经济学的思维方式英文课件(6)
经济学的思维方式英文课件 (2)
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The Pressures of Competition
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$1.50
Price
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Temptation!
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Marginal cost
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The Pressures of Competition
P Demand curve as seller perceives it
D Q
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The Pressures of Competition
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A （perfectly）competitive market（完全竞争 市场） is said to exist when…
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q
q
q q
There are a large number of buyers and sellers, and nobody possesses market power Market participants possess full and complete information of alternatives Sellers produce a homogeneous（同质的） product There is costless mobility of resources The economic actors are price takers
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Introduction
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学习完本章之后，你对这些问题应该有更好的 认识
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Competition as a Process
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在日常语言中，“竞争”更多地指的是人们参 与的活动。 而在主流经济学中，“竞争”的概念却意指事 物的状态（state of affairs）。
n
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经济学的思维方式英文课件 (16)
q Are seats going to waste? q Why doesn’t Ed lower the price on the empty
seats?
n 类似情况很普遍
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The Price Discriminator’s Dilemma（价 格歧视者的困境）
n Question
q When should Ed leave seats empty?
n Answer
q If the cost of discriminating among potential ticket buyers is greater than the additional revenue gained through discrimination.
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Price Takers and Price Searchers
P Demand curves faced by price searchers
Q
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The Popular Theory of Price Setting
n A Popular Belief
q Selling price is cost plus markup（成本加成）.
market price
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Price Takers and Price Searchers
n Normal Seller
q Sells more at a lower price q Sells less at a higher price
n These firms are price searchers
n Questions
q Why choose 25 versus a 50 percent markup? q Why will a firm vary its percentage markup
经济学的思维方式英文课件 (7)
的确有成本，并且准备用一个例子来证明你的 观点，你就差不多肯定是在偷换概念，用一个 不被注意的行为替换某个事物，硬给它加上一 个成本。
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Costs are Tied to Actions, Not Things
n 例如，一个棒球的成本是什么？你说："10美 元。"但是，你的意思是说，在当地一家体育 用品商店里购买一个大联盟官方指定的棒球的 成本是10美元。因为购买是一个行为，所以这 个行为需要以其他机会为代价，从而发生了成 本。请注意这里引入了行为。棒球的成本因行 为的不同而改变。制造一个棒球的成本就不一 样。销售一个棒球的成本又不一样。
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Costs are Tied to Actions, Not Things
n 成本总是对某人而言的成本。 n The true cost of things stems from a failure to
recognize that only actions have cost, and that actions can entail different costs for different people.（关于事物的"真实成本"有大 量无效的辩论，这都是因为辩论者没能认识到 只有行为才有成本，而行为对不同的人有不同 的成本。）
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Introduction
n 经济学的供给理论和需求理论从本质上来说没 有什么区别。
n The theory of supply, like demand theory, assumes that decision makers face alternatives and choices.
经济学的思维方式英文版
经济学的思维方式英文版IntroductionEconomics is the study of how individuals, businesses, and governments allocate resources to satisfy their wants and needs. It involves analyzing how people make decisions in the face of scarcity, and how they interact with one another in markets. The study of economics provides a framework for understanding the behavior of individuals and firms, as well as the workings of entire economies.Thinking Like an EconomistTo think like an economist means to approach problems in a systematic way, using economic principles to analyze data and make decisions. This involves understanding the concept of opportunity cost, which is the value of the next best alternative forgone when a decision is made. Economists also use models to simplify complex economic phenomena, making it easier to analyze them.The Role of MarketsMarkets are central to economic thinking, as they are where buyers and sellers come together to exchange goods and services. The price mechanism plays a critical role in allocating resources efficiently in a market economy. Prices signal information about supply and demand conditions, helping individuals make informed decisions about what goods and services to produce or consume.The Importance of IncentivesIncentives are central to economic thinking, as they motivate individuals to act in certain ways. Positive incentives encourage behavior that benefits society, while negative incentives discourage behavior that harms society. Understanding incentives helps economists design policies that promote desirable outcomes.Microeconomics vs MacroeconomicsMicroeconomics is concerned with individual decision-making units such as households and firms. It examines how these unitsallocate resources among competing uses and how they interact with one another in markets. Macroeconomics is concerned with the overall performance of an economy, including issues such as inflation, unemployment, and economic growth.Economic SystemsThere are three main types of economic systems: market economies, command economies, and mixed economies. In a market economy, prices determine what goods and services are produced and who consumes them. In a command economy, government planners make these decisions. Mixed economies combine elements of both market and command economies.International TradeInternational trade is an important area of study in economics, as it involves the exchange of goods and services between countries. International trade can benefit all parties involved by allowing for specialization and increased efficiency. However, it can also lead to job losses in certain industries and create winners and losers.ConclusionIn conclusion, thinking like an economist involves approaching problems in a systematic way using economic principles. Understanding the role of markets, incentives, microeconomics, macroeconomics, economic systems, and international trade is essential to developing a comprehensive understanding of economics. By applying economic thinking to real-world problems, economists can help policymakers design policies that promote economic growth and improve overall wellbeing.。
经济学的思维方式英文课件 (1)
An Apparatus of the Mind
n Question
q 没有协作的专业化可行吗? q 没有协作的专业化是通向混乱之路，而不是通向财
富之路。 q 人们只是按照自己的资源和能力，根据自己特定的
计划追逐一己之利，与此同时，对旁人的利益、资 源和能力几乎一无所知，而每个人自己的计划的成 功又有赖于与旁人的合作，这样做能成功吗？
q 没有人控制这个过程，然而这个过程却能协调全部个人决策。 尽管这个过程并不完美，大多数人还是能成功抵达目的地。
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An Apparatus of the Mind
n 无意的结果（Unintended consequences）
q 每个人都想到达各自的目的地，一路上都要不断作决定， 都在路上与他人进行协作。但是，没有人计划过交通的 总体流量。这一点不是哪一个人能控制的。就算有一个 虚拟的中央交通调度员，也不可能通过详细指示每个人 该怎么做来保证有序的交通。人们“不过是在开车”， 他们无意的结果呈现为复杂的路况。
Economic theory assumes that :
People make choices
under scarcity based on
Expected Benefits
and Expected
Cost
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An Apparatus of the Mind
n 个人经济交互作用的核心问题就是存在大量互不相同 甚至互不兼容的个人计划。
n 人们驶向各自的目标，一门心思只顾他们自己 的利益，这并不一定是因为人们都是自私的， 而只不过是因为没有人知道别人想去哪儿。
n 关于其他人，每个人所能确知的仅限于周围为 数不多的几辆车的位置、方向和速度。
经济学的思维方式英文课件 (10)
The Basic Process
Figure 5-1 Supply and Demand in the Acoustic Guitar Market S
$700
$500
$300
D
Price
800 1000
1,200
Quantity of Acoustic Guitars
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The Basic Process
节"的，给人的印象是，好像市场没有人的干预自 己就能如何如何了！好像市场是某种机械化的东西， 比如恒温器。
n 市场体系完全是由需求方和供给方组成的，供求双方都是 活人，追逐着各自感兴趣的计划，根据面临的相对稀缺性 进行节约，并按照各自的需要谈判和交换，获取各自想要 的东西。
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The Market is a Process of Competing Bids and Offers
n 供给曲线一般都是向上倾斜的，这说明生产更 多的吉他意味着更高的边际机会成本。
n 制作更多的原声吉他需要投入很多特殊的资源， 从各种等级的云杉、桃花心木到高级技工的劳动。 对于吉他生产者来说，他们要获得更多的云杉和 桃花心木，就得在竞价的时候压过其他用途，人 们用这些木料总能做其他的东西。较高的吉他价 格会使生产者制作更多的吉他。
q 还得有人安排实际的交易。
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Transaction Costs, Again
n Questions
q Why does broken glass stay on a bicycle trail even if each bicyclist would pay someone to clean it up?
第四章已经分别作过介绍。这一章把供给和需 求放在一起，描述市场过程的原理。
经济学的思维方式英文课件 (8)
the burden,and had to pay billions
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The S&L Crisis of the 1980s
matters, the irony is often difficult for others to see
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The S&L Crisis of the 1980s
n Depositors’ lack of concern combined with years of lax oversight by the regulatory authorities unintentionally created
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The S&L Crisis of the 1980s
n Who would suggest that its broad-sweeping ans systemic policies caused the mess?
q Economists! q Without the economic way of thinking about these
n What does the economic way of thinking reveal about the workings of society?
n Is there anything of importance that it conceals?
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The Great Financial Crisis of 2008…and Beyond
经济学的思维方式英文课件 (12)
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Chapter Outline
n Introduction n Who is Rich, Who is Poor? n The Historical Record n Sources of Economic Growth n Foreign Investment n Human Capital n Oil Comes From Our Minds n Economic Freedom Index
n From 1973 – 1990:
q Latin American growth slowed. q Soviet Union and Africa per capita income fell. q Europe’s growth rate would only double per capita income
q Classifies countries
n High-income economies n Middle-income economies. China is here now! n Low-income economies (<1,000 current US dollars of
income per resident，居民人均收入)
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Sources of Economic Growth
n The essential preconditon: Stable social order
q Economic development is a function of three things: People, resources, and insititutions
经济学的思维方式(第11版)(英文版)_02010300
What do people do? What should they do? Better yet, what do we expect them to do -- eventually? We suspect that different twosomes caught in the woods by sabretooth tigers over the millenniums have tried a number of strategies. However, running is, over the long run, a strategy for possible extinction, given that the tiger can pick off the runners one by one. We should not be surprised that human society has come to be dominated by people who have a “natural” tendency to cooperate or who have found ways to inculcate cooperation in their members. Moreover, parents spend a lot of family resources trying to ensure that children see the benefits of cooperation, and school teachers and coaches reinforce those values with an emphasis on the benefits of sharing and doing what one is supposed to do or has agreed to do vis a vis people beyond the reach of the family. Managers do much the same.
第一讲 经济学的思维方式ppt课件
• 当人们用钱来衡量一项行为的收益和成本时
– 一点小小的变动就会使很多人改变他们的行为 – 更重要的是，这一改变的方向与其他人正在做的事情
更趋一致！
• 这就是社会成员之间协作的主要机制 • 也是市场经济的主要内容
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游戏规则
• 社会上人与人之间大多是依照他们了解并一致遵 守的规则进行合作
2.请举一个日常生活中的例子说明“游戏规则”不 同会导致激励效果不同。
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第一讲结束！
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经济学入门教材；保罗·海恩等著《经济学的思维 方式（第11版） 》世界图书出版公司
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• 课程要求
1.坚持听课（三次以上不到者成绩以零分计） 2.认真听讲，适当笔记 3.勤于思考，学以致用
• 成绩构成
1.期末考试占70% 2.作业及考勤占30%
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概观
• 导语 • 从交通说起
• 经济理论本身并不能回答任何有趣和重要的社会 问题，却是解决这些问题的有效工具
经济学的思维方式英文课件 (6)
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Is Government Necessary?
n n
Do we have to use coercion? Couldn’t we get equally good results by relying on volutary cooperation? Example：
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Would police protection be available without govendividual self-interest play a role in the public sector? Yes!
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Answer
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Competition and Individualism
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The market sector is often referred to as the competitive sector. Question
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但是，政府有可能会让事情变得更糟！ James Buchanan：
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经济学家同样应该关注政府失灵（government failure）
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Introduction
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Key questions in constitutional political economy（立宪政治经济学）
q q
What should be left to the market? What are the appropriate tasks for government?
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Excluding Nonpayers
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Positive Externalities（正外部性） and FreeRiders（搭便车）
经济学的思维方式英文课件 (5)
q
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Perfection is Unattainable
q
The first step to tackle the problems created by negative externalities it to cultivate the civic virtues of
n n n n
Empathy（体谅） Courtesy（礼貌） Humility（谦逊） Tolerance（容忍）
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Adjudication
q q
A process for discovering who has which rights. Clarifies property rights.
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Discovery or adjudication aims at maintaining the continuity of expectation.
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Clean air as a right. Requires new rules.
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Reducing Externalities Through Legislation（立法）
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The creation of new rules is legislation.
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Legislation creats property rights Changing the rules of the game always raises the question of fairness and compels major changes in behavior.
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Chapter Outline
n n n n n
Another Approach: Taxing Emissions Licenses to Pollute Efficiency and Fairness Rights and the Social Problem of Pollution Traffic Congestion as an Externality