical doping is another important approach to tailor the property of graphene, which has been proved effective in the dopingof carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and greatly broadened their applications. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 781−7945)In this work, iron and iridium were chosen as promoters because they are active in C5 and C6 ring opening and cracking reactions. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012,6(3): 253–2586) Recent attempts, however, have been made to bridge the gap of missing data using algorithms that can estimate key production parameters directly from molecular structure features. Org. Process Res. Dev. 2012, 16, 1482−15067) In this review, we discuss recent efforts in using synthetic gene circuits to study the relationship between motif structure and function.ACS Synth. Biol. 2012, 1, 389−4028) Although hydrogen is readily available at refineries and petrochemical plants, this hydrogen originates from fossil sources, and if used for upgrading, the biofuels would be both dependent on petroleum availability and would not be carbon neutral. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2316−23269)That work mainly focused on the physiochemical properties of the alumina washcoat layer and on the effect of the alumina sol on the catalytic performance, while less attention was paid to the problem of the active phase.Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 259–26910) Recently, the pharmaceutical industry has adopted the process mass intensity(PMI) metric as a useful and general tool to evaluate the greenness of synthesis plans. Org. Process Res. Dev. 2012, 16, 1482−15064 Collecting 10 good sentences in experimental section1)According to a previous study by our team , a solution containing 0.311 g of NaAlO2 and 433.6 mL of 0.215 mol/ L–1sodium hydroxide was gradually added to41.078 g of tetra-n-propylammonium hydroxide (TPAOH) as a template. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 253–2582) The catalysts were mixed with SiC powder(100−140 mesh), and the mixture was placed between two pieces of glass wool inside a stainless steel reactor (ID = 0.152 in.), held in place by a piece of stainless steel tube on either side of the catalyst bed to minimize the reactor dead volume and prevent the catalyst bed from moving. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2316−23263) All the catalysis samples were prepared in a viscous flow atomic layer deposition (ALD) reactor.ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2316−23264) The temperature-programmed reduction (TPR) was carried out on a Micromeritics Autochem II 2910.Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 259–2695) Similar to the synthesis of N-CNT, N-graphene can be obtained through two different ways: direct synthesis and post treatment. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 781−794 6)Activity tests were performed in a stainless steel tube with an inner diameter of 25 mm and a length of 210 mm.Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 259–2697) Particle size distributions were determined from TEM micrographs directly (without any processing). ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2316−23268) CO adsorption on the catalysts was measured by DRIFT spectroscopy which was carried out using a high temperature/vacuum chamber with ZnSe windows connected to a gas-dosing and evacuation system. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012,6(3): 259–2699) It has been shown that heating graphene in NH3 at high temperature (≥800 °C) can produce N-graphene.ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 781−79410) For analysis, 0.1 g of sample and 5 mL water were added to a 30 mL highdensity polyethylene high density polyethylene bottle, and then 1 mL of 4.8% wt HF was poured into the solution.Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 253–2585 Collecting 10 typical sentences in results and discussion section1) The analysis of this characterization shows that the modified HZSM-5 zeolites displayed no great difference in BET surface area compared to the parent HZSM-5, indicating that no obvious structural damage took place during the modification. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 253–2582) The micrographs show morphology changes both in micro- (Figure 4) and in nanoscale (Figure 5). ACS Comb. Sci. 2012, 14, 531−5363) Figure 1a, b, c, and d shows the double-ternary combi-chem library in terms of actual photo, PL intensity, and color chromaticity x and y values.ACS Comb. Sci. 2012, 14, 537−5444) The conversion and yield data are presented in Table 6. Co/CeO2(MP) has shown rapid increase in pressure drop as the reaction continued through the isothermal steps.ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2335−23485) These experiments confirmed the active participation of the ceria support in ethanol steam reforming, as was reported for other support materials. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2335−23486)Figure 3 depicts the selectivity of propylene versus time for the two modified catalysts and the parent after ten days. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 253–258 7)As the calcination temperature increased, there was a decrease in the number of particles in the range of 2–3 nm and an overall broadening of the particle size distribution was observed. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 259–2698) As discussed above, the electron mobility of grapheme decreases with the increment of band gap in most cases, which is similar to the trend in studies of CNTs. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 781−7949)The TEM image for the washcoat Pd-Fe/α-Al2O3 catalyst shows that the small palladium nanoparticles (ca. 3 nm) are well-dispersed on the Al2O3. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 259–26910) It should be noted that GVL does not hydrolyze at neutral pH,3 but it is inequilibrium with protonated-4-HVA at low pH. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2247−2249 6 Collecting 10 typical sentences in conclusion section1) In summary, many research works on N-graphene have emerged in recent years. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 781−7942) As a result, we could construct a comprehensive combi-chem library, a so-called double-ternary combi-chem library, elucidating the quantitative structure and property relationships for the ARSi4N7:Eu2+ system. ACS Comb. Sci. 2012, 14, 537−5443) In conclusion, flat lens and axicon designs based on plasmonic metasurfaces are Presented.Nano Lett. 2012, 12, 4932−49364) All of these properties and, indirectly, the catalytic performance appear to beaffected by the particle size of the support.ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2335−23485) In summary, the goal of demonstrating an asymmetric route for the synthesis of glucokinase activator (R)-1 with the potential for scale-up was achieved. Org. Process Res. Dev. 2012, 16, 1538−15436)The results showed that iron and iridium incorporation increased propylene selectivity and methanol conversion. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 253–258 7) In conclusion, we have demonstrated for the first time that GVL can be produced from fructose in GVL as solvent, thereby opening up the opportunity to develop an attractive and green process for the production of GVL by avoiding separation of the solvent and product. ACS Catal. 2012, 2, 2247−22498)As a consequence, monolithic catalysts exhibit much higher Pd efficiencies (12 times) than those of conventional granular catalysts. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 259–2699) Also, it was concluded from the results that iron was more efficient than iridium because Fe/HZSM- 5 was more stable than Ir/H-ZSM-5. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 253–25810)In conclusion, the PEG-supported ionic liquid (PEG400- MIM-HSO4) iseffective for the synthesis of propylene carbonate, via a CO2 and propylene oxide coupling reaction under mild reaction conditions. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 2012, 6(3): 239–245。

雅思阅读刘洪波539考点词表格整理版可用于练习

1resemblelike,look like,be similar to 2recognizeperceive,acknowledge,realize,appreciate,a dmit,identify,comprehend,understand,know 3adjustchange,modify,shift,alter 4approachmethod,way 5fundamental rudimentary,preliminary,basic 6rely ondepend on 7domestichome,local,national 8measurecalculate,assess,evaluate 9traitcharacteristic,feature,property 10coinfirst used,invent 11artificialsynthetic,man-made 12promptinitiate,immediately 13exchange share,apply A to B 14underliebased on,ground,root 15ignoreneglect,overlook,underestimate 16fertilizerchemical,toxic,unnatural 17thatthis,it,they,those,these,such 代词18andor ，as well as ，both…and,not only…but also,other than,in addition,besides,on the one hand…on the other hand…,neither…nor…19rather than but,yet,however,whereas,nonetheless,neve rtheless,notwithstanding,although,though,in stead 20thanks to stem from,derive,owing to,due to,according to,because of,on account of,as a result of,leading to,because,since for,in that,as,therefore,hence 21diversityvariety,difference 22detectlook for,find,seek,search 23isolateinaccessible 24avoidescape,evitable 25budgetfund,financial 26adapt to fit,suit 27alternative subsitute 28compensate make up,off set 29component proportion 30militaryweapon,army 31criteriastandard 32curriculum syllabus,course of study 33feasibleviable,realistic 34constrain stop,control 35deficiency shortage,defect,weakness 36supplement provision 37distinguish separete,differentiate 38analyzeexamine,diagnose 39empharsize focus on,stress 40enormousmassive,large 41imitate mimic,copy2类1类42impair damage,diminish,decrease43hinder impede,prevent,deter,obstacle 44legitimate legal45limitation restriction46convention method,traditon47demanding troublesome48determine decide49accelerate speed up50ancient aged,old51beneficial helpful,advantageous,wholesome 52chronic lasting53conscious aware,knowing54minimize reduce,lessen55immunity resistance56imperactive compelling,necessary,urgent57secrete discharge,exude58exaggerate overstate59transmit pass,send,transfer60extinct die out,lost61exclusive only62guarantee assure63inherit receive64witness view,see65magnetic attractive66loss waste,gone67option choice68prefer to rather69priority preference,preferential70primary principal,main71principle rule72potential possibility73quantity number74settle fix,figure out75sophistiate complicate76specific detailed,particular77survive remain78swift quick,rapid79unexpectedly surprising80surrounding setting,environment81attempt try,test82expertise knowledge,skill83faculty ability84donate contribute85dynamics energy,force,move86incentive motive,stimulus87mortality death88peripheral unimportant,minor89vicinity neighbourhood,nearby90threaten endanger,jeopardize,risk,hazard 91practice method,exercise92bacteria virus,germ,microbe93be subject to face94be liable to portential95innate built-in,inborn96pattern formation97therapy treatment98original initial,first99confidential undiscovered,secret,hidden 100cognitive mental101comply with obey102consult ask for advice103superior higher,upper104co-operation support,work together105co-ordinate organize,harmonize106differ vary107cue hint,clue108signal symbol,mark,sign109abandon quit,give up,forsake,derelict 110halt stop,quit111fragile vulnerable112retain maintain113vanish disappear114delivery send115erode rust,damage116induce cause,lead to117stable constant,unchanged118integrate combine,whole119equal fair,even120grant offer3类121accumulate gather122addictive habit123adversity trouble124aggression attack125agreeable pleasant126aid help127allergic irritate128altitude height129application utilization130approve agree131array order132assign allocate133association union134attitude opinion135authority government136be consistent with compatible137bear tolerate138blight destroy139boundary barrier140bungle mishandle141burden load142calamity disaster143capacity volume144catastrophic disastrous145cater serve146certify verify147civic municipal148comment remark149commiment engagement150communal public151commute travel152compare contrast153conceal hide154concentrate focus155concur agree156confer grant157conflict unharmonious 158confuse puzzle159conservative traditional160considerable significant161contingent uncertain162controversial disputable163correlation link164courtship mate165crash collapse166credibility reliance167criminal conviction168crisis risk169criticism condemn170curb restrict171damp wet172dazzle flash173deadline limite174delay postpone175democratic republic176demographic populaiton statistic 177dental teeth178depression frustration179designate appoint180detain hold181devastate wreck182disclose expose183disparate different184display show185disrupt distroy186distract divert187distribute spread188documention record189domain field190dominate overbearing191dramatic striking192drought dry193durable lasting194eco-friendly environmentally-friendly 195elaborate illustrate196elderly aged197eliminate dispose198elusive hard199encyclopedia entire range of knowledge 200entrepreneur boss201equator geography202erratically unpredictably203established built204estate property205ethical moral206eventually finally207evidence proof208evolve develop209exceptional extreme,utmost210exhausted fatigue211experiment test212explicit clear213exploit use214extend expand215extract quotaition216famine hunger217finite limited218fitness heath219foe enemy220format structure221fragment piece222freeze chill223fullfill execute224gene factor225gifted talented226graphic picture227habitat residence228harbour hold229hardship difficult230harsh rough231hypothesis assumption232impact influence233impressive touching234in accordance with conform235inaccurate incorrect236inactive passive237inappropriate hard238indulge spoil239infest plague240installment payment on its completion 241intelligence mind242intense strong243interaction social activities244interference interdependence 245interior inner246interrupt stop247introverted shyness248involve associate249keen strong250label display251lack shortage252landscape scene253likelihood chance254limb arm or leg255linguistic language256log record257look-in opportunity,chance 258lopsided uneven259mainly primary260malfunction breakdown261mammal creature262manage to do success263manifest obvious264manufacture produce265marine sea266mate spouse267mechanism method268mental intelligent269mercury liquid metal270meteorology weather271migrate move272moisture humidity273monitor surveillance274motif theme275mould form276native original277nocturnal night278norm regulation279notoriety famous280objective goal281obligation responsibility282obscure hide283obtain get284odd strange285odour smell286offensive hostile287official authority288optimum best289ordinary common290organ a part of body291out of question impossible292overcome defeat293overtake surpass294paralyse connot move295paramount principal296participate join297patient repetitive 298peak top299permit allow300persuade influence301pessimistic negative302phase process303physical body304plagiarise copy305plenty of many306plot plan307pose cause308portable conveyable 309poverty poor310praise commend 311predict expect312pressing urgent313private personal314prohibit not allowed 315prolong extend316promote improve317prosper success318purify clean319qualify fulfill320radical utmost321range scope322rare unusual323rate rank,measure 324react respond325recreation entertainment 326reduction decrease 327refer to talk about 328rehearsal preparation 329reject exclude330relevant relative331religious sacred332reluctant unwilling333reproduce breed334responsible liable335revision editing336revive renaissance 337ruin destroy338scenic beautiful339shade shelter340skepticism doubt341soar increase342solely alone343solicitor lawyer344steer manage345stimulate motivate346stride progress 347succumb yield348subdivide break down 349subtle delicate 350substance matter351sufficiency enough 352supersede replace 353suppress hold354supremacy priority355suspicious odd356sustainable long-term 357symptom sign358tension upset359term word360throughout anywhere 361toll charge362trace track363transcend excel364transmit send365tremendous vast366trigger begin367tropical hot368unbiased fair369uniform consistent 370valuable benefit371versatile all-around 372view overlook 373violent fierce374visible see375visual image376well-being health。

2014年考研英语一真题完整版答案解析

2014年考研英语一真题答案解析Directions:Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A,B,C or D on the ANSWER SHEET.(10 points)As many people hit middle age, they often start to notice that their memory and mental clarity are not what they used to be. We suddenly can’t remember ___1___ we put the keys just a moment ago, or an old acquaintance’s name, or the name of an old band we used to love. As the brain ___2___, we refer to these occurrences as “senior moments.” ___3___seemingly innocent, this loss of mental focus can potentially have a (n) ___4___ impact on our professional, social, and personal ___5___.Neuroscientists, experts who study the nervous system, are increasingly showing that there’s actually a lot that can be done. It ___6___ out that the brain needs exercise in much the same way our muscles do, and the right mental ___7___ can significantly improve our basic cognitive ___8___. Thinking is essentially a ___9___ of making connections in the brain. To a certain extent, our ability to ___10___ in making the connections that drive intelligence is inherited. ___11___, because these connections are made through effort and practice, scientists believe that intelligence can expand and fluctuate ___12___ mental effort.Now, a new Web-based company has taken it a step ___13___ and developed the first “brain training program”designed to actually help people improve and regain their mental ___14___.The Web-based program ___15___ you to systematically improve your memory and attention skills. The program keeps ___16___ of your progress and provides detailed feedback ___17___ your performance and improvement. Most importantly, it ___18___modifies and enhances the games you play to ___19___ on the strengths you are developing—much like a(n) ___20___exercise routine requires you to increase resistance and vary your muscle use.1. [A]where [B]when [C]that [D]why2. [A]improves [B]fades [C]recovers [D]collapses3. [A]If [B]Unless [C]Once [D]While4. [A]uneven [B]limited [C]damaging [D]obscure5. [A]wellbeing [B]environment [C]relationship [D]outlook6. [A]turns [B]finds [C]points [D]figures7. [A]roundabouts [B]responses [C]workouts [D]associations8. [A]genre [B]functions [C]circumstances [D]criterion9. [A]channel [B]condition [C]sequence [D]process10. [A]persist [B]believe [C]excel [D]feature11. [A] Therefore [B] Moreover [C] Otherwise [D] However12. [A]according to [B]regardless of [C]apart from [D]instead of13. [A]back [B]further [C]aside [D]around14. [A]sharpness [B]stability [C]framework [D]flexibility15. [A]forces [B]reminds [C]hurries [D]allows16. [A]hold [B]track [C]order [D]pace17. [A]to [B]with [C]for [D]on18. [A]irregularly [B]habitually [C]constantly [D]unusually19. [A]carry [B]put [C]build [D]take20. [A]risky [B]effective [C]idle [D]familiarSection ⅡReading ComprehensionPart ADirections:Read the following four texts. Answer the questions below each text by choosing A, B, C or D. Mark your answers on the ANSWER SHEET. (40 points)Text 1In order to “change lives for the better” and reduce “dependency” George Osborne, C hancellor of the Exchequer, introduced the “upfront work search” scheme. Only if the jobl ess arrive at the jobcentre with a CV, register for online job search, and start looking for work will they be eligible for benefit and then they should report weekly rather than fort nightly. What could be more reasonable?More apparent reasonableness followed. There will now be a seven-day wait for the j obseeker’s allowance. “Those first few days should be spent looking for work, not looking to sign on.” he claimed. “We’re doing these things because we know they help people st ay off benefits and help those on benefits get in to work faster.” Help? Really? On first h earing, this was the socially concerned chancellor, trying to change lives for the better, co mplete with “reforms” to an obviously indulgent system that demands too little effort from the newly unemployed to find work, and subsidises laziness. What motivated him, we we re to understand, was his zeal for “fundamental fairness”—protecting the taxpayer, control ling spending and ensuring that only the most deserving claimants received their benefits.Losing a job is hu rting: you don’t skip down to the jobcentre with a song in your h eart, delighted at the prospect of doubling your income from the generous state. It is fina ncially terrifying, psychologically embarrassing and you know that support is minimal and extraordinarily hard to get. You are now not wanted; you support is minimal and extraord inarily hard to get. You are now not wanted; you are now excluded from the work envir onment that offers purpose and structure in your life. Worse, the crucial income to feed y ourself and your family and pay the bills has disappeared. Ask anyone newly unemployed what they want and the answer is always: a job.But in Osborneland, your first instinct is to fall into dependency —permanent depen dency if you can get it —supported by a state only too ready to indulge your falsehood. It is as though 20 years of ever-tougher reforms of the job search and benefit administra tion system never happened. The principle of British welfare is no longer that you can in sure yourself against the risk of unemployment and receive unconditional payments if the disaster happens. Even the very phrase “jobseeker’s allowance” —invented in 1996 —is about redefining the unemployed as a “jobseeker” who had no mandatory right to a bene fit he or she has earned through making national insurance contributions. Instead, the clai mant receives a time-limited “allowance,” conditional on actively seeking a job; no entitle ment and no insurance, at £71.70 a week, one of the least generous in the EU.21. George Osbor ne’s scheme was intended to[A]provide the unemployed with easier access to benefits.[B]encourage jobseekers’ active engagement in job seeking.[C]motivate the unemployed to report voluntarily.[D]guarantee jobseekers’ legitimate right to benefits.22. The phrase, “to sign on” (Line 3, Para. 2) most probably means[A]to check on the availability of jobs at the jobcentre.[B]to accept the government’s restrictions on the allowance.[C]to register for an allowance from the government.[D]to attend a governmental job-training program.23. What prompted the chancellor to develop his scheme?[A]A desire to secure a better life for all.[B]An eagerness to protect the unemployed.[C]An urge to be generous to the claimants.[D]A passion to ensure fairness for taxpayers.24. According to Paragraph 3, being unemployed makes one feel[A]uneasy[B]enraged.[C]insulted.[D]guilty.25. To which of the following would the author most probably agree?[A]The British welfare system in dulges jobseekers’ laziness.[B]Osborne’s reforms will reduce the risk of unemployment.[C]The jobseekers’ allowance has met their actual needs.[D]Unemployment benefits should not be made conditional.Text 2All around the world, lawyers generate more hostility than the members of any other profession—with the possible exception of journalism. But there are few places where cli ents have more grounds for complaint than America.During the decade before the economic crisis, spending on legal services in America grew twice as fast as inflation. The best lawyers made skyscrapers-full of money, temptin g ever more students to pile into law schools. But most law graduates never get a big-fir m job. Many of them instead become the kind of nuisance-lawsuit filer that makes the tor t system a costly nightmare.There are many reasons for this. One is the excessive costs of a legal education. The re is just one path for a lawyer in most American states: a four-year undergraduate degre e in some unrelated subject, then a three-year law degree at one of 200 law schools auth orized by the American Bar Association and an expensive preparation for the bar exam. T his leaves today’s average law-school graduate with $100,000 of debt on top of undergrad uate debts. Law-school debt means that many cannot afford to go into government or non -profit work, and that they have to work fearsomely hard.Reforming the system would help both lawyers and their customers. Sensible ideas ha ve been around for a long time, but the state-level bodies that govern the profession have been too conservative to implement them. One idea is to allow people to study law as a n undergraduate degree. Another is to let students sit for the bar after only two years of law school. If the bar exam is truly a stern enough test for a would-be lawyer, those wh o can sit it earlier should be allowed todo so. Students who do not need the extra training could cut their debt mountain by a third.The other reason why costs are so high is the restrictive guild-like ownership structur e of the business. Except in the District of Columbia, non-lawyers may not own any shar e of a law firm. This keeps fees high and innovation slow. There is pressure for change from within the profession, but opponents of change among the regulators insist that keepi ng outsiders out of a law firm isolates lawyers from the pressure to make money rather t han serve clients ethically.In fact, allowing non-lawyers to own shares in law firms would reduce costs and imp rove services to customers, by encouraging law firms to use technology and to employ pr ofessional managers to focus on improving firms’ efficiency. After all, other countries, suc h as Australia and Britain, have started liberalizing their legal professions. America should follow.26.a lot of students take up law as their profession due to[A]the growing demand from clients.[B]the increasing pressure of inflation.[C]the prospect of working in big firms.[D]the attraction of financial rewards.27.Which of the following adds to the costs of legal education in most American stat es?[A]Higher tuition fees for undergraduate studies.[B]Admissions approval from the bar association.[C]Pursuing a bachelor’s degree in another major.[D]Receiving training by professional associations.28.Hindrance to the reform of the legal system originates from[A]lawyers’ and clients’ strong resistance.[B]the rigid bodies governing the profession.[C]the stem exam for would-be lawyers.[D]non-professionals’ sharp critic ism.29.The guild-like ownership structure is considered “restrictive”partly because it[A]bans outsiders’ involvement in the profession.[B]keeps lawyers from holding law-firm shares.[C]aggravates the ethical situation in the trade.[D]prevents lawyers from gaining due profits.30.In this text, the author mainly discusses[A]flawed ownership of America’s law firms and its causes.[B]the factors that help make a successful lawyer in America.[C]a problem in America’s legal profession and solutions to it.[D]the role of undergraduate studies in America’s legal education.Text 3The US$3-million Fundamental physics prize is indeed an interesting experiment, as Alexander Polyakov said when he accepted this year’s award in March. And it is far from the only one of its type. As a News Feature article in Nature discusses, a string of lucrative awards for researchers have joined the Nobel Prizes in recent years. Many, like the Fundamental Physics Prize, are funded from the telephone-number-sized bank accounts of Internet entrepreneurs. These benefactors have succeeded in their chosen fields, they say, and they want to use their wealth to draw attention to those who have succeeded in science.What’s not to like? Quite a lot, according to a handful of scientists quoted in the News Feature. You cannot buy class, as the old saying goes, and these upstart entrepreneurs cannot buy their prizes the prestige of the Nobels, The new awards are an exercise in self-promotion for those behind them, say scientists. They could distort the achievement-based system of peer-review-led research. They could cement the status quo of peer-reviewed research. They do not fund peer-reviewed research. They perpetuate the myth of the lone genius.The goals of the prize-givers seem as scattered as the criticism. Some want to shock, others to draw people into science, or to better reward those who have made their careers in research.As Nature has pointed out before, there are some legitimate concerns about how science prizes—both new and old—are distributed. The Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences, launched this year, takes an unrepresentative view of what the life sciences include. But the Nobel Foundation’s limit of three recipients per prize, each of whom must s till be living, has long been outgrown by the collaborative nature of modern research—as will be demonstrated by the inevitable row over who is ignored when it comes to acknowledging the discovery of the Higgs boson. The Nobels were, of course, themselves set up by a very rich individual who had decided what he wanted to do with his own money. Time, rather than intention, has given them legitimacy.As much as some scientists may complain about the new awards, two things seem clear. First, most researchers would accept such a prize if they were offered one. Second, it is surely a good thing that the money and attention come to science rather than go elsewhere, It is fair to criticize and question the mechanism—that is the culture of research, after all—but it is the prize-givers’ money to do with as they please. It is wise to take such gifts with gratitude and grace.31. The Fundamental Physics Prize is seen as[A]a symbol of the entrepreneurs’wealth.[B]a possible replacement of the Nobel Prizes.[C]an example of bankers’investments.[D]a handsome reward for researchers.32. The critics think that the new awards will most benefit[A]the profit-oriented scientists.[B]the founders of the new awards.[C]the achievement-based system.[D]peer-review-led research.33. The discovery of the Higgs boson is a typical case which involves[A]controversies over the recipients’status.[B]the joint effort of modern researchers.[C]legitimate concerns over the new prizes.[D]the demonstration of research findings.34. According to Paragraph 4,which of the following is true of the Nobels?[A]Their endurance has done justice to them.[B]Their legitimacy has long been in dispute.[C]They are the most representative honor.[D]History has never cast doubt on them.35.The author believes that the now awards are[A]acceptable despite the criticism.[B]harmful to the culture of research.[C]subject to undesirable changes.[D]unworthy of public attention.Text 4“The Heart of the Matter,”the just-released report by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS), deserves praise for affirming the importance of the humanities and social sciences to the prosperity and security of liberal democracy in America. Regrettably, however, the report’s failure to address the true nature of the crisis facing liberal education may cause more harm than good.In 2010, leading congressional Democrats and Republicans sent letters to the AAAS asking that it identify actions that could be taken by “federal, state and local governments, universities, foundations, educators, individual benefactors and others”to “maintain national excellence in humanities and social scientific scholarship and education.” In response, th e American Academy formed the Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences. Among the commission’s 51 members are top-tier-university presidents, scholars, lawyers, judges, and business executives, as well as prominent figures from diplomacy, filmmaking, music and journalism.The goals identified in the report are generally admirable. Because representative government presupposes an informed citizenry, the report supports full literacy; stresses the study of history and government, particularly American history and American government; and encourages the use of new digital technologies. To encourage innovation and competition, the report calls for increased investment in research, the crafting of coherent curricula that improve students’ ability to so lve problems and communicate effectively in the 21st century, increased funding for teachers and the encouragement of scholars to bring their learning to bear on the great challenges of the day. The report also advocates greater study of foreign languages, international affairs and the expansion of study abroad programs.Unfortunately, despite 2½years in the making, "The Heart of the Matter" never gets to the heart of the matter: the illiberal nature of liberal education at our leading colleges and universities. The commission ignores that for several decades America's colleges and universities have produced graduates who don’t know the content and character of liberal education and are thus deprived of its benefits. Sadly, the spirit of inquiry once at home on campus has been replaced by the use of the humanities and social sciences as vehicles for publicizing “progressive,” or left-liberal propaganda.Today, professors routinely treat the progressive interpretation of history and progressive public policy as the proper subject of study while portraying conservative or classical liberal ideas—such as free markets and self-reliance—as falling outside the boundaries of routine, and sometimes legitimate, intellectual investigation.The AAAS displays great enthusiasm for liberal education. Yet its report may well set back reform by obscuring the depth and breadth of the challenge that Congress asked it to illuminate.36. According to Paragraph 1, what is the author’s attitude toward the AAAS’s report?[A] Critical[B] Appreciative[C] Contemptuous[D] Tolerant37. Influential figures in the Congress required that the AAAS report on how to[A] retain people’s interest in liberal education[B] define the government’s role in education[C] keep a leading position in liberal education[D] safeguard individuals’rights to education38. According to Paragraph 3, the report suggests[A] an exclusive study of American history[B] a greater emphasis on theoretical subjects[C] the application of emerging technologies[D] funding for the study of foreign languages39. The author implies in Paragraph 5 that professors are[A] supportive of free markets[B] cautious about intellectual investigation[C] conservative about public policy[D] biased against classical liberal ideas40. Which of the following would be the best title for the text?[A] Ways to Grasp “The Heart of the Matter”[B] Illiberal Education and “The Heart of the Matter”[C] The AAAS’s Contribution to Liberal Education[D] Progressive Policy vs. Liberal EducationPart BDirections:The following paragraphs are given in a wrong order. For Questions 41-45, you are r equired to reorganize these paragraphs into a coherent text by choosing from the list A-G and filling them into the numbered boxes. Paragraphs A and E have been correctly place d Mark your answers on the ANSWER SHEET (10 points)[A] Some archaeological sites have always been easily observable—for example, the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, the pyramids of Giza in Egypt; and the megaliths of Stoneh enge in southern England. But these sites are exceptions to the norm. Most archaeological sites have been located by means of careful searching, while many others have been disc overed by accident. Olduvai Gorge, an early hominid site in Tanzania, was found by a bu tterfly hunter who literally fell into its deep valley in 1911. Thousands of Aztec artifacts came to light during the digging of the Mexico City subway in the 1970s.[B]In another case, American archaeologists Rene Million and George Cowgill spent years systematically mapping the entire city of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico near what is now Mexico City. At its peak around AD 600, this city was one of the largest h u man settlements in the world. The researchers mapped not only the city’s vast and ornat e ceremonial areas, but also hundreds of simpler apartment complexes where common peo ple lived.[C] How do archaeologists know where to find what they are looking for when there is nothing visible on the surface of the ground? Typically, they survey and sample (mak e test excavations on) large areas of terrain to determine where excavation will yield usef ul information. Surveys and test samples have also become important for understanding th e larger landscapes that contain archaeological sites.[D] Surveys can cover a single large settlement or entire landscapes. In one case, ma ny researchers working around the ancient Maya city of Copan, Honduras, have located h undreds of small rural villages and individual dwellings by using aerial photographs and b y making surveys on foot. The resulting settlement maps show how the distribution and d ensity of the rural population around the city changed dramatically between AD 500 and 850, when Copan collapsed.[E] To find their sites, archaeologists today rely heavily on systematic survey method s and a variety of high-technology tools and techniques. Airborne technologies, such as dif ferent types of radar and photographic equipment carried by airplanes or spacecraft, allow archaeologists to learn about what lies beneath the ground without digging. Aerial surveys locate general areas of interest or larger buried features, such as ancient buildings or fiel ds.[F] Most archaeological sites, however, are discovered by archaeologists who have set out to look for them. Such searches can take years. British archaeologist Howard Carter knew that the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun existed from information found in other sites. Carter sifted through rubble in the Valley of the Kings for seven years be fore he located the tomb in 1922. In the late 1800s British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evan combed antique dealers’ stores in Athens, Greece. He was searching for tiny engraved seals attributed to the ancient Mycenaean culture that dominated Greece from the 1400s to 1200s BC. Evans’s interpretations of these engravings eventually led him to find the Mino an palace at Knossos (Knossós) on the island of Crete, in 1900.[G] Ground surveys allow archaeologists to pinpoint the places where digs will be su ccessful. Most ground surveys involve a lot of walking, looking for surface clues such as small fragments of pottery. They often include a certain amount of digging to test for bur ied materials at selected points across a landscape. Archaeologists also may locate buried r emains by using such technologies as ground radar, magnetic-field recording, and metal de tectors. Archaeologists commonly use computers to map sites and the landscapes around si tes. Two and three-dimensional maps are helpful tools in planning excavations, illustrating how sites look, and presenting the results of archaeological research.41 --- A --- 42. ---F ---43---G --- 44---D --- 45---BPart CDirections:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chin ese. Your translation should be written neatly on the ANSWER SHEET. (10 points) Music means different things to different people and sometimes even different things to the same person at different moments of his life. It might be poetic, philosophical, sen sual, or mathematical, but in any case it must, in my view, have something to do with th e soul of the human being. Hence it is metaphysical; but the means of expression is pure ly and exclusively physical: sound. I believe it is precisely this permanent coexistence of metaphysical message through physical means that is the strength of music. (46)It is alsothe reason why when we try to describe music with words, all we can do is articulate ou r reactions to it, and not grasp music itself.【句型分析】本句主句主干为it is the reason，why引导定语从句，修饰the reason。

Chapter 3 The Biosphere 32 terms

Chapter 3, The Biosphere32 termsbiome groupecosystem collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their nonliving environmentcommunity assemblage of different populations that live togeter inpopulation group of individuals of the same species that live in the same areaspecies group of similar organisms that can breed and producebiosphere the part of Earth where life exists including land, water, and air or atmosphereecology the scientific study of interactions among organism andautotroph organism that can capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food from inorganic compoundschemosynthesis processcarnivore organism that obtains energy by eating animals consumer organismdetritivore organism that feeds of plant and animal remains and other dead matterdecomposer organism that breaks down and obtains energy from deadecological pyramid diagram that shows the relative ammounts of energy or matter within each trophic level in a food change or food webbiomass totalfood chain series of steps in an ecosystem in which organisms transfer enrgy by eating and being eatenfood web network of complex interactions formed by the feeding herbivore organism that obtains energy by eating only plants heterotroph organism that obtains energy from the foods it consumesomnivore organism that obtains energy by eating both plants andanimalsphotosynthesis processproducer organism that can capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce food from inorganic compoundstrophic level step in a food chain or food webbiogeochemical cycle process in which elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to another and from one part of the biosphere to anotherdenitrification conversion of nitrates into nitrogen gasevaporation process by which water changes from a liquid into anatmospheric gasalgal bloom an immediate increase in the ammount of algae and otherlimiting nurtient single nurtient that either is scarce or cycles very slowly, limiting the growth of organisms in an ecosystemnutrient chemical substance that an organism requires to livenitrogenfixationprocess of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia primary ratetranspiration loss of water from a plant through its leaves。

Combinatorial Strategies in Fluorescent Probe Development

CONTENTS
1. Introduction 2. Target-Oriented Fluorescent Libraries 2.1. Principles and Applications. Case Study: Probes for Metals 2.1.1. Nucleic Acid Libraries 2.1.2. Peptide Libraries 2.1.3. Small Molecule Libraries 2.1.4. Polymer Libraries 2.2. Fluorescent Libraries for Saccharides 2.3. Fluorescent Libraries for ATP and Peptides 2.4. Fluorescent Libraries for Volatile Analytes 3. Diversity-Oriented Fluorescent Libraries 3.1. Combinatorial Derivatization of Known Fluorescent Scaﬀolds 3.1.1. Palladium-Catalyzed Couplings 3.1.2. Huisgen 1,3-Dipolar Cycloaddition 3.1.3. Knoevenagel-like Condensation, Amide Formation, and Nucleophilic Substitution 3.2. De Novo Construction of Fluorescent Scaffolds 3.3. Solid-Phase Diversity-Oriented Fluorescent Libraries 3.3.1. Small Molecule Libraries 3.3.2. Peptide and Nucleic Acid Libraries 4. In Vitro Fluorescence Screenings 4.1. Fluorescence Spectra Proﬁling 4.2. Evolution-Based Strategies 4.2.1. Libraries Using Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment (SELEX) 4.2.2. Display Libraries and Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) 4.3. Arrays and Pattern Sensing 5. Image-Based Fluorescence Screenings 4391 4393 4393 4393 4393 4394 4395 4396 4397 4397 4398 4399 4399 4399

三维碳纳米管及石墨烯构建及应用(Three dimensional carbon nanotubes and graphene)

Cite this:DOI:10.1039/c2cs35353a Three dimensional macroporous architectures and aerogels built of carbon nanotubes and/or graphene:synthesis and applicationsStefania Nardecchia,Daniel Carriazo,M.Luisa Ferrer,Marıa C.Gutierrez and Francisco del Monte*Received 24th August 2012DOI:10.1039/c2cs35353aCarbon nanotubes and graphene are some of the most intensively explored carbon allotropes in materials science.This interest mainly resides in their unique properties with electrical conductivities as high as 104S cm À1,thermal conductivities as high as 5000W m À1K and superior mechanical properties with elastic moduli on the order of 1TPa for both of them.The possibility to translate the individual properties of these monodimensional (e.g.carbon nanotubes)and bidimensional (e.g.graphene)building units into two-dimensional free-standing thick and thin ﬁlms has paved the way for using these allotropes in a number of applications (including photocatalysis,electrochemistry,electronics and optoelectronics,among others)as well as for the preparation of biological and chemical sensors.More recently and while recognizing the tremendous interest of these two-dimensional structures,researchers are noticing that the performance of certain devices can experience a signiﬁcant enhancement by the use of three-dimensionalarchitectures and/or aerogels because of the increase of active material per projected area.This is obviously the case as long as the nanometre-sized building units remain accessible so that the concept of hierarchical three-dimensional organization is critical to guarantee the mass transport and,as consequence,performance enhancement.Thus,this review aims to describe the diﬀerent synthetic processes used for preparation of these three-dimensional architectures and/or aerogels containing either any or both allotropes,and the diﬀerent ﬁelds of application in which the particular structure of these materials provided a signiﬁcant enhancement in the eﬃcacy as compared to their two-dimensional analogues or even opened the path to novel applications.The unprecedented compilation of information from both CNT-and graphene-basedthree-dimensional architectures and/or aerogels in a single revision is also of interest because it allows a straightforward comparison between the particular features provided by each allotrope.Nanoparticles (NPs)and nanocomposites beneﬁting from the synergy between inorganic and organic compounds are indeed playing a major role in the development of advanced func-tional materials for a number of emerging applications (e.g.,catalysis,storage and controlled release systems,smart ﬁllers,and biotechnologies).1Within this context,assembling NPs into structurally macroscopic structures is of special relevance for the realistic development of any of the above-cited appli-cations because the resulting materials would oﬀer a desirable combination of high internal reactive surface area and straight-forward molecular transport through broad ‘‘highways’’leading to such a surface.2These morphologies are also obtained in monoliths exhibiting hierarchical structures that combine micro-,meso-,and macropores—so that the micro and mesoporosity provide high surface areas while the macroporosity guaranties accessibility to this surface.Besides morphology,it is obvious that the chemical nature of the monolith also plays a role and will ultimately determine the particular application of these materials.For instance,the use of monolithic aerogels based on silica as columns in high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC)is quite extended 3–5whereas the electrically conduc-tive framework of monolithic carbon aerogels has determined their preferred application as electrodes in electrochemical devices (supercapacitors,fuel cells,batteries,etc.).6–8Interest-ingly,sol–gel chemistry is one of the most common synthetic processes used for preparation of both silica and carbon hierarchical monoliths.Thus,Tanaka and coworkers ﬁrst described the preparation of silica columns for HPLC in 19969using a sol–gel process based on the hydrolysis and polycondensation of tetramethoxysilane (TMOS)in the presence of polyethylene oxide (PEO)as a template.10,11Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid (ICMM),Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientı´ﬁcas (CSIC),Cantoblanco 28049,Madrid,Spain.E-mail:delmonte@icmm.csic.es;Fax:+34913720623;Tel:+34913349033Chem Soc RevDynamic Article Links/csrREVIEW ARTICLED o w n l o a d e d o n 18 N o v e m b e r 2012P u b l i s h e d o n 16 N o v e m b e r 2012 o n h t t p ://p u b s .r s c .o r g | d o i :10.1039/C 2C S 35353AView Online / Journal HomepageMeanwhile and inspired by the seminal work on silica aerogels by Kistler in 1931,12Pekala et al.13ﬁrst reported on the use of sol–gel chemistry for the achievement of highly cross-linked organic gels that,after supercritical drying and subsequent thermal treatment in an inert atmosphere,resulted in carbon monoliths.The main features that determined the popularization of the sol–gel process are the capability to produce materials in a variety of forms that includes thin ﬁlms and three-dimensional (3D)architectures,the textural and chemical characteristics of which can be easily tuned for the achievement of co-continuous structures with well deﬁned hierarchical structures for bare silica-or carbon-based materials as well as hybrids and composites.14–18While recog-nizing the tremendous relevance of silica,hybrid-silica and carbon monoliths,the focus of this review will not be on these particular materials because there are already excellent reviews and books that cover most of the recent advances in this area.19–25Less revised has been however the preparation and applica-tion of composite-based monolithic aerogels and,in parti-cular,of those containing carbon nanotubes (CNTs)and/or Ts and graphene are both allotropes of Ts exhibit a cylindrical hollow nanostructure with the walls formed by one-atom-thick sheets of carbon that are rolled at speciﬁc and discrete angles,which ultimately determine whether the individual nanotube shell is a metal or a Ts are categorized as single-,double-ormulti-walled CNTs (SWCNTs,DWCNTs or MWCNTs,respectively)depending on the number of the rolled walls.Meanwhile,graphene is a planar monolayer of carbon atoms arranged into a two-dimensional (2D)honeycomb lattice with a C–C bond length of 0.142nm.These two well-known allotropes of carbon have attracted much attention from the scientiﬁc community because they exhibit unique properties (electrical conductivities as high as 104S cm À1,thermal conductivities as high as 5000W m À1K and superior mecha-nical properties with elastic moduli on the order of 1TPa,for both of them)26–31that,eventually,can be translated into any architecture built up with any of them.In this review,we will summarize the use of CNTs and graphene oxide (GO)as,respectively,monodimensional (1D)and 2D building units in the synthesis of 3D macroporous architectures and aerogels.We will also describe the great potential of the resulting hydrogels and aerogels in the ﬁeld of actuators,supercapacitors and polymer composites.T-based 3D architectures and aerogelsSince their discovery in 1991,32CNTs have been the subject of numerous research works given their unique properties,for example,extremely high electrical conductivities,very high thermal conductivities,and outstanding mechanical proper-ties.However,the processing of CNT-based materials into engineered 3D macroporous structures is still in itsinfancyStefania Nardecchia,Francisco del Monte,M.Luisa Ferrer,Daniel Carriazo and Marıa C.Gutierrez Stefania Nardecchia graduated in Industrial Chemistry in 2005at the University of Roma,obtained her PhD from the University of Madrid in 2012.In 2008she joined the Group of Bioinspired Materials at the Institute of Materials Science of Madrid (ICMM-CSIC)where she is currently working.Her research interests focused on materials for drug release and biomaterials for bone and neural tissue regeneration.Daniel Carriazo obtained his PhD from the University of Salamanca in 2008on the synthesis of layered double hydroxides and porous oxides for catalytic applications.In 2009he joined the Group of Bioinspired Materials at the Institute of Materials Science of Madrid (ICMM-CSIC)where he is currently working.During 2011he spent eight months working in the group headed by Prof.Niederberger at the ETH-Zu ¨rich on the synthesis of nano-materials by non-aqueous routes.His present scientiﬁc interest is focused on the synthesis of carbonaceous materials with hierarchical porosity for energy storage and environmental applications.Marı´a Luisa Ferrer is a tenured scientist at the Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid (ICMM-CSIC).After an MSc degree in Polymer Science (1992),she completed her PhD in chemistry at the University Autonoma of Madrid (1995).She was a postdoctoral fellow over the next three years,ﬁrst at the University of Patras (Greece)and,after that,at UCLA (USA).After that,she got a teaching appointment at the UMH (Spain).She joined the ICMM-CSIC in 2000to work on the preparation of hierarchical materials with applications in both energy and biomaterials.Marı´a C.Gutie ´rrez obtained her PhD in Organic Chemistry at the University of Granada in 2001.From 2001to 2003,she worked as a postdoctoral fellow with Prof.Furstoss in Biocatalysis and Fine Chemistry at the Universite ´de la Me ´diterrane ´e (France),and participated in European projects from IV and V Framework Programmes.In 2004,she joined the Group of Bioinspired Materials at the ICMM-CSIC in Spain and became a tenured scientist in 2009.Her research interest is the development of New Routes for Preparation of Hierarchical and Multifunctional Materials for Applications in Biotechnology and Biomedicine.Francisco del Monte is a Scientist at the Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid (ICMM-CSIC)in Spain.He received a BSc degree in organic chemistry in 1991,an MSc degree in polymer science in 1992,and a PhD in chemistry in 1996.He then spent two years as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Los Angeles,California.Since 2004,he leads the Group of Bioinspired Materials at the ICMM-CSIC.His current scientiﬁc interest is the use of biomimetic chemistry and deep eutectic solvents for the preparation of hierarchically organized materials.D o w n l o a d e d o n 18 N o v e m b e r 2012P u b l i s h e d o n 16 N o v e m b e r 2012 o n h t t p ://p u b s .r s c .o r g | d o i :10.1039/C 2C S 35353Aand most of the arrays prepared to date with controlled areas and nanotube lengths are 2D-type;e.g.well vertically aligned CNT architectures,33,34self-assembled CNT sheets 35or textiles containing nanotube-ﬁber capacitors woven in orthogonal directions,36among others.37Eventually,3D sieve architec-tures have also been constructed,38although the length of the third dimension of the regular patterned cavities is typically limited to that of some few CNTs,39,40except for those composites where the CNT fraction is minor.41The valuable contribution of these works to diﬀerent applications has been highlighted in recent reviews 42–48and,for this reason,will not be the subject of this review either.Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)techniques have been recently used to prepare 3D structures composed of free-standing ﬁlms of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes.49Considering the valuable contribution of these 3D structures to diﬀerent applications,50it is our belief that ‘‘true’’3D architectures—in which the third dimension is within the range of the other two—produced by chemical routes could exhibit interesting properties (e.g.in terms of both electrical conduc-tivity and mechanical properties)for industrial applications.This belief is actually corroborated by the increased number of works dealing with CNT-based 3D architectures published within the last two years;i.e.ca.65%of the works revised herein correspond to the 2011–2012period.The main reason behind this tremendous activity is that,as a general trend for any catalytic application,the performance of any device based on CNTs can experience a signiﬁcant enhancement by the use of 3D architectures rather than 2D ones because of the obvious increase of active material in the former case.Hydrogels,organogels,and aerogels based on silica or carbon and consisting of micro-,meso-and even macroporous networks forming a hierarchical structure that guaranties molecular transport throughout the entire 3D architecture to gain access to the internal reactive surface are illustrative examples of 3D macroscopic assemblies corroborating this issue.19–25Thus,the aim of this review with regard to CNTs will be to summarize those self-assembling processes described to date that have been capable of building ‘‘true’’3D hierarchical macrostructures and have explored those applica-tions where silica and carbon monoliths have already proved eﬃcient (e.g.membranes and columns for water treatment and chromatographic separations,electrodes for super-capacitors,fuel cells and batteries,and catalytic substrates,among others).1.1Organogels and aerogels from CNT suspensionsThe organic functionalization of either SWCNTs or MWCNTs with an organogelator can result in the formation of freestanding CNT organogels.For instance,SWCNTs functionalized by ferrocene-grafted poly(p -phenyleneethynylene)can gelate common organic solvents such as chloroform to form robust 3D nanotube networks that cannot be re-dispersed in any organic solvent.51Thermally annealed CNT aerogels were mechanically stable and stiﬀ(Fig.1),highly porous (99%),and exhibited excellent electrical conductivity (ca.1–2S cm À1)and large speciﬁc surface area (590–680m 2g À1).52Moreover,Fmoc-protected-amino-acid-based (Fmoc-Phe-OH,where Fmocstands for N -ﬂuorenyl-9-methoxycarbonyl and Phe for Phenylalanine)hydrogels have also been used to incorporate and disperse SWCNT within the gel phase at physiological pH and temperature.53The resulting hydrogels exhibited an intri-guing 1D alignment of SWCNTs on the surface of the gel nanoﬁbers that enhanced the elastic properties as well as the thermal stability,and provided a notorious electrical conduc-tivity of 3.1S cm À1to the resulting hydrogels.Meanwhile,the presence of functional groups on MWCNTs that remained available after gelation allowed the conjugation of the pro-perties of gels and nanostructured carbon materials.54The beneﬁts of using organogelators were therefore multiple con-sidering that,besides inducing gelation and conferring addi-tional properties to the resulting gels,functionalization helps for CNT dispersion at the solution stage and hence,to the achievement of a homogeneous distribution of CNT through-out the resulting gel.Within the context of monomers and polymers,Zhang et al.demonstrated that embedding either MWCNTs or acid-treated MWCNTs into a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)–poly(styrenesulfonate)(PEDOT–PSS)aerogel matrix can signiﬁcantly enhance the speciﬁc surface areas (280–400m 2g À1)of the resulting composite aerogels while maintaining good thermal stability and electrical conductivities (1.2–6.9Â10À2S cm À1).55Poly (3-(trimethoxysilyl)propylmethacrylate)(PTMSPMA)can also be used to disperse and functionalize MWCNTs.In this case,strong and permanent chemical bonding between percolated MWCNTs in the resulting free-standing monolithic aerogel was obtained upon the hydrolysis and condensation of PTMSPMA.The entangled MWCNTs generated mesoporous structures on the honeycomb walls,creating aerogels with a surface area of 580m 2g À1(nearly 2-fold the surface area of pristine MWCNTs),remarkable elastic properties and good electrical conductivity (e.g.up to 0.67S cm À1).All these features determined the exceptional pressure and chemical vapor sensing capabilities of these aerogels.56Surfactants have also been used for dispersion of CNT and subsequent formation of aerogels.For instance,Ostojic solubilized SWCNTs in 1%w/v sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS)aqueous solution.Streptavidin phosphate and DNA complexes were thereafter used for SDS replacement and so induce SWCNT gelation.Ethanol and ethanol–water solvent exchange and subsequent critical-point-drying resulted in the formation of SWCNT aerogels exhibiting a previously unobserved peak at 1.3eV in the photoluminescencespectrumFig.1Picture of SWCNT aerogels weighing 17.4mg (density:9.8mg mL À1)before (a),during (b)and after (c)application of a 20g weight.Monoliths were obtained from SWCNTs functionalized with ferrocene-grafted poly(p -phenyleneethynylene).(Reproduced with permission from ref.52.Copyright (2011)Elsevier Publishing Group).D o w n l o a d e d o n 18 N o v e m b e r 2012P u b l i s h e d o n 16 N o v e m b e r 2012 o n h t t p ://p u b s .r s c .o r g | d o i :10.1039/C 2C S 35353Athat corresponds to a phonon-assisted recombination of photoexcited charges.57In another interesting example,Yodh and coworkers suspended diﬀerent concentrations of as-received CNTs (e.g.weight fractions ranging from 5to 13mg mL À1)in water with sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate.58The suspensions were left overnight to set into elastic gels that were subsequently soaked at 901C in aqueous solutions of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)for structural reinforcement.Reinforced and non-reinforced gels were thereafter submitted to either freeze-or critical-point-drying processes for the achievement of the aerogel structure.PVA-reinforced aerogels exhibited outstanding mechanical properties (for instance,they were able to hold 8000times their weight,Fig.2)whereas much better conductivities were found for non-reinforced ones (e.g.0.6S cm À1for non-reinforced versus ca.10À5S cm À1for reinforced ones).More recently,Islam and coworkers,using a similar approach in which they substituted PVA by poly-dimethylsiloxane (PDMS),produced transparent (ca.93%of transmittance for a 3m m-thick aerogel)and stretchable conductors,the electrical conductivity of which (ranging 0.7–1.1S cm À1)remained basically the same under high bending strain.59Transparent SWCNT aerogels can also be obtained using silica as binder (Fig.3a).In this case,SWCNTs were dispersed in water using SDS or sodium deoxycholate and then reacted with a silica precursor like TMOS either by a chemical vapor-into-liquid sol–gel process—in which the low boiling point of TMOS allows vapours diﬀusion through the SWCNT aqueous suspension—or by a regular liquid-phase sol–gel process—in which small aliquots of TMOS are added into the SWCNT aqueous suspension.60After CO 2supercritical drying,the resulting solution-free and surfac-tant-free SWCNT-silica aerogels provided access to new photophysical properties of SWCNT and hence,converted this solid-state nanomaterial into not only an ideal system for making fundamental optical measurements,but also a noveland suitable platform for the development of applications in sensing,photonics,and optoelectronics in the near future (Fig.3b–d).Within the context of dispersing CNTs in aqueous solutions that also contain a certain molecular precursor in charge of building up the 3D architecture where the CNT will be ﬁnally immobilized,the sol–gel polymerization of resorcinol and formaldehyde oﬀers interesting perspectives.For instance,Baumann and coworkers have recently performed a quite extensive and stimulating work on SWCNTs andDWCNTsFig.2(a)Picture of SWCNT aerogels (density:7.5mg mL À1)non-reinforced (left,black coloured)and reinforced (right,gray coloured)with 1wt%PVA.(b)Three PVA-reinforced aerogel monoliths (total mass =13.0mg)supporting 100g (ca.8000times their weight).(c)SEM micrograph revealing the macroporus architecture of PVA-reinforced aerogel (0.5wt%PVA,10mg mL À1CNT content).(d)TEM micrograph of non-reinforced CNT aerogel.(Reproduced with permission from ref.58.Copyright (2007)Wiley-VCH).Fig.3(a)Picture of aerogels without (blank)and with SWCNTs.(b)PL spectrum of aerogels exposed to CO 2,THF,and ether vapors.The PL spectrum of non-exposed (e.g.in vacuum)is also included for comparison.(c)Shift in PL emission wavelength relative to the signal collected under vacuum as a function of SWCNT diameter after exposure of SWNT-aerogels to air (green square),CO 2(red dots),THF (blue triangle),and ether (yellow star).(d)Emission wavelength shifts for SWCNTs with diﬀerent diameter after alternating exposure to ether and vacuum:(9,5)light blue squares;(7,6)red dots;(7,5)green triangle;and (8,3)blue triangle.(Adapted with permission from ref.60.Copyright (2011)American Chemical Society).D o w n l o a d e d o n 18 N o v e m b e r 2012P u b l i s h e d o n 16 N o v e m b e r 2012 o n h t t p ://p u b s .r s c .o r g | d o i :10.1039/C 2C S 35353A3D architectures synthesized by resorcinol–formaldehyde polycondensation.By introducing low concentrations of the sol–gel precursors to a suspension of highly puriﬁed SWCNTs,the polymerization was primarily induced on the walls of the CNT bundles and,more importantly,at the junctions between adjacent bundles to form an organic binder.The resulting assembly was dried and subsequently pyrolyzed to convert the organic binder into carbon.61The aerogels could be also prepared with varying SWCNT loading (0–55wt%).62At nanotube loadings of 55wt%,shrinkage of the aerogel monoliths during carbonization and drying was almost com-pletely eliminated and the electrical conductivities improved by an order of magnitude as compared to those of foams without SWCNTs.Particularly interesting in terms of con-ductivity (up to 8S cm À1)and surface area (above 500m 2g À1)were those composites based on DWCNTs.63Interestingly,the porous network of these architectures can be surface decorated with oxide coatings (Fig.4).64In this case,sol–gel deposition of SiO 2,SnO 2or TiO 2produced a conformal overlayer on the primary ligament structure of the SWCNT-based support,thus preserving open porosity within the monolithic part.The resulting aerogels (SWCNT-CA)exhibited good electrical conductivity (up to 1S cm À1)and an enhancement in the mechanical properties relative to the uncoated SWCNT-CA support that should prove advantageous for a number of applications,such as battery electrodes,sensing devices,andcatalysts.More recently,Gutierrez et al.have studied the polycondensation of not only resorcinol and formaldehyde 65but also furfuryl alcohol 66in deep eutectic solvents (DES)because of their capability to homogeneously disperse high amounts of CNTs.In the furfuryl alcohol case,the presence of DES induced the formation of monolithic carbons with a bimodal porosity that comprises from micro-up to macro-pores.The morphology of the resulting carbons (C FA ,without CNTs)consisted of a bicontinuous porous network built of highly cross-linked clusters that aggregated and assembled into a stiﬀ,interconnected structure (Fig.5).This sort of morphology is typical of carbons obtained via spinodal decom-position processes where the formation of a rich-polymer phase by polycondensation is accompanied by the segregation of the non-condensed matter (creating ﬁrst a poor-polymer phase that,ultimately,becomes a depleted-polymer phase),the elimination of which (either before carbonization by washing or during carbonization by thermal decomposition)results in the formation of the above-mentioned bicontinuous porous structure.67In this particular case,furfuryl alcohol conden-sated on the walls of the MWCNTs so that the resulting bicontinuous porous network resembled a skeleton network composed of interconnected MWCNTs ‘‘glued’’by thecarbonFig.4SEM images of (a and b)as-synthesized and (c and d)annealed at 3201C TiO 2/SWCNT-CA composites at low and high magniﬁcations.TEM images of annealed (e and f)TiO 2–SWCNT-CA composites at low and high magniﬁcations.Inset in (f)is the electron diﬀraction pattern of the annealed TiO 2/SWCNT-CA.(Reproduced with permission from ref.64.Copyright (2011)American ChemicalSociety).Fig.5SEM micrographs of C FA (a,b and c),C FACNT1(d)and C FACNT5(f,h and i).TEM micrographs of colloidal carbon corre-sponding to C FA and C FACNT1(c),and ﬁbrillar carbon corresponding to C FACNT1and C FACNT5(e and g).(Reproduced with permission from ref.66.Copyright (2011)Wiley-VCH).D o w n l o a d e d o n 18 N o v e m b e r 2012P u b l i s h e d o n 16 N o v e m b e r 2012 o n h t t p ://p u b s .r s c .o r g | d o i :10.1039/C 2C S 35353Aresulting from the furfuryl alcohol condensation and pyrolysis (C FACNT ).The presence of a carbon shell that coated every MWCNT and formed strong junctions between them was reﬂected in both the electrical conductivity (up to 4.8S cm À1,as measured by the four-probe method)and the elastic character (Young’s modulus,11MPa)of the monoliths having the largest MWCNT content.The combination of high electrical conductivity,hierarchical structure and pseudo elastic properties contribu-ted to retain 75%of the initial capacitance at current densities of up to 765mA cm À2(29A g À1)when two of these monoliths (each monolith was 1.2cm in diameter and 1.1mm in height,and weighed 17mg)were assembled into a supercapacitor cell.It is also worth noting those works using polymers that can play an ‘‘all-in-one’’role as both dispersing agents helping to the achievement of homogeneous aqueous suspensions of CNT and structural binders holding the 3D architecture formed after any sort of processing (e.g.freeze-drying,electrospun,etc.).For instance,Tasis and coworkers used PVA as a dispersing-aid agent of KMnO 4-treated MWCNTs in water.The application of ﬂash freezing to the MWCNT/PVA aqueous suspension (e.g.in liquid nitrogen)and subsequent freeze-drying resulted in MWCNT aerogels that exhibited interesting thermal and catalytic pro-perties as well as absorption capacity of polynuclear aromatic substances.68This ‘‘all-in-one’’approach can be further extended upon the use of diﬀerent polymers.For instance,del Monte and coworkers used chitosan for dispersing HNO 3-treated MWCNTs (up to 8wt%)in water.69MWCNT aerogels were obtained upon the application of the ISISA (ice segregation induced self-assembly)process that basically consists of a unidirectional freezing of the sample (e.g.by dipping it into a nitrogen liquid bath at a constant rate)followed by freeze-drying.70In this case,unidirec-tional freezing allowed the achievement of macroporous struc-tures with well-aligned microchannels in the freezing direction and a well-patterned morphology between channels (mellar and microhoneycomb,respectively)(Fig.6).These ultralight-weight aerogels (speciﬁc gravity ranging from 4.9Â10À2to 9.4Â10À2along with the MWCNT content)exhibited remarkable electrical conductivities of up to 2.5S cm À1for those aerogels composed of 89wt%MWCNTs and 11wt%CHI.Interestingly,the aerogel structure could be reinforced upon exposure toglutaraldehyde vapors without detrimental eﬀects on either the morphology or the electrical conductivity.71These features allowed the use of these aerogels as high-perfomance 3D electrodes in both direct methanol and microbial fuel cells (DMFCs and MFCs,respectively).69,72Particularly interesting was the microchanneled structure in this latter case,allowing the possibility to work in the ‘‘ﬂow-through’’mode so that bacteria could colonize the entire internal structure of cylindrical aerogels of ca.4mm in diameter and 12mm in height (Fig.7)that,otherwise (e.g.in static conditions),was not possible.73The validity of these aerogels to work as high-perfomance 3D electrodes under ‘‘ﬂow-through’’conditions was not only demonstrated in MFCs,but also for electrodeposition of a layer of calcium–phosphate salts homogenously distributed through-out the entire internal surface of the aerogels.Interestingly,the crystal habit of the deposited mineral was easily controlled by the electrodeposition conditions (Fig.8).74It is worth noting that,as in the previous case,homogeneous coatings were not attained upon chemical mineralization carried out under non-ﬂow conditions.71More recently,the same group has explored the capability of diﬀerent polysaccharides (e.g.chondroitin sulphate)and protein-like polymers (e.g.gelatin)for the pre-paration of analogue MWCNT aerogels.75The authors have also explored the potential application of these MWCNT aerogels as scaﬀolds for tissue engineering purposes.71,74–761.2.CNT-surface modiﬁed aerogelsCNT functionalization of the internal surface of preformed aerogels has recently gained increased interest because it oﬀers a tremendous versatility considering the existing palette of3DFig.6SEM micrographs of MWCNT scaﬀolds:(a)cross-section view,(b)longitudinal view according to plane 1and (c)longitudinal view according to plane 2.Bars are 200m m in every case.(Reproduced with permission from ref.74.Copyright (2012)Wiley-VCH).Fig.7SEM images (a–c)of bioﬁlm at diﬀerent magniﬁcations taken from the inner part of the 3D scaﬀold.(Adapted with permission from ref.72.Copyright (2011)Royal Society of Chemistry).D o w n l o a d e d o n 18 N o v e m b e r 2012P u b l i s h e d o n 16 N o v e m b e r 2012 o n h t t p ://p u b s .r s c .o r g | d o i :10.1039/C 2C S 35353A。

从有机废料中回收铑的技术进展

2019年11月贵金属 Nov. 2019第40卷第4期Precious MetalsV ol.40, No.4收稿日期：2019-04-04基金项目：云南省科技计划项目(2018ZE001，2017FA030，2016FB096)第一作者：裴洪营，男，工程师，研究方向：贵金属提纯加工。

E-mail ：phy@*通讯作者：赵家春，男，高级工程师，研究方向：贵金属冶金。

E-mail ：zhaojiachun@*通讯作者：董海刚，男，博士，研究员，研究方向：稀贵金属冶金。

E-mail ：donghaigang0404@从有机废料中回收铑的技术进展裴洪营，赵家春*，吴跃东，陈家林，董海刚*(贵研铂业股份有限公司稀贵金属综合利用新技术国家重点实验室，昆明贵金属研究所，昆明 650106)摘要：有机铑废料中的铑具有很高的价值，且铑资源十分匮乏，从有机废料中回收铑意义重大。

目前从含铑有机废料中回收铑的技术主要包括火法工艺、湿法工艺以及其他工艺。

火法工艺中焚烧法具有技术简单，铑回收率较高等特点，是目前含铑有机废料回收常用的方法，但焚烧过程温度控制要求比较严格，且存在着环保问题；湿法工艺相对简单，但主要存在铑回收率低等问题；其他工艺尚未得到应用。

开发高效清洁的新工艺是今后含铑有机废料回收技术发展的重要方向。

关键词：有色金属冶金；铑；有机废料；回收中图分类号：TF837 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1004-0676(2019)04-0085-06Technology Progress on Recovery of Rhodium from Organic WastesPEI Hongying, ZHAO Jiachun *, WU Yuedong, CHEN Jialin, DONG Haigang *(State key Laboratory of Advanced Technology of Comprehensive Utilization of Platinum Metals, Sino-platinum Metals Co. Ltd., Kunming Institute of Precious Metals, Kunming 650106, China)Abstract: It is of great significance to recover rhodium from organic wastes in that rhodium in the organic wastes is scarce resources and has high value. At present, the recovery processes of rhodium from the organic wastes containing rhodium include hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical and other processes. The incineration method in the pyrometallurgical process is a commonly used method due to its characteristics of simple technology and high rhodium recovery, however, the temperature control requirements of the incineration process are relatively strict, and there are environmental issues. Hydrometallurgical process is relatively simple, while its main problem is low rhodium recovery. Other processes have not yet been applied. Development of efficient and clean new processes is an important future direction for recovering rhodium in the organic wastes.Key words : non-ferrous metallurgy; rhodium; organic waste; recovery铑具有稳定的电阻和良好的导电、导热性、高催化活性以及良好的耐酸碱腐蚀性和高温抗氧化性，广泛应用于高新技术、航天军工、石油化工、精细化工、环境保护等各个领域，有着不可替代的作用[1]。

碳化硅纳米材料及其衍生碳在超级电容器领域的应用

物理化学学报Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2024, 40 (2), 2304026 (1 of 18)Received: April 14, 2023; Revised: May 23, 2023; Accepted: May 24, 2023; Published online: June 12, 2023. *Correspondingauthors.Emails:******************.cn(X.Y.);*******************.cn(Q.F.)The project was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52125203, 52293371, 52202047), the National Key R&D Program of China (2021YFA0715803), the Natural Science Basic Research Plan in Shaanxi Province (2022JQ-324), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2021M702659), the Young Talent Fund of Association for Science and Technology in Shaanxi, China (20220435), and the Practice and Innovation Funds for Graduate Students of Northwestern Polytechnical University (PF2023004).国家自然科学基金(52125203, 52293371, 52202047), 国家重点研发计划(2021YFA0715803), 陕西省自然科学基础研究计划(2022JQ-324), 中国博士后科学基金(2021M702659), 陕西省科协青年人才托举计划(20220435)和西北工业大学硕士研究生实践创新能力培育基金(PF2023004)资助项目© Editorial office of Acta Physico-Chimica Sinica[Review] doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB202304026 SiC Nanomaterials and Their Derived Carbons for High-Performance SupercapacitorsHuimin Liu, Kezhi Li, Xin Zhang, Xuemin Yin *, Qiangang Fu *, Hejun LiShaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Fiber Reinforced Light Composite Materials, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China.Abstract: As technology and society have continued to develop, the demand for energy storage solutions has increased significantly. Indeed, the development of low-cost, low-carbon, environmentally friendly energy conversion and storage systems is required to address the environmental and ecological problems faced by society. Due to their fast charging and discharging speeds, long cycle life and environmentally friendly characteristics, supercapacitors are widely used in many fields, especially in wind power generation systems, communication and transportation. Among all kinds of electrode materials, silicon carbide (SiC) nanomaterials and SiC-derived carbon (SiC-CDC) materials present long life, high power density, and uncomplicated working mechanisms, which hold significant promise as electrode materials for supercapacitors. So far, various strategies and approaches for controlling the microstructure of SiCnanomaterials and SiC-CDC materials have been developed to achieve further improvement from preparation methods to electrochemical properties. As such, this review systematically introduces the common preparation methods of SiC nanomaterials and SiC-CDC, including the template method, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method, high temperature halogen etching method and high temperature thermal decomposition process for preparing SiC-CDC. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of different preparation methods are discussed. Additionally, the review covers the progress in employing SiC nanomaterials and SiC-CDC materials as supercapacitor electrode materials in detail. However, despite this progress, the commercial application of SiC nanomaterials and SiC-CDC materials as supercapacitor electrodes has been restricted by some problems, in particular their limited conductivity and poor wettability. More importantly, the low energy density of supercapacitors is still a major problem. Thus, current methods and developmental trends of the strategies to improve electrochemical performance such as “highly conductive carbon material composite”, “heteroatomic doping”, “pseudocapacitance composites”, “multi-stage pore structure design”, “chemical activation” are further analyzed with regards to the current challenges. For example, the introduction of heteroatoms and functional group molecules for reactions into SiC and SiC-CDC materials can inhibit the agglomeration of materials (such as particles and nanosheets), improve their conductivity and wettability, and enhance their specific capacitance. Finally, the challenges and opportunities in the application of SiC nanomaterials and their derived carbons in the field of energy storage for supercapacitors are summarized and prospected. As current preparation methods are limited to the laboratory scale, the combination and improvement of different preparation methods and the development of large-scale and low-cost preparation technology are still the directions of the next efforts. This comprehensive review is expected to further advance the research of SiC nanomaterials and SiC-CDC materials.Key Words: Silicon carbide; Silicon carbide derived carbon; Double layercapacitance; Pseudocapacitance碳化硅纳米材料及其衍生碳在超级电容器领域的应用刘慧敏，李克智，张欣，殷学民*，付前刚*，李贺军西北工业大学，陕西省纤维增强轻质复合材料重点实验室，西安 710072摘要：超级电容器由于充放电速度快、循环寿命长、成本低、环境友好等特性在众多储能器件中脱颖而出。

中国企业的跨国并购：战略动因与绩效分析外文文献翻译最新译文

中国企业的跨国并购：战略动因与绩效分析外文文献翻译最新译文文献出处：Boateng A, Qian W, Tianle Y. Cross‐border M&As by Chinese firms: An analysis of strategic motives and performance [J]. Thunderbird International Business Review, 2008, 50(4): 259-270.原文Cross-Border M&As by Chinese Firms: An Analysis of StrategicMotives and PerformanceAgyenim Boateng，Wang Qian，Yang TianleIntroductionOne of the most notable developments in China over the past two decades has been the vigorous pursuit of market oriented reforms aimed at enhancing the competitiveness of Chinese firm s’ worldwide. The Chinese economic reform policies actively encourage Chinese firms to engage in outward foreign investments rather than only attracting inward foreign investments into China. As a result, the number of Chinese firms engaged in the outward cross-border merger & acquisition (CBM&A) activities is on ascendancy over the recent years. It has been reported that, over the January 2000 –December 2004 period, there were 27 outward merger & acquisition deals involving Chinese listed companies, with 11 and 16 cases taking place in Shanghai and Shenzhen stock markets respectively. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the actual CBM&A deals by Chinese firms in this period were more than the reported 27 deals however, as many of them were unlisted companies, the related data are not available.It is pertinent to note that, there is a huge difference between CBM&A flows from developing countries to developed countries and those from developed countries to developing countries. For example, CBM&A activities involving firms from a developed country are likely to possess monopolistic and internalization advantages compared with the firms from a developing country. While firms from developed countries may be motivated to engage in CBM&As to exploit their own resources abroad, firms from developing countries may cross border to invest in order to exploreor seek ano ther country?s resources. It follows that, the M&As involving firms from emerging economy such as China to developed countries may be motivated to obtain intangible assets and resources which they do not have themselves. These assets include superior marketing skills, product differentiation, patent-protected technology, superior managerial know-how and economies of scale. It is thus argued that companies attempt to improve their core competences and fill in the strategic gap by CBM&A activities. Vermeulen and Barkema (2001) found that although the initial costs of CBM&A may be relatively high, the enterprises could expand their knowledge and improve the competitive advantage of the organization. In the long run, mergers and acquisitions may be an important vehicle to build capacity and improve organisational performance of the firm.Given the important role played CBM&As, it is surprising that no study has been carried out on the motives and performance of the corporate M&As by Chinese firms in foreign countries. It is also important to point out that most of the empirical studies on CBM&A focus on the activities from developed to developing countries or to other developed countries. Relatively littleattention has been given to CBM&As from developing countries to developed countries. It is therefore difficult to generalise the applicability of the conclusions drawn in the context of advanced market economies to the CBM&As conducted by firms in the Chinese emerging capitalist economy. This ought to be investigated. The purpose of this study is to examine the strategic motives and performance of CBM&A activities undertaken by Chinese firms using event study methodology. We examine this issue by focusing on what motivates Chinese companies to engage in cross-border M&As and the extent to which recent corporate acquisitions announced by Chinese companies have resulted in a generation of value for the acquirer.The rest of the paper is set out as follows: The next section reviews the literature relating to motives of cross-border mergers and acquisitions and value creation for acquirers. Following that is the methodology for the study. The fourth section presents the results and discussion. A summary and conclusions are in the last section. Literature ReviewThere is an extensive literature on the motives and effects of mergers and acquisitions (M&As) and the market for corporate control for value creation (see Trautwein, 1990; Conn, Cost, Guest and Hughes, 2001; Campa and Hernando, 2004; Aw and Chatterjee, 2004 Gregory and McCorriston, 2005; Moeller and Schlingemann, 2005; and Francoeur, 2005). We review the extant literature focusing specifically on motivation for CBM&As and the evidence accumulated through event studies approach on the returns to shareholders of the acquirer firms.Motivation for Cross-border M&AsOver the past two decades CBM&As have been a popular strategy for firms and constitute an important mode of entry intoforeign markets (See UNCTAD, 2000). Official statistics from UNCTAD (2000) suggested that the share of CBM&As as a percentage of FDI flows rose from 52% in 1987 to 88% in 2000. Although, CBM&As activities as a share of foreign direct investment (FDI) fell to 55% in 2004, the total number of global M&As has been increasing at a rapid rate in recent times. For example, the Financial Times (2007) reported a huge rise in global volume of mergers and acquisition to about $1,130 billion in the first three months in 2007 and this provides a clear indication that mergers and acquisitions remain popular. A number of researchers attribute the phenomenal growth in CBM&As to increasing globalization of business, industry consolidation, privatization, and the liberalization of economies (Shimizu, Hitt, Vaidyanath and Pissano, 2004). Despite this, a study by KPMG (1997/1998) found that only 17% of CBM&As created value for shareholders compared with 53% destroying it. What then motivates firms into engaging in CBM&As? Prominent among the motives found in the extant literature include: Access and Acquisition of Resources and TechnologyA number of studies have examined the motivation for CBM&As from the resource-based view (RBV) (see Baum and Oliver, 1991; Hennart, 1991; Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven, 1996; Madhok, 1997) and organizational learning perspectives (Barkema and Vermeulen, 1998; Vermeulen and Barkema, 2001). These studies suggest that CBM&As are motivated by an opportunity to acquire new capabilities and learn new knowledge. Thus as Ohmae, (1989: 145) argues: ―today?s products rely on so many different critical technologies that most companies can no longer maintain cutting edge sophistication in all of them‖. Therefore, tapping external sources of know-howbecomes an imperative. Acquisition of existing foreign business allows the acquirer to obtain resources such as patent protected technology, superior managerial and marketing skills, and overcome special government regulation that create a barrier to entry for other firms (Errunza and Senbet, 1981). Shimizu et al. (2004) endorses this view by suggesting that firms may engage in M&As in order to exploit intangible assets. This line of reasoning is consistent with Caves (1990) who argues that acquisition of foreign competitor enables the acquirer to bring under its control a more diverse stock of specific assets and can therefore seize more opportunities. Schimizu et al (2004) suggest that cross border M&As may also be initiated to internalize an acquirer’s intangible assets to reduce or avoid transaction costs. This view is consistent with the internalization theory which suggests that firms with intangible assets should invest across the border in order to avoid the costly market mechanism of transferring those assets (Buckley and Casson, 1976, Buckley and Cater, 1999). In short, CBM&As may be motivated through the internalization of theacquirer’s vari ous intangible assets. Conversely, the acquirer can also use the target’s intangible assets by the way of reverse internalization. Internalization and reverse internalization can help acquirers to avoid any misappropriation of intangible assets and reduce transaction costs. Seth, Song and Pettit (2000, 2002), Cheng and Chan (1995), Eun, Kolodny and Scheraga (1996), Morck and Yeung (1992) and Markides and Ittner (1994) studies have rendered support for internalization and reverse internalization as motives for CBM&As.DiversificationDiversification –a well documented strategy for expansion offirm has been suggested as one of the dominant reasons for CBM&As (Seth, 1990; Trautwein, 1990; Shleifer and Vishny, 1992; Markides and Ittner, 1994; Denis, Denis and Yost, 2002). It is argued that international acquisitions do not only provide access to important resources but also allow firms an opportunity to reduce the costs and risks of entering into new foreign markets (Porter and Fuller, 1986; Boateng and Glaister, 2003). Seth (1990) reported that the desire to reduce risks both operational and financial risks through geographical market diversification are a source of value in cross-border acquisitions but not domestic acquisitions. For example, the sources of value such as those associated with exchange rate differences, market power conferred by international scope, ability to arbitrage tax regimes are unique to international mergers (Manzon, Sharp and Travlos, 1994; Morck and Yeung, 1992; and Seth, Song and Pettit, 2000; 2002). Moreover, as economic activities in different countries are less than perfectly correlated, portfolio diversification across boundaries should reduce earnings volatility and improve investo rs’ risk-return opportunities. A numbers of studies including Erruza, 1977; Lessard, 1973, Logue, 1982 and Davis, 1991 have rendered support for risk reduction through portfolio diversification argument. It therefore follows that firms may engage in CBM&As primarily to reduce risk through diversification.To Facilitate Faster Entry into Foreign MarketMartin, Swaminathan and Mitchel (1998) have suggested that CBM&As can be used to access new and lucrative markets as well as expanding the market for a firm’s current goods. Similar conclusions have been drawn by Datta and Puia (1995) who stated that CBM&As activity provides the opportunity forinstant access to a market with established sales volume. UNCTAD (2000) also indicated that cross-border mergers provide the fastest means for international expansion. Kogut and Singh, 1988; Barkema et al., 1998, Boateng and Glaister, 2003 argued that it is expensive, difficult and time consuming to build up a global organisation and a competitive presence due to issues such as differences in culture, liability of foreignness, different business practices and institutional constraints. CBM&As offer significant time saving in this respect. For example, CBM&As allow an immediate access to a local network of suppliers, marketing channels, clients and other skills.Efficiency theoryA number of scholars including Friedman and Gibson (1988); Bradley, Desai and Kim (1988); Trautwein (1990) argue that firms engage in mergers to achieve synergies. Synergies stem from combining operations and activities such as marketing, research and development, procurement and other cost components, which were, hitherto performed by separate firms. Synergy is a broad concept which encompasses different sources of value gains including economies of scale and scope, increasing market share and power, taking advantage of tax and exchange rate differentials between countries. For example, it is argued that by combining operations and activities, mergers can increase firm's capacity and provide an opportunity to reduce costs through economies of large-scale production, pooling resources to produce a superior product and generate a large market share and long-run profitability (Trautwein, 1990, Doukas and Travlos, 1988, Ghauri and Buckley, 2003). Similarly, synergy in CBM&As can also be created by taking advantage of exchange rate differential (Kish and Vasconcellos, 1993) and tax differentialbetween the host and home countries (Servaes and Zenner, 1994). McCann (2001) suggests that lower tax rate will attract inward acquisitions and higher tax rate in a country will inspire outward acquisitions to avoid the damage of domestic higher tax rate. The role of tax rate differential as a motive of CBM&As has also been supported by Froot and Stein (1991), Manzon, Sharp and Travlos (1994), Servaes and Zenner (1994), and Goergen and Renneboog (2004).Cross border M&As and Acquirers’ PerformanceThe theory behind the positive returns from CBM&As is premised on the assumption that firms engaged in cross border transactions in foreign markets to exploit the firms’ specific resources to take advantage of market imperfections (Buckley and Casson, 1976; Morck and Yeung, 1992. In other words, prior literature suggests that CBM&As provide integration benefits of internalization, synergy, risk diversification and consequently create wealth for the acquirer-firm shareholders (Kang, 1993; Markides and Ittner, 1994).The evidence on returns to the acquiring firm shareholders is evenly distributed between studies that report negative cumulative abnormal returns and slightly positive cumulative abnormal returns. For example, a review study carried out by Bruner (2002) reported that out of the 44 studies he surveyed 24 reported positive returns with 20 reporting negative returns for the acquiring firms. This finding is consistentwith the conclusion drawn by Campa and Hernando (2004) who pointed out that the returns to the acquirer firm is less conclusive. A number of studies have reported positive performance indicating that CBM&As actually create value for the bidding firms’ shareholders. For example Morck and Yeung(1992), Markides and Ittner (1994), Manzon, Sharp and Travlos (1994), Doukas (1995), Cakici, Hassel and Tandon (1996), Markides and Oyon (1998), Black, Carnes and Jandik (2001), Kiymaz and Mukherjee (2001), Gleason, Gregory and Wiggins (2002), Kiymaz (2003) and Block (2005) have reported significant bidder return in case of US bidders acquiring foreign target firms. All of the above studies have found significant positive abnormal returns for bidding firms ranging from 0.29% to 1.96% for event windows varying between ten days before and after the announcement date.Beside the studies that show positive performance of bidding firms, there are other studies that show negative returns for the bidding firms. For example, using market model Mathur, Rangan, Chhachhi and Sundaram (1994) and Datta and Puia (1995) reported significant negative performance for bidders. Using both index model and market model, Danbolt (1995) analysed bidders from different countries that acquired UK firms and reported that acquirers earn significant negative abnormal returns for event window -8 to +5 months. Eun, Kolodny and Scheraga (1996) examined acquiring firm return by using mean adjusted return model. Their study finds that the foreign acquirers of US targets earn statistically significant negative abnormal returns of -1.20% for an event window of -5 days to +5 days for the total sample. Moreover, using market adjusted return model and market model, Aw and Chatterjee (2004) reported that UK bidders earn significant negative abnormal returns of -4.46% and -8.07% in six months and twelve months after the acquisition respectively. In addition to positive and negative announcement performance of bidding firms, there are several other studies that have reported insignificant bidder returns forthe overall sample at or around the announcement time of CBM&A (Doukas and Travlos, 1988; Fatemi and Furtado, 1988; Mathur, Chhachhi and Sundaram, 1989; Servaes and Zenner, 1994; Danbolt, 1995; Yook and McCabe, 1996;Kiymaz and Mukherjee, 2000; Eckbo and Thorburn, 2000; Seth, Song and Pettit, 2000; Campa and Hernando, 2004; and Gregory and McCorriston, 2005).Summary and ConclusionsThis paper examines the motivation and performance of 27 cross-border acquisitions by Chinese firms over the 2000-2005. The study represents the first attempt to examine wealth gains of acquiring firms in China and provides new findings in an under-research geographical region. First, this paper identifies the main motives that influence cross border mergers and acquisitions formation by Chinese firms in foreign markets. The study finds that takeovers by Chinese firms’ abroad are not motivated by a single reason but by a set of multiple motives. The motives include: to facilitate international expansion and diversification?and ―to acquire strategic assets’ including technology, research and development capabilities and other management know-how. This suggests that the motivation for M&As by Chinese firms appears to be intrinsically linked to market development and power and strategic knowledge sourcing. CBM&As by Chinese firms are seen primarily as a means of faster entry into new markets and increase market share thereby gaining the benefits of internalization, synergy and risk reduction through diversification. This study tends to provide support for the survey findings reported by KPMG Management Consulting (1997/1998) in which 'to increase market share' and new presence in other geographical areas were identified as themost important motives for M&As in Europe. A tentative conclusion to be drawn from the results is that mergers in China are used as a competitive weapon designed to obtain technology, market power and synergies.Regarding the results of event studies, the findings of this study suggest that cross-border mergers and acquisitions by Chinese firms experience significant and positive wealth gains for shareholders of the acquiring firms. The findings lend support to the view that cross-mergers & acquisitions enable international firms to exploit imperfections in product, factor and capital markets, and thus create more gains for their shareholders (Kindleberger, 1969; Caves, 1971; Hymers, 1976; and Froot and Stein, 1991).The results of this paper have significant implications for policy makers in China. From a public policy perspective, this research signifies the importance of speeding up the economic reforms in China to enable Chinese firms to participate fully and gain the benefits arising from the global market for corporate control. Local firms should be encouraged to engage in mergers and acquisitions of foreign firms to obtain the resources they lack (e.g. proprietary technology and managerial know how) and thus enabling them to develop their firm specific advantages and effectively cope with intensifying competition stemming from Chinese accession to World Trade Organisation (WTO). Despite this study?s contribution, the sample size appears to be the main limitation of this paper and hence we could not investigate the factors influencing the short-term performance. Future studies should focus on the factors which influence the creation of value for Chinese acquirers using multivariate regression analysis.译文中国企业的跨国并购：战略动因与绩效分析Agyenim Boateng Wang Qian Yang Tianle引言在过去二十年里中国最显着的发展是不断大力追求市场化改革，旨在加强世界各地的中国企业的竞争力。

陕西省石泉县江南高级中学高中英语必修一Reading课件

Guidance on search and skimming techniques
01
Reading
Targeted search for specific information, such as names, place
names, numbers, etc., ignoring irrelevant details.
Explanation of the main idea of the article
要点一
Emphasizing the importance …
The article showcases the challenges and growth of cross-cultural communication through the experience of a Chinese student in the United States, and emphasizes the importance of cross-cultural communication in the era of globalization.
目录
• Sorting and application of language knowledge points
• Cultivation and practice of cross-cultural communication awareness
• Classroom interactive segment setting and presentation
Pay attention to synonyms and antonyms
Searching for synonyms or antonyms related to new words can help understand their meanings.

抗癌药研究ppt课件

Identification and validation of target
Genomics analytic technology: microarray analysis, high-
throught RNAi, Ambion, Inc. Cenix BioScience
Proteomics analytic technology:affinity chromatography
Size Exclusion chromatography (SEC): seperating hits from unbound compounds
mass spectrometry (LC-MS): identifying the binders An industrial-scale robotic cherry-picker retrieves orders of
Anti-cancer Drug Discovery and Development
Outline
Anti-cancer drug discovery process The approach to anti-cancer drug discovery Identification and validation of target Computer aided drug design Small Moleculars screening through HTS Metabolic and Physicochemical Profiling of drug Cancer resistance
screening of synthetic compounds and natural products, based on anti-proliferative effects

Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series A, 28321{337, 1980.

1
Thanks to all the previous results, we can conclude with the asymptotic formula for the generic element dn k i.e., the number of lattice paths arriving at the point (n n ; k) : Theorem 4.3 The asymptotic value of dn k = tn]dk (t) is: p dn k ((A(k + 1) + B )s;k + Cs;k )dn 2nAk n sk;11rn : 1 Proof: The proof is immediate from the two lemmas above and from the previouslymentioned theorem by Bender. It is not di cult (but very laborious) to nd out that p this formula is a true approximation when k = o( n): 15
Let us now go on to dn k = tn]dk (t) where dk (t) is given by the recurrence in the formulas used in Example 4.2. The initial conditions are d0(t) = d(t) and d1(t) = td0(t)(d0(t) + d0(t)2t2) = d(t) ; 1 by the formula de ning d0(t): Therefore:
Proof: The three functions d0(t) d1(t) and d2(t) correspond to the theorem's initial cases

Reading Material Type and Sources of Air Pollutants翻译

Reading Material :Type and Sources of Air Pollutants[Ⅱ]there are 209 possible chlorinated biphenyls, ranging in physical characteristics. the mono-and biphenyls are colorless crystalline compounds that when burned in air give rise to soot and hydrogen chloride. 有209种可能的氯化联苯，物理特性等。

单和多氯联苯是无色，在空气中燃烧时产生烟尘和氯化氢的结晶化合物。

chlorinated biphenyls are soluble in many organic solvents and in water only in the ppm range .氯化联苯易溶于多种有机溶剂和水只有在ppm范围Although chemically stable (including to oxygen of the air) they can be hydrolyzed to oxybiphenyls under extreme conditions forming toxic polychlorodibenzofurans尽管化学性质稳定，即使对空气中的氧气而言也是如此，但在极端条件下他们也可被水解成氧化成二氧化苯，从而形成有毒的多氯代二苯并二恶英the pcb class of compounds received substantial attention and notoriety when in 1968 , in japan , accidental poisoning occurred by cooking rice in bran oil contaminated by pcbs . over 1000 patients suffered from various morbid symptoms. a similar poisoning occurred in taiwan in1979. causative agents were considered to be coconaminants of pcbs such as polychlorinated dibenzofurans that are secondarily formed during heating of pcbs congeners in commercial pcb mixtures and require a second look at pcb toxicity PCB类化合物收到实质性的关注和知名度，在1968年在日本，烹饪米糠油多氯联苯污染的大米发生意外中毒。

The acknowledge of decanting centrifuge you must k

The acknowledge of decanting centrifuge you must knowThe centrifuge is the last class of the whole mud cleaning system, it is used to separate the solid phases and liquid in drilling fluid or separate the liquid with different density in emulsion.View Centrifuge parameters :The structure and working principle of centrifuge Sedimentation centrifuge( screw type): It is use centrifugal sedimentation method to separate the composition of drilling fluid. The drilling fluid added into the drum forms the annular liquid layer under the force of centrifugal, the solid particles subside on the wall of drum. The clean liquid will be discharged from the overflow hole of drum or pipette, which is called chaotropic. When the separation finished, the sediments should be discharged manually or mechanically.The centrifuge with high separation factor should be used when the density difference of solid and liquid is small, the size of solid phases is small or the viscosity of liquid is high. The centrifuge is to lengthen the residence time of drilling fluid in the rotating drum to guarantee the separated liquid clear.The sedimentation centrifuge is widely used, especially used for the separation of drilling fluid with leakage of most fine particles or high filtration resistance because of the solid phases block the filtration medium. But the water content of the sediment will be high. Sieve drum centrifuge (Drum):The inside drum with many holes rotates in a fixed cylindrical case, there is hydraulic seal at the two sides of the shell. The axis of the inside drum stretches out through the seal, after the drilling fluid and dilution water injected from the upper left of the shell, because of the rotating of the inside drum, the drilling fluid rotates in the space between the two drums. Under the centrifuge force, the barytes and other big solid phases will be thrown to the wall of the shell, and discharged from an adjustable chock mouth. Adjust the chock mouth and the speed of pump can adjust the flux of the bottom flow. The light mud will sink slowly, enter the inside drum and be discharged by hollow axle. This kind of centrifuge can deal with a large mount of drilling fluid, and recover 82%-96% of the barytes.Based on the centrifugal force, rotating speed, separation points and admission capacity, the centrifuge can be classified as:Barytes recovery centrifuge:The rotating speed is 1600-1800r/min. The centrifuge force is 500-700 times of gravity force. To the solid phases with low density, the separation point is 6-10um, and to the solid phases with high density, the separation point is 4-7um. The admission capacity of mud is 2.3-9 m3/h. This kind of centrifuge is used to clean the colloid and control the PV.Large thruput centrifuge: The admission capacity of mud is 23-45 m3/h, the rotating speed is 1900-2000r/min. The centrifugal force is 800 times of gravity. The separation point is 5-7um. This kind of centrifuge is to deal with the solid phases larger than 5-7um.High Speed Centrifuges: The rotating speed is 2500-3000r/min, the centrifugal force is 1200-2100 times of gravity. The separation point can reach 2-5um. The admission speed of mud is decided by the type of drilling fluid. This kind of centrifuge is used to separate the solid phases of 2-5 um.。

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Published:June 06,2011/acscombsciCombinatorial and High-Throughput Screening of Materials Libraries:Review of State of the ArtRadislav Potyrailo*Chemistry and Chemical Engineering,GE Global Research Center,Niskayuna,New York 12309,United StatesKrishna RajanDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering and Institute for Combinatorial Discovery,Iowa State University,Ames,Iowa 50011,United StatesKlaus StoeweUniversit €a t des Saarlandes,Technische Chemie,Campus C4.2,66123,Saarbruecken,GermanyIchiro TakeuchiDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering,University of Maryland,College Park,Maryland 20742,United StatesBret ChisholmCenter for Nanoscale Science and Engineering and Department of Coatings and Polymeric Materials,North Dakota State University,Fargo,North Dakota 58102,United StatesHubert LamChemistry and Chemical Engineering,GE Global Research Center,Niskayuna,New York 12309,United States ’CONTENTS1.Introduction5802.General Principles5802.1.Experimental Planning 5812.2.Materials Synthesis5812.3.Materials Characterization 5812.4.Data Analysis and Mining5853.Materials Development Examples 5893.1.Catalysis5893.1.1.Homogeneous Catalysts590Received:January 14,2011Revised:May 24,2011ABSTRACT:Rational materials design based on prior knowledge is attractive because it promises to avoid time-consuming synthesis and testing of numerous materials candidates.However with the increase of complexity of materials,the scienti ﬁc ability for the rational materials design becomes progressively limited.As a result of this complexity,combinatorial and high-throughput (CHT)experimentation in materials science has been recognized as a new scienti ﬁc approach to generate new knowledge.This review demonstrates the broad applicability of CHT experimentation technologies in discovery and optimiza-tion of new materials.We discuss general principles of CHT materials screening,followed by the detailed discussion of high-throughput materials characteriza-tion approaches,advances in data analysis/mining,and new materials develop-ments facilitated by CHT experimentation.We critically analyze results of materials development in the areas most impacted by the CHT approaches,suchas catalysis,electronic and functional materials,polymer-based industrial coatings,sensing materials,and biomaterials.KEYWORDS:materials science,combinatorial and high-throughput (CHT)experimentation,electronic and functional materials,polymer-based industrial coatings,sensing materials,biomaterials3.1.2.HomogeneousÀHeterogeneous HybridApproaches5913.1.3.Heterogeneous Catalysts5923.1.4.Inﬂuences of Preparation Eﬀects5983.1.5.Kinetic Studies5983.2.Electronic and Functional Materials599binatorial Investigation ofLead-Free Piezoelectric Materials5993.2.2.Thermoelectric Materials and GateStack Materials601binatorial Mapping of StructuralPhases Across Ternary Metallic AlloySystems6023.3.Polymer-Based Industrial Coatings6033.3.1.Cross-Linkers for PolyurethaneDispersions6043.3.2.Polyurethane-Siloxane Fouling-ReleaseCoatings6043.3.3.Polysiloxane-Based Coatings PossessingTethered Quaternary Ammonium SaltGroups6073.3.4.Polyurethane-Based Coatings ContainingTethered Triclosan Groups6083.3.5.Radiation-Curable Coatings6083.3.6.Hybrid OrganicÀInorganic Coatings6083.4.Sensing Materials6093.4.1.Materials for Sensors Based on RadiantEnergy Transduction6103.4.2.Materials for Sensors Based onMechanical Energy Transduction6123.4.3.Materials for Sensors Based onElectrical Energy Transduction6143.5.Biomaterials6173.5.1.Biomaterials Used for Drug/GeneDelivery6183.5.2.Hydrogels for Drug/Gene Delivery620anic Biomaterials with Celland Stem Cell Systems6213.5.4.Inorganic Surfaces with Cell Systems6224.Summary and Outlook623 Author Information623 Acknowledgment624 Extended Glossary624 References6251.INTRODUCTIONRational design and optimization of materials based on prior knowledge is a very attractive approach because it could avoid time-consuming synthesis and testing of numerous materials candidates.However,to be quantitatively successful,rational design requires detailed knowledge regarding relation of intrinsic properties of materials to a set of their performance properties.This knowledge is typically obtained from extensive experimen-tal and simulation data.However,with the increase of structural and functional complexity of materials,the ability to rationally deﬁne the precise requirements that result in a desired set of performance properties becomes increasingly limited.1Thus,in addition to limited examples of rational materials design,a variety of materials have been discovered using detailed experimental observations or simply by chance,reﬂecting a general situation in materials design that is“still too dependent on serendipity”.2,3 In materials science,the materials properties depend not only on composition,but also on morphology,microstructure, and other parameters that are related to the material-prepara-tion conditions.As a result of this complexity,combinatorial and high-throughput(CHT)experimentation in materials science has been recognized as a new scientiﬁc approach to generate signiﬁcant new knowledge as summarized in recent reviews and books.4À20This review demonstrates the broad applicability of CHT experimentation technologies in discovery and optimization of new materials.We discuss general principles of CHT materials screening,followed by the discussion of the opportunities and new materials developments facilitated by CHT experimenta-tion.We critically analyze results of materials development in the areas most impacted by the CHT approaches,such as catalysis, electronic and functional materials,polymer-based industrial coatings,sensing materials,and biomaterials.2.GENERAL PRINCIPLESCombinatorial or high-throughput materials screening is a process that couples the capability for parallel production of large arrays of diverse materials together with diﬀerent high-through-put measurement techniques for various intrinsic and perfor-mance properties followed by the navigation in the collected data for identifying“lead”materials.4,11,15,21À26The terms“combina-torial materials screening”and“high-throughput experimenta-tion”are typically interchangeably applied for all types of automated parallel and rapid sequential evaluation processes of materials and process parameters that include truly combinator-ial permutations or their selected subsets.Individual aspects of accelerated materials development have been known for decades.These aspects include combinatorial and factorial experimental designs,27parallel synthesis of materi-als on a single substrate,28,29screening of materials for perfor-mance properties,9and computer data processing.30,31In1970, an integrated materials-development workﬂow was introduced by Hanak32with four key aspects that included(1)complete compositional mapping of a multicomponent system in one experiment,(2)simple rapid nondestructive all-inclusive chemi-cal analysis,(3)testing of properties by a scanning device,and (4)computer data processing.Hanak was truly ahead of his time and“it took25years for the world to realize his idea”.21In1995, applications of combinatorial methodologies in materials science were reinitiated by Xiang,Schultz,and co-workers.33Since then, combinatorial tools have been employed to discover and opti-mize a wide variety of materials(see Table1).A typical combinatorial materials development cycle is out-lined in pared to the initial idea of Hanak32(see Figure1A),the modern workﬂow(Figure1B)has several new important aspects,such as design/planning of experiments, materials theory/modeling and informatics,and scale up.In CHT screening of materials,concepts originally thought ashighly automated,have been recently reﬁned to have more human input,with only an appropriate level of automation. For the throughput of50À100materials formulations per day, it is acceptable to perform certain aspects of the process manually.34,35While it is attractive to produce multiple small-scale samples of materials at once using combinatorial tools,it is important to validate the performance of the combinatorial system by reproducing materials with good performance in laboratory scale synthesis and performance testing under con-ventional test conditions.In a reliable combinatorial workﬂow, relative materials performances correlate well with those repro-duced by traditional scale fabrication and testing.Thus,a correlation between performance of materials fabricated on the traditional and combinatorial scales is established using known materials.2.1.Experimental Planning.Searching for“a needle in the haystack”has been popular in the early days of combinatorial materials science.4,36,37It was estimated that286of chemical systems needed to be potentially investigated for their new materials properties(see Figure2A)however with only the unary and binary chemical systems investigated so far.38Taking into the account not only the properties of starting materials but also the needed variable levels of process conditions,rapidly brings the number of experimental runs in CHT screening of simple catalytic materials up to several million(see Figure2B).39 It was also shown that a theoretical dimensionality of the hyper-space of independent materials response features could be1021 by including the permutations of varying materials,measurement principles,and modes of operation for each material/measure-ment combination in chemical sensors(see Figure2C).40It was realized further that screening of the whole materials and process parameters space is still too costly and time prohibitive even with the availability of existing tools.38Instead, designing the CHT experiments to discover relevant descriptors became more attractive.37At present,methods for CHT experi-ment planning can be summarized as four general classes that include(1)traditional statistical design-of-experiments ap-proaches,such as factorial or fractional factorial designs that are intended to generate statistically reliable conclusions from a limited number of experiments;(2)“diversity”methods to cover a space of interest using various measures to characterize ensembles of experimental samples;(3)“search”methods to intelligently navigate through the experiment space in a succes-sion of experiments;and(4)hierarchical or hybrid methods to develop a series of experiments with increasing focus.41À45 2.2.Materials Synthesis.Specific aspects of CHT techniques for the synthesis,formulation,and preparation of materials are provided in respective sections3.1À3.5.2.3.Materials Characterization.To address quantitation needs of numerous materials-specific intrinsic and performance properties,a variety of high-throughput characterization tools are required for rapid and automated assessment of single or multi-ple properties of the large number of samples fabricated together as a combinatorial array or“library”.24,46,47Typical library layouts can be discrete27,29,33and gradient.28,32,48À52A specific type of library layout will depend on the required density of space to be explored,available library-fabrication capabilities,and capabilities of high-throughput characterization tools.As indicated in Technology Roadmap for Combinatorial Meth-ods,Vision2020,53an integration of analytical equipment with the combinatorial reactors is of critical importance for characteriza-tion of combinatorial libraries.Thus,signiﬁcant part of research eﬀorts in the area of CHT materials science has been dedicated to the development of methods for in situ quantitative monitoring of combinatorial reactions in both discovery and optimization phases.In situ monitoring of combinatorial reactions provides several attractive options for high-throughput screening.Real-time observation of the reaction progress in combinatorial reactors can tremendously speed up the materials discovery process byproviding previously unavailable information about Figure1.Concepts of the combinatorial materials-development work-ﬂow.(A)Initial concept proposed by Hanak in1970.32(B)Modern “combinatorial materials cycle”.19Table1.Examples of Materials Explored Using Combina-torial and High-Throughput Experimentation Techniques materials examples ref materials examples ref superconductor materials33zeolites473 ferroelectric materials474polymers475 magnetoresistive materials476metal alloys477 luminescent materials478materials for methanolfuel cells479 structural materials480materials for solid oxidefuel cells481 hydrogen storage materials482materials for solar cells483 organic light-emitting materials484automotive coatings247 ferromagnetic shape-memoryalloys485waterborne coatings486 thermoelastic shape-memoryalloys487vaporÀbarrier coatings269 heterogeneous catalysts488marine coatings263 homogeneous catalysts489fouling-release coatings490 polymerization catalysts491organic dyes492 electrochemical catalysts164polymeric sensing materials389 electrocatalysts forhydrogen evolution493metal oxide sensing materials494 fuel cell anode catalysts495formulated sensing materials332 enantioselective catalysts496agricultural materials497the starting reaction components evolving into the reaction and the dynamics of progress of multiple reactions at once at each reaction phase.Monitoring of reaction components can provide valuable feedback information to control and rapidly optimize reaction parameters.Overall,in situ monitoring of combinatorial reactions includes all of the attractive features of in-line detection methods,such as automation,no sample removal or preparation steps and,thus,reduced number of contamination sources.It has been statistically demonstrated that in situ measurement sys-tems,in principle,are capable of making quality determinations to a substantially higher order of precision than the traditional o ﬀ-line laboratory systems.54À56Optical,chromatographic,electrochemical,and mass-spectro-metric techniques are evolving as the most widely used analytical methodologies for direct in situ monitoring and optimization of combinatorial reactions.57À61A representative list of applications of analytical techniques recently reported for the in situ monitor-ing of combinatorial reactions and processes is compiled in Table 2.When an analytical instrument collects quantitative data from a combinatorial experiment,the accuracy of determinations often depends on the ability to provide an interference-free response.The interferences can arise from a variety of sources and can include chemical and environmental interferences.The ability to provide accurate quantitative data improves with the increase of the information content or dimensionality of the collected data per combinatorial sample.Analytical instruments can be classi-ﬁed according to the dimensionality of data that they provide such as zero-,ﬁrst-,second-,and higher order instruments.Such classi ﬁcation of analytical instruments is well accepted 62and canbe applied for description of capabilities of instruments for real time monitoring and optimization of combinatorial reactions.The classi ﬁcation principles are illustrated in Figure 3.A measure-ment system that generates a single data point per combinatorial sample is a zero-order instrument (see Figure 3A).First-order measurement systems generate a string of multiple measurements per combinatorial sample (see Figure 3B).Measurements pro-vided by the ﬁrst-order measurement system are of the same nature,for example,temporal,spectral,or sensor array responses.Second-order measurement systems generate a matrix of an instrument response upon the change of two independent types of variables per sample (see Figure 3C).Depending on the parti-cular need in the combinatorial screening,higher-order measure-ment systems are also possible.63Examples of performance of zero-,ﬁrst-,and second-order instruments in combinatorial screening of materials are pre-sented in Figure 4.A zero-order measurement approach is illustrated in Figure 4A and B where abrasion resistance of organic protective coatings was determined from measurements of scattered light from each coating in a 48-element array.34A simple zero-order measurement approach was useful because it provided the required information about the end-use perfor-mance of the protective coatings after an abrasion test (see Figure 4A).Measurements of the abrasion-induced increase in the amount of light scatter were performed at a single wavelength as shown in Figure 4B.A single-wavelength measurement was adequate for the correlation between the high-throughput and traditional evaluation of abrasion resistance of coatings.34A ﬁrst-order measurement approach is illustrated in Figure 4C and D where measurements of ﬂuorescence spectra of solidFigure 2.Examples of diversity of materials compositions,process factors,and operation conditions applicable for combinatorial screening.(A)Dependence of the number of possible systems on the number of components.Red:systems investigated up to now.38(B)Factors and their levels for one-step synthesis of diphenylcarbonate.39(C)Hyperspace of features of materials and measurements in chemical sensors.40Table2.Selected Examples of Real-Time Monitoring of Combinatorial Reactions:Instrumentation and New Knowledge materials system instrumentation knowledge refsolid-phase synthesis of trisubstituted amines ﬁve-step reaction sequence on resin is followed thereaction step-by-step using the sequence ofﬁveanalytical tools as a function of experiment time:single bead IR,1H MAS NMR,2D MAS COSY,MAS HMQC,13C MAS NMRgeneration of a protocol of analytical tools that allowsa chemist to decisively evaluate synthetic steps,verify new building blocks,and detect possible sidereactions prior to or during actual library construction498metal alloys catalyst candidates serial MS screening of a15Â15Â15libraries with120diﬀerent compositionskinetics of catalytic reactions49996-capillary array for palladium-catalyzed annulation nonaqueous multiplexed capillary electrophoresis rapid determination of catalytic activity,selectivity andkinetics of the various combinations59solid-phase organicsynthesis productssingle-bead FTIR reaction kinetics,conversion yield93resin-bead supported combinatorial libraries hyperspectral IR imaging for monitoring of catalyticreactions with the screening time independent of thenumber of elements in the librarykinetics of catalytic reactions500solid-phase peptide synthesis products near-IR multispectral imaging based on scanningacousto-optic tunableﬁltersimultaneous determination of kinetics of multiplereactions501catalytic dehydrogenation of cyclohexane to benzene resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization for lowparts per billion and high parts per trillion detectioncapabilitydetermination of activities of catalyst sites by monitoringof a single reaction product;possibility for monitoring ofmultiple reaction products to determine catalyst selectivity502amorphous microporous mixed oxide catalysts IR thermography for gas-phase screening of catalystcandidates(sample size200μg)kinetics of catalytic reactions488bead-bound catalysts IR thermography for solution-phase screening of3150potential catalysts bound to300À500μmdiameter polymer beadskinetics of catalytic reactions503styrene-polymerization catalysis IR thermographic imaging of organometallic catalysts reaction kinetics from the time dependence of theheat generation504catalytic activity ofV2O5in oxidation of naphthalene to naphthoquinone by O2ﬂuorescence and thermographic imaging formonitoring of catalytic reactionsdetermination of nonspeciﬁc temperature increaseby thermography and species-speciﬁc concentration mapsbyﬂuorescence50548element array of epoxy formulations automated large sample array diﬀerential scanningcalorimeter for process optimization for screeningstudies of multivariable arrayscure kinetics506discrete array of inorganic oxideﬁlms pulsed laser deposition with in situ monitoring of growthsurface with reﬂection high energy electrondiﬀraction(RHEED).one-lot optimization of epitaxial growth process by using acarrousel type masking plate.Variable growth conditionsinclude pressure,temperature,laser energy and laserrepetition rate507electrochemical catalysts ﬂuorescence imaging of catalysts for oxidation ofmethanol using a pH indicator in discovery andfocus librarieskinetics of catalytic reactions164catalytic hydrogen-producing materials near-IR reﬂection sensor array for2-D mapping ofH2from catalytic hydrogen-producing materialskinetics of catalytic reactions508organic coating formulations optimization of processing conditions(curing parameters)in fabrication of UV-cured automotive organic protectivecoatings.Fluorescence of a viscosity-sensitive molecularprobe monitored during curing of coatings.rapid decoupling of temperature and radiation eﬀects incuring of UV curable coating formulations by usingmultiple coatings and process conditions at once509chemical and biochemical catalysts 96-thermistor array for detection of temperature changeswith a0.1mK resolutioncorrelation of catalysts concentration and time-dependentrecorded maximum temperature510libraries of polymer/ pigment compositions ﬂuorescence spectroscopy and imaging for the evaluationof oxidative stability(weathering)of polymer/pigmentcompositions under conventional test conditionsmultiple levels of end-use testing conditions provide morereliable ranking of performance of materials.Similar kineticrates of weathering of polymers with quite diﬀerent pigmentswere found511polymeric materials upon their melt polymerization were per-formed directly in individual microreactors.A view of the 96-microreactor array is shown in Figure4C.From these measurements,several chemical parameters in the combinatorial samples were identiﬁed.The spectral shape of theﬂuorescence emission with an excitation at340nm provided the information about the concentration of the branched product in the poly-carbonate polymer and the selectivity of a catalyst used for the melt polymerization.60,64,65A representativeﬂuorescence spec-trum(along with an excitation line at340nm)from a singlemicroreactor in the array is illustrated in Figure4D.When measurements are done with aﬁrst-order instrument and there is another independent variable involved,this constitutes a second-order measurement approach(see Figure4E and F).This type of screening was used for the evaluation of sensing materials.Table2.Continuedmaterials system instrumentation knowledge refone-dimensional coiled librariesof polymer/UV absorber compositions ﬂuorescence spectroscopy and imaging for the evaluationof oxidative stability(weathering)of polymer/UVabsorber compositions under accelerated testconditions.Environmental stress is applied to only localregions,followed by high-sensitivity spatiallyresolved characterization.ranking of polymer/UV absorber compositionsequivalent to traditional weathering data while achieved20times faster333polyphasicﬂuid reactions microreactor for liquid/liquid isomerization andgas/liquid asymmetric hydrogenation based ondynamic sequential operationreaction rate is proportional to the catalyst concentration;the rate decreases with increasing surfactant concentration,no change in the enantiomeric excess was observed512polymer synthesis on-line GPC for reaction optimization determination of activation energy of polymerization513siloxane rubber/ carbon black nanocomposites automated scanning probe microscope study of curing rate of siloxane rubber matrix on roughnessandconductivity of composites514Figure3.Schematic of(A)zero-,(B)ﬁrst-,and(C)second-orderanalytical measurementsfor high-throughput materials characterization.Figure4.Typical examples of zero-,ﬁrst,and second-order analyticalmeasurements for high-throughput materials characterization:(A,B)Zero-order measurements of scattered light from each organic coating ina48-element array at a single wavelength upon an abrasion resistancetest.A,reﬂected-light image of the coatings array.B,representativereﬂected light intensity from a single coating in the array.(C,D)First-order measurements ofﬂuorescence spectra from each polycarbonatematerial in a96-element microreactor array at a single excitationwavelength.C,reﬂected-light image of the microreactor array.D,representativeﬂuorescence spectrum from a single polymer materialin the array.(E,F)Second-order measurements of color changes incolorimetric sensing materials in a48-element array.E,general view ofthe sensor materials array in a gasﬂow-through cell.F,representativeabsorption spectra from a single material in the array collected over aperiod of time of reaction of this sensor material with a vapor of interest.Figure4E shows a48-element array of sensor materials positioned in a gasﬂow-cell for the monitoring of the materials response upon exposure to vapors of interest.For the evaluation of sensing materials,absorption spectra were collected over a period of time of reaction of these sensing materials with a vapor of interest. Results of these measurements are illustrated in Figure4F.Other examples of second-order systems applied for high-throughput materials characterization are excitationÀemission luminescence measurement systems,65,66GC-MS,67,68and others.The increase in the measurement dimensionality(i.e.,the order of analytical instrumentation)improves the analytical capabilities of the screening systems and makes possible their use for reaction monitoring and optimization.These capabilities include increased analyte selectivity,more simple approach to reject contributions from interferences,multicomponent anal-ysis,and outlier detection.Importantly,second-and higher-order measurement approaches beneﬁt from the improved perfor-mance even in presence of unknown interferences.692.4.Data Analysis and Mining.The CHT experiments create significant amount of data,generating challenges in data manage-ment.The issues range from managing work flows in experi-ments,to tracking multivariate measurements,to storing the data,to be able to query and retrieve information from databases, and to mine the appropriate descriptors to predict materials properties.In an ideal CHT workflow,one should“analyze in a day what is made in a day”.70Such performance depends on the adequate data management capabilities of the CHT workflow. Table3illustrates important functions of the data management system and demonstrates aspects that have been already devel-oped and that are under development.Data management stra-tegies for different applications were summarized by Koinuma and co-workers.71,72The aspects of information processing that focus on the scientific interpretation of data generated from CHT screening have been extensively discussed.72À78Data mining techniques have two primary functions such as pattern recognition and prediction,both of which form the foundations for understanding materials behavior.Following the treatment of Tan et.al.79À81pattern recognition serves as a basis for deriving correlations,trends,clusters,trajectory and anomalies among disparate data.The interpretation of these patterns is intrinsically tied to an understanding of materials physics and chemistry.In many ways this role of data mining is similar to the phenomenological structureÀproperty paradigms that play a central role in the study of engineering materials.It isTable3.Functions of Data Management Systemfunction current capabilities needs experimental planning•composition parameters •process parameters •library design •iterative intelligent experimental planning based on results from virtual or experimental librariesdatabase•entry and search of composition and process variables •operation with heterogeneous data•uniﬁcation of numerical data between diﬀerent instruments, databases,individual computers •storage and manipulation(search)of large amounts(tera/peta bytes and more)of data•development of advanced query systems to databases that can be adapted to machine learning algorithmsinstrument control operation of diverse instruments•interinstrument calibration•full instrument diagnostics•plug-'n'-play multiple instrument conﬁgurations data processing•visualization of compositions and process conditions of library elements•visualization of measured parameters•matrix algebra•cluster analysis•quantiﬁcation•outlier detection•multivariate processing of steady-state and time-resolved data•third party statistical packages •advanced data compression•processing of large amounts(terabytes and more)of data •linking of physical base computational tools to data processing •scientiﬁc visualization toolsdata mining•prediction of properties of new materials•virtual libraries•cluster analysis•molecular modeling•QSAR•identiﬁcation of appropriate descriptors on diﬀerent levels (atomic,molecular,process,etc.)•establishment of nonlinear and hybrid data mining tools •“smart”data mining algorithms that can identify the right type of tools simply based on the survey of the data available。