Innovation in Japan(2014)

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英语句子结构剖析（9）

英语句子结构剖析（9）1、We are fortunate that it is, because building new educational systems there and putting enough people through them to improve economic performance would require two or three generations.译文：我们十分庆幸这种观点错了,因为在这些国家建立新的教育体制并通过这种体制培养足够的人才来改善经济状况需要两三代人的时间。

分析：本句是一个因果关系的复合句，主干是：We are fortunate…。

that itis是形容词的宾语从句。

后面是because引导的原因状语从句，具体解释了前面整句话We are fortunatethat itis的原因。

该从句中的主语是and连接的两个动名词短语，即building…和putting…，would require为谓语，two or three generations做其宾语。

2、This DNA can reveal genetic information about only one or two ancestors, even though, for example, just three generations back people also have six other great-grandparents or, four generations back, 14 other great-great-grandparents.译文：这种DNA检测只能检测出一两位祖先的基因信息，尽管，比如说，只追溯三代，每个人还有另外六位曾祖父母，追溯到第四代，还有另外的14个高祖父母。

分析：该句的主干是This DNA can reveal genetic information…，之后的about only one or two ancestors是宾语genetic information的后置定语，对其进行解释说明。

日本科学技术创新基本计划

日本科学技术创新基本计划英文版Japan's Basic Plan for Science and Technology InnovationJapan, a nation renowned for its technological advancements and innovative spirit, has always placed a strong emphasis on science and technology. Reflecting this commitment, the Japanese government has introduced the "Basic Plan for Science and Technology Innovation," a comprehensive strategy that aims to guide the country's scientific and technological development for the coming years.The Basic Plan recognizes the critical role of science and technology in driving economic growth, enhancing social welfare, and addressing global challenges. It outlines several key areas of focus, including basic research, applied research, and technology development.Basic research, at the core of the plan, aims to explore the frontiers of knowledge and make breakthroughs in fields suchas artificial intelligence, quantum science, and biotechnology. This focus on fundamental research is crucial for laying the groundwork for future technological advancements.Applied research, on the other hand, is focused on translating scientific discoveries into practical applications that can benefit society. This includes areas like medical research, energy efficiency, and environmental protection. By bridging the gap between research and real-world applications, applied research helps to accelerate the pace of technological innovation.Technology development, another key aspect of the plan, focuses on enhancing Japan's competitiveness in global markets. This involves investing in emerging technologies like robotics, semiconductors, and advanced manufacturing. By staying ahead of the curve in these areas, Japan aims to maintain its position as a leading innovator in the global technology landscape.The implementation of the Basic Plan for Science and Technology Innovation is expected to bring about significantchanges in Japan's scientific and technological landscape. It will foster a culture of innovation, encourage collaboration among research institutions and industries, and attract talent from around the world. In turn, these changes are expected to drive economic growth, improve people's lives, and contribute to global progress.中文版日本科学技术创新基本计划日本，一个因其技术进步和创新精神而闻名的国家，始终高度重视科学技术。

《全球产业转移》英文版

Global Shifts1Barry EichengreenUniversity of California, BerkeleyApril 2011Shifts happen. We are currently witnessing a major shift in the balance of economic, financial and political power from the advanced countries to emerging markets – from West to East, or from the West to the Rest. This is, of course, not the first time that we have observed this kind of global shift. The rise of the West from the 15th century and its concomitant, the decline of China, was itself an earlier instance, if mirror image, of this kind of shift. (See Figure 1.) The industrial revolution, which gave rise to what is sometimes called “The Great Divergence” (the growing divergence in manufacturing capability and in capacity to project power between the first countries to industrialize, principally in Europe, and other regions) marked another global shift. It is no coincidence that the first industrial nation, Great Britain, came to control fully a quarter of the world’s population and land mass by the end of the 19th century.2 There was the shift in economic power from the pioneer industrializer, Britain, to followers like Germany that contributed to the economic and geopolitical tensions helping to set the stage for World War I. There is Charles Kindleberger’s thesis that that Great Depression of the 1930s was a consequence of the global shift in power from Britain to the United States, one that left an exhausted Britain incapable of managing the world economy and an inexperienced United States unwilling to do so.3 There is the shift after World War II toward the two great superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, and the dominance of the U.S. over the Western world (Figure 2). There is then the relative decline of the United States owing to catch-up growth, first in Europe, next in Japan, and finally in East Asia and elsewhere, which gradually closed the per-capita-income gap. The current shift toward emerging markets like China and India (Figures 3 and 4) is usefully seen in this light.This paper examines these earlier shifts in economic and political power and asks what light they shed on the implications of today’s global shift. I inquire into the sources of the shift, describe the tensions to which it gave rise, and ask how those tensions were managed. The answer to this last question, in two words, is “not well.” Global shifts have almost always fanned economic conflict, created problems for economic management, and heightened diplomatic tensions. Sometimes they have erupted into military conflict. While the same need not be true this time, there is reason to worry that the current global shift is a source of economic and political risks. It is past due time to start thinking about both the nature of those risks and mechanisms for managing them.The causes and consequences of changes in economic fortune, both relative and absolute, probably constitute the central question of all of economic history, if not all of economics. One paper can do justice to neither the topic nor the literature. Rather than attempting to be comprehensive, I focus on a number of specific cases, those mentioned in the opening paragraph. While this requires me to touch on aspects of nearly a millennium of human history, my focus is mainly on the last two centuries, the period since the establishment of the Bank of Finland, the1 Prepared for the Bank of Finland’s 200th anniversary symposium, Helsinki, May 5-6, 2011.2 And to “rule the waves.”3 As originally advanced in Kindleberger (1973).event providing the occasion for this symposium. Coverage of these episodes is also necessarily selective and designed to highlight the themes sounded above.1.The Rise of the WestEconomic historians are unanimously of the view that Ming China was the leading economic power in 1400. No other country constructed the equivalent of the Great Wall or the Grand Canal. No other state or empire had a standing army with a million troops. China was known for its technological prowess and precocity – for its mastery of gunpower, printing, paper-making, and compasses. It was known for the long-distance commercial voyages of the great admiral Zheng He whicht served commercial purposes (many of his ships had private cabins for merchants) and also sought to extract tribute from other lands bordering the Indian Ocean.Two factors then combined to set on foot a global shift. First, the Ming Dynasty turned inward. Zheng He’s fleet was dismantled. Limits were placed on the size of newly-constructed ships. By the end of the 15th century, subjects of the Chinese empire were forbidden to construct ocean-going ships or to leave the country. The overland route west, the Silk Road, was all but closed to traffic. The Chinese met early European incursions by limiting contact to a handful of treaty ports.Why the Mings turned inward is disputed. One view is that curtailing contact with the outside world was a low-cost way of dealing with piracy and the Uighurs. Another is that from the middle of the 15th century the Mings had bigger problems close at hand, like their border dispute with what is modern-day Vietnam. Still another is that this was the ill-advised decision of a clutch of conservative officials concerned about the impact on China of foreign influence.But there is little disputing the consequences. China’s inward turn created space for other powers. Lack of contact with foreign ideas, the absence of foreign competition, and the smothering effects of tradition set China up for a long period of economic stagnation.The coincident factor was improved Western sailing, navigation and military technology. The key innovation was the caravel, a sailing ship developed by the Portuguese and then the Spanish that combined lateen (triangular) rigging, making it very maneuverable and able to sail up rivers, with square sails that made it very fast and able to cross oceans. Lateen sails came from the Arab lands, square ones from Northern Europe; the Iberians were strategically placed between the two influences. New navigational techniques developed by Arab, Indian and Jewish astronomers but systematized by the Portuguese allowed European ships to go anywhere. Finally, the Portuguese were quicker than others to adapt the use of canon to ocean-going vessels.Why Portugal, one might ask? As with the Internet, public-sector R&D played a role. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal founded a maritime academy that fostered many of these innovations. He established an observatory at Sagres to construct accurate tables on the sun’s declination.4The early voyages down the west coast of Africa were sponsored by the4From 1500 or so there was a growing accumulation of navigational data in a variety of countries (Spain, France, England), all of which saw the publication of practical pamphlets and guides on the subject.Portuguese crown (just as Columbus’ pioneering trans-Atlantic voyage was underwritten by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain). The result was the Age of Exploration (sometimes referred, in less politically-correct terms, as the Age of Discovery), in which the Portuguese and Spanish found their way around Cape Horn to Asia and then across the Atlantic to the Americas.5While the Portuguese had a head start, the Spanish had a larger economy. The two quickly came into conflict over trading posts, trade rights, and other commercial prerogatives. There was an effort to divide the spoils – to create separate spheres of influence not unlike the Western and Soviet blocs during the Cold War or the possibility, sometimes mooted today, of Chinese and U.S. spheres of influence in Asia and the West. The first such effort, the Treaty of Tordesillas signed by Spain and Portugal in 1494, divided the newly discovered territories of Africa and the Western Hemisphere. The dividing line ran north-south along a meridian roughly down the middle of the Atlantic before bisecting what became modern-day Brazil. This was followed in 1524 by the Treaty of Zaragoza, which similarly divided Asia and the Pacific along a north-south meridian running roughly through the middles of Japan and Australia.6An unintended consequence of this spheres-of-influence strategy may be to permit the regional hegemon to grow fat and lazy. So it is said of Spain and Portugal following the conclusion of the two treaties.7This made room for hungry upstarts: England and theNetherlands. The Iberians were followed into the Indian Ocean by first the Dutch and then the English: the Dutch ended up controlling trading rights with much of modern-day Indonesia, the English with India. In the Western Hemisphere the Iberians were flanked to the north by the Dutch and, more importantly, English and French, who built their commercial empires on the basis of shipping and finance but in addition had manufactures (woolens) to export.The upstarts also relied on strong institutions – national champions that enjoyed public-sector support. In 1602 the Dutch States General established the world’s first joint-stockcompany, the Dutch East India Company, granting it not just a monopoly of trade with Asia but also the power to establish fortified trading posts, negotiate treaties, and wage defensive wars.8 The company established a centralized hub in Batavia (now Jakarta), organized nearly 5,000 voyages, and paid its shareholders an annual dividend approaching 20 per cent for twocenturies.9 5 Why Europe, more generally, one might ask? Was the Renaissance conducive to the systematization ofknowledge? Did the Black Death, by raising land-labor ratios, create surplus agricultural production that could be traded and higher living standards? These questions presumably deserve more than a footnote. At virtually the same time Queen Elizabeth granted a royal charter to the (English) East Asia Company, which like its Dutch competitor acquired monopoly rights and, eventually, a 6 The prod for this treaty was the conflict between the two countries over Malacca and the surrounding “spice islands” (the source of the region’s valuable spices). Portugal arrived first, establishing a fort at Malacca in 1511. Spain then arrived in the Moluccas from the east in 1521 as part of Magellan’s famous attempt to circumnavigate the globe, and Charles V sent another expedition to colonize the islands. There followed a year of fighting between the two countries. In 1524 the two kingdoms agreed to resolve the issue by drawing another meridian that would divide the world into two equal-sized hemispheres. To get it right, each crown appointed three astronomers, three pilots, and three mathematicians. 7 See Kindleberger (1994) and Landes (1998). 8 This, recall, was the age of mercantilism, when states sought to monopolize the trade of a region so as to generate monopoly profits which could then be used to strengthen the state’s finances and its ability to wage war. 9 Now there’s a risk premium for you.modern board of directors.10 Using Surat in India as a transit point between the Spice Islands and Europe, the East Asia Company was responsible for Britain establishing its foothold in India. These two trading concerns, as joint-stock companies and public-private partnerships, were important institutional innovations. They were the agents of the power shift from Southern to Northern Europe and of Europe’s growing influence and control over much of Southern Asia.This situation – two aspirants infringing on the turf of two established powers, and the Europeans all seeking to establish exclusive access to the minerals, precious metals, and high-value crop-lands of other regions (spice- and sugar-growing land in particular) – was a recipe for conflict among the imperialists and between the Europeans and the indigenous peoples with whom they made contact.11 In addition to nimble sailing ships and canon, the Europeans had on their side metallurgy (which furnished them with efficient swords and daggers) and infectious disease (which desimated previously isolated indigenous populations). In turn the imperialists were weakened by almost continuous internecine conflict. The rising Northern European powers fought for space and influence with both their Iberian predecessors and one another. When the English arrived in the Bandas and Moluccas, islands where cloves and nutmeg were grown, the Dutch drove them out by force.12 The Dutch fought with Sultan Agung, who headed a powerful state in central Java, over the establishment of Batang. They took Ceylon from Portugal along with most of that country’s Indian forts and trading stations. Similar stories could be told about the Western Hemisphere. Cooperation would have meant more surplus for the Europeans and indigenous peoples alike. But it was not to be.The Dutch and English, having come into conflict over foreign policy and commercial interests (it is not clear that there was a clear separation between the two matters in this period), skirmished in Europe as well. The Dutch also attracted the enmity of France, which sided with England in its mid-17th century conflict with the United Provinces and then used import tariffs to protect its infant sugar and cloth industries from Dutch competition.13 In the 18th century the French and English clashed over control of North America in the French and Indian Wars.14 Military means were used repeatedly to bolster trade and create mercantilist preserves free of foreign competition. One worries that it could happen again.2.The Great DivergenceThe industrial revolution transformed the world economy by launching per capita incomes on a sustained upward path unlike anything seen previously. It also constituted a global shift par excellence. It widened the gap in economic and military capabilities between European countries whose ambitions had been restrained by a fragile balance of power. It also transformed the conduct of warfare. Within Europe, Germany’s comparative advantage in the production of steel and, by implication, the construction of railways gave it a decisive advantage over France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. In the colonies, the invention of the Gatling gun, another10 A Royal African Company was later formed to take charge of trade in slaves, ivory and gold in Africa.11 The scramble for scarce resources and associated possibility for conflict will resonate, presumably, with Chinese officials concerned about their country’s dependence on imported raw materials.12 Helped importantly by their native allies.13 This, from the mid-17th century, being the age of high mercantilism.14 Leading to the Seven Years’ War in Europe and indirectly, it is often said, to the French Revolutionary Wars.byproduct of the industrial revolution, gave the Europeans a powerful advantage in their effort to secure colonial control of additional portions of Africa and Asia.15Thus, it is no coincidence that the industrial revolution was followed by the new imperialism of the second half of the 19th century: by the partition of Africa by the European powers and their further colonial expansion into Asia. Crude Marxian accounts sometimes explain this new wave of colonialism and imperialism as a function of the voracious appetite of 19th century industrial economies for raw materials and the desire of governments to secure exclusive access to the same.16 But modern economic histories cast doubt on the notion that empire paid: any benefits to the imperialists, including those associated with favored access to raw materials, were swamped by military and other costs.17What industrialization did was greatly enhance the ability of industrial nations to project power and control other lands.18 With the railway and the steamship (practical for ocean-going voyages in the second half of the 19th century, not incidentally coincident with the new imperialism), it became possible to deploy military force more quickly. Machined canonry (now breech rather than muzzle loaded) and rifles (notably the caplock rifled musket) were for the 19th century what steel swords and daggers had been for the 16th and 17th. These innovations were decisive, for example, in the First Opium War of 1839-42.19 With the Great Divergence in per capita incomes, it became possible for the industrial powers to raise larger and better equipped standing armies. European control of the interior of Africa or India might have been paper thin, but it would have been unimaginable in the absence of industrialization. Like 21st century Europeans who prefer to take part of their higher living standards in the form of increased leisure time, their 19th century predecessors sought to take a part in the form of colonial conquest.This desire was a source of frustration to countries late to the great global game, Germany in particular. With the growth of its industry, and its comparative advantage in military-relevant heavy industry in particular, Germany became as capable as any European power at mobilizing and projecting force. But the process of industrialization reached critical mass later than in Britain or France.20 German unification had to wait for Bismarck to incorporate the southern states. Thus, by the time Germany emerged as an industrial and military power of the first rank, the process of colonial partition was largely complete.Germany therefore had to content itself with a few remaining scraps in West Africa, East Africa and the Pacific. It pushed against French and Spanish control in North Africa, precipitating the First Moroccan Crisis in 1905 by insisting that France adopt an open door policy for its protectorate, to little avail. It was left to advance its expansionist aims in and around Europe, notably attempting to expand its influence over the declining Ottoman Empire by completing the Berlin-Baghdad Railway, something that in turn became a geopolitical15 The descendant of the hand-cranked Gatling gun was the automatic Maxim gun, invented in 1884.16 An interpretation that has obvious implications for China’s actions in Africa and elsewhere in the developing world. There is also the more sophisticated variant of the hypothesis due to Eric Williams (Williams (1966).17 For the balance sheet see Davis and Huttenback (1986).18 David Landes in his 1998 book and earlier writings makes this argument most forcefully.19 See for example Hacker (1977).20 The classic account being Clapham (1936).flashpoint.21 Some accounts describe Germany’s ambitions in terms of the need of an industrial economy to secure a reliable supply of energy and raw materials (oil in the case of the Ottoman Empire), something that will resonate with observers of China today. Most, however, understand it more in terms of naked imperial ambition.22 Be this as it may, the result was the tensions and tangled alliances that set the stage for World War I.Finance was enlisted not just in the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad Railway but more widely in the effort to advance geopolitical goals. Then like now, that influence might be more subtle than overt. Modern observers alarmed by the rise of sovereign wealth funds wonder whether those funds’ governmental masters are encouraging them to invest in ways that are geopolitically expedient as well as economically remunerative. Before World War I, they saw governments, like those of France and Germany, encouraging private lending to Czarist Russia or the Ottoman Sultan with the goal of alliance building. Hints were dropped that the government would take it as a favor if an investment bank underwrote bond issues on behalf of such borrowers on favorable terms.23 Sometimes governments might intervene directly to encourage or halt issuance on behalf of foreign governments. Between 1897 and 1901, for example, the French government intervened with the Crédit Lyonnais, discouraging it from issuing bonds on behalf of the Russian government until the Russian and French general staffs had agreed on the particular strategic railways to whose construction the proceeds would be put.Employing finance for military and strategic purposes meant that it was not always allocated in ways that maximized returns. The fact that the French and German governments regularly intervened in the operations of the Paris and Berlin markets, whereas the British government employed a more hands-off attitude, helps to explain why the rate of return on French and German lending was generally lower than comparable returns on British overseas investment.24 While financial might creates strategic opportunities for governments, in other words, exploiting those opportunities also has costs.25With governments intervening in private financial affairs before the fact, they also felt some compulsion to come to the aid of the bondholders if and when things went wrong. Gunboats might then be dispatched to collect payments from defaulting debtors. Just how But while Mitchener and Weidenmier (2005) argue for the importance of these “supersanctions,” they identify just 6 episodes of direct military intervention out of 43 default episodes spanning the 19th century. Other authors argue that when governments intervened militarily in response to default, they were in fact using financial events as a pretext for intervention desired on other grounds. They suggest that other mechanisms – ex ante monitoring by investment banks with reputations to protect and ex post exclusion from the bond market by a cohesive cartel of issuers – were more important for enforcing contracts.2621 See Jastrow (1917).22 Something to which today’s China, which prefers to keep a relatively low-key profile internationally, has not obviously fallen prey.23 For accounts of the practice see Feis (1930).24 This point is argued and documented in Fishlow (1986).25 Something for the managers of sovereign wealth funds to bear in mind.26 See inter alia Mauro, Sussman and Yafeh (2006) and Flandreau and Flores (2007).3. The Rise of the United StatesThe other global shift at this time was the rise of the United States. From an economic speck at the outset of the 19th century, the U.S. by 1914 had grown into the world’s largest economy and leading exporter. But while economic change was rapid, political adjustments lagged behind. The North American colonies had been settled by Europeans who had sought to distance themselves from the Old World. George Washington in his farewell address had emphasized the desirability of “as little political connection as possible” with foreign nations (while at the same time acknowledging the value of “extending” commercial relations).Isolationist instincts, in other words, ran deep. Even the Monroe Doctrine, which warned the European powers against attempting to advance their colonial ambitions in the country’s Latin American backyard, can be interpreted in isolationist terms: it promised as a quid pro quo that the U.S. would not participate in wars among the European powers. The notable exception was U.S. occupation of the Philippines resulting from the Spanish-American War. That the precipitating event that led the U.S. to disregard its long-standing tradition of non-interventionism was an incident on an island, Cuba, a scant 90 miles from the rising power’s shores is perhaps worth recalling (Taiwan being only 81 miles from the Chinese mainland).27 In defeating the Spanish, the U.S. in fact took control not just of the Philippines but also Guam and Puerto Rico. Whether this was a momentary fall from grace or an emerging economic power for the first time displaying geopolitical ambitions is disputed.28But there is no question that the U.S. was, by this time, seeking to more actively assert its economic interests. Before long it was seeking to alter the structure of international markets so that they worked to its advantage (or at least didn’t disadvantage it to the same extent). A long-standing bone of contention was that the trade credit required by U.S. exporters and importers was almost entirely denominated in sterling and sourced in London. This put U.S. producers and merchants at a competitive disadvantage; not only did they have to pay two commissions, one to their local bank and the other to its London correspondent, but they also bore the exchange risk. One of several rationales that combined in 1913 to cause the establishment of the FederalReserve System (overcoming another deep-seated American aversion, this one to concentrated financial power) was the desire to create a market in securitized trade credits (“tradeacceptances”) denominated in dollars and sourced domestically.29Almost immediately the Fed took steps to develop this market, passing the necessaryregulations while discounting acceptances and purchasing them outright. As a result of this initiative (and as a byproduct of disruptions to the London market caused by World War I), in a scant ten years the acceptance market in New York matched its rival in London in both size and liquidity.30 27 Cuba not having achieved independence in the second decade of the 19th century, it was effectively exempted from the Monroe Doctrine. The dollar became as a true international currency; by the mid-1920s central banks 28 On the first view, see Bemis (1962); proponents of the second include Kennedy (1987), Mead (1987) and Nye (1990). 29 As emphasized by Broz (1997). 30 The relevant document is provided by Eichengreen and Flandreau (2010).around the world held as large a fraction of the foreign exchange reserves in dollars as in sterling.31The U.S. competed with Britain throughout the 1920s in seeking to bring more countries into its financial orbit. As governments prepared to return to the gold standard, the Fed, in the person of Benjamin Strong, influential governor of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, encouraged them to contract stabilization loans in New York rather than London.32 Receiving a stabilization loan was the first step in establishing ongoing relations with a financial center. But while he governor himself may have been strongly internationalist in orientation, the U.S. otherwise reverted to its previous stance of quasi-isolationism following the war. The Congress famously refused to approve President Wilson’s request to join the League of Nations. Not wishing to become entangled in the reparations dispute, the U.S. did not join the Bank for International Settlements in 1930 (although it did provide finance for its early operation). The country’s diplomats did little to slow the progress of German rearmament or otherwise to do anything to prevent the war clouds from gathering over Europe.U.S. tariff policy was inappropriate for what was now the world’s leading trading nation, a country with an interest in the maintenance of an open trading system that should have led by example. Here the greater villain was probably the Fordney-McCumber Tariff of 1922 rather than the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930, but neither helped.33 The mistake was to allow trade policy to be politicized. Herbert Hoover ran for the presidency in 1928 on a platform that promised to raise tariffs on imports of farm products, agricultural prices having been depressed for much of the decade. Once the tariff bill got to the Congress, there was nothing to prevent members from adding all manner of protection for manufactures so as to build as wide a coalition as possible.34Yet to say that the United States disregarded the case for international economic cooperation would not be accurate. The Fed famously kept interest rates low in order to encourage capital to flow toward Britain and aid that country’s efforts to return to gold in 1924-5. It made a credit line available to the Bank of England.35 It hosted a meeting of central bankers on Long Island in 1927, where other countries holding sterling as reserves committed not to taking gold from the British. In the summer of 1931, with the spread of the financial crisis, President Hoover offered a moratorium on inter-allied war debt payments in order to facilitate a moratorium on German reparations.31 This from a starting point in 1914 where the dollar accounted for a negligible proportion of global reserves (Eichengreen and Flandreau 2009). Elsewhere I have suggested what the U.S. accomplished in ten years – moving from a point where its currency played no international role to one where it was the leading invoicing, investment and reserve currency – may also be possible for China (Eichengreen 2011).32 Chandler (1958) and Clarke (1967) document his efforts.33 With the U.S. not a member of the League of Nations, the League’s efforts to negotiate a tariff truce in the 1920s were to little avail.34 See Schattschneider (1935). The Fordney-McCumber Tariff had similarly been intended to raised depressed farm-gate prices but had also been expanded to provide protection for manufactures by the time it was passed by the Congress. When efforts turned to rolling back tariffs in the 1930s, a change in institutions, in the form of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act, made a substantial difference.35 One that, in the event, was not drawn.。

科技发展战略视角下的日本国家创新体系

科技发展战略视角下的日本国家创新体系王溯，任真，胡智慧（中国科学院文献情报中心，北京100190）摘要：自20世纪80年代英国经济学家弗里曼基于日本经验提出国家创新体系的理论以来，随着40多年发展环境的变化，日本国家创新体系经过不断调整，已经发生了较大变化。

本文以国家科技发展战略的发展为脉络，着重分析了二战后日本国家创新体系的三个重要阶段，总结了各创新主体的作用变化与整个创新体系的特征，以期为中国相关制度的完善带来一定启示。

关键词：日本；科技发展战略；国家创新体系中图分类号：G321文献标识码：AJapan's National Innovation System from the Perspective of S&T StrategiesWang Su,Ren Zhen,Hu Zhihui(National Science Library,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing100190,China)\i J i.c I：Since British economist Freeman proposed the concept of national innovation system based upon Japanese experience in 1980s,with the changing development environment in next40years,Japan's national innovation system also changed a lot.Taking the development of the national science and technology development strategy as the context，this paper focuses on three development phases of Japan's national innovation system after World War II.It summarizes the changing roles of different actors and the features of the innovation system in different time,with a view to bring improvements to China's related innovation system.Key words：Japan；S&T strategies；National innovation system1日本国家创新体系的研究现状第二次世界大战结束后，日本在战败后的废墟上展开重建，仅仅经过30年，又迅速重新崛起为世界第二大经济体，其汽车、半导体、机器人等工业产品风靡世界，一度引发“日本第一”的赞叹［1］。

介绍日本的英语作文

介绍日本的英语作文Japan, an island nation in East Asia, is known for its rich cultural heritage, advanced technology, and unique blend of ancient traditions and modern innovation. This essay aims to provide an overview of Japan, touching upon its geography, culture, and some of the aspects that make it a fascinating country to explore.Geography:Japan is an archipelago consisting of four main islands—Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu—and over 6,800 smaller islands. It is located in the Pacific Ocean,毗邻 (adjacent to) China, Korea, and Russia. The country's topography is predominantly mountainous, with three-quarters of its land being unsuitable for agriculture. Despite its limited arable land, Japan is the world's tenth-largest economy, largely due to its technological advancements and strong industrial base.Culture:Japanese culture is a harmonious blend of the traditional and the contemporary. The traditional tea ceremony, kimono wearing, and sumo wrestling are still practiced today, while the country also boasts a vibrant pop culture scene with anime, manga, and video games that have a global following.Language:The official language is Japanese, which is spoken by nearly 126 million people. The language has a complex writing systemthat uses three scripts: kanji (Chinese characters), hiragana, and katakana. English is also taught in schools, but proficiency levels can vary widely among the population.Technology:Japan is at the forefront of technological innovation. From high-speed bullet trains (Shinkansen) to cutting-edgerobotics and electronics, the country is a global leader in these fields. Japanese companies such as Sony, Toyota, and Panasonic are household names and have significantly contributed to the development of consumer electronics andthe automotive industry.Food:Japanese cuisine is renowned for its emphasis on fresh ingredients and presentation. Sushi, sashimi, and ramen are popular dishes that have gained international recognition. Traditional Japanese meals are often served with rice, miso soup, and a variety of side dishes known as okazu.Tourism:Japan attracts millions of tourists each year with its rich history, beautiful landscapes, and cultural experiences. Visitors can explore ancient temples and shrines, soak in hot springs (onsen), and participate in traditional festivals. Major cities like Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka offer a glimpseinto both the historical and modern sides of Japan.In conclusion, Japan is a country of contrasts, where the old and new coexist seamlessly. Its unique culture, technological prowess, and culinary delights make it a destination thatoffers something for everyone. Whether you are interested in history, technology, or simply looking for a new travel experience, Japan is a country that should be on everyone's travel list.。

日本文化英语作文

日本文化英语作文Japanese culture is incredibly diverse and rich, with a long history of traditions and customs that have been passed down through generations. From the elegant art of tea ceremony to the thrilling excitement of sumo wrestling, there is something for everyone to appreciate and enjoy.One of the most iconic aspects of Japanese culture is its cuisine. From sushi and sashimi to ramen and tempura, Japanese food is known for its fresh ingredients and delicate flavors. The attention to detail in presentation and the emphasis on seasonal ingredients make dining in Japan a truly unique experience.Traditional Japanese arts such as ikebana (flower arranging) and origami (paper folding) are also highly valued and practiced. These art forms require patience, precision, and a deep appreciation for natural beauty. They are a reflection of the Japanese aesthetic of simplicity and elegance.In addition to traditional arts, Japan is also knownfor its pop culture, which has gained international popularity in recent years. From anime and manga to J-pop and cosplay, Japanese pop culture has a dedicated fan base around the world. It reflects the creativity and innovation of modern Japanese society.The Japanese reverence for nature is evident in their festivals and rituals, such as hanami (cherry blossom viewing) and matsuri (traditional festivals). These events bring people together to celebrate the beauty of the natural world and express gratitude for the changing seasons.The concept of omotenashi, or Japanese hospitality, is deeply ingrained in the culture. Whether it's the warm welcome of a ryokan (traditional inn) or the impeccable service in a high-end restaurant, the spirit of omotenashi ensures that guests feel valued and cared for.Overall, Japanese culture is a fascinating blend oftradition and modernity, with a deep respect for the past and a constant drive towards innovation. It is this dynamic and ever-evolving nature that makes Japanese culture so captivating and enduring.。

unit3全球化

什么是全球化？全球化是描述全球社会出现的一个术语，在这个社会中，世界上一个区域在经济、政治、环境、文化方面的事件会很快对世界其它地区的人们产生重大影响。

What Is Globalization?Globalization is a term for the emergence of a global society in which economic, political, environmental, and cultural events in one part of the world quickly come to have significance for people in other parts of the world.全球化是通信、运输、信息科技发展的结果。

它体现了连接个体、社区、公司以及各国政府间日益增长的经济、政治、科技文化联系。

Globalization is the result of advances in communication, transportation, and information technologies. It describes the growing economic, political, technological, and cultural linkages that connect individuals, communities, businesses, and governments around the world.全球化包括多国公司和跨国公司的成长。

监管世界贸易和金融的国际机构在全球化时代发挥着日益重要的作用。

Globalization also involves the growth of multinational corporations and transnational corporations. The international institutions that oversee world trade and finance play an increasingly important role in this era of globalization.尽管绝大多数人依然是单一国家的公民，然而他们却比以往任何时候在文化上、物质上、心理上更多地参与着其他国家人民的生活。

日本的介绍英语作文

日本的介绍英语作文英文回答：Japan, a land of vibrant traditions and cutting-edge innovations, has captivated the world with its unique blend of ancient and modern. From its majestic mountains and serene temples to its bustling metropolises and futuristic gadgets, Japan offers a captivating tapestry of experiences.Nestled in the Pacific Ocean, Japan is an archipelago comprising four main islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku,and Kyushu. Its diverse landscape encompasses towering peaks, lush forests, tranquil lakes, and picturesque coastlines. Mount Fuji, an iconic symbol of Japan, rises majestically above the surrounding countryside, inviting hikers and climbers to conquer its slopes.Japanese culture is a rich tapestry woven with ancient traditions and contemporary influences. Shinto, the indigenous religion, celebrates the sacredness of nature,while Buddhism, introduced from China in the 6th century, has profoundly influenced Japanese thought and art. The country is renowned for its exquisite tea ceremonies, intricate flower arrangements (ikebana), and traditional martial arts such as karate and judo.Japan's cities are a vibrant fusion of the old and the new. Tokyo, the bustling capital, is a global hub of commerce, fashion, and entertainment. Its skyscrapers soar into the heavens, casting long shadows over ancient temples and traditional neighborhoods. Kyoto, the former imperial capital, is a treasure trove of cultural and historical sites, including the iconic Golden Pavilion, a testament to the city's rich past.Japanese cuisine is a culinary delight, renowned forits freshness, simplicity, and subtle flavors. Sushi, a staple of Japanese dining, is a delicate balance of rice, seaweed, and raw fish or vegetables. Ramen, a hearty noodle soup, is another popular dish, enjoyed by locals andtourists alike. The country is also famous for itsexquisite wagyu beef, known for its marbling and tenderness.Beyond its cultural allure, Japan is a technological powerhouse. Its cutting-edge industries have produced groundbreaking products and innovations that have transformed the world. From the sleek Shinkansen bullet trains to the ubiquitous electronics that we rely on,Japan's technological prowess is a testament to its dedication to progress and innovation.As a traveler, Japan offers an unforgettable experience. Its friendly locals, rich culture, and scenic beauty makeit a destination that will leave a lasting impression. Whether you're exploring the bustling streets of Tokyo, soaking in the tranquility of Kyoto's temples, or marveling at the natural wonders of Mount Fuji, Japan promises an adventure that will ignite your senses and stay with you long after you leave.中文回答：日本，一个充满活力的传统与尖端创新相结合的国度，以其独特的古代和现代融合而吸引着世界人民。

介绍发明日语作文英语

介绍发明日语作文英语Title: The Invention of the Japanese Language。

The invention of the Japanese language is a fascinating journey through time, culture, and innovation. Dating back centuries, the evolution of Japanese from its ancientorigins to its modern form is a testament to the resilience and adaptability of human communication. In this essay, we will delve into the rich history and development of the Japanese language, exploring its key milestones, influences, and unique characteristics.The roots of the Japanese language can be traced backto the prehistoric Jomon period, around 14,000 to 300 BCE, when early inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago communicated through rudimentary forms of spoken language. Over time, as agricultural practices and social structures began to develop, so too did the need for a more sophisticated means of communication. It was during the Yayoi period (300 BCE to 300 CE) that the foundations ofmodern Japanese began to take shape, influenced by contact with neighboring cultures such as Korea and China.One of the most significant influences on the Japanese language came from Chinese, particularly during the Kofun period (300-538 CE) when diplomatic and cultural exchanges between Japan and China flourished. Chinese characters, known as kanji, were introduced to Japan and gradually incorporated into the Japanese writing system. Whileinitially used primarily for written communication, kanji eventually became an integral part of Japanese vocabulary, with many words borrowed or adapted from Chinese.Despite the influence of Chinese, Japanese retained its distinct grammatical structure and phonology, setting it apart as a unique language with its own identity. This differentiation was further emphasized during the Heian period (794-1185 CE), a time of cultural flourishing in Japan characterized by the emergence of literature, poetry, and courtly etiquette. It was during this period that the first works of Japanese literature, such as "The Tale of Genji" by Murasaki Shikibu, were written, showcasing therichness and complexity of the Japanese language.Another significant development in the evolution of Japanese occurred during the medieval period, particularly with the rise of the samurai class and the establishment of feudal society. This period saw the proliferation of spoken Japanese dialects across different regions of Japan, reflecting the diversity and regionalism of the language. Despite these variations, efforts were made to standardize written Japanese through the development of kana scripts, syllabic characters derived from kanji, which provided a more efficient means of representing spoken Japanese.The Edo period (1603-1868) marked a turning point in the history of the Japanese language, as Japan entered a period of isolation from the outside world under the Tokugawa shogunate. During this time, known as sakoku, cultural and linguistic development continued within Japan, leading to the refinement of spoken and written Japanese.It was also during this period that Japan experienced significant urbanization and the proliferation of popular culture, contributing to the enrichment of the Japaneselexicon with new words and expressions.The Meiji Restoration in 1868 brought about sweeping changes to Japanese society, including the modernization of the language. Under the influence of Western ideas and technologies, Japanese underwent a process of standardization and reform, with efforts made to simplify grammar and expand vocabulary to accommodate new concepts and innovations. The introduction of compulsory education further facilitated linguistic homogenization, as children across Japan were taught a standardized form of the language.Today, Japanese stands as one of the world's major languages, spoken by over 125 million people in Japan and abroad. Its unique blend of native roots, Chinese influences, and modern innovations reflects the dynamic nature of language and its ability to adapt and evolve over time. From its humble beginnings in prehistoric Japan toits status as a global language of culture, commerce, and technology, the invention of the Japanese language is a testament to the creativity, resilience, and ingenuity ofthe Japanese people.In conclusion, the invention of the Japanese language is a complex and multifaceted process that spans millennia of history and cultural exchange. From its ancient origins to its modern form, Japanese has evolved and adapted in response to changing societal needs, technological advancements, and cultural influences. Today, Japanese stands as a vibrant and dynamic language, embodying the rich tapestry of Japanese culture and heritage.。

日本公司的创新英文

The Knowledge-Creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation by Ikujiro Nonaka & Hirotaki Takeuchi
Stephanie McFarland April 5, 2005
Enabling Conditions
“Provide the proper context for facilitating group activities as well as the creation and accumulation of knowledge at the individual level”
Intention: Clear corporate vision Autonomy: Instilling sense of freedom Fluctuation and Creative Chaos: Evoking sense of crisis, stating ambiguous goals Redundancy: Intentional overlapping of info Requisite Variety: Internal diversity
outward and convert external knowledge into internal knowledge
Eastern vs. Western Innovation
Japanese “see reality typically in the physical interaction with nature and other human beings” (Buddhism, Confucius) Western Thought: More self-centered and focused on knowledge as explicit and quantifiable Eastern Thought: Knowledge is more tacit than explicit — needs to be translated and converted in order for others to understand and benefit

艺术的黄金时代英语

艺术的黄金时代英语一、单词1. renaissance- 英语释义：a period of new growth or activity, especially in art, literature, and music.（尤指艺术、文学和音乐方面的）复兴，再生。

- 用法：可以用作名词，如The Renaissance was a great period for art in Europe.（文艺复兴时期是欧洲艺术的伟大时期。

） - 双语例句：The city experienced a renaissance in architecture during the last decade.（这座城市在过去十年里经历了建筑方面的复兴。

）2. flourish- 英语释义：to grow or develop successfully; to be very active and successful.繁荣，兴旺，茁壮成长。

- 用法：可作不及物动词，如Art flourishes in a stable society.（艺术在稳定的社会中繁荣发展。

）也可作及物动词，如They flourished their business with new marketing strategies.（他们用新的营销策略使生意兴旺起来。

）- 双语例句：The local theater has flourished under new management.（在新的管理下，当地剧院蓬勃发展。

）3. masterpiece- 英语释义：a work of art such as a painting, film, or book that is made with great skill.杰作，名著。

- 用法：名词，如This painting is considered a masterpiece of the Renaissance.（这幅画被认为是文艺复兴时期的杰作。

关于日本的的英语作文

关于日本的的英语作文Japan is a country that is both ancient and modern, a blend of tradition and innovation. It is an island nation locatedin the eastern part of Asia, known for its rich cultural heritage and technological advancements.Geographically, Japan consists of four main islands: Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, and Shikoku, along with numerous smaller islands. The country's landscape is diverse, ranging from mountainous regions to fertile plains and bustling cities. The climate varies from subtropical in the south to temperate in the north.Culturally, Japan is famous for its traditional arts such as tea ceremonies, flower arranging (ikebana), and calligraphy. The country also boasts a strong martial arts tradition, with disciplines like judo, karate, and kendo being well-known worldwide. Japanese cuisine is another aspect of its culture that has gained international recognition, with sushi, ramen, and tempura being popular dishes.Economically, Japan is one of the world's most advanced economies. It is a leader in various industries, including automotive, electronics, and robotics. The country is also known for its efficient public transportation system andhigh-speed trains, known as Shinkansen.In terms of education, Japan places a high emphasis onacademic achievement. The Japanese education system is rigorous and competitive, with students often attending school for long hours and participating in extracurricular activities to enhance their skills.Socially, Japan is known for its strong work ethic and respect for hierarchy. The country also has a unique social etiquette, with customs such as bowing as a form of greeting and showing respect.Japan's history is marked by a long line of emperors and a rich tapestry of periods, from the ancient Jomon period to the modern era. The country has seen significant changes over the centuries, from the influence of Chinese culture to the adoption of Western ideas during the Meiji Restoration.In conclusion, Japan is a fascinating country with a unique blend of the old and the new. Its rich history, vibrant culture, and technological advancements make it a place of great interest and study for people around the world.。

日本美食英语作文

日本美食英语作文Japan, an island nation with a rich cultural heritage, is renowned for its unique and diverse culinary traditions. Japanese cuisine is a delightful blend of ancient practices and contemporary influences, offering a gastronomic adventure that is both refined and satisfying. In this essay, we will explore the various aspects of Japanese food, from its traditional roots to its modern interpretations.Introduction to Japanese Cuisine:Japanese food is characterized by its emphasis on seasonality, quality of ingredients, and presentation. The Japanese dietis known for being healthy, with a focus on fish, rice, and fresh vegetables, which are often prepared in ways that highlight their natural flavors.Sushi and Sashimi:Perhaps the most internationally recognized Japanese dishes, sushi and sashimi, are quintessential examples of Japanese culinary art. Sushi consists of vinegared rice combined with various ingredients such as seafood, vegetables, and sometimes tropical fruits. Sashimi, on the other hand, is simply the raw fish component served without rice. Both are often accompanied by soy sauce, wasabi, and pickled ginger.Ramen:Ramen is a popular noodle soup that has gained worldwide fame. It typically features Chinese-style wheat noodles served in ameat or fish-based broth, often flavored with soy sauce or miso. Toppings can include sliced pork, dried seaweed, green onions, and boiled eggs.Tempura:Tempura is a dish of seafood or vegetables that have been battered and deep-fried. The light and airy batter is the key to this dish's popularity, as it allows the ingredients to remain crisp on the outside while staying tender on the inside. Tempura is usually served with a dipping sauce made from soy sauce, mirin, and dashi.Okonomiyaki:Known as "Japanese pancakes" or "Japanese-style pizza," okonomiyaki is a savory dish with a variety of ingredients mixed in a batter and grilled on a griddle. It is typically filled with ingredients such as cabbage, pork, and seafood, and is served with a special sauce, mayonnaise, and bonito flakes.Convenience and Fast Food:Japan is also home to a thriving fast food industry, with chains offering a range of options from the traditional rice bowl (donburi) to the ever-popular curry rice (kare raisu). Fast food in Japan is known for its quality and innovation, with many restaurants offering unique twists on classic dishes.Contemporary Japanese Cuisine:While traditional dishes remain popular, modern Japanese cuisine is also making waves, particularly in the form offusion food. Chefs are combining elements of Japanese and Western cooking to create innovative dishes that are both visually stunning and delicious.Conclusion:Japanese cuisine is a fascinating mix of the old and the new, with a strong emphasis on the quality of ingredients and the art of presentation. From the simplicity of a sushi roll to the complexity of a kaiseki meal, Japanese food offers a wide array of flavors and experiences that continue to captivate food lovers around the world. As Japan's culinary influence continues to grow globally, it remains a source of both national pride and international admiration.。

日本英文作文介绍

日本英文作文介绍Japan is a fascinating country with a rich cultural heritage and a unique blend of tradition and modernity. From the bustling streets of Tokyo to the serene temples of Kyoto, Japan offers a diverse range of experiences for travelers.The food in Japan is absolutely delicious. From fresh sushi and sashimi to savory ramen and crispy tempura, Japanese cuisine is a treat for the taste buds. And let's not forget about the amazing desserts, like mochi and matcha-flavored treats.One of the most iconic images of Japan is the beautiful cherry blossoms that bloom in the spring. The sight of these delicate pink flowers covering the trees is truly breathtaking and is a must-see for anyone visiting Japan during this time of year.Japanese people are known for their politeness andhospitality. Whether you're staying in a traditional ryokan or just interacting with locals in the city, you'll be sure to experience the famous Japanese hospitality firsthand.The fashion in Japan is unlike anywhere else in the world. From the quirky street style of Harajuku to the elegant kimonos worn on special occasions, Japanese fashion is diverse and constantly evolving.When it comes to technology, Japan is at the forefront of innovation. From high-speed trains to cutting-edge robotics, Japan is a leader in technological advancements and is always pushing the boundaries of what is possible.Overall, Japan is a country that offers something for everyone. Whether you're interested in history and culture, food and fashion, or technology and innovation, Japan hasit all. It's a country that is constantly surprising and delighting visitors, and one that will leave a lasting impression on anyone who has the chance to experience it.。

The Knowledge-Creating Company

外顯和內隱內化/外化/結合/共同化
WHERE HOW
知識的儲存
電腦資料庫/手冊個人
組織的知識庫
知識溝通對模糊的忍受度缺點
層級式命令/指示不允許混沌/波動對高階主管高度依賴
專案小組和非正式網路自我組織原則以混沌/波動為前提曠日費時；協調個人的成本
層級和任務分組會談和使用暗喻和類比創造和擴大混沌與波動人力的耗費；重覆的成本
人我合一人我合一
日本視人類的關係為集體的和有機的，強調主觀知識和直覺智慧。其觀點是「觸覺的」與「人際的」。理想的生活是以自我融洽地生活在他人之間。
三、組織知識創造理論
創造知識，企業組織必須制定和宣導組織意圖，以凝聚員工的共識與投入。
知識和資訊
雖然「資訊」和「知識」這兩個詞彙被交替互用，兩者之間其實存在著明顯的差異。
解決衝突
中程理論 (中階管理人員)
衝突
事實(是什麼)
普及知識
(基層人員)
而中而上而下的知識創造過程
身兼小組或特殊任務小組領導人的中階主管，透過包括高階主管和第一線員工在內的螺旋知識轉換來創造知識。中階主管試著解決高階主管在夢想和現實之間的衝突。換句話說，高階主管創造宏觀理論，而中階主管則試圖創造可由基層人員在公司內1實9/2際9 測試的中程理論。
有關知識創造的三個管理模式的比較
由上而下
由下而上
由中而上而下
知識創造代理人高階主管
WHO 高階主管角色指揮官
中階主管角色資訊處理者
富有創業精神的個人
贊助者/導師自主內部創業家
團隊(由中階主管擔任知識工程師) 催化劑團隊領導人

日本英语作文

日本英语作文Japan, a Land of Tradition and Innovation。

Japan, an island nation in East Asia, is known for its unique blend of tradition and innovation. With a rich history and a modern society, Japan has become afascinating and influential country in the world. From its traditional arts and culture to its cutting-edge technology and pop culture, Japan has captivated people from all over the globe.One of the most iconic aspects of Japanese culture is its traditional arts, such as tea ceremony, ikebana (flower arranging), and calligraphy. These arts have been practiced for centuries and are deeply rooted in Japanese society. The tea ceremony, for example, is a ritualistic practice that involves the preparation and consumption of matcha, a powdered green tea. It is a way for people to connect with each other and with nature, and it reflects the Japanese aesthetic of simplicity and harmony.In addition to its traditional arts, Japan is also famous for its rich and diverse cuisine. Japanese food, such as sushi, tempura, and ramen, has gained popularityall over the world. With its emphasis on fresh, seasonal ingredients and meticulous preparation, Japanese cuisine is a true reflection of the country's culture and traditions.Furthermore, Japan is a country that has embraced innovation and technology. It is home to some of theworld's leading technology companies, and it has made significant contributions to various fields, such as robotics, automotive engineering, and video gaming. The country's advancements in technology have not only shaped its economy but have also had a profound impact on global industries.Moreover, Japan's pop culture, including anime, manga, and J-pop music, has a massive following both domestically and internationally. These forms of entertainment have become a significant part of Japan's identity and have influenced popular culture around the world. The creativityand imagination found in Japanese pop culture have made it a global phenomenon, attracting fans of all ages and backgrounds.In conclusion, Japan's unique blend of tradition and innovation has made it a captivating and influential country. Its traditional arts, rich cuisine, technological advancements, and pop culture have all contributed to its global appeal. Japan continues to inspire and fascinate people with its timeless traditions and groundbreaking innovations, making it a truly remarkable nation.。

关于日本的英语作文

关于日本的英语作文Certainly! Let's write an essay on Japan. Here is an essay that meets the requirements:---。

Japan: A Land of Contrasts and Tradition。

Japan, a captivating archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, is a nation steeped in rich history and modern innovation. Its unique blend of tradition and technology makes it a fascinating subject of study.One of Japan's most striking features is its deep-rooted culture. Traditional arts such as tea ceremonies, ikebana (flower arranging), and kabuki theater continue to be practiced and revered. These customs reflect Japan's respect for harmony, nature, and precision.Furthermore, Japan's cuisine is celebrated worldwide.From sushi and sashimi to tempura and ramen, Japanese food delights the palate with its freshness and variety. The meticulous preparation and presentation of each dish embody the country's attention to detail.In addition to its cultural heritage, Japan is a global leader in technology and innovation. The bustling cityscape of Tokyo, with its neon-lit skyscrapers and high-speed trains, exemplifies Japan's modernity. The country's advancements in robotics, electronics, and automotive engineering are at the forefront of technological progress.Moreover, Japan boasts a rich natural landscape. Mount Fuji, an iconic symbol of the nation, stands majestically against the horizon. Japan's onsens (hot springs) are renowned for their therapeutic properties and scenic beauty. The country's four distinct seasons also contribute to its charm, each offering unique experiences and festivals.Despite its modernity, Japan maintains a deep respectfor tradition and etiquette. Bowing, a customary greeting, reflects the Japanese value of politeness and humility. Theconcept of "omotenashi," or hospitality, is ingrained in Japanese culture, ensuring visitors feel welcome and valued.Furthermore, Japan's educational system is renowned for its rigor and discipline. Students attend school for long hours and are expected to excel academically. Thisdedication to education has contributed to Japan's economic success and global influence.In conclusion, Japan is a captivating nation that seamlessly blends tradition with innovation. Its cultural treasures, technological advancements, and natural beauty make it a destination like no other. Whether exploring ancient temples or bustling city streets, Japan offers a glimpse into a world where the past and future converge.---。

关于日本工作的英语作文

关于日本工作的英语作文Working in Japan: A Unique Experience。

Japan, renowned for its technological advancements,rich culture, and strong work ethic, offers a unique and rewarding experience for those seeking employment opportunities in this dynamic country. As an international job seeker, the prospect of working in Japan presents both challenges and opportunities, requiring cultural adaptation and a keen understanding of the Japanese work environment.First and foremost, one of the primary draws for working in Japan is the chance to immerse oneself in a culture that values discipline, precision, and dedication. Japanese companies are often recognized for their commitment to excellence and innovation, making them attractive workplaces for individuals with a passion for cutting-edge industries such as technology, automotive manufacturing, and robotics. For many, the opportunity to contribute to Japan's global reputation for quality andinnovation is a key motivator in seeking employment within the country.Moreover, Japan offers a diverse range of job opportunities across various sectors, from multinational corporations in bustling cities like Tokyo and Osaka to smaller firms in rural areas. The country's economy is multifaceted, with strong pillars in manufacturing, finance, tourism, and entertainment, providing ample options for foreign professionals seeking to broaden their horizons.However, navigating the Japanese job market as an expatriate comes with its own set of challenges. Language proficiency, for instance, is often cited as a major hurdle for non-native speakers. While English is widely taught and understood in Japan, particularly within international business settings, proficiency in Japanese can greatly enhance one's prospects for employment and integration into the local community. Many expatriates choose to enroll in language courses or participate in language exchange programs to improve their Japanese skills.Cultural adaptation is another crucial aspect ofworking in Japan. The Japanese workplace is characterizedby a hierarchical structure, where respect for seniorityand adherence to protocols are highly valued. Understanding and adhering to business etiquette, such as proper bowing and exchanging business cards (meishi), demonstratesrespect for Japanese customs and fosters positive relationships with colleagues and superiors.Furthermore, the work culture in Japan often emphasizes teamwork and collective achievement. The concept of "nemawashi," or consensus-building, underscores the importance of collaboration and mutual understanding in decision-making processes. Employees are expected to prioritize the goals of the group over individual interests, contributing to a cohesive and harmonious work environment.Another noteworthy aspect of working in Japan is the country's dedication to work-life balance. While Japanese professionals are known for their strong work ethic, thereis also a growing recognition of the importance of leisure time and personal well-being. Companies are increasinglyimplementing policies to promote employee wellness and reduce overtime hours, reflecting a broader societal shift towards greater work-life balance.In conclusion, working in Japan offers a wealth of opportunities for international job seekers looking to gain valuable experience in a culturally rich andtechnologically advanced society. While challenges such as language proficiency and cultural adaptation may arise, the rewards of contributing to Japan's vibrant economy and experiencing its unique traditions make the journey worthwhile. By embracing the values of discipline, respect, and innovation that define Japanese work culture, expatriates can forge fulfilling careers and meaningful connections in the Land of the Rising Sun.。

japan的用法

japan的用法“Japan”主要有以下用法：一、基本用法1. 作名词，表示“日本（国名）”。

例如：Japan is an island nation in East Asia.（日本是东亚的一个岛国。

）2. 也可表示“日本漆；亮漆”，这种用法较为专业，如：This antique table is coated with Japan.（这张古董桌子涂有日本漆。

）二、固定搭配1. “made in Japan”（日本制造）。

例句：I bought a camera made in Japan. It's really high - quality.（我买了一个日本制造的相机。

它的质量真的很高。

）2. “Japan Sea”（日本海）。

例如：The fishing boats sail on the Japan Sea.（渔船在日本海上航行。

）3. “Japan Airlines”（日本航空公司）。

My friend took Japan Airlines to Tokyo. He said the service was excellent.（我的朋友乘坐日本航空公司的班机去东京。

他说服务很棒。

）三、双语例句1. “I'm so eager to visit Japan. I've heard it has such amazing cherry blossoms in spring.”（我太渴望去日本了。

我听说春天那里有非常迷人的樱花。

）2. “Japan has a rich and unique culture. Have you ever tasted Japanese sushi?”（日本有丰富而独特的文化。

你尝过日本寿司吗？）3. “She loves Jap anese anime. It's like a whole new world for her, just as if she steps into a magical realm every time she watches it.”（她喜欢日本动漫。

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Innovation in JapanAuthor: CAI XUEFENGID: EM142027July 20, 2014ContentsAbstract (i)1.Introduction (1)1.1 A Brief Introduction of Japanese Economics History (1)1.2 Overview of Science and technology in Japan (1)1.2.1 Electronics (2)1.2.2 Aeronautics (2)1.2.3Nuclear power (3)2.Two symbols of the innovation achieved in the past. (3)2.1 Sony and it’s Walkman (3)2.1.1 The developing History (4)2.2 The Electric Rice Cooker Changed The Way of people eat rice (5)3. The new change made by Abenomics (6)3.1 A Brief Introduction of Abenomics (6)3.2 The Effects of Abenomics (6)4. The innovation in Japan now (7)4.1 The levitating’s train boosts hopes for growth (8)4.2 The automobile－Nissan road-tests self-driving vehicle (8)4.3 The farming－Toshiba to produce germ-free vegetables at high-tech factory (9)4.4 The latest robot－Softbank unveils 'human-like' robot Pepper (10)5. Conclusion (11)ReferencesAbstractFrom the research of the Economics history, we found the word- innovation deeply related to the developing of country. In this paper I will simply introduce of Japanese Economics history, give two symbols of innovation—Walkman and Electric rice cooker, which having made Japan flourishing in 80s. And elaborate the present new situation of Japanese Economics and Policy. And the innovation by Japan going now.Key word: Economics Innovation Japan1.Introduction1.1A Brief Introduction of Japanese Economics HistoryIn the Edo period,some of the structural features for Japan's economic growth developed, such as the network of transport routes, by road and water, and futures contracts, banking and insurance of the Osaka rice brokers. During the Meiji period from 1868, Japan expanded economically with the embrace of the market economy. Many of today's enterprises were founded at the time, and Japan emerged as the most developed nation in Asia. Then, the period of overall real economic growth from the 1960s to the 1980s has been called the Japanese post-war economic miracle: it averaged 7.5 percent in the 1960s and 1970s, and 3.2 percent in the 1980s and early 1990s.Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s during what the Japanese calls the Lost Decade, largely because of the after-effects of the Japanese asset price bubble and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered by the global slowdown in 2000. The economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005; GDP growth for that year was 2.8 percent, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period.As of 2012, Japan is the third largest national economy in the world, after the United States and China, in terms of nominal GDP, and the fourth largest national economy in the world, after the United States, China and India, in terms of purchasing power parity. As of December 2013, Japan's public debt was more than 200 percent of its annual gross domestic product, the second largest of any nation in the world.1.2 Overview of Science and technology in JapanScience and technology make great contribution to economic, in Japan they mostly focused and prominent in consumer electronics, robotics and the industry.Japan is also a leading nation in biomedical research. There are specific description below in three parts.1.2.1 ElectronicsJapan is well known throughout the world for its electronics industry, and Japanese electronic products account for a large share in the world market, compared to most other countries. Japan is one of the leading nations in the fields of scientific research, technology, machinery, and medical research with the world's third largest budget for research and development at $130 billion USD, and over 677,731 researchers. Japan has received the most science Nobel prizes in Asia.Japan also has large international corporate conglomerates such as Fuji (which developed the countries’ first electronic computer, FUJIC1999, in 1956) and Sony. Sony, Panasonic, Canon, Nikon, Fujitsu, Hitachi, Sharp, NEC, Epson and Toshiba are among the best-known electronics companies in the world. Toyota, Honda, Nissan, Mazda, Mitsubishi, Suzuki, Nintendo and Subaru are also very well known companies in the world.1.2.2 AeronauticsAnother area in which Japan is strong is aeronautics. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) conducts space and planetary research, aviation research, and development of rockets and satellites. It has developed a series of rockets, the latest and the most powerful of which is H-IIB. H-IIA/B rockets, which have the capability of carrying 8-ton payload to the GTO at maximum, are now managed by the private-own company Mitsubishi Heavy Industry. It also built the Japanese Experiment Module, which was launched and added to the International Space Station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2007 and 2008 and the HTV to transfer payloads to the station in 2009.1.2.3Nuclear powerNuclear energy has been a controversial area of development for Japan. Since 1973, Japan has been looking to become less dependent on imported fuel and start to depend on nuclear energy In 2008, after the opening of 7 new nuclear reactors in Japan (3 on Honshū, and 1 each on Hokkaidō, Kyūshū, Shikoku, and Tanegashima), Japan became the third largest nuclear power user in the world with 55 nuclear reactors. These provide almost one third of Japan's electricity until the Fukushima disaster.Following the earth quake, tsunami, and the failure of cooling systems at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant on March 11, 2011, a nuclear emergency was declared. 140,000 residents within 20 km of the plant were evacuated. Japan is currently discussing if and when to restart its nuclear plants. In the meantime, energy costs has risen to the high price because of imported oil reducing the cost competitions of Japan manufactures.2.Two symbols of the innovation achieved in the past.Japan has long been known for its technical innovation. In the 1980s, Japan have made many things already changed the world, like Walkman and the Electric Rice Cooker.2.1 Sony and it’s WalkmanWalkman is a Sony brand trade name originally used for portable audio cassette players, and now used to market Sony's portable audio and video players as well as a line of former Sony Ericsson mobile phones. The original Walkman introduced a change in music listening habits by allowing people to carry music with them and listen to music through lightweight headphones.The prototype was built in 1978 by audio-division engineer Nobutoshi Kihara for Sony co-chairman Akio Morita, who wanted to be able to listen to operas during his frequent trans-Pacific plane trips. The original Walkman was marketed in 1979 as the Walkman in Japan and, from 1980, the Soundabout in many other countries including the US, Freestyle in Sweden and the Stowaway in the UK. Advertising, despite all the foreign languages, still attracted thousands of buyers in the US specifically.[4] Morita hated the name "Walkman" and asked that it be changed, but relented after being told by junior executives that a promotion campaign had already begun using the brand name and that it would be too expensive to change.[2]2.1.1 The developing HistoryA personal stereo audio cassette player, called Stereobelt, was first invented by the German-Brazilian Andreas Pavel in 1972. Pavel filed a patent for his Stereobelt in Italy in 1977, followed by patent applications in the U.S., Germany, the United Kingdom and Japan by the end of 1978. His patent applications in the U.S. and the U.K. were rejected.In 1979, Sony began selling the popular Walkman in Japan, and in 1980 started legal talks with Pavel regarding a royalty fee. In 1986 Sony finally agreed to pay royalties to Pavel, but only for sales in Germany, and only for a few models, and refused to acknowledge him as the inventor of the device.In 2001, Pavel threatened Sony with legal suits in every country in which he had patented his invention. The corporation agreed to resume talks with Pavel and a settlement was finally reached in 2003. The exact settlement fee is a closely guarded secret but European press accounts said that Pavel received a cash settlement for damages in excess of $10,000,000 and is now also receiving royalties on some Walkman sales. The settlement also includes a clause which will prevent Pavel from bringing future lawsuits.The settlement grants Pavel the recognition from Sony that he was the original inventor of the personal stereo.2.2 The Electric Rice Cooker Changed The Way of people eat riceIn 1937 the Japanese Imperial Army sanctioned an automobile-kitchen equipped with a primitive rice cooker. The rice cooker was a rectangular wooden box with two electrodes attached to opposite ends. To cook the rice, the box was filled with washed rice and water, and then a current was applied. This caused the water to boil. When the rice was cooked, the reduction of the water caused an increase in resistance and reduced the heat, and then it automatically became a stay-warm state. This method, however, was not suitable for different water qualities or degrees of rice washing and as such varied the amount of heat produced and the end results. It also presented a high risk of electrocution, thus it was not suitable for home cooking.In 1945, the Japanese Mitsubishi Electric Corporation was the first company to produce an electric commercial rice cooker. The Mitsubishi product was an aluminum pot with a heating coil inside. It had no automatic turn-off facility, and it required constant monitoring during cooking.In the early development phase, electric home rice cookers used the simple concept of simply heating the rice to cook and turning off the heater when the temperature rose to a certain point. This method, however, is influenced too greatly with seasonal changes in room temperature and often produced under-cooked rice. Many makers continued to experience failures in their ongoing trial-and-error approaches. At this stage, there was even a trial model which embedded the heating element in a traditional wooden rice container.The first practical electric rice cooker was invented by Yoshitada Minami, an associate of Toshiba Electric Corporation. It became possible to cook rice practically by employing the triple-chamber rice cooker (that provided heat insulation by air layers). In December 1956, the Toshiba Corporation placed the first commercially successful automated electric rice cookers on the market. It used a double-chamber indirect rice cooking method. Rice was placed into the rice pot, and water into a surrounding container. When the water in the outer pot boiled off, the temperature of the pot rose rapidly. A bimetallic thermostat then activated, and automatically turned off the cooker to prevent burning of the cooked rice. Soon, Toshiba was producing200,000 rice cookers per month for the Japanese market. Four years later, rice cookers could be found in half of Japanese homes.Restaurants that serve a lot of rice, particularly those specializing in Asian cuisine, often use industrial-sized rice cookers (often they are gas pressure cookers, but there are electric models) that quickly and cheaply produce large quantities of cooked rice.A rice cooker is a standard appliance in kitchens in many Asian countries and households.We have seen the two typical examples in the 1980s about innovation in Japan. The new changes is also starting in recent years.3. The new change made by Abenomics3.1 A Brief Introduction of AbenomicsAfter many years of muted economic growth, Japan has become exciting again, with the stock market rising the most of any major economy in 2013. This is due to Abenomics Liberal Democratic Party win a landslide victory in the general election which was held in Japan on 16 December 2012. Following this victory, the new Prime Minister Shinzō Abe said, "With the strength of my entire cabinet, I will implement bold monetary policy, flexible fiscal policy and a growth strategy that encourages private investment, and with these three policy pillars, achieve results." Abenomics, as his economic policy has been called, consists of fiscal and monetary expansion with a 2% target interest rate. Abe also said he favors the re-building of Japan's nuclear reactors following the Fukushima disaster and plans to strengthen relations with the United States.3.2 The Effects of AbenomicsAbenomics had immediate effects on various financial markets in Japan. By February 2013, the Abenomics policy led to a dramatic weakening of the Japanese yen and a 22% rise in the TOPIX stock market index.[1] The unemployment rate in Japan fell from 4.0% in the final quarter of 2012 to 3.7% in the first quarter of 2013,continuing a past trend.The yen became about 25% lower against the U.S. dollar in the second quarter of 2013 compared to the same period in 2012, with a highly loose monetary policy being followed. By May 2013, the stock market had risen by 55 percent, consumer spending had pushed first quarter economic growth up 3.5 percent annually, and Shinzo Abe's approval rating ticked up to 70 percent. A Nihon Keizai Shimbun survey found that 74% of the respondents praised the policy in alleviating Japan from the prolonged recession.The impact on wages and consumer sentiment was more muted. A Kyodo News poll in January 2014 found that 73% of Japanese respondents had not personally noticed the effects of Abenomics, only 28 percent expected to see a pay raise, and nearly 70% were considering cutting back spending following the increase in the consumption tax.Further, Abenomics worsened Japan's trade deficit in 2013 as the weaker yen increased the cost of imports, including food, oil and other natural resources upon which Japan is highly reliant. However, the Abe government viewed this as a temporary setback, as the weaker yen would eventually increase export volumes. Japan also managed to maintain an overall current account surplus due to investment income from overseas.Right the way Abenomics begin to excite the Japan market, we also have found many innovation made by Japan will affect the world in the future.4.The innovation in Japan nowDuring his meeting with Czech President Husak on September 5, 1988, Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping put forward the famous theory "Science and technology are primary productive forces". For Japan, it’s the same thing, Japan has achieved a lot in the short-term, to win on the long-run only the innovation will work by drawing on it’s success of the past to lead it to into the future.4.1The levitating’s train boosts hopes for growthOn October 1,1964, nine days before the last Tokyo Olympics, the Tokaido Shinkansen bullet train began operating between the capital and Osaka, completing the 500km journey in just four hours. It was the most potent symbol of the country’s rapid progress after the Second World War. As Tokyo prepares to host the 2020 Olympics, Japan hopes once again to showcase the world’s fatest train, this time the SCMaglev, a hover train that will run at more than 500kph.The SCMaglev (superconducting magnetic levitation) will eventually cut the journey to a half hours than on the current Shinkansen train.4.2The automobile－Nissan road-tests self-driving vehicleJapan is also making innovations in other area of transportation. Nissan Motor Co. tested a self-driving vehicle on a public expressway in Kanagawa Prefecture in 2013, with a view to marketing such vehicles by 2020. It is the world’s first experimen t of its kind.During the public road test, carried out in cooperation with the prefecture, the autonomous vehicle, based on a Leaf electric car, performed several maneuvers, such as switching lanes, overtaking and merging, the vehicle carried officials on a 3.2-km section between Samukawa Minami and Samukawa Kita on the Sagami Expressway. Nissan Motor Vice Chairman Toshiyuki Shiga said the public road test takes the development of the technology a step further. The Yokohama-based automaker plans to release vehicles featuring automated driving technology by 2020.With seven cameras and six laser scanners, the self-driving vehicle has in effect a 360-degree field of vision. Even though the driver was in the seat, his hands were away from the steering wheel. Still, the car ran smoothly. The vehicle instantly switches to regular driving mode as soon as the driver puts his or her hands on the wheel.Nissan received a license plate for a car equipped with a highly advanced driver assist system in September, enabling the firm to conduct tests on public roads for the development of technology fundamental to automated driving.Other domestic makers, including Toyota Motor Corp. and Honda Motor Co., are also aiming to introduce automated driving technology.4.3The farming－Toshiba to produce germ-free vegetables at high-tech factory2014, May 15, Toshiba Corp. started construction of a factory facility in Yokosuka, Kanagawa Prefecture, to produce pesticide-free, long shelf-life vegetables in sterile, almost germ-free conditions,Toshiba plans to start shipping lettuce, baby leaf greens, spinach and other vegetables in the second quarter of fiscal 2014. Annual sales are expected to reach 300 million yen ($2.96 million).The plant factory is being installed in an idle facility at Yokosuka. The plant include closed growing systems that integrate state-of-the-art technologies such as fluorescent lighting with an output wavelength optimized for vegetable growth;air-conditioning systems that maintain constant temperatures and moisture levels; and a remote monitoring system to track growth. The production management system will be based on the one utilized for semiconductor device production.The facility will minimize germ levels to about one-1, 000th of the level typically found on vegetables grown in soil. Germs can damage vegetables and shorten their shelf life and freshness, a major concern for retailers of cut vegetables.Toshiba plans to promote sales to supermarkets, convenience stores and restaurants. It also plans to meet market needs by offering vegetables rich in polyphenols and vitamin C, which it plans to achieve by careful control of the growth environment.To increase sales in this new business, Toshiba is also considering construction of a large-scale factory outside Japan.4.4The latest robot－Softbank unveils 'human-like' robot PepperJapan is also a world leader in robotics. On June 8, 2014, Japanese firm Softbank has unveiled a robot called Pepper, which it says can read human emotions. It uses an "emotional engine" and a cloud-based artificial intelligence system that allows it to analyze gestures, expressions and voice tones. Softbank said people could communicate with it "just like they would with friends and family" and it could perform various tasks. It will go on sale to the public next year for 198,000 yen ($1,930; £1,150). "For the first time in human history, we're giving a robot a heart, emotions."The firm will deploy prototypes of the robot at two of its stores from Friday, allowing customers to interact with them.It could go long way in helping improve elderly care Softbank planned to subsequently station Pepper at more of its stores nationwide.Japan is one of the world's biggest robot markets. According to some estimates, its overall robotics market was worth about 860bn ($8.4bn; £5bn) yen in 2012. And with a rapidly aging population, coupled with a falling birth rate, the demand for robots is expected to increase further. The growth is expected to come not only from businesses looking to offset labour shortages and rising wage costs, but also from households seeking an alternative to paying for care workers for elderly relatives.Japanese carmaker Honda has also been developing a household robot, Asimo. US President Barack Obama played football with it during his recent visit to Japan. and ActiveLink, a robotics research subsidiary of electronics firm Panasonic has also developed technology to help people carry out manual tasks.Softbank’s emotional robot will create a new dimension in our lives and new ways of interacting with technology.It's just the beginning, but already a promising reality.5.ConclusionRoaming in The history of Japan, shows many remarkable innovation, like Walkman and Electric rice cooker in the past or SCMglev, self-driving car, plant factory, robot which will be popularized in the future. So, I still be confident with Japan, and believe Japan can reinvigorate a slumping economy.References”Definition of Abenomics”.Financial Times Lexicon. Retrieved 28 January 2014.Hormby, T. (2006-09-15). "The Story Behind the Sony Walkman"McGee, H. 2nd ed, pub. Hodder & Stoughton 2004, p 474 On Food and Cooking: An Encyclopedia of Kitchen Science, History and Culture,Nakano, Y. (2009), Where There Are Asians, There Are Rice Cookers: How 'National' Went Global via Hong KongPatrick, H. Abenomics, Japan’s New Economic Policy PackageLevitating’ train boosts hopes for growth. Accessed at/intl/cms/s/0/e587e10c-5047-11e3-9f0d-00144feabdc0.html#axzz37t4 XCyKzNissan road-tests self-driving vehicle. Accessed athttp://www.Japantimes .co.jp/news/2013/11/25/business/nissan-road-tests-self-driving-ve hicle/Ryan, L. (January 1, 2000). "The Asian economic miracle"Totman, C. (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 312–314.Toshiba to produce germ-free vegetables at high-tech factory. Accessed at/article/business/AJ201405160044The Economist. 18 February 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2012."From summit to plummet - Once global leaders, Japanese electronics firms are tumbling"。