keegan10-Strategic Elements of Competitive Advantage(Global Marketing,Keegan and Green)
GLOBAL MARKETING MANAGEMENT (Keegan and Green)
Differences between Global Marketing and Marketing
• Scope of activities • Nature of activities
Keegan and Green, Chapter 1
» Helmut Maucher
Keegan and Green, Chapter 1 10
Globalization or Global Localization?
• Globalization
– Developing standardized products marketed worldwide with a standardized marketing mix – Essence of mass marketing
Introduction to Global Marketing
Chapter 1
Global Marketing
Reasons for Global Marketing
• Growth
– Access to new markets – Access to resources
• Survival
– Against competitors with lower costs (due to increased access to resources)
• Global companies serve world markets from a single country and tend to retain association with a headquarters country • Transnational companies serve global markets and acquire resources globally; blurring of national identity
石化装置改造项目管道设计的注意事项
影响，且阀门泄漏分为“内泄漏”以及“外泄漏”。
如果阀门与法兰密封泄漏无法有效管理，将会对石油保化工装置的安全性产生重要不良影响。
第三，出现腐蚀因素。
对于管道设置而言，腐蚀因素是最常见且最危险的不良因素。
腐蚀因素可以对管道周围的环境产生严重影响，腐蚀可以对管道材料造成不可逆损害[1]。
目前，常见的腐蚀损坏包含了应力损坏、腐蚀性损坏、局部腐蚀性损坏以及大气腐蚀性损坏等。
且不同的腐蚀损坏条件，在不同的管道材料以及其环境当中，二者具有一定差异。
因此，其造成的腐蚀程度也具有明显不同，将对后续的管道维修产生一定的干扰腐蚀情况，难以控制。
第四，出现进出装置的因素。
在进出装置管道设置中，其设置了切断阀装置，且为了保障整体工程的安全性，还额外设有盲板，盲板遵循“8”字设计方法[2]。
但在现有的管道设计中，对盲板设计存在了一定的误区，使其盲板在对管道有毒或可燃气体输送中，缺乏必要的保护机制，例如出现窒息。
因此，在后续改良中，必须注意对盲板进行整体设计规划，以减少在实际工作中盲板设立不当所产生的潜在危害。
2 石化装置管道设计现状分析目前，我国针对管道工艺以及其整体的工艺路线均执行“安全性第一”的设计原则。
作为最基本，同时也是必须遵守的原则之一，在遇到相关问题时，“安全性第一”的工作原则均可以对管道设计工作产生有效保障[3]。
因此，就现状分析而言，我国整体工作环境以及工作机制正在逐步成长。
在设计中，选择具有适用性、应用性、安全性的材料，以保障降低工程成本，提升工程质量。
在石油化装置管道设计中，必须考虑以下四大要素。
0 引言管道在石油化装置当中，其占据极大份额。
管道对于石油的输送以及开采起到了决定性因素。
对目前我国石油管道设计领域进行分析时，必须根据工程现状，对石油化工液体或气体输送进行有效改良，以保障其管道设计可以根据实际工程情况完成有效增长，满足相关的工程模式。
在一定程度上减少石油的投入成本，促使其管道发挥自身最大的功能，完成管道的维护。
氢键的应用
how the standard perception of halogen substituents, which assumes an isotropic negative electron density around the halogen, was replaced by a description that takes the σ-hole into account. Halogen bonds have been found to occur in a multitude of inorganic, organic, and biological systems.4,5 In an early study from the 1950s, Hassel and Hvoslef solved the crystal structure of the equimolar Br2:dioxane adduct and found Br···O contacts featuring distances substantially below the sum of the van der Waals radii of both atoms, indicating a strong attractive interaction between both atoms.6,7 In 1984, a search of the Cambridge crystallographic data files for short iodine···N/O/S contacts revealed that these interactions are also formed in biologically relevant systems, being employed by nature for the molecular recognition of thyroid hormones at their target proteins such as transthyretin.8 In protein−ligand environments, halogen bonds can be formed between a halogenated ligand and any accessible Lewis base in the binding pocket.9 Probably because of its presence in every amino acid, the backbone carbonyl oxygen function is the most prominent Lewis base involved in halogen bonds in protein binding sites, as found from an analysis of the Protein Data Bank (PDB).10,11 Additionally, halogen bonds can be formed involving side chain groups, such as hydroxyls in serine, threonine, and tyrosine, carboxylate groups in aspartate and glutamate, sulfurs in cysteine and methionine, nitrogens in histidine, and the π surfaces of phenylalanine, tyrosine, histidine, and tryptophan. Several examples for these contacts are given in Figure 2.
Insight Problem Solving A Critical Examination of the Possibility
The Journal of Problem Solving • volume 5, no. 1 (Fall 2012)56Insight Problem Solving: A Critical Examination of the Possibilityof Formal TheoryWilliam H. Batchelder 1 and Gregory E. Alexander 1AbstractThis paper provides a critical examination of the current state and future possibility of formal cognitive theory for insight problem solving and its associated “aha!” experience. Insight problems are contrasted with move problems, which have been formally defined and studied extensively by cognitive psychologists since the pioneering work of Alan Newell and Herbert Simon. To facilitate our discussion, a number of classical brainteasers are presented along with their solutions and some conclusions derived from observing the behavior of many students trying to solve them. Some of these problems are interesting in their own right, and many of them have not been discussed before in the psychologi-cal literature. The main purpose of presenting the brainteasers is to assist in discussing the status of formal cognitive theory for insight problem solving, which is argued to be considerably weaker than that found in other areas of higher cognition such as human memory, decision-making, categorization, and perception. We discuss theoretical barri-ers that have plagued the development of successful formal theory for insight problem solving. A few suggestions are made that might serve to advance the field.Keywords Insight problems, move problems, modularity, problem representation1 Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California Irvine/10.7771/1932-6246.1143Insight Problem Solving: The Possibility of Formal Theory 57• volume 5, no. 1 (Fall 2012)1. IntroductionThis paper discusses the current state and a possible future of formal cognitive theory for insight problem solving and its associated “aha!” experience. Insight problems are con-trasted with so-called move problems defined and studied extensively by Alan Newell and Herbert Simon (1972). These authors provided a formal, computational theory for such problems called the General Problem Solver (GPS), and this theory was one of the first formal information processing theories to be developed in cognitive psychology. A move problem is posed to solvers in terms of a clearly defined representation consisting of a starting state, a description of the goal state(s), and operators that allow transitions from one problem state to another, as in Newell and Simon (1972) and Mayer (1992). A solu-tion to a move problem involves applying operators successively to generate a sequence of transitions (moves) from the starting state through intermediate problem states and finally to a goal state. Move problems will be discussed more extensively in Section 4.6.In solving move problems, insight may be required for selecting productive moves at various states in the problem space; however, for our purposes we are interested in the sorts of problems that are described often as insight problems. Unlike Newell and Simon’s formal definition of move problems, there has not been a generally agreed upon defini-tion of an insight problem (Ash, Jee, and Wiley, 2012; Chronicle, MacGregor, and Ormerod, 2004; Chu and MacGregor, 2011). It is our view that it is not productive to attempt a pre-cise logical definition of an insight problem, and instead we offer a set of shared defining characteristics in the spirit of Wittgenstein’s (1958) definition of ‘game’ in terms of family resemblances. Problems that we will treat as insight problems share many of the follow-ing defining characteristics: (1) They are posed in such a way as to admit several possible problem representations, each with an associated solution search space. (2) Likely initial representations are inadequate in that they fail to allow the possibility of discovering a problem solution. (3) In order to overcome such a failure, it is necessary to find an alternative productive representation of the problem. (4) Finding a productive problem representation may be facilitated by a period of non-solving activity called incubation, and also it may be potentiated by well-chosen hints. (5) Once obtained, a productive representation leads quite directly and quickly to a solution. (6) The solution involves the use of knowledge that is well known to the solver. (7) Once the solution is obtained, it is accompanied by a so-called “aha!” experience. (8) When a solution is revealed to a non-solver, it is grasped quickly, often with a feeling of surprise at its simplicity, akin to an “aha!” experience.It is our position that very little is known empirically or theoretically about the cogni-tive processes involved in solving insight problems. Furthermore, this lack of knowledge stands in stark contrast with other areas of cognition such as human memory, decision-making, categorization, and perception. These areas of cognition have a large number of replicable empirical facts, and many formal theories and computational models exist that attempt to explain these facts in terms of underlying cognitive processes. The main goal58W. H. Batchelder and G. E. Alexander of this paper is to explain the reasons why it has been so difficult to achieve a scientific understanding of the cognitive processes involved in insight problem solving.There have been many scientific books and papers on insight problem solving, start-ing with the seminal work of the Gestalt psychologists Köhler (1925), Duncker (1945), and Wertheimer (1954), as well as the English social psychologist, Wallas (1926). Since the contributions of the early Gestalt psychologists, there have been many journal articles, a few scientific books, such as those by Sternberg and Davidson (1996) and Chu (2009), and a large number of books on the subject by laypersons. Most recently, two excellent critical reviews of insight problem solving have appeared: Ash, Cushen, and Wiley (2009) and Chu and MacGregor (2011).The approach in this paper is to discuss, at a general level, the nature of several fun-damental barriers to the scientific study of insight problem solving. Rather than criticizing particular experimental studies or specific theories in detail, we try to step back and take a look at the area itself. In this effort, we attempt to identify principled reasons why the area of insight problem solving is so resistant to scientific progress. To assist in this approach we discuss and informally analyze eighteen classical brainteasers in the main sections of the paper. These problems are among many that have been posed to hundreds of upper divisional undergraduate students in a course titled “Human Problem Solving” taught for many years by the senior author. Only the first two of these problems can be regarded strictly as move problems in the sense of Newell and Simon, and most of the rest share many of the characteristics of insight problems as described earlier.The paper is divided into five main sections. After the Introduction, Section 2 describes the nature of the problem solving class. Section 3 poses the eighteen brainteasers that will be discussed in later sections of the paper. The reader is invited to try to solve these problems before checking out the solutions in the Appendix. Section 4 lays out six major barriers to developing a deep scientific theory of insight problem solving that we believe are endemic to the field. We argue that these barriers are not present in other, more theo-retically advanced areas of higher cognition such as human memory, decision-making, categorization, and perception. These barriers include the lack of many experimental paradigms (4.1), the lack of a large, well-classified set of stimulus material (4.2), and the lack of many informative behavioral measures (4.3). In addition, it is argued that insight problem solving is difficult to study because it is non-modular, both in the sense of Fodor (1983) but more importantly in several weaker senses of modularity that admit other areas of higher cognition (4.4), the lack of theoretical generalizations about insight problem solv-ing from experiments with particular insight problems (4.5), and the lack of computational theories of human insight (4.6). Finally, in Section 5, we suggest several avenues that may help overcome some of the barriers described in Section 4. These include suggestions for useful classes of insight problems (5.1), suggestions for experimental work with expert problem solvers (5.2), and some possibilities for a computational theory of insight.The Journal of Problem Solving •Insight Problem Solving: The Possibility of Formal Theory 592. Batchelder’s Human Problem Solving ClassThe senior author, William Batchelder, has taught an Upper Divisional Undergraduate course called ‘Human Problem Solving” for over twenty-five years to classes ranging in size from 75 to 100 students. By way of background, his active research is in other areas of the cognitive sciences; however, he maintains a long-term hobby of studying classical brainteasers. In the area of complex games, he achieved the title of Senior Master from the United States Chess Federation, he was an active duplicate bridge player throughout undergraduate and graduate school, and he also achieved a reasonable level of skill in the game of Go.The content of the problem-solving course is split into two main topics. The first topic involves encouraging students to try their hand at solving a number of famous brainteasers drawn from the sizeable folklore of insight problems, especially the work of Martin Gardner (1978, 1982), Sam Loyd (1914), and Raymond Smullyan (1978). In addition, games like chess, bridge, and Go are discussed. The second topic involves presenting the psychological theory of thinking and problem solving, and in most cases the material is organized around developments in topics that are covered in the first eight chapters of Mayer (1992). These topics include work of the Gestalt psychologists on problem solving, discussion of experiments and theories concerning induction and deduction, present-ing the work on move problems, including the General Problem Solver (Newell & Simon, 1972), showing how response time studies can reveal mental architectures, and describing theories of memory representation and question answering.Despite efforts, the structure of the course does not reflect a close overlap between its two main topics. The principal reason for this is that in our view the level of theoreti-cal and empirical work on insight problem solving is at a substantially lower level than is the work in almost any other area of cognition dealing with higher processes. The main goal of this paper is to explain our reasons for this pessimistic view. To assist in this goal, it is helpful to get some classical brainteasers on the table. While most of these problems have not been used in experimental studies, the senior author has experienced the solu-tion efforts and post solution discussions of over 2,000 students who have grappled with these problems in class.3. Some Classic BrainteasersIn this section we present eighteen classical brainteasers from the folklore of problem solving that will be discussed in the remainder of the paper. These problems have de-lighted brainteaser connoisseurs for years, and most are capable of giving the solver a large dose of the “aha!” experience. There are numerous collections of these problems in books, and many collections of them are accessible through the Internet. We have selected these problems because they, and others like them, pose a real challenge to any effort to • volume 5, no. 1 (Fall 2012)60W. H. Batchelder and G. E. Alexander develop a deep and general formal theory of human or machine insight problem solving. With the exception of Problems 3.1 and 3.2, and arguably 3.6, the problems are different in important respects from so-called move problems of Newell and Simon (1972) described earlier and in Section 4.6.Most of the problems posed in this section share many of the defining characteristics of insight problems described in Section 1. In particular, they do not involve multiple steps, they require at most a very minimal amount of technical knowledge, and most of them can be solved by one or two fairly simple insights, albeit insights that are rarely achieved in real time by problem solvers. What makes these problems interesting is that they are posed in such a way as to induce solvers to represent the problem information in an unproductive way. Then the main barrier to finding a solution to one of these problems is to overcome a poor initial problem representation. This may involve such things as a re-representation of the problem, the dropping of an implicit constraint on the solution space, or seeing a parallel to some other similar problem. If the solver finds a productive way of viewing the problem, the solution generally follows rapidly and comes with burst of insight, namely the “aha!” experience. In addition, when non-solvers are given the solu-tion they too may experience a burst of insight.What follows next are statements of the eighteen brainteasers. The solutions are presented in the Appendix, and we recommend that after whatever problem solving activity a reader wishes to engage in, that the Appendix is studied before reading the remaining two sections of the paper. As we discuss each problem in the paper, we provide authorship information where authorship is known. In addition, we rephrased some of the problems from their original sources.Problem 3.1. Imagine you have an 8-inch by 8-inch array of 1-inch by 1-inch little squares. You also have a large box of 2-inch by 1-inch rectangular shaped dominoes. Of course it is easy to tile the 64 little squares with dominoes in the sense that every square is covered exactly once by a domino and no domino is hanging off the array. Now sup-pose the upper right and lower left corner squares are cut off the array. Is it possible to tile the new configuration of 62 little squares with dominoes allowing no overlaps and no overhangs?Problem 3.2. A 3-inch by 3-inch by 3-inch cheese cube is made of 27 little 1-inch cheese cubes of different flavors so that it is configured like a Rubik’s cube. A cheese-eating worm devours one of the top corner cubes. After eating any little cube, the worm can go on to eat any adjacent little cube (one that shares a wall). The middlemost little cube is by far the tastiest, so our worm wants to eat through all the little cubes finishing last with the middlemost cube. Is it possible for the worm to accomplish this goal? Could he start with eating any other little cube and finish last with the middlemost cube as the 27th?The Journal of Problem Solving •Insight Problem Solving: The Possibility of Formal Theory 61 Figure 1. The cheese eating worm problem.Problem 3.3. You have ten volumes of an encyclopedia numbered 1, . . . ,10 and shelved in a bookcase in sequence in the ordinary way. Each volume has 100 pages, and to simplify suppose the front cover of each volume is page 1 and numbering is consecutive through page 100, which is the back cover. You go to sleep and in the middle of the night a bookworm crawls onto the bookcase. It eats through the first page of the first volume and eats continuously onwards, stopping after eating the last page of the tenth volume. How many pieces of paper did the bookworm eat through?Figure 2.Bookcase setup for the Bookworm Problem.Problem 3.4. Suppose the earth is a perfect sphere, and an angel fits a tight gold belt around the equator so there is no room to slip anything under the belt. The angel has second thoughts and adds an inch to the belt, and fits it evenly around the equator. Could you slip a dime under the belt?• volume 5, no. 1 (Fall 2012)62W. H. Batchelder and G. E. Alexander Problem 3.5. Consider the cube in Figure 1 and suppose the top and bottom surfaces are painted red and the other four sides are painted blue. How many little cubes have at least one red and at least one blue side?Problem 3.6. Look at the nine dots in Figure 3. Your job is to take a pencil and con-nect them using only three straight lines. Retracing a line is not allowed and removing your pencil from the paper as you draw is not allowed. Note the usual nine-dot problem requires you to do it with four lines; you may want to try that stipulation as well. Figure 3.The setup for the Nine-Dot Problem.Problem 3.7. You are standing outside a light-tight, well-insulated closet with one door, which is closed. The closet contains three light sockets each containing a working light bulb. Outside the closet, there are three on/off light switches, each of which controls a different one of the sockets in the closet. All switches are off. Your task is to identify which switch operates which light bulb. You can turn the switches off and on and leave them in any position, but once you open the closet door you cannot change the setting of any switch. Your task is to figure out which switch controls which light bulb while you are only allowed to open the door once.Figure 4.The setup of the Light Bulb Problem.The Journal of Problem Solving •Insight Problem Solving: The Possibility of Formal Theory 63• volume 5, no . 1 (Fall 2012)Problem 3.8. We know that any finite string of symbols can be extended in infinitely many ways depending on the inductive (recursive) rule; however, many of these ways are not ‘reasonable’ from a human perspective. With this in mind, find a reasonable rule to continue the following series:Problem 3.9. You have two quart-size beakers labeled A and B. Beaker A has a pint of coffee in it and beaker B has a pint of cream in it. First you take a tablespoon of coffee from A and pour it in B. After mixing the contents of B thoroughly you take a tablespoon of the mixture in B and pour it back into A, again mixing thoroughly. After the two transfers, which beaker, if either, has a less diluted (more pure) content of its original substance - coffee in A or cream in B? (Forget any issues of chemistry such as miscibility).Figure 5. The setup of the Coffee and Cream Problem.Problem 3.10. There are two large jars, A and B. Jar A is filled with a large number of blue beads, and Jar B is filled with the same number of red beads. Five beads from Jar A are scooped out and transferred to Jar B. Someone then puts a hand in Jar B and randomly grabs five beads from it and places them in Jar A. Under what conditions after the second transfer would there be the same number of red beads in Jar A as there are blue beads in Jar B.Problem 3.11. Two trains A and B leave their train stations at exactly the same time, and, unaware of each other, head toward each other on a straight 100-mile track between the two stations. Each is going exactly 50 mph, and they are destined to crash. At the time the trains leave their stations, a SUPERFLY takes off from the engine of train A and flies directly toward train B at 100 mph. When he reaches train B, he turns around instantly, A BCD EF G HI JKLM.............64W. H. Batchelder and G. E. Alexander continuing at 100 mph toward train A. The SUPERFLY continues in this way until the trains crash head-on, and on the very last moment he slips out to live another day. How many miles does the SUPERFLY travel on his zigzag route by the time the trains collide?Problem 3.12. George lives at the foot of a mountain, and there is a single narrow trail from his house to a campsite on the top of the mountain. At exactly 6 a.m. on Satur-day he starts up the trail, and without stopping or backtracking arrives at the top before6 p.m. He pitches his tent, stays the night, and the next morning, on Sunday, at exactly 6a.m., he starts down the trail, hiking continuously without backtracking, and reaches his house before 6 p.m. Must there be a time of day on Sunday where he was exactly at the same place on the trail as he was at that time on Saturday? Could there be more than one such place?Problem 3.13. You are driving up and down a mountain that is 20 miles up and 20 miles down. You average 30 mph going up; how fast would you have to go coming down the mountain to average 60 mph for the entire trip?Problem 3.14. During a recent census, a man told the census taker that he had three children. The census taker said that he needed to know their ages, and the man replied that the product of their ages was 36. The census taker, slightly miffed, said he needed to know each of their ages. The man said, “Well the sum of their ages is the same as my house number.” The census taker looked at the house number and complained, “I still can’t tell their ages.” The man said, “Oh, that’s right, the oldest one taught the younger ones to play chess.” The census taker promptly wrote down the ages of the three children. How did he know, and what were the ages?Problem 3.15. A closet has two red hats and three white hats. Three participants and a Gamesmaster know that these are the only hats in play. Man A has two good eyes, man B only one good eye, and man C is blind. The three men sit on chairs facing each other, and the Gamesmaster places a hat on each man’s head, in such a way that no man can see the color of his own hat. The Gamesmaster offers a deal, namely if any man correctly states the color of his hat, he will get $50,000; however, if he is in error, then he has to serve the rest of his life as an indentured servant to the Gamesmaster. Man A looks around and says, “I am not going to guess.” Then Man B looks around and says, “I am not going to guess.” Finally Man C says, “ From what my friends with eyes have said, I can clearly see that my hat is _____”. He wins the $50,000, and your task is to fill in the blank and explain how the blind man knew the color of his hat.Problem 3.16. A king dies and leaves an estate, including 17 horses, to his three daughters. According to his will, everything is to be divided among his daughters as fol-lows: 1/2 to the oldest daughter, 1/3 to the middle daughter, and 1/9 to the youngest daughter. The three heirs are puzzled as to how to divide the horses among themselves, when a probate lawyer rides up on his horse and offers to assist. He adds his horse to the kings’ horses, so there will be 18 horses. Then he proceeds to divide the horses amongThe Journal of Problem Solving •Insight Problem Solving: The Possibility of Formal Theory 65 the daughters. The oldest gets ½ of the horses, which is 9; the middle daughter gets 6 horses which is 1/3rd of the horses, and the youngest gets 2 horses, 1/9th of the lot. That’s 17 horses, so the lawyer gets on his own horse and rides off with a nice commission. How was it possible for the lawyer to solve the heirs’ problem and still retain his own horse?Problem 3.17. A logical wizard offers you the opportunity to make one statement: if it is false, he will give you exactly ten dollars, and if it is true, he will give you an amount of money other than ten dollars. Give an example of a statement that would be sure to make you rich.Problem 3.18. Discover an interesting sense of the claim that it is in principle impos-sible to draw a perfect map of England while standing in a London flat; however, it is not in principle impossible to do so while living in a New York City Pad.4. Barriers to a Theory of Insight Problem SolvingAs mentioned earlier, our view is that there are a number of theoretical barriers that make it difficult to develop a satisfactory formal theory of the cognitive processes in play when humans solve classical brainteasers of the sort posed in Section 3. Further these barriers seem almost unique to insight problem solving in comparison with the more fully developed higher process areas of the cognitive sciences such as human memory, decision-making, categorization, and perception. Indeed it seems uncontroversial to us that neither human nor machine insight problem solving is well understood, and com-pared to other higher process areas in psychology, it is the least developed area both empirically and theoretically.There are two recent comprehensive critical reviews concerning insight problem solving by Ash, Cushen, and Wiley (2009) and Chu and MacGregor (2011). These articles describe the current state of empirical and theoretical work on insight problem solving, with a focus on experimental studies and theories of problem restructuring. In our view, both reviews are consistent with our belief that there has been very little sustainable progress in achieving a general scientific understanding of insight. Particularly striking is that are no established general, formal theories or models of insight problem solving. By a general formal model of insight problem solving we mean a set of clearly formulated assumptions that lead formally or logically to precise behavioral predictions over a wide range of insight problems. Such a formal model could be posed in terms of a number of formal languages including information processing assumptions, neural networks, computer simulation, stochastic assumptions, or Bayesian assumptions.Since the groundbreaking work by the Gestalt psychologists on insight problem solving, there have been theoretical ideas that have been helpful in explaining the cog-nitive processes at play in solving certain selected insight problems. Among the earlier ideas are Luchins’ concept of einstellung (blind spot) and Duncker’s functional fixedness, • volume 5, no. 1 (Fall 2012)as in Maher (1992). More recently, there have been two developed theoretical ideas: (1) Criterion for Satisfactory Progress theory (Chu, Dewald, & Chronicle, 2007; MacGregor, Ormerod, & Chronicle, 2001), and (2) Representational Change Theory (Knoblich, Ohls-son, Haider, & Rhenius, 1999). We will discuss these theories in more detail in Section 4. While it is arguable that these theoretical ideas have done good work in understanding in detail a few selected insight problems, we argue that it is not at all clear how these ideas can be generalized to constitute a formal theory of insight problem solving at anywhere near the level of generality that has been achieved by formal theories in other areas of higher process cognition.The dearth of formal theories of insight problem solving is in stark contrast with other areas of problem solving discussed in Section 4.6, for example move problems discussed earlier and the more recent work on combinatorial optimization problems such as the two dimensional traveling salesman problem (MacGregor and Chu, 2011). In addition, most other higher process areas of cognition are replete with a variety of formal theories and models. For example, in the area of human memory there are currently a very large number of formal, information processing models, many of which have evolved from earlier mathematical models, as in Norman (1970). In the area of categorization, there are currently several major formal theories along with many variations that stem from earlier theories discussed in Ashby (1992) and Estes (1996). In areas ranging from psycholinguistics to perception, there are a number of formal models based on brain-style computation stemming from Rumelhart, McClelland, and PDP Research Group’s (1987) classic two-volume book on parallel distributed processing. Since Daniel Kahneman’s 2002 Nobel Memorial Prize in the Economic Sciences for work jointly with Amos Tversky developing prospect theory, as in Kahneman and Tversky (1979), psychologically based formal models of human decision-making is a major theoretical area in cognitive psychology today. In our view, there is nothing in the area of insight problem solving that approaches the depth and breadth of formal models seen in the areas mentioned above.In the following subsections, we will discuss some of the barriers that have prevented the development of a satisfactory theory of insight problem solving. Some of the bar-riers will be illustrated with references to the problems in Section 3. Then, in Section 5 we will assuage our pessimism a bit by suggesting how some of these barriers might be removed in future work to facilitate the development of an adequate theory of insight problem solving.4.1 Lack of Many Experimental ParadigmsThere are not many distinct experimental paradigms to study insight problem solving. The standard paradigm is to pick a particular problem, such as one of the ones in Section 3, and present it to several groups of subjects, perhaps in different ways. For example, groups may differ in the way a hint is presented, a diagram is provided, or an instruction。
新教伦理与资本主义精神新版英文译者前言
The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism/Max Weber; “Prefatory remarks” to
Collected essays in the sociology of religion [“Vorbemerkung,” Gesammelte Aufsätze
Publisher and Editor: Claude Teweles Production Editor: Jim Ballinger Copyeditor: Susan Converse-Winslow Proofreaders: Renée M. Burkhammer and Dawn VanDercreek Assistant Editors: Casey Haymes, Josh Levine, Raoul Limeres, Heather Setrakian, and Kate Shaffar Tography: Synergistic Data Systems Cover Design: Marnie Kenney
The Task of the Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Part II: The Vocational Ethic of Ascetic Protestantism
Chapter IV.
The Religious Foundations of This-Worldly Asceticism . . . . . . . . . . 53 A. Calvinism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 B. Pietism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 C. Methodism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 D. The Baptizing Sects and Churches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
101种防御机制布莱克曼英文版
101种防御机制布莱克曼英文版Blackman (2024) suggests that there are various defense mechanisms that individuals use to protect themselves from challenging or threatening situations. In this article, we will explore 101 of these defense mechanisms and their potential impact on an individual's well-being.2. Repression: Pushing undesirable thoughts, memories, or emotions into the unconscious mind.3. Sublimation: Redirecting of unacceptable urges or desires into socially acceptable outlets.4. Rationalization: Creating justifications or excuses for one's behavior or actions.5. Projection: Attributing one's own undesirable thoughts or feelings to others.6. Displacement: Redirecting emotions or impulses towards a less threatening target.7. Regression: Reverting back to an earlier stage of development to cope with stress or anxiety.8. Intellectualization: Avoiding emotional aspects of a situation by focusing solely on the intellectual aspects.9. Repression: Forgetting or blocking out painful or traumatic memories.10. Reaction Formation: Expressing opposite feelings or beliefs than what one truly feels.11. Introjection: Internalizing the values or beliefs of others as a way of conforming.13. Dissociation: Separating oneself from reality as a coping mechanism.14. Minimization: Downplaying the significance or impact ofa situation or event.15. Fantasy: Creating a mental escape from reality by creating an imaginary world.16. Intellectualization: Avoiding emotions by over-analyzing or rationalizing a situation.17. Idealization: Seeing someone or something as perfect or better than it actually is.18. Dissociation: Mentally disconnecting from one's body or emotions during a traumatic event.19. Acting out: Expressing anger or frustration through actions rather than words.20. Regression: Displaying child-like behaviors or traits asa way to cope with stress.21. Avoidance: Refusing to face or deal with a particular situation.23. Identification: Taking on the characteristics or mannerisms of someone who is admired or respected.24. Rationalization: Finding logical explanations for one's behavior or choices, even if they are not entirely accurate.26. Isolation: Keeping oneself emotionally or physically distant from others to avoid vulnerability.27. Intellectualization: Exploring a problem primarily froma cognitive perspective, avoiding emotional engagement.28. Displacement: Taking out frustrations or anger on someone or something that is less threatening.29. Projection: Attributing one's own undesirable thoughts or feelings to a different person.31. Reaction Formation: Displaying a behavior or belief that is contrary to one's true feelings.32. Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable urges or desires into socially acceptable pursuits.33. Repression: Pushing unwanted thoughts or memories into the unconscious mind.34. Rationalization: Justifying one's actions or choices with seemingly logical explanations.36. Repression: Forgetting or blocking out traumatic experiences or memories.38. Intellectualization: Focusing solely on the intellectual aspects of a situation while avoiding emotions.39. Regression: Returning to an earlier stage of development to cope with stress or anxiety.40. Sublimation: Redirecting unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable behaviors.41. Rationalization: Creating rational explanations or justifications for one's behavior or choices.42. Projection: Attributing one's own undesirable thoughts or feelings to others.43. Displacement: Shifting emotions or impulses from a threatening target to a safer one.45. Intellectualization: Avoiding emotional aspects of a situation by focusing on the intellectual points.46. Repression: Pushing unwanted thoughts or memories into the unconscious mind.47. Idealization: Seeing someone as perfect or ideal, regardless of their flaws or limitations.49. Rationalization: Justifying one's behavior or choices with seemingly logical explanations.50. Repression: Forgetting or blocking out traumatic experiences or memories.51. Sublimation: Redirecting unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable behaviors.52. Projection: Attributing one's own undesirable thoughts or feelings to others.53. Displacement: Shifting emotions or impulses from a threatening target to a safer one.55. Intellectualization: Avoiding emotional aspects of a situation by focusing on the intellectual points.56. Repression: Pushing unwanted thoughts or memories into the unconscious mind.57. Idealization: Seeing someone as perfect or ideal, regardless of their flaws or limitations.59. Rationalization: Justifying one's behavior or choices with seemingly logical explanations.60. Repression: Forgetting or blocking out traumatic experiences or memories.61. Sublimation: Redirecting unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable behaviors.62. Projection: Attributing one's own undesirable thoughts or feelings to others.63. Displacement: Shifting emotions or impulses from a threatening target to a safer one.65. Intellectualization: Avoiding emotional aspects of a situation by focusing on the intellectual points.66. Repression: Pushing unwanted thoughts or memories into the unconscious mind.67. Idealization: Seeing someone as perfect or ideal, regardless of their flaws or limitations.69. Rationalization: Justifying one's behavior or choices with seemingly logical explanations.70. Repression: Forgetting or blocking out traumatic experiences or memories.71. Sublimation: Redirecting unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable behaviors.72. Projection: Attributing one's own undesirable thoughts or feelings to others.73. Displacement: Shifting emotions or impulses from a threatening target to a safer one.75. Intellectualization: Avoiding emotional aspects of a situation by focusing on the intellectual points.76. Repression: Pushing unwanted thoughts or memories into the unconscious mind.77. Idealization: Seeing someone as perfect or ideal, regardless of their flaws or limitations.79. Rationalization: Justifying one's behavior or choices with seemingly logical explanations.80. Repression: Forgetting or blocking out traumatic experiences or memories.81. Sublimation: Redirecting unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable behaviors.82. Projection: Attributing one's own undesirable thoughts or feelings to others.83. Displacement: Shifting emotions or impulses from a threatening target to a safer one.85. Intellectualization: Avoiding emotional aspects of a situation by focusing on the intellectual points.86. Repression: Pushing unwanted thoughts or memories into the unconscious mind.87. Idealization: Seeing someone as perfect or ideal, regardless of their flaws or limitations.89. Rationalization: Justifying one's behavior or choices with seemingly logical explanations.90. Repression: Forgetting or blocking out traumatic experiences or memories.91. Sublimation: Redirecting unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable behaviors.92. Projection: Attributing one's own undesirable thoughts or feelings to others.93. Displacement: Shifting emotions or impulses from a threatening target to a safer one.95. Intellectualization: Avoiding emotional aspects of a situation by focusing on the intellectual points.96. Repression: Pushing unwanted thoughts or memories into the unconscious mind.97. Idealization: Seeing someone as perfect or ideal, regardless of their flaws or limitations.99. Rationalization: Justifying one's behavior or choices with seemingly logical explanations.100. Repression: Forgetting or blocking out traumatic experiences or memories.101. Sublimation: Redirecting unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable behaviors.While defense mechanisms can provide temporary relief, reliance on these mechanisms can hinder personal growth and emotional well-being. It is important to recognize and address these defense mechanisms in order to develop healthier coping strategies and lead a more fulfilling life.。
Becoming a Scientist The Role of Undergraduate Research in Students ’ Cognitive, Personal,
Becoming a Scientist:The Roleof Undergraduate Research in Students’Cognitive,Personal, and Professional DevelopmentANNE-BARRIE HUNTER,SANDRA URSEN,ELAINE SEYMOUR Ethnography&Evaluation Research,Center to Advance Research and Teaching in the Social Sciences,University of Colorado,Campus Box580,Boulder,CO80309,USAReceived9November2005;revised2May2006;accepted2June2006DOI10.1002/sce.20173Published online12October2006in Wiley InterScience().ABSTRACT:In this ethnographic study of summer undergraduate research(UR)expe-riences at four liberal arts colleges,where faculty and students work collaboratively on aproject of mutual interest in an apprenticeship of authentic science research work,analysisof the accounts of faculty and student participants yields comparative insights into thestructural elements of this form of UR program and its benefits for parison ofthe perspectives of faculty and their students revealed considerable agreement on the nature,range,and extent of students’UR gains.Specific student gains relating to the process of “becoming a scientist”were described and illustrated by both groups.Faculty framed these gains as part of professional socialization into the sciences.In contrast,students emphasizedtheir personal and intellectual development,with little awareness of their socialization intoprofessional practice.Viewing studyfindings through the lens of social constructivist learn-ing theories demonstrates that the characteristics of these UR programs,how faculty practiceUR in these colleges,and students’outcomes—including cognitive and personal growth and the development of a professional identity—strongly exemplify many facets of these theo-ries,particularly,student-centered and situated learning as part of cognitive apprenticeshipin a community of practice.C 2006Wiley Periodicals,Inc.Sci Ed91:36–74,2007Correspondence to:Anne-Barrie Hunter;e-mail:abhunter@Contract grant sponsor:NSF-ROLE grant(#NSF PR REC-0087611):“Pilot Study to Establish the Nature and Impact of Effective Undergraduate Research Experiences on Learning,Attitudes and Career Choice.”Contract grant sponsor:Howard Hughes Medical Institute special projects grant,“Establishing the Processes and Mediating Factors that Contribute to Significant Outcomes in Undergraduate Research Experiences for both Students and Faculty:A Second Stage Study.”This paper was edited by former Editor Nancy W.Brickhouse.C 2006Wiley Periodicals,Inc.BECOMING A SCIENTIST37INTRODUCTIONIn1998,the Boyer Commission Report challenged United States’research universities to make research-based learning the standard of students’college education.Funding agencies and organizations promoting college science education have also strongly recommended that institutions of higher education provide greater opportunities for authentic,interdis-ciplinary,and student-centered learning(National Research Council,1999,2000,2003a, 2003b;National Science Foundation[NSF],2000,2003a).In line with these recommen-dations,tremendous resources are expended to provide undergraduates with opportunities to participate in faculty-mentored,hands-on research(e.g.,the NSF-sponsored Research Experience for Undergraduates[REU]program,Howard Hughes Medical Institute Science Education Initiatives).Notwithstanding widespread belief in the value of undergraduate research(UR)for stu-dents’education and career development,it is only recently that research and evaluation studies have produced results that begin to throw light on the benefits to students,faculty,or institutions that are generated by UR opportunities(Bauer&Bennett,2003;Lopatto,2004a; Russell,2005;Seymour,Hunter,Laursen,&DeAntoni,2004;Ward,Bennett,&Bauer, 2002;Zydney,Bennett,Shahid,&Bauer,2002a,2002b).Other reports focus on the effects of UR experiences on retention,persistence,and promotion of science career pathways for underrepresented groups(Adhikari&Nolan,2002;Barlow&Villarejo,2004;Hathaway, Nagda,&Gregerman,2002;Nagda et al.,1998).It is encouraging tofind strong convergence as to the types of gains reported by these studies(Hunter,Laursen,&Seymour,2006).How-ever,we note limited or no discussion of some of the stronger gains that we document,such as students’personal and professional growth(Hunter et al.,2006;Seymour et al.,2004) and significant variation in how particular gains(especially intellectual gains)are defined. Ongoing and current debates in the academic literature concerning how learning occurs, how students develop intellectually and personally during their college years,and how communities of practice encourage these types of growth posit effective practices and the processes of students’cognitive,epistemological,and interpersonal and intrapersonal de-velopment.Although a variety of theoretical papers and research studies exploring these topics are widely published,with the exception of a short article for Project Kaleidoscope (Lopatto,2004b),none has yet focused on intensive,summer apprentice-style UR experi-ences as a model to investigate the validity of these debates.1Findings from this research study to establish the nature and range of benefits from UR experiences in the sciences,and in particular,results from a comparative analysis of faculty and students’perceptions of gains from UR experiences,inform these theoretical discussions and bolsterfindings from empirical studies in different but related areas(i.e.,careers research,workplace learning, graduate training)on student learning,cognitive and personal growth,the development of professional identity,and how communities of practice contribute to these processes. This article will presentfindings from our faculty andfirst-round student data sets that manifest the concepts and theories underpinning constructivist learning,development of professional identity,and how apprentice-style UR experience operates as an effective community of practice.As these bodies of theory are central tenets of current science education reform efforts,empirical evidence that provides clearer understanding of the actual practices and outcomes of these approaches inform national science education pol-icy concerns for institutions of higher learning to increase diversity in science,numbers of students majoring in science,technology,engineering,or mathematics(STEM)disci-plines,student retention in undergraduate and graduate STEM programs and their entry 1David Lopatto was co-P.I.on this study and conducted quantitative survey research on the basis of our qualitativefindings at the same four liberal arts colleges.Science Education DOI10.1002/sce38HUNTER ET AL.into science careers,and,ultimately,the production of greater numbers of professional scientists.To frame discussion offindings from this research,we present a brief review of theory on student learning,communities of practice,and the development of personal and professional identity germane to our data.CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING,COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE,AND IDENTITY DEVELOPMENTApprentice-style URfits a theoretical model of learning advanced by constructivism, in which learning is a process of integrating new knowledge with prior knowledge such that knowledge is continually constructed and reconstructed by the individual.Vygotsky’s social constructivist approach presented the notion of“the zone of proximal development,”referencing the potential of students’ability to learn and problem solve beyond their current knowledge level through careful guidance from and collaboration with an adult or group of more able peers(Vygotsky,1978).According to Green(2005),Vygotsky’s learning model moved beyond theories of“staged development”(i.e.,Piaget)and“led the way for educators to consider ways of working with others beyond the traditional didactic model”(p.294).In social constructivism,learning is student centered and“situated.”Situated learning,the hallmark of cultural and critical studies education theorists(Freire,1990; Giroux,1988;Shor,1987),takes into account students’own ways of making meaning and frames meaning-making as a negotiated,social,and contextual process.Crucial to student-centered learning is the role of educator as a“facilitator”of learning.In constructivist pedagogy,the teacher is engaged with the student in a two-way,dialog-ical sharing of meaning construction based upon an activity of mutual ve and Wenger(1991)and Wenger(1998)extended tenets of social constructivism into a model of learning built upon“communities of practice.”In a community of practice“newcomers”are socialized into the practice of the community(in this case,science research)through mutual engagement with,and direction and support from an“old-timer.”Lave and Wenger’s development of the concept and practice of this model centers on students’“legitimate pe-ripheral participation.”This construct describes the process whereby a novice is slowly,but increasingly,inducted into the knowledge and skills(both overt and tacit)of a particular practice under the guidance and expertise of the master.Legitimate peripheral participation requires that students actively participate in the authentic practice of the community,as this is the process by which the novice moves from the periphery toward full membership in the community(Lave&Wenger,1991).Similar to Lave and Wenger’s communities of practice, Brown,Collins,and Duguid(1989)and Farmer,Buckmaster,and LeGrand(1992)describe “cognitive apprenticeships.”A cognitive apprenticeship“starts with deliberate instruction by someone who acts as a model;it then proceeds to model-guided trials by practition-ers who progressively assume more responsibility for their learning”(Farmer et al.,1992, p.42).However,these latter authors especially emphasize the importance of students’ongoing opportunities for self-expression and reflective thinking facilitated by an“expert other”as necessary to effective legitimate peripheral participation.Beyond gains in understanding and exercising the practical and cultural knowledge of a community of practice,Brown et al.(1989)discuss the benefits of cognitive ap-prenticeship in helping learners to deal capably with ambiguity and uncertainty—a trait particularly relevant to conducting science research.In their view,cognitive apprenticeship “teaches individuals how to think and act satisfactorily in practice.It transmits useful, reliable knowledge based on the consensual agreement of the practitioners,about how to deal with situations,particularly those that are ill-defined,complex and risky.It teachesScience Education DOI10.1002/sceBECOMING A SCIENTIST39‘knowledge-in-action’that is‘situated”’(quoted in Farmer et al.,1992,p.42).Green(2005) points out that Bowden and Marton(1998,2004)also characterize effective communities of practice as teaching skills that prepare apprentices to negotiate undefined“spaces of learning”:“the‘expert other’...does not necessarily‘know’the answers in a traditional sense,but rather is willing to support collaborative learning focused on the‘unknown fu-ture.’In other words,the‘influential other’takes learning...to spaces where the journey itself is unknown to everyone”(p.295).Such conceptions of communities of practice are strikingly apposite to the processes of learning and growth that we have found among UR students,particularly in their understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge and in their capacity to confront the inherent difficulties of science research.These same issues are central to Baxter Magolda’s research on young adult development. The“epistemological reflection”(ER)model developed from her research posits four categories of intellectual development from simplistic to complex thinking:from“absolute knowing”(where students understand knowledge to be certain and view it as residing in an outside authority)to“transitional knowing”(where students believe that some knowledge is less than absolute and focus onfinding ways to search for truth),then to“independent knowing”(where students believe that most knowledge is less than absolute and individuals can think for themselves),and lastly to“contextual knowing”(where knowledge is shaped by the context in which it is situated and its veracity is debated according to its context) (Baxter Magolda,2004).In this model,epistemological development is closely tied to development of identity. The ER model of“ways of knowing”gradually shifts from an externally directed view of knowing to one that is internally directed.It is this epistemological shift that frames a student’s cognitive and personal development—where knowing and sense of self shift from external sources to reliance upon one’s own internal assessment of knowing and identity. This process of identity development is referred to as“self-authorship”and is supported by a constructivist-developmental pedagogy based on“validating students as knowers, situating learning in students’experience,and defining learning as mutually constructed meaning”(Baxter Magolda,1999,p.26).Baxter Magolda’s research provides examples of pedagogical practice that support the development of self-authorship,including learning through scientific inquiry.As in other social constructivist learning models,the teacher as facilitator is crucial to students’cognitive and personal development:Helping students make personal sense of the construction of knowledge claims and engagingstudents in knowledge construction from their own perspectives involves validating thestudents as knowers and situating learning in the students’own perspectives.Becoming socialized into the ways of knowing of the scientific community and participating in thediscipline’s collective knowledge creation effort involves mutually constructing meaning.(Baxter Magolda,1999,p.105)Here Baxter Magolda’s constructivist-developmental pedagogy converges with Lave and Wenger’s communities of practice,but more clearly emphasizes students’development of identity as part of the professional socialization process.Use of constructivist learning theory and pedagogies,including communities of practice, are plainly evident in the UR model as it is structured and practiced at the four institutions participating in this study,as we describe next.As such,the gains identified by student and faculty research advisors actively engaged in apprentice-style learning and teaching provide a means to test these theories and models and offer the opportunity to examine the processes,whereby these benefits are generated,including students’development of a professional identity.Science Education DOI10.1002/sce40HUNTER ET AL.THE APPRENTICESHIP MODEL FOR UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Effective UR is defined as,“an inquiry or investigation conducted by an undergraduate that makes an original intellectual or creative contribution to the discipline”(NSF,2003b, p.9).In the“best practice”of UR,the student draws on the“mentor’s expertise and resources...and the student is encouraged to take primary responsibility for the project and to provide substantial input into its direction”(American Chemical Society’s Committee on Professional Training,quoted in Wenzel,2003,p.1).Undergraduate research,as practiced in the four liberal arts colleges in this study,is based upon this apprenticeship model of learning:student researchers work collaboratively with faculty in conducting authentic, original research.In these colleges,students typically underwent a competitive application process(even when a faculty member directly invited a student to participate).After sorting applications, and ranking students’research preferences,faculty interviewed students to assure a good match between the student’s interests and the faculty member’s research and also between the faculty member and the student.Generally,once all application materials were reviewed (i.e.,students’statements of interest,course transcripts,grade point averages[GPA]), faculty negotiated as a group to distribute successful applicants among the available summer research advisors.Students were paid a stipend for their full-time work with faculty for 10weeks over summer.Depending on the amount of funding available and individual research needs,faculty research advisors supervised one or more students.Typically,a faculty research advisor worked with two students for the summer,but many worked with three or four,or even larger groups.In most cases,student researchers were assigned to work on predetermined facets of faculty research projects:each student project was open ended,but defined,so that a student had a reasonable chance of completing it in the short time frame and of producing useful results.Faculty research advisors described the importance of choosing a project appropriate to the student’s“level,”taking into account their students’interests,knowledge, and abilities and aiming to stretch their capacities,but not beyond students’reach.Research advisors were often willing to integrate students’specific interests into the design of their research projects.Faculty research advisors described the intensive nature of getting their student re-searchers“up and running”in the beginning weeks of the program.Orienting students to the laboratory and to the project,providing students with relevant background information and literature,and teaching them the various skills and instrumentation necessary to work effectively required adaptability to meet students at an array of preparation levels,advance planning,and a good deal of their time.Faculty engaged in directing UR discussed their role as facilitators of students’learning.In the beginning weeks of the project,faculty advisors often worked one-on-one with their students.They provided instruction,gave “mini-lectures,”explained step by step why and how processes were done in particular ways—all the time modeling how science research is done.When necessary,they closely guided students,but wherever possible,provided latitude for and encouraged students’own initiative and experimentation.As the summer progressed,faculty noted that,based on growing hands-on experience,students gained confidence(to a greater or lesser degree)in their abilities,and gradually and increasingly became self-directed and able,or even eager, to work independently.Although most faculty research advisors described regular contact with their student researchers,most did not work side by side with their students everyday.Many research advisors held a weekly meeting to review progress,discuss problems,and make sure students(and the projects)were on the right track.At points in the research work,facultyScience Education DOI10.1002/sceBECOMING A SCIENTIST41 could focus on other tasks while students worked more independently,and the former were available as necessary.When students encountered problems with the research,faculty would serve as a sounding board while students described their efforts to resolve difficulties. Faculty gave suggestions for methods that students could try themselves,and when problems seemed insurmountable to students,faculty would troubleshoot with them tofind a way to move the project forward.Faculty research advisors working with two or more student researchers often used the research peer group to further their students’development.Some faculty relied on more-senior student researchers to help guide new ones.Having multiple students working in the laboratory(whether or not on the same project)also gave student researchers an extra resource to draw upon when questions arose or they needed help.In some cases,several faculty members(from the same or different departments)scheduled weekly meetings for group discussion of their research monly,faculty assigned articles for students to summarize and present to the rest of the group.Toward the end of summer, weekly meetings were often devoted to students’practice of their presentations so that the research advisor and other students could provide constructive criticism.At the end of summer,with few exceptions,student researchers attended a campus-wide UR conference, where they presented posters and shared their research with peers,faculty,and institution administrators.Undergraduate research programs in these liberal arts colleges also offered a series of seminars andfield trips that explored various science careers,discussed the process of choosing and applying to graduate schools,and other topics that focused on students’professional development.We thus found that,at these four liberal arts colleges,the practice of UR embodies the principles of the apprenticeship model of learning where students engage in active,hands-on experience of doing science research in collaboration with and under the auspices of a faculty research advisor.RESEARCH DESIGNThis qualitative study was designed to address fundamental questions about the benefits (and costs)of undergraduate engagement in faculty-mentored,authentic research under-taken outside of class work,about which the existing literature offers fewfindings and many untested hypotheses.2Longitudinal and comparative,this study explores:•what students identify as the benefits of UR—both following the experience,and inthe longer term(particularly career outcomes);•what gains faculty advisors observe in their student researchers and how their view of gains converges with or diverges from those of their students;•the benefits and costs to faculty of their engagement in UR;•what,if anything,is lost by students who do not participate in UR;and•the processes by which gains to students are generated.This study was undertaken at four liberal arts colleges with a strong history of UR.All four offer UR in three core sciences—physics,chemistry,and biology—with additional programs in other STEMfields,including(at different campuses)computer science,engi-neering,biochemistry,mathematics,and psychology.In the apprenticeship model of UR practiced at these colleges,faculty alone directed students in research;however,in the few2An extensive review and discussion of the literature on UR is presented in Seymour et al.(2004). Science Education DOI10.1002/sce42HUNTER ET AL.instances where faculty conducted research at a nearby institution,some students did have contact with post docs,graduate students,or senior laboratory technicians who assisted in the research as well.We interviewed a cohort of(largely)“rising seniors”who were engaged in UR in summer2000on the four campuses(N=76).They were interviewed for a second time shortly before their graduation in spring2001(N=69),and a third time as graduates in 2003–2004(N=55).The faculty advisors(N=55)working with this cohort of students were also interviewed in summer2000,as were nine administrators with long experience of UR programs at their schools.We also interviewed a comparison group of students(N=62)who had not done UR. They were interviewed as graduating seniors in spring2001,and again as graduates in 2003–2004(N=25).A comparison group(N=16)of faculty who did not conduct UR in summer2000was also interviewed.Interview protocols focused upon the nature,value,and career consequences of UR experiences,and the methods by which these were achieved.3After classifying the range of benefits claimed in the literature,we constructed a“gains”checklist to discuss with all participants“what faculty think students may gain from undergraduate research.”Dur-ing the interview,UR students were asked to describe the gains from their research experience(or by other means).If,toward the end of the interview,a student had not mentioned a gain identified on our“checklist,”the student was queried as to whether he or she could claim to have gained the benefit and was invited to add further com-ment.Students also mentioned gains they had made that were not included in the list. With slight alterations in the protocol,we invited comments on the same list of possi-ble gains from students who had not experienced UR,and solicited information about gains from other types of experience.All students were asked to expand on their an-swers,to highlight gains most significant to them,and to describe the sources of any benefits.In the second set of interviews,the same students(nearing graduation)were asked to reflect back on their research experiences as undergraduates,and to comment on the rel-ative importance of their research-derived gains,both for the careers they planned and for other aspects of their lives.In thefinal set of interviews,they were asked to of-fer a retrospective summary of the origins of their career plans and the role that UR and other factors had played in them,and to comment on the longer term effects of their UR experiences—especially the consequences for their career choices and progress, including their current educational or professional engagement.Again,the sources of gains cited were explored;especially gains that were identified by some students as arising from UR experiences but may also arise from other aspects of their college education.The total of367interviews represents more than13,000pages of text data.We are currently analyzing other aspects of the data and will reportfindings on additional topics, including the benefits and costs to faculty of their participation in UR and longitudinal and comparative outcomes of students’career choices.This article discussesfindings from a comparative analysis of all faculty and administrator interviews(N=80),withfindings from thefirst-round UR student interviews(N=76),and provides empirical evidence of the role of UR experiences in encouraging the intellectual,personal,and professional development of student researchers,and how the apprenticeship modelfits theoretical discussions on these topics.3The protocol is available by request to the authors via abhunter@.Science Education DOI10.1002/sceBECOMING A SCIENTIST43METHODS OF DATA TRANSCRIPTION,CODING,AND ANAL YSISOur methods of data collection and analysis are ethnographic,rooted in theoretical work and methodological traditions from sociology,anthropology,and social psychol-ogy(Berger&Luckman,1967;Blumer,1969;Garfinkel,1967;Mead,1934;Schutz& Luckman,1974).Classically,qualitative studies such as ethnographies precede survey or experimental work,particularly where existing knowledge is limited,because these meth-ods of research can uncover and explore issues that shape informants’thinking and actions. Good qualitative software computer programs are now available that allow for the multiple, overlapping,and nested coding of a large volume of text data to a high degree of complexity, thus enabling ethnographers to disentangle patterns in large data sets and to reportfindings using descriptive statistics.Although conditions for statistical significance are rarely met, the results from analysis of text data gathered by careful sampling and consistency in data coding can be very powerful.Interviews took between60and90minutes.Taped interviews and focus groups were transcribed verbatim into a word-processing program and submitted to“The Ethnograph,”a qualitative computer software program(Seidel,1998).Each transcript was searched for information bearing upon the research questions.In this type of analysis,text segments referencing issues of different type are tagged by code names.Codes are not preconceived,but empirical:each new code references a discrete idea not previously raised.Interviewees also offer information in spontaneous narratives and examples,and may make several points in the same passage,each of which is separately coded.As transcripts are coded,both the codes and their associated passages are entered into“The Ethnograph,”creating a data set for each interview group(eight,in this study). Code words and their definitions are concurrently collected in a codebook.Groups of codes that cluster around particular themes are assigned and grouped by“parent”codes.Because an idea that is encapsulated by a code may relate to more than one theme,code words are often assigned multiple parent codes.Thus,a branching and interconnected structure of codes and parents emerges from the text data,which,at any point in time,represents the state of the analysis.As information is commonly embedded in speakers’accounts of their experience rather than offered in abstract statements,transcripts can be checked for internal consistency;that is,between the opinions or explanations offered by informants,their descriptions of events, and the reflections and feelings these evoke.Ongoing discussions between members of our research group continually reviewed the types of observations arising from the data sets to assess and refine category definitions and assure content validity.The clustered codes and parents and their relationships define themes of the qualita-tive analysis.In addition,frequency of use can be counted for codes across a data set, and for important subsets(e.g.,gender),using conservative counting conventions that are designed to avoid overestimation of the weight of particular opinions.Together,these frequencies describe the relative weighting of issues in participants’collective report. As they are drawn from targeted,intentional samples,rather than from random samples, these frequencies are not subjected to tests for statistical significance.They hypothesize the strength of particular variables and their relationships that may later be tested by random sample surveys or by other means.However,thefindings in this study are un-usually strong because of near-complete participation by members of each group under study.Before presentingfindings from this study,we provide an overview of the results of our comparative analysis and describe the evolution of our analysis of the student interview data as a result of emergentfindings from analysis of the faculty interview data.Science Education DOI10.1002/sce。
Bain战略分析工具英文版
Creating and managing a profit pool
Profit pool analysis may indicate new opportunities or threats
Imperatives
Be open to a new perspective on your business and industry
0
0
other components
personal computers
microprocessors
share of industry revenue
software
peripherals
Value chain focus Axes
Vertical—operating margin Horizontal—share of industry data
service repair
100%
aftermarket parts auto rental
2023/12/29
4
Profit Pools: Company Examples
Companies
Automakers U-Haul Elevators (OTIS) Harley Davidson
Polaroid
Current strategy
Change product focus
Change Customer focus
2023/12/29
15
Application to our cases
Retail industry (Wal*Mart) Soft drink industry (Coca-Cola and
作为溯因推理研究方法的因果过程追踪及其在公共政策研究中的应用
与量化研究相 比，质 性 研 究 显 然 更 擅 长 于 发 掘 和 描 述 政 策 变 化 过 程 的 因 果 机 制①（ 朱天飚，2017） 。“一个完整的解释，必须规定一种机制来描述一个变量影响另 一个变量的过程，换句话说，X 是如何产生 Y 的”（ Kiser and Hechter，1991） 。质性方 法论体系利用个案分析方法研究社会现实案例，是国内外公共管理以及公共政策研 究的重要载体（ Sigelman and Gadbois，1983； 马骏，2012） 。个案分析方法通过对公共 政策过程的全景式描述，多角度地把握研究对象的特征，可以探索揭示公共政策实 施过 程 的 因 果 机 制，但 其 方 法 论 瓶 颈 在 于 从 个 别 到 一 般 的 因 果 推 论 解 释 力 弱 （ Eisenhardt，1989； Yin，1994； Goodin，2009） 。为提高因果推论能力，公共政策的质 性研究方法论 体 系 需 要 进 一 步 突 破。近 年 来 兴 起 的 因 果 过 程 追 踪 方 法 （ Causal Process Tracing） 具有识别并纠正虚假因果关联以及遗漏变量偏误等内生性问题的方 法论优势（ Falleti，2016； 张长东，2018） ，成为公共政策学者可以使用的重要方法论 工具。
17John-Steinbeck-(1902-1968)
Influence
Prior to the speech, R. Sandler, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, commented, «Mr. John Steinbeck - In your writings, crowned with popular success in many countries, you have been a bold observer of human behaviour in both tragic and comic situations. This you have described to the reading public of the entire world with vigour and realism. Your Travels with Charley is not only a search for but also a revelation of America, as you yourself say: ‹This monster of a land, this mightiest of nations, this spawn of the future turns out to be the macrocosm of microcosm me.› Thanks to your instinct for what is genuinely American you stand out as a true representative of American life.»
Nobel Acceptance Spextbooks.
The Grapes of Wrath
---- John Steinbeck
Place Marketing as Governance Strategy An Assessment of Obstacles in Place Marketing
Jasper Eshuis is assistant professor inthe Department of Public Administration at Erasmus University Rotterdam. His research focuses on the governance of complex systems, with a special interest in public branding and place marketing. Together with Erik-Hans Klijn, he recently published Branding in Governance and Public Management (Routledge, 2012).E-mail: eshuis@fsw.eur.nlErik Braun is senior researcher and lecturer in urban economics and city mar-keting at the Erasmus School of Economics, Erasmus University Rotterdam. He published his doctoral dissertation on city marketing in 2008. His research interests include the application of marketing and branding concepts by cities and regions, place brand management, place brand perceptions, and the governance of place marketing as well as a broad range of urban economic issues.E-mail: braun@ese.eur.nlErik-Hans Klijn is professor in the Department of Public Administration at Erasmus University Rotterdam. His research activities focus on complex decision making, network management, public–private partnerships, branding, and the impact of media on complex decision making. He has published extensively in international journals and is author of Managing Uncertainties in Networks (with Joop F . M. Koppenjan, Routledge, 2004) and Branding in Governance and Public Management (with Jasper Eshuis, Routledge, 2012).E-mail: klijn@fsw.eur.nlPlace Marketing as Governance Strategy: An Assessment of Obstacles in Place Marketing and Their Effects on Attracting Target Groups 507Public Administration Review , Vol. 73, Iss. 3, pp. 507–516. © 2013 by The American Society for Public Administration. DOI: 10.1111/puar.12044.Jasper EshuisErik Braun Erik-Hans KlijnErasmus University Rotterdam, The NetherlandsPlace marketing is increasingly being used as a g overnance strategy for managing perceptions about regions, cit-ies, and towns. What are the most important obstacles to implementing place marketing? Based on a survey of 274 public managers involved in place marketing in the Netherlands, this article analyzes the main obstacles as perceived by public managers. It also analyzes the eff ects of obstacles on perceived results of place marketing in terms of attracting target groups. A factor analysis of a variety of obstacles investigated in the survey shows three clearly demarcated obstacles: administrative obstacles within municipalities, obstacles in developing the substance of marketing campaigns, and political obstacles. Obstacles in developing the substance of the marketing campaigns have signifi cant eff ects on the results of place marketing in terms of attracting stakeholders, whereas the two other obstacles have no signifi cant infl uence.Place marketing has become a strategy widely deployed by munici-palities and regional authorities in the governance of cities, towns, and regions. It is used to increase the competitive-ness of places and attract target groups such as tourists, new residents, and investors (see, e.g., Bennett and Savani 2003; Braun 2008; Hospers 2006). It may include promotion and creating a positive image, as well as product development in the sense of developing the place in a way thatresponds to the demands of target groups (Greenberg 2008; Kavaratzis 2004; Kotler and Gertner 2002). Although place marketing has been common in the United States for more than three decades (Gold and Ward 1994), it is a relatively new and growing phe-nomenon in Europe and other parts of the world. Municipalities in smaller cities, such as Hasselt in Belgium or Randers in Denmark, have followed the lead of major cities such as London (“We are Londoners”) or Montevideo (“Montevideo for All”) (see Dinnie 2011).Place Marketing as Upcoming GovernanceStrategy Th e upsurge of place marketing can be understood in the context of the wider governance trend of introduc-ing commercial practices and private sector manage-ment styles (cf. Pierre and Peters 2000). Market-based reforms have taken place under the heading of New Public Management (see, e.g., Barzelay 2001; Pollitt, Van Th iel, and Homburg 2007), which stresses the importance of increasing effi ciency in the public sector by introducing competition and approaching citizens more like customers. Customer consciousness and customer care training have become common in pub-lic services, as well as strategic marketing approaches, including business plans, market segmentation, and branding (Eshuis and Klijn 2012; Walsh 1994). In line with these governance trends, municipalities have introduced more marketing-led urban governancestrategies (Greenberg 2008). Th is has led not only to market-ing plans but also to the restruc-turing of spatial, economic, and fi scal policies. Greenberg (2008) describes how the branding of New York was entwined withpro-business restructuring of(fi scal) policies. Place market-ing has evolved from applyingparticular promotional techniques for purposes such as increasing tourism to marketing as an integral part of urban governance.However, the application of place marketing has not always been smooth or successful. Place marketers face multiple constraints or obstacles when trying to apply marketing strategies in a public sector context. Like other forms of governance, place marketing involvesmany diff erent actors who may disagree about, for example, marketing instruments or the brand that best captures the aspired identity of the city. Another issue in place marketing is that a place is a complex “product” that may be diffi cult to market. Although the literature mentions quite a few diffi culties in placePlace Marketing as Governance Strategy: An Assessmentof Obstacles in Place Marketing and Th eir Eff ectson Attracting Target GroupsPlace marketing has evolved from applying particular pro-motional techniques for pur-poses such as increasing tourism to marketing as an integral part of urban governance.marketing, no comprehensive research has been undertaken on the obstacles that public managers encounter in place marketing. Obstacles in Place Marketing and Their Effects on OutcomesTh is article aims to address this knowledge gap. Th e goal is to empirically determine the most important obstacles in place market-ing, according to professionals and politicians involved in place marketing, and their eff ects on the outcome of place marketing in terms of attracting target groups.T wo main research questions are addressed:1. What are the main obstacles in place marketing?2. What is the relationship between obstacles and outcomes ofplace marketing in terms of attracting target groups?Th e article is structured as follows: Th e next section lays a theoreti-cal basis by defi ning what place marketing is. Th e literature on risks, limits, and obstacles to place marketing is then discussed. Th e next section describes the research design and methodology. Th is is fol-lowed by the empirical fi ndings. Th e article ends with a discussion and conclusions.Place Marketing: What Is It?Place marketing involves the application of marketing instruments to geographic locations, such as nations, cities, regions, and com-munities. Th e place marketing literature mentions a multiplicity of activities, instruments, and strategies under the heading of the mar-keting mix that can be applied to places. Th erefore, most scholars consider that marketing is broader than promotion only (see Braun 2008; Eshuis and Edelenbos 2008; Hospers 2006). Ashworth and Voogd (1990) develop a geographic marketing mix that includes not only promotional measures, but also spatial-functional measures, organizational measures,and fi nancial measures intended to improvethe place and its management. Kotler, Haider,and Rein (1993) include activities aimedat improving design and service delivery, aswell as developing attractions. Th e emphasison multiple activities and strategies in placemarketing refl ects the idea that mere promo-tion, without developing the product and themanagement, is not very useful if one wantsto attract people or organizations to a placeand increase competitiveness.Place Marketing: More than Communicating Favorable Images Place marketing is more than just developing favorable images and communicating them to the diff erent target groups; it is not only about “selling” an image. Kotler emphasizes time and again that marketing is about fulfi lling consumer needs (e.g., Kotler et al. 1999). Th us, place marketing is about developing a place that fi ts the needs and wants of citizens, visitors, and investors. Marketing is about responsiveness more than persuasion, although persuasion is an important part of place marketing. Th e idea behind the broader marketing approach is that marketing is much more eff ective if itis targeted at what stakeholders want. Here, marketing is aboutnot only sending messages but also receiving messages. Marketing then becomes a matter of developing the place that people want and applying elements of policy making, urban planning, and place development (or product development in marketing terms). Th is makes place marketing a special governance strategy that explicitly includes the management of wider processes of urban development. Th is view is shared by scholars such as Van den Berg and Braun, who state that “urban place marketing can be seen as a managerial principle in which thinking in terms of customers and the market is central as well as a toolbox with applicable insights and techniques” (1999, 993). Here, place marketing is a way of thinking and doing that emphasizes a consumer orientation or, to put it slightly diff er-ently, a demand-driven orientation. Th is article follows this line.In the words of Braun, place or city marketing is defi ned as “the coordinated use of marketing tools supported by a shared customer-oriented philosophy, for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging urban off erings that have value for the city’s customers and the city’s community at large” (2008, 43). However, place mar-keting as a governance strategy also faces constraints and obstacles, summarized as obstacles in the next section.Exploring Obstacles in Place MarketingObstacles in place marketing arise from the governance environ-ment in which it is employed and from obstacles in place marketing strategies themselves. Th e literature on place marketing and brand-ing mentions a long list of obstacles to undertaking place marketing and achieving good outcomes from it. Th e governance literature provides insight into obstacles relating to the working of public organizations and political processes in the public sector. In this sec-tion, the main obstacles to place marketing are briefl y discussed.Th e fi rst thing stressed in the literature on both governance (Pierre 2000) and place marketing (Klijn, Eshuis, and Braun 2012) is that,in a governance context, multiple public andprivate parties are involved: for example, thetourist board, hotels, museums, some majorcompanies, and the municipality. A character-istic of governance processes is that actors mayhave diff erent or even confl icting preferences(Koppenjan and Klijn 2004; McGuire andAgranoff 2011; Pierre 2000). Diff erent actorsmay have diff erent perceptions about theaims, strategies, and target groups of placemarketing campaigns. Th ere may be diff er-ences between public and private actors, butvarious public departments also often havediff erent interests and favor diff erent solutions. Government institu-tions are themselves fragmented, as much of the literature on gov-ernance emphasizes (e.g., Atkinson and Coleman 1992). Th is may create obstacles. McGuire and Agranoff (2011) state that depart-mental separation is a barrier to becoming a conductive organization that is capable of calibrating to the needs of its customers and the marketplace. For example, decision making can be hampered if the department of housing favors a campaign that positions the city as a nice and peaceful residential area, whereas the economics depart-ment wants to stress industrial investment opportunities.Another major barrier to interorganizational collaboration in govern-ance is what Bardach (1996) calls “turf problems,” where turf refersTh e emphasis on multipleactivities and strategies in placemarketing refl ects the ideathat mere promotion, withoutdeveloping the product and themanagement, is not very usefulif one wants to attract peopleor organizations to a place andincrease competitiveness.508Public Administration Review • May | June 2013to the domain over which an agency is responsible and exercises legitimate authority. When municipal departments such as planning departments are confronted with new place marketing agencies that want to make city development more market oriented, they may be inclined to protect their turf and resist collaboration. Th is problem is more pressing when a governance strategy, as is the case with place marketing, requires coordination and anintegrated approach to be (more) successful(Braun 2008). Place branding is a relativelynew policy fi eld and thus probably suff ersfrom fragmentation and a lack of coordinationwith other policy activities. Th is fragmentationmay hinder eff ective place marketing strate-gies and implementation (Kavaratzis 2009),as is also known from public administrationimplementation studies (Pressman and Wildavsky 1973). Th us, it is expected that one of the obstacles will relate to this fragmentation and lack of coordination within government institutions. Governance is not only about administrators and administrative bod-ies, but as much about politicians and the public. Although scholars have posited shifts of power from representative political bodies to governance networks (Hanf and Scharpf 1978; Koppenjan and Klijn 2004; Pierre 2000), political bodies still exercise a degree of control. In governance, politicians are not political executives at the apex of a government hierarchy, but they do play a role in steering policy development, determining budgets, and overseeing implementation (Scharpf 1997). Policy development in governance, including place marketing policies, requires political support and suffi cient approval by the citizenry. A lack of support among political representatives is an important barrier to good results in governance networks (Klijn and Koppenjan 2000; McGuire and Agranoff 2011).Th e issue of lack of political support has been recognized as a prob-lem in the literature on place marketing. Braun (2008) fi nds, in a study comparing four European cities, that a lack of political prior-ity for place marketing can hinder its proper embedding in wider urban governance. Lack of political priority may also lead to a lack of fi nancial resources for place marketing.Apart from obstacles stemming from the governance context of place marketing, there are also constraints rooted in the nature of place marketing itself. Th e literature on place marketing highlights diffi culties in relation to the particular nature of places and the users of places. As Ward and Gold argue, “it is not readily apparent what the product actually is, nor how the consumption of place occurs. Th ough marketing practices make places into commodities, they are in reality complex packages of goods, services and experiences that are consumed in many diff erent ways” (1994, 9). For example, a city may be seen as a tourist destination, but at the same time, it is a place of residence for many people or a location through which they need to travel when going elsewhere. In short, a place is a complex product with multiple identities (Kavaratzis and Ashworth 2005). Th e identities of a city involve, for example, the city’s history and its historic center, but also its information and communication technologies and gaming industry. Th us, the city can have diff er-ent identities for diff erent target groups. T ourists, for example, may value the historic center, whereas private companies may value the information and communication technology industry. A city’s multiple coexisting identities make it diffi cult to develop appropri-ate place marketing campaigns.Other obstacles arise from the multiplicity of uses of places and the public character of places. Local governments and other stakehold-ers may use brands to appeal to diff erent groups and evoke diff erentassociations with them, but this is not easy.A brand that is suitable for one group (e.g.,tourists) may not suit other groups (e.g.,residents) (Bennett and Savani 2003). In acommercial setting, marketers can choosetarget groups and ignore others, but in a pub-lic context, it may be illegitimate or impos-sible to ignore groups of residents, voters,or businesses (see also Eshuis and Edwards 2012). It often proves diffi cult to create marketing plans that fi t the preferences of all stakeholders. Stigel and Frimann (2006) fi nd this limitation of place marketing in their study of the branding of two Danish towns. Th ey conclude that the wish to arrive at a consensus about brand identities can easily lead to brands with only very gen-eral and nondescript values. Th is inhibits the eff ectiveness of place marketing in terms of creating a distinguishable identity and a clear profi le that makes the place stand out among its competitors.So, in the literature, many obstacles regarding place marketing are discussed. However, almost all of the literature cited earlier is based on case study research, so it remains unclear what the most signifi -cant obstacles are and how diff erent obstacles are interrelated. Th is article addresses this issue through quantitative survey research.Th e obstacles mentioned in the literature have been translated into survey items to identify the obstacles considered most important by practitioners, the underlying factors in the obstacles, and how they relate to outcomes of place marketing.Research Design: Methodology and Methods Organization of the SurveyTh is research is based on data collected for the fi rst National City Marketing Monitor in the Netherlands 2010 (see also Braun et al. 2010; Klijn, Eshuis, and Braun 2012). Th is was a Web-based survey sent to professionals and city administrators involved in the market-ing of cities, towns, and villages. To acquire a reliable set of respond-ents actually involved in Dutch place marketing, the research was carried out in close collaboration with three organizations that provided e-mail addresses of (potential) respondents:• Th e main Dutch network for place marketing in the Neth-erlands, Netwerk City Marketing Nederland. Th is nonprofi tassociation for professionals working in place marketing was es-tablished in 2009. Th e association has no paid employees (except for support occasionally hired for secretarial work and account-ing). Th e fi ve board members are professional marketers whodo this work on a voluntary basis. Th e association facilitates the development of a network of professionals working in place mar-keting by maintaining a Web site and a LinkedIn group (2,300members) and by regularly organizing seminars and conferences on place marketing. Th ose meetings attracted about 1,400 at-tendants over the past three years. For this research, the network provided the e-mail addresses of people who had participated in these events. Th is provided a large set of respondents.Local governments and otherstakeholders may use brands toappeal to diff erent groups andevoke diff erent associations withthem, but this is not easy.Place Marketing as Governance Strategy: An Assessment of Obstacles in Place Marketing and Their Effects on Attracting Target Groups 509• Th e Dutch organization for local and regional tourism offi ces, VVV Nederland, the umbrella organization for municipaltourism offi ces. VVV aims to further tourism and recreationin the Netherlands since it was founded in 1885. Th e national organization has about 40 employees, but more than 1,000employees work in approximately 200 local offi ces (see http://www.nuzakelijk.nl/werk/2298066/medewerkers-vvv-hebben-125-jaar-cao.html). Th e local offi ces engage in destinationmarketing and provide tourists with information about theplace, especially regarding recreational possibilities. Th e VVVs are often largely subsidized by municipalities. For this research, the VVV provided details of respondents within local tourism offi ces who were involved in place marketing.• Th e Dutch association for local governments, VerenigingNederlandse Gemeenten (VNG). Th is is an umbrella organiza-tion for municipalities in the Netherlands that has existed since 1912 and has about 270 employees. It advocates for the inter-ests of municipalities and served as a platform for consultation and knowledge exchange among municipalities. All 408 Dutch municipalities are voluntary members of the VNG. For thisresearch, the VNG provided additional addresses of munici-palities and contact persons. Th is facilitated further researchinto people involved in place marketing.Drawing on the three diff erent lists of respondents and comple-menting this with an additional search for respondents in munici-palities (using an existing network of people working in place marketing) resulted in a reasonably complete data set of 600 people involved in place marketing in the Netherlands. To be sure, it is hard to assess whether the list is complete because of the lack of offi -cial registration of people working in place marketing. However, this extensive search for respondents gives reasonable confi dence that at least a very large proportion of this group is included.During the fi rst round, the survey was sent to the 600 names on the list. Of these, 541 were reached. In all, 274 answered at least partof the survey, giving a response rate of 51 percent. Th e high level of response can be attributed at least partly to the involvement of the aforementioned three organizations and their support for the survey. Survey RespondentsOf the 274 respondents, 168 worked for a municipality, 68 worked for a tourism offi ce, and 38 worked for an organization at arm’s length—usually a foundation involved in place marketing (tourism offi ces often participate in such organizations). Th e respondents had a variety of functions, varying from communication advisor to neighborhood manager, policy advisor, and city alderman. More than 53 percent of the respondents had more than two years’ experi-ence with place marketing.Larger cities are overrepresented in the survey. Th e proportion of municipalities in the Netherlands with fewer than 50,000 inhabit-ants is almost 60 percent, but the number of respondents fromthis group is only 37 percent. Th e largest cities in the Netherlands (more than 250,000 inhabitants) represent only 1.5 percent of all municipalities, whereas almost 13 percent of our respondents come from this group. Th is may not come as a surprise, however, as large municipalities tend to employ more people, including those in place marketing, than small municipalities. Although the sample may not be representative of all municipalities, it can be confi dently claimed to represent the people involved in place marketing thanks to the broad coverage of professionals through their representative organiza-tions and the good response rate (51 percent).Measuring Obstacles in Place MarketingTh rough a combination of inductive and deductive steps, 11 survey items were developed to measure obstacles in place marketing. First, the literature on governance and place marketing was explored to fi nd obstacles rooted in the governance context, as well as obstacles stem-ming from diffi culties in the marketing of places. Th ese obstacles were then organized into categories (interdepartmental issues, impact on product development, political support, budget, reaching and infl uenc-ing citizens, fi t with place identity, and clarity of the brand) and trans-lated into measurable items. Th e list was shown to a place marketer and another professional from the public sector (a policy advisor) to see whether the most important obstacles (as perceived by practitioners and marketers) had been included. Th e items are presented in table 1. Perceptions of the obstacles were measured on a Likert scale (“com-pletely agree,” “agree,” “neither agree nor disagree,” “disagree,” and “completely disagree”).Measuring the Attraction of Target Groups (Dependent Variable)Our dependent variable aims to measure the overall performanceof place marketing in terms of attracting target groups. Overall performance is determined by the degree to which multiple target groups are attracted. Th erefore, we created a composite dependent variable, attracting target groups, which was measured using three items for the three most important target groups in place marketing:1. Place marketing has contributed positively to attractingvisitors.2. Place marketing has contributed positively to attracting newresidents.3. Place marketing has contributed positively to attractingcompanies/fi rms.Each question was measured on a Likert scale ranging from “com-pletely agree” to “completely disagree.”Table 1Items for Measuring ObstaclesItem1The budget for place marketing is too low.2It is diffi cult to reach consensus within the municipality about the place marketing content and strategy.3There is insuffi cient expertise within the municipality.4Policy departments view place marketing as a threat, they do not want place marketing to infl uence their policy.5Various municipal departments do not give marketing much consideration in their communication.6Place marketing has insuffi cient impact on product development.7There is not enough political support.8Place marketing does not really strike a chord with the citizen.9The campaign does not fi t the identity of the municipality.10The campaign does not provide a clear profi le for the municipality.11The intended target groups are not reached suffi ciently.Note: This article uses the term place marketing. The Dutch survey actually used the term city marketing because in the Netherlands, this is the most commonly used term to denote the marketing of places (whether it be cities, towns,v illages, or districts).510Public Administration Review • May | June 2013Factor AnalysisA factor analysis was performed to fi nd the latent variables behind the 11 identifi ed obstacles. In addition, a factor analysis was conducted on the three items listed earlier to derive the dependent variable, attracting target groups. As already mentioned, all 11 items for the obstacles and the three items for the dependent variable were measured on Likert scales. Both factor analyses used the polychoric correlation matrix rather than the standard Pearson correlation matrix to respect the ordinal character of the data, as suggested by Kolenikov and Angeles (2004). Th e literature has for some time been suggesting that it is incorrect to treat ordinal data as interval or ratio variables (Babakus, Ferguson, and Joereskog 1987; Muthen 1984). After estimation of the polychoric correlation matrix,1 a principal component analysis with a varimax rotation was applied to ascertain the factors. Before applying the varimax rotation, an oblique rotation (oblimin) was performed showing that the factors were not substantially correlated.2 Varimax rotation was chosen because it produces easily interpretable results.Th is procedure was fi rst followed to derive the dependent variable, attracting target groups, using the three items listed earlier. To create this variable, the factor scores of the single factor emanating from this analysis were saved (with an eigenvalue of 2.19930). Bartlett’s test of sphericity, with a p-value of .000, indicated no problem of intercorrelation between the items. A Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was used to assess whether the factor analysis was good enough to proceed. Th e result of the KMO test was .608, which is above the frequently used critical threshold of .5 (Field 2009). Th e procedure and results of the factor analysis of the obstacles are discussed later.Common Source BiasBecause all of the measures in this article are based on respondents’ self-reports, there is a potential problem of common source bias.T o check for common source bias, Harman’s single-factor test (see, e.g., Andersson and Bateman 1997; Podsakoff and Organ 1986)—a factor analysis with all items underlying the independent and dependent variables—was conducted. Th is analysis resulted in four diff erent factors with an eigenvalue above 1 (the factor with the highest eigenvalue explained 36 percent of the variance). Th is indi-cates that common source bias is not likely to explain the research fi ndings (cf. Andersson and Bateman 1997).Regression AnalysisA multivariate hierarchical regression analysis was conducted with the dependent variable, results of place marketing in terms of attracting groups. Regression analysis was chosen because of its capacity to examine the relationships between multiple variables and the possibility to control for confound-ing infl uences on the relationship betweenobstacles and results of place marketing (cf.Graddy 1998). Th ree variables—the sizeof the municipality, the experience of therespondent, and the position of the respond-ent—were controlled for using hierarchicalregression analyses: the fi rst model includedonly the set of three control variables, andsubsequently the set of independent variableswas added.Th e fi rst control variable included was the size of the municipality, in order to control for the possibility that city marketers in larger cities may have to cope with more complex administrative conditions—for example, they have to deal with more departments within the municipality. Another possibility is that larger cities tend to be more active in place marketing than smaller ones, and this may also infl u-ence perceptions of obstacles or outcomes.Th e second control variable, the respondent’s experience in place mar-keting, was included to control for the possibility that the variance in outcomes is not explained by the obstacles but by incorrect esti-mations attributable to limited experience among our respondents. One could expect experience to have an eff ect on the evaluation of the outcomes by the respondents; respondents with more experience might evaluate the outcomes more correctly than those with less experience.Th e third control variable relates to the respondents’ diff erent posi-tions. Th ey work in diff erent organizations, and it was necessary to control for the possibility of their organizational affi liation infl uenc-ing their perception of obstacles or results. For example, respondents from tourism offi ces may have a diff erent outlook on administrative or political bottlenecks because they work in a diff erent organiza-tion than those from municipalities. Th ree diff erent positions match with the main categories of survey respondents: (1) public managers in municipalities (61.3 percent), (2) public managers in tourismoffi ces (24.8 percent), and (3) public managers in other organization (13.9 percent). Th e last group consisted largely of people working in independent associations responsible for place marketing. Dummies were created to measure this variable. Th e respondents working in municipalities were the reference group.Some Main Obstacles in Place MarketingTh e obstacles in place marketing were analyzed by fi rst exploring the most important obstacles according to practitioners in place market-ing, the survey respondents. Th e underlying dimensions of obstacles were analyzed by performing factor analysis. Th is section ends by stating three hypotheses on the relation between obstacles and out-comes, and this relation is explored in the following section.What Obstacles Do Practitioners Find Most Important? Presenting the median and the mode of each obstacle, table 2 sum-marizes how respondents perceive the obstacles. Th e median separates the population of respondents into two groups with an equal number of respondents: one group that leans more toward agreeing and one group that leans more toward disagreeing that this is an obstacle. A median of 4 indicates that half of the respondents strongly agree with the proposition that this is an obstacle in their municipality, whereasthe rest of the respondents do not agree thatthis is an obstacle (choosing a value of 3, 2,or 1). Th e higher the value of the median, themore people lean toward (strongly) agreeingthat this is an obstacle. Th e mode shows themost commonly chosen value.Table 2 shows that respondents (strongly)agree most often with three propositions:the budget for place marketing is too low,it is diffi cult to reach consensus within theRespondents (strongly) agreemost often with three proposi-tions: the budget for place mar-keting is too low, it is diffi cultto reach consensus within themunicipality, and place market-ing has insuffi cient impact onproduct development.Place Marketing as Governance Strategy: An Assessment of Obstacles in Place Marketing and Their Effects on Attracting Target Groups 511。
基于邻居信息聚合的子图同构匹配算法
2021⁃01⁃10计算机应用,Journal of Computer Applications 2021,41(1):43-47ISSN 1001⁃9081CODEN JYIIDU http ：//基于邻居信息聚合的子图同构匹配算法徐周波，李珍，刘华东*，李萍（广西可信软件重点实验室（桂林电子科技大学），广西桂林541004）（∗通信作者电子邮箱ldd@ ）摘要：图匹配在现实中被广泛运用，而子图同构匹配是其中的研究热点，具有重要的科学意义与实践价值。
现有子图同构匹配算法大多基于邻居关系来构建约束条件，而忽略了节点的局部邻域信息。
对此，提出了一种基于邻居信息聚合的子图同构匹配算法。
首先，将图的属性和结构导入到改进的图卷积神经网络中进行特征向量的表示学习，从而得到聚合后的节点局部邻域信息；然后，根据图的标签、度等特征对匹配顺序进行优化，以提高算法的效率；最后，将得到的特征向量和优化的匹配顺序与搜索算法相结合，建立子图同构的约束满足问题（CSP ）模型，并结合CSP 回溯算法对模型进行求解。
实验结果表明，与经典的树搜索算法和约束求解算法相比，该算法可以有效地提高子图同构的求解效率。
关键词：子图同构；约束满足问题；图卷积神经网络；信息聚合；图匹配中图分类号：TP391文献标志码：ASubgraph isomorphism matching algorithm based on neighbor informationaggregationXU Zhoubo ，LI Zhen ，LIU Huadong *，LI Ping（Guangxi Key Laboratory of Trusted Software （Guilin University of Electronic Technology ），Guilin Guangxi 541004，China ）Abstract:Graph matching is widely used in reality ，of which subgraph isomorphic matching is a research hotspot and has important scientific significance and practical value.Most existing subgraph isomorphism algorithms build constraints based on neighbor relationships ，ignoring the local neighborhood information of nodes.In order to solve the problem ，a subgraph isomorphism matching algorithm based on neighbor information aggregation was proposed.Firstly ，the aggregated local neighborhood information of the nodes was obtained by importing the graph attributes and structure into the improved graph convolutional neural network to perform the representation learning of feature vector.Then ，the efficiency of the algorithm was improved by optimizing the matching order according to the characteristics such as the label and degree of the graph.Finally ，the Constraint Satisfaction Problem （CSP ）model of subgraph isomorphism was established by combining the obtained feature vector and the optimized matching order with the search algorithm ，and the model was solved by using the CSP backtracking algorithm.Experimental results show that the proposed algorithm significantly improves the solving efficiency of subgraph isomorphism compared with the traditional tree search algorithm and constraint solving algorithm.Key words:subgraph isomorphism;Constraint Satisfaction Problem (CSP);graph convolutional neural network;information aggregation;graph matching0引言图匹配技术被广泛地应用于社交网络、网络安全、计算生物学和化学等领域［1］中。
Instructional_design
Instructional designFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaInstructional Design(also called Instructional Systems Design (ISD)) is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences. The process consists broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically(process of teaching) and andragogically(adult learning) tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model with the five phases: 1) analysis, 2) design, 3) development, 4) implementation, and 5) evaluation. As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology.HistoryMuch of the foundations of the field of instructional design was laid in World War II, when the U.S. military faced the need to rapidly train large numbers of people to perform complex technical tasks, fromfield-stripping a carbine to navigating across the ocean to building a bomber—see "Training Within Industry(TWI)". Drawing on the research and theories of B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, training programs focused on observable behaviors. Tasks were broken down into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was designed to reward correct performance and remediate incorrect performance. Mastery was assumed to be possible for every learner, given enough repetition and feedback. After the war, the success of the wartime training model was replicated in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. The approach is still common in the U.S. military.[1]In 1956, a committee led by Benjamin Bloom published an influential taxonomy of what he termed the three domains of learning: Cognitive(what one knows or thinks), Psychomotor (what one does, physically) and Affective (what one feels, or what attitudes one has). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction.[2]During the latter half of the 20th century, learning theories began to be influenced by the growth of digital computers.In the 1970s, many instructional design theorists began to adopt an information-processing-based approach to the design of instruction. David Merrill for instance developed Component Display Theory (CDT), which concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques).[3]Later in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s cognitive load theory began to find empirical support for a variety of presentation techniques.[4]Cognitive load theory and the design of instructionCognitive load theory developed out of several empirical studies of learners, as they interacted with instructional materials.[5]Sweller and his associates began to measure the effects of working memory load, and found that the format of instructional materials has a direct effect on the performance of the learners using those materials.[6][7][8]While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media on learning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several journals. Rather than attempting to substantiate the use of media, these cognitive load learning effects provided an empirical basis for the use of instructional strategies. Mayer asked the instructional design community to reassess the media debate, to refocus their attention on what was most important: learning.[9]By the mid- to late-1990s, Sweller and his associates had discovered several learning effects related to cognitive load and the design of instruction (e.g. the split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the worked-example effect). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began to attribute learning effects to cognitive load.[9] Mayer and his associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of MultimediaLearning.[10][11][12]In the past decade, cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted[13]and begun to revolutionize how practitioners of instructional design view instruction. Recently, human performance experts have even taken notice of cognitive load theory, and have begun to promote this theory base as the science of instruction, with instructional designers as the practitioners of this field.[14]Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller[15]published a textbook describing how Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence-based guidelines of cognitive load theory.Instructional Designers use various instructional strategies to reduce cognitive load. For example, they think that the onscreen text should not be more than 150 words or the text should be presented in small meaningful chunks.[citation needed] The designers also use auditory and visual methods to communicate information to the learner.Learning designThe concept of learning design arrived in the literature of technology for education in the late nineties and early 2000s [16] with the idea that "designers and instructors need to choose for themselves the best mixture of behaviourist and constructivist learning experiences for their online courses" [17]. But the concept of learning design is probably as old as the concept of teaching. Learning design might be defined as "the description of the teaching-learning process that takes place in a unit of learning (eg, a course, a lesson or any other designed learning event)" [18].As summarized by Britain[19], learning design may be associated with:∙The concept of learning design∙The implementation of the concept made by learning design specifications like PALO, IMS Learning Design[20], LDL, SLD 2.0, etc... ∙The technical realisations around the implementation of the concept like TELOS, RELOAD LD-Author, etc...Instructional design modelsADDIE processPerhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE Process. This acronym stands for the 5 phases contained in the model:∙Analyze– analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.Identify Instructional Goals, Conduct Instructional Analysis, Analyze Learners and Contexts∙Design– develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approachWrite Performance Objectives, Develop Assessment Instruments, Develop Instructional Strategy∙Develop– create instructional or training materialsDesign and selection of materials appropriate for learning activity, Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation∙Implement– deliver or distribute the instructional materials ∙Evaluate– make sure the materials achieved the desired goals Design and Conduct Summative EvaluationMost of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE process.[21] Dick,W.O,.Carey, L.,&Carey, J.O.(2004)Systematic Design of Instruction. Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon.Rapid prototypingA sometimes utilized adaptation to the ADDIE model is in a practice known as rapid prototyping.Proponents suggest that through an iterative process the verification of the design documents saves time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. This approach is not novel to the design of instruction, but appears in many design-related domains including software design, architecture, transportation planning, product development, message design, user experience design, etc.[21][22][23]In fact, some proponents of design prototyping assert that a sophisticated understanding of a problem is incomplete without creating and evaluating some type of prototype, regardless of the analysis rigor that may have been applied up front.[24] In other words, up-front analysis is rarely sufficient to allow one to confidently select an instructional model. For this reason many traditional methods of instructional design are beginning to be seen as incomplete, naive, and even counter-productive.[25]However, some consider rapid prototyping to be a somewhat simplistic type of model. As this argument goes, at the heart of Instructional Design is the analysis phase. After you thoroughly conduct the analysis—you can then choose a model based on your findings. That is the area where mostpeople get snagged—they simply do not do a thorough-enough analysis. (Part of Article By Chris Bressi on LinkedIn)Dick and CareyAnother well-known instructional design model is The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model.[26] The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction.Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes".[26] The components of the Systems Approach Model, also known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows:∙Identify Instructional Goal(s): goal statement describes a skill, knowledge or attitude(SKA) that a learner will be expected to acquire ∙Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner must recall and identify what learner must be able to do to perform particular task ∙Analyze Learners and Contexts: General characteristic of the target audience, Characteristic directly related to the skill to be taught, Analysis of Performance Setting, Analysis of Learning Setting∙Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists of a description of the behavior, the condition and criteria. The component of anobjective that describes the criteria that will be used to judge the learner's performance.∙Develop Assessment Instruments: Purpose of entry behavior testing, purpose of pretesting, purpose of posttesting, purpose of practive items/practive problems∙Develop Instructional Strategy: Pre-instructional activities, content presentation, Learner participation, assessment∙Develop and Select Instructional Materials∙Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction: Designer try to identify areas of the instructional materials that are in need to improvement.∙Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and to identify poor instruction∙Design and Conduct Summative EvaluationWith this model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly.[26]/akteacher/dick-cary-instructional-design-mo delInstructional Development Learning System (IDLS)Another instructional design model is the Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS).[27] The model was originally published in 1970 by Peter J. Esseff, PhD and Mary Sullivan Esseff, PhD in their book entitled IDLS—Pro Trainer 1: How to Design, Develop, and Validate Instructional Materials.[28]Peter (1968) & Mary (1972) Esseff both received their doctorates in Educational Technology from the Catholic University of America under the mentorship of Dr. Gabriel Ofiesh, a Founding Father of the Military Model mentioned above. Esseff and Esseff contributed synthesized existing theories to develop their approach to systematic design, "Instructional Development Learning System" (IDLS).The components of the IDLS Model are:∙Design a Task Analysis∙Develop Criterion Tests and Performance Measures∙Develop Interactive Instructional Materials∙Validate the Interactive Instructional MaterialsOther modelsSome other useful models of instructional design include: the Smith/Ragan Model, the Morrison/Ross/Kemp Model and the OAR model , as well as, Wiggins theory of backward design .Learning theories also play an important role in the design ofinstructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism , constructivism , social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials.Influential researchers and theoristsThe lists in this article may contain items that are not notable , not encyclopedic , or not helpful . Please help out by removing such elements and incorporating appropriate items into the main body of the article. (December 2010)Alphabetic by last name∙ Bloom, Benjamin – Taxonomies of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains – 1955 ∙Bonk, Curtis – Blended learning – 2000s ∙ Bransford, John D. – How People Learn: Bridging Research and Practice – 1999 ∙ Bruner, Jerome – Constructivism ∙Carr-Chellman, Alison – Instructional Design for Teachers ID4T -2010 ∙Carey, L. – "The Systematic Design of Instruction" ∙Clark, Richard – Clark-Kosma "Media vs Methods debate", "Guidance" debate . ∙Clark, Ruth – Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load / Guided Instruction / Cognitive Load Theory ∙Dick, W. – "The Systematic Design of Instruction" ∙ Gagné, Robert M. – Nine Events of Instruction (Gagné and Merrill Video Seminar) ∙Heinich, Robert – Instructional Media and the new technologies of instruction 3rd ed. – Educational Technology – 1989 ∙Jonassen, David – problem-solving strategies – 1990s ∙Langdon, Danny G - The Instructional Designs Library: 40 Instructional Designs, Educational Tech. Publications ∙Mager, Robert F. – ABCD model for instructional objectives – 1962 ∙Merrill, M. David - Component Display Theory / Knowledge Objects ∙ Papert, Seymour – Constructionism, LOGO – 1970s ∙ Piaget, Jean – Cognitive development – 1960s∙Piskurich, George – Rapid Instructional Design – 2006∙Simonson, Michael –Instructional Systems and Design via Distance Education – 1980s∙Schank, Roger– Constructivist simulations – 1990s∙Sweller, John - Cognitive load, Worked-example effect, Split-attention effect∙Roberts, Clifton Lee - From Analysis to Design, Practical Applications of ADDIE within the Enterprise - 2011∙Reigeluth, Charles –Elaboration Theory, "Green Books" I, II, and III - 1999-2010∙Skinner, B.F.– Radical Behaviorism, Programed Instruction∙Vygotsky, Lev– Learning as a social activity – 1930s∙Wiley, David– Learning Objects, Open Learning – 2000sSee alsoSince instructional design deals with creating useful instruction and instructional materials, there are many other areas that are related to the field of instructional design.∙educational assessment∙confidence-based learning∙educational animation∙educational psychology∙educational technology∙e-learning∙electronic portfolio∙evaluation∙human–computer interaction∙instructional design context∙instructional technology∙instructional theory∙interaction design∙learning object∙learning science∙m-learning∙multimedia learning∙online education∙instructional design coordinator∙storyboarding∙training∙interdisciplinary teaching∙rapid prototyping∙lesson study∙Understanding by DesignReferences1.^MIL-HDBK-29612/2A Instructional Systems Development/SystemsApproach to Training and Education2.^Bloom's Taxonomy3.^TIP: Theories4.^Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. - Educational Psychologist -38(1):1 - Citation5.^ Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving:Effects on learning". Cognitive Science12 (1): 257–285.doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7.6.^ Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (1991). "Cognitive Load Theory andthe Format of Instruction". Cognition and Instruction8 (4): 293–332.doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2.7.^ Sweller, J., & Cooper, G.A. (1985). "The use of worked examplesas a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra". Cognition and Instruction2 (1): 59–89. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3.8.^Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). "Effects of schema acquisitionand rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer". Journal of Educational Psychology79 (4): 347–362.doi:10.1037/0022-0663.79.4.347.9.^ a b Mayer, R.E. (1997). "Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking theRight Questions?". Educational Psychologist32 (41): 1–19.doi:10.1207/s1*******ep3201_1.10.^ Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. ISBN0-521-78239-2.11.^Mayer, R.E., Bove, W. Bryman, A. Mars, R. & Tapangco, L. (1996)."When Less Is More: Meaningful Learning From Visual and Verbal Summaries of Science Textbook Lessons". Journal of Educational Psychology88 (1): 64–73. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.64.12.^ Mayer, R.E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R. (1995). "Agenerative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text". Educational TechnologyResearch and Development43 (1): 31–41. doi:10.1007/BF02300480.13.^Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2004). "Cognitive Load Theory:Instructional Implications of the Interaction between InformationStructures and Cognitive Architecture". Instructional Science32: 1–8.doi:10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021806.17516.d0.14.^ Clark, R.C., Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-Learning and the Science ofInstruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN0-7879-6051-9.15.^ Clark, R.C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency inLearning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load. SanFrancisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN0-7879-7728-4.16.^Conole G., and Fill K., “A learning design toolkit to createpedagogically effective learning activities”. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 2005 (08).17.^Carr-Chellman A. and Duchastel P., “The ideal online course,”British Journal of Educational Technology, 31(3), 229-241, July 2000.18.^Koper R., “Current Research in Learning Design,” EducationalTechnology & Society, 9 (1), 13-22, 2006.19.^Britain S., “A Review of Learning Design: Concept,Specifications and Tools” A report for the JISC E-learning Pedagogy Programme, May 2004.20.^IMS Learning Design webpage21.^ a b Piskurich, G.M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design: LearningID fast and right.22.^ Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educationaltechnology.23.^ Stolovitch, H.D., & Keeps, E. (1999). Handbook of humanperformance technology.24.^ Kelley, T., & Littman, J. (2005). The ten faces of innovation:IDEO's strategies for beating the devil's advocate & driving creativity throughout your organization. New York: Doubleday.25.^ Hokanson, B., & Miller, C. (2009). Role-based design: Acontemporary framework for innovation and creativity in instructional design. Educational Technology, 49(2), 21–28.26.^ a b c Dick, Walter, Lou Carey, and James O. Carey (2005) [1978].The Systematic Design of Instruction(6th ed.). Allyn & Bacon. pp. 1–12.ISBN020*******./?id=sYQCAAAACAAJ&dq=the+systematic+design+of+instruction.27.^ Esseff, Peter J. and Esseff, Mary Sullivan (1998) [1970].Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) (8th ed.). ESF Press.pp. 1–12. ISBN1582830371. /Materials.html.28.^/Materials.htmlExternal links∙Instructional Design - An overview of Instructional Design∙ISD Handbook∙Edutech wiki: Instructional design model [1]∙Debby Kalk, Real World Instructional Design InterviewRetrieved from "/wiki/Instructional_design" Categories: Educational technology | Educational psychology | Learning | Pedagogy | Communication design | Curricula。
多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈对角化法求解
《多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈对角化法求解》引言多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈，是一种重要的博弈模型，其对角化法求解方法在博弈理论研究中具有重要意义。
本文将围绕这一主题展开讨论，从浅入深地探究多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈及其对角化法求解，以帮助读者更深入地理解这一复杂且有价值的博弈模型。
一、多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈概述多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈是一种描述多主体系统中博弈行为的模型，该模型包括多个领导者和多个追随者，它们之间存在复杂的相互作用和博弈关系。
在这种博弈模型中，领导者和追随者的决策及其相互影响将对整个系统的稳定性和效率产生重要影响。
多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈模型的复杂性使其成为博弈理论研究中的热点问题之一。
在实际应用中，例如多智能体系统、群体智能控制等领域，对多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈模型的深入理解和求解显得尤为重要。
二、对角化法在多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈中的应用对角化法是一种重要的数学工具，它在多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈的求解过程中具有重要作用。
该方法通过将博弈模型的矩阵表示进行对角化，从而简化了模型的求解过程，使得我们可以更加高效地分析和得出结论。
在多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈中，对角化法的应用使得我们能够更清晰地理解系统的稳定性和收敛性，并能够为决策者提供更为可靠的决策依据。
通过对博弈模型矩阵的对角化处理，我们可以得到系统的特征值和特征向量，进而揭示系统的动态特性和博弈结果。
三、多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈对角化法求解的意义多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈对角化法求解的方法和结果具有重要的理论和应用意义。
通过对角化法的求解过程，我们不仅可以深入理解多主体系统中的博弈行为规律和特征，还可以为相关领域的实际问题提供有效的建模和求解方法。
对角化法求解多领导多追随者斯坦伯格博弈模型的过程中，我们可以更全面地分析系统中各个主体的策略选择和行为轨迹，进而为决策者提供科学的决策支持。
对角化法的应用还可以为多主体系统的博弈稳定性、收敛性、优化等问题提供更深入的理论分析和研究路径。
1910.147原文上锁挂牌
• Part Number:1910• Part Title:Occupational Safety and Health Standards• Subpart:J• Subpart Title:General Environmental Controls• StandardNumber:• Title:The control of hazardous energy (lockout/tagout).• Appendix:A• GPO Source:e-CFRScope, application, and purpose—(a)(1)ScopeThis standard covers the servicing and maintenance of machines and equipment in which the unexpected energization or start up of the machines or equipment, or release of stored energy, could harm employees. This standard establishes minimum performance requirements for the control of such hazardous energy.(a)(1)(ii)This standard does not cover the following:(a)(1)(ii)(A)Construction and agriculture employment;(a)(1)(ii)(B)Employment covered by parts 1915, 1917, and 1918 of this title;(a)(1)(ii)(C)Installations under the exclusive control of electric utilities for the purpose of power generation, transmission and distribution, including related equipment for communication or metering;(a)(1)(ii)(D)Exposure to electrical hazards from work on, near, or with conductors or equipment inelectric-utilization installations, which is covered by subpart S of this part; and(a)(1)(ii)(E)Oil and gas well drilling and servicing.(a)(2)Application.(a)(2)(i)This standard applies to the control of energy during servicing and/or maintenance of machines and equipment.Normal production operations are not covered by this standard (See Subpart O of this Part). Servicing and/or maintenance which takes place during normal production operations is covered by this standard only if:An employee is required to remove or bypass a guard or other safety device; orAn employee is required to place any part of his or her body into an area on a machine or piece of equipment where work is actually performed upon the material being processed (point of operation) or where an associated danger zone exists during a machine operating cycle.Note: Exception to paragraph (a)(2)(ii): Minor tool changes and adjustments, and other minor servicing activities, which take place during normal production operations, are not covered by this standard if they are routine, repetitive, and integral to the use of the equipment for production, provided that the work is performed using alternative measures which provide effective protection (See Subpart O of this Part).(a)(2)(iii)This standard does not apply to the following:Work on cord and plug connected electric equipment for which exposure to the hazards of unexpected energization or start up of the equipment is controlled by the unplugging of the equipment from the energy source and by the plug being under the exclusive control of the employee performing the servicing or maintenance.(a)(2)(iii)(B)Hot tap operations involving transmission and distribution systems for substances such as gas, steam, water or petroleum products when they are performed on pressurized pipelines, provided that the employer demonstrates that-(a)(2)(iii)(B)(1)continuity of service is essential;(a)(2)(iii)(B)(2)shutdown of the system is impractical; and(a)(2)(iii)(B)(3)documented procedures are followed, and special equipment is used which will provide proven effective protection for employees.(a)(3)Purpose.(a)(3)(i)This section requires employers to establish a program and utilize procedures for affixing appropriate lockout devices or tagout devices to energy isolating devices, and to otherwise disable machines or equipment to prevent unexpected energization, start up or release of stored energy in order to prevent injury to employees.When other standards in this part require the use of lockout or tagout, they shall be used and supplemented by the procedural and training requirements of this section.Definitions applicable to this section.Affected employee. An employee whose job requires him/her to operate or use a machine or equipment on which servicing or maintenance is being performed under lockout or tagout, or whose job requires him/her to work in an area in which such servicing or maintenance is being performed.Authorized employee. A person who locks out or tags out machines or equipment in order to perform servicing or maintenance on that machine or equipment. An affected employee becomes an authorized employee when that employee's duties include performing servicing or maintenance covered under this section.Capable of being locked out. An energy isolating device is capable of being locked out if it has a hasp or other means of attachment to which, or through which, a lock can be affixed, or it has a locking mechanism built into it. Other energy isolating devices are capable of being locked out, if lockout can be achieved without the need to dismantle, rebuild, or replace the energy isolating device or permanently alter its energy control capability.Energized. Connected to an energy source or containing residual or stored energy.Energy isolating device. A mechanical device that physically prevents the transmission or release of energy, including but not limited to the following: A manually operated electrical circuit breaker; a disconnect switch; a manually operated switch by which the conductors of a circuit can be disconnected from all ungrounded supply conductors, and, in addition, no pole can be operated independently; a line valve; a block; and any similar device used to block or isolate energy. Push buttons, selector switches and other control circuit type devices are not energy isolating devices.Energy source. Any source of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical, thermal, or other energy.Hot tap. A procedure used in the repair, maintenance and services activities which involves welding on a piece of equipment (pipelines, vessels or tanks) under pressure, in order to install connections or appurtenances. it is commonly used to replace or add sections of pipeline without the interruption of service for air, gas, water, steam, and petrochemical distribution systems.Lockout. The placement of a lockout device on an energy isolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, ensuring that the energy isolating device and the equipment being controlled cannot be operated until the lockout device is removed.Lockout device. A device that utilizes a positive means such as a lock, either key or combination type, to hold an energy isolating device in the safe position and prevent the energizing of a machine or equipment. Included are blank flanges and bolted slip blinds.Normal production operations. The utilization of a machine or equipment to perform its intended production function.Servicing and/or maintenance. Workplace activities such as constructing, installing, setting up, adjusting, inspecting, modifying, and maintaining and/or servicing machines or equipment. These activities include lubrication, cleaning or unjamming of machines or equipment and making adjustments or tool changes, where the employee may be exposed to the unexpected energization or startup of the equipment or release of hazardous energy.Setting up. Any work performed to prepare a machine or equipment to perform its normal production operation.Tagout. The placement of a tagout device on an energy isolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, to indicate that the energy isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tagout device is removed.Tagout device. A prominent warning device, such as a tag and a means of attachment, which can be securely fastened to an energy isolating device in accordance with an established procedure, toindicate that the energy isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tagout device is removed.(c)General -Energy control program. The employer shall establish a program consisting of energy control procedures, employee training and periodic inspections to ensure that before any employee performs any servicing or maintenance on a machine or equipment where the unexpected energizing, startup or release of stored energy could occur and cause injury, the machine or equipment shall be isolated from the energy source and rendered inoperative.Lockout/tagout.(c)(2)(i)If an energy isolating device is not capable of being locked out, the employer's energy control program under paragraph (c)(1) of this section shall utilize a tagout system.(c)(2)(ii)If an energy isolating device is capable of being locked out, the employer's energy control program under paragraph (c)(1) of this section shall utilize lockout, unless the employer can demonstrate that the utilization of a tagout system will provide full employee protection as set forth in paragraph (c)(3) of this section.After January 2, 1990, whenever replacement or major repair, renovation or modification of a machine or equipment is performed, and whenever new machines or equipment are installed, energy isolating devices for such machine or equipment shall be designed to accept a lockout device.Full employee protection.(c)(3)(i)When a tagout device is used on an energy isolating device which is capable of being locked out, the tagout device shall be attached at the same location that the lockout device would have beenattached, and the employer shall demonstrate that the tagout program will provide a level of safety equivalent to that obtained by using a lockout program.(c)(3)(ii)In demonstrating that a level of safety is achieved in the tagout program which is equivalent to the level of safety obtained by using a lockout program, the employer shall demonstrate full compliance with all tagout-related provisions of this standard together with such additional elements as are necessary to provide the equivalent safety available from the use of a lockout device. Additional means to be considered as part of the demonstration of full employee protection shall include the implementation of additional safety measures such as the removal of an isolating circuit element, blocking of a controlling switch, opening of an extra disconnecting device, or the removal of a valve handle to reduce the likelihood of inadvertent energization.Energy control procedure.Procedures shall be developed, documented and utilized for the control of potentially hazardous energy when employees are engaged in the activities covered by this section.Note: Exception: The employer need not document the required procedure for a particular machine or equipment, when all of the following elements exist: (1) The machine or equipment has no potential for stored or residual energy or reaccumulation of stored energy after shut down which could endanger employees; (2) the machine or equipment has a single energy source which can be readily identified and isolated; (3) the isolation and locking out of that energy source will completely deenergize and deactivate the machine or equipment; (4) the machine or equipment is isolated from that energy source and locked out during servicing or maintenance; (5) a single lockout device will achieve a locked-out condition; (6) the lockout device is under the exclusive control of the authorized employee performing the servicing or maintenance; (7) the servicing or maintenance does not create hazards for other employees; and (8) the employer, in utilizing this exception, has had no accidents involving the unexpected activation or reenergization of the machine or equipment during servicing or maintenance.The procedures shall clearly and specifically outline the scope, purpose, authorization, rules, and techniques to be utilized for the control of hazardous energy, and the means to enforce compliance including, but not limited to, the following:(c)(4)(ii)(A)A specific statement of the intended use of the procedure;(c)(4)(ii)(B)Specific procedural steps for shutting down, isolating, blocking and securing machines or equipment to control hazardous energy;(c)(4)(ii)(C)Specific procedural steps for the placement, removal and transfer of lockout devices or tagout devices and the responsibility for them; and(c)(4)(ii)(D)Specific requirements for testing a machine or equipment to determine and verify the effectiveness of lockout devices, tagout devices, and other energy control measures.Protective materials and hardware.(c)(5)(i)Locks, tags, chains, wedges, key blocks, adapter pins, self-locking fasteners, or other hardware shall be provided by the employer for isolating, securing or blocking of machines or equipment from energy sources.Lockout devices and tagout devices shall be singularly identified; shall be the only devices(s) used for controlling energy; shall not be used for other purposes; and shall meet the following requirements:(c)(5)(ii)(A)Durable.(c)(5)(ii)(A)(1)Lockout and tagout devices shall be capable of withstanding the environment to which they are exposed for the maximum period of time that exposure is expected.(c)(5)(ii)(A)(2)Tagout devices shall be constructed and printed so that exposure to weather conditions or wet and damp locations will not cause the tag to deteriorate or the message on the tag to become illegible.(c)(5)(ii)(A)(3)Tags shall not deteriorate when used in corrosive environments such as areas where acid and alkali chemicals are handled and stored.Standardized. Lockout and tagout devices shall be standardized within the facility in at least one of the following criteria: Color; shape; or size; and additionally, in the case of tagout devices, print and format shall be standardized.(c)(5)(ii)(C)Substantial -(c)(5)(ii)(C)(1)Lockout devices. Lockout devices shall be substantial enough to prevent removal without the use of excessive force or unusual techniques, such as with the use of bolt cutters or other metal cutting tools.(c)(5)(ii)(C)(2)Tagout devices. Tagout devices, including their means of attachment, shall be substantial enough to prevent inadvertent or accidental removal. Tagout device attachment means shall be of anon-reusable type, attachable by hand, self-locking, and non-releasable with a minimum unlocking strength of no less than 50 pounds and having the general design and basic characteristics of being at least equivalent to a one-piece, all environment-tolerant nylon cable tie.(c)(5)(ii)(D)Identifiable. Lockout devices and tagout devices shall indicate the identity of the employee applying the device(s).(c)(5)(iii)Tagout devices shall warn against hazardous conditions if the machine or equipment is energized and shall include a legend such as the following: Do Not Start. Do Not Open. Do Not Close. Do Not Energize. Do Not Operate.(c)(6)Periodic inspection.(c)(6)(i)The employer shall conduct a periodic inspection of the energy control procedure at least annually to ensure that the procedure and the requirements of this standard are being followed.(c)(6)(i)(A)The periodic inspection shall be performed by an authorized employee other than the ones(s) utilizing the energy control procedure being inspected.(c)(6)(i)(B)The periodic inspection shall be conducted to correct any deviations or inadequacies identified.(c)(6)(i)(C)Where lockout is used for energy control, the periodic inspection shall include a review, between the inspector and each authorized employee, of that employee's responsibilities under the energy control procedure being inspected.(c)(6)(i)(D)Where tagout is used for energy control, the periodic inspection shall include a review, between the inspector and each authorized and affected employee, of that employee's responsibilities under the energy control procedure being inspected, and the elements set forth in paragraph (c)(7)(ii) of this section.(c)(6)(ii)The employer shall certify that the periodic inspections have been performed. The certification shall identify the machine or equipment on which the energy control procedure was being utilized, the date of the inspection, the employees included in the inspection, and the person performing the inspection.Training and communication.The employer shall provide training to ensure that the purpose and function of the energy control program are understood by employees and that the knowledge and skills required for the safe application, usage, and removal of the energy controls are acquired by employees. The training shall include the following:(c)(7)(i)(A)Each authorized employee shall receive training in the recognition of applicable hazardous energy sources, the type and magnitude of the energy available in the workplace, and the methods and means necessary for energy isolation and control.(c)(7)(i)(B)Each affected employee shall be instructed in the purpose and use of the energy control procedure.(c)(7)(i)(C)All other employees whose work operations are or may be in an area where energy control procedures may be utilized, shall be instructed about the procedure, and about the prohibition relating to attempts to restart or reenergize machines or equipment which are locked out or tagged out.(c)(7)(ii)When tagout systems are used, employees shall also be trained in the following limitations of tags:(c)(7)(ii)(A)Tags are essentially warning devices affixed to energy isolating devices, and do not provide the physical restraint on those devices that is provided by a lock.(c)(7)(ii)(B)When a tag is attached to an energy isolating means, it is not to be removed without authorization of the authorized person responsible for it, and it is never to be bypassed, ignored, or otherwise defeated.(c)(7)(ii)(C)Tags must be legible and understandable by all authorized employees, affected employees, and all other employees whose work operations are or may be in the area, in order to be effective.(c)(7)(ii)(D)Tags and their means of attachment must be made of materials which will withstand the environmental conditions encountered in the workplace.(c)(7)(ii)(E)Tags may evoke a false sense of security, and their meaning needs to be understood as part of the overall energy control program.(c)(7)(ii)(F)Tags must be securely attached to energy isolating devices so that they cannot be inadvertently or accidentally detached during use.(c)(7)(iii)Employee retraining.Retraining shall be provided for all authorized and affected employees whenever there is a change in their job assignments, a change in machines, equipment or processes that present a new hazard, or when there is a change in the energy control procedures.Additional retraining shall also be conducted whenever a periodic inspection under paragraph (c)(6) of this section reveals, or whenever the employer has reason to believe that there are deviations from or inadequacies in the employee's knowledge or use of the energy control procedures.(c)(7)(iii)(C)The retraining shall reestablish employee proficiency and introduce new or revised control methods and procedures, as necessary.(c)(7)(iv)The employer shall certify that employee training has been accomplished and is being kept up to date. The certification shall contain each employee's name and dates of training.(c)(8)Energy isolation. Lockout or tagout shall be performed only by the authorized employees who are performing the servicing or maintenance.(c)(9)Notification of employees. Affected employees shall be notified by the employer or authorized employee of the application and removal of lockout devices or tagout devices. Notification shall be given before the controls are applied, and after they are removed from the machine or equipment.Application of control. The established procedures for the application of energy control (the lockout or tagout procedures) shall cover the following elements and actions and shall be done in the following sequence:(d)(1)Preparation for shutdown. Before an authorized or affected employee turns off a machine or equipment, the authorized employee shall have knowledge of the type and magnitude of the energy, the hazards of the energy to be controlled, and the method or means to control the energy.(d)(2)Machine or equipment shutdown. The machine or equipment shall be turned off or shut down using the procedures established for the machine or equipment. An orderly shutdown must be utilized to avoid any additional or increased hazard(s) to employees as a result of the equipment stoppage.(d)(3)Machine or equipment isolation. All energy isolating devices that are needed to control the energy to the machine or equipment shall be physically located and operated in such a manner as to isolate the machine or equipment from the energy source(s).(d)(4)Lockout or tagout device application.Lockout or tagout devices shall be affixed to each energy isolating device by authorized employees.Lockout devices, where used, shall be affixed in a manner to that will hold the energy isolating devices in a "safe" or "off" position.(d)(4)(iii)Tagout devices, where used, shall be affixed in such a manner as will clearly indicate that the operation or movement of energy isolating devices from the "safe" or "off" position is prohibited.(d)(4)(iii)(A)Where tagout devices are used with energy isolating devices designed with the capability of being locked, the tag attachment shall be fastened at the same point at which the lock would have been attached.(d)(4)(iii)(B)Where a tag cannot be affixed directly to the energy isolating device, the tag shall be located as close as safely possible to the device, in a position that will be immediately obvious to anyone attempting to operate the device.(d)(5)Stored energy.(d)(5)(i)Following the application of lockout or tagout devices to energy isolating devices, all potentially hazardous stored or residual energy shall be relieved, disconnected, restrained, and otherwise rendered safe.If there is a possibility of reaccumulation of stored energy to a hazardous level, verification of isolation shall be continued until the servicing or maintenance is completed, or until the possibility of such accumulation no longer exists.(d)(6)Verification of isolation. Prior to starting work on machines or equipment that have been locked out or tagged out, the authorized employee shall verify that isolation and deenergization of the machine or equipment have been accomplished.(e)Release from lockout or tagout. Before lockout or tagout devices are removed and energy is restored to the machine or equipment, procedures shall be followed and actions taken by the authorized employee(s) to ensure the following:(e)(1)The machine or equipment. The work area shall be inspected to ensure that nonessential items have been removed and to ensure that machine or equipment components are operationally intact.(e)(2)Employees.(e)(2)(i)The work area shall be checked to ensure that all employees have been safely positioned or removed.(e)(2)(ii)After lockout or tagout devices have been removed and before a machine or equipment is started, affected employees shall be notified that the lockout or tagout device(s) have been removed.Lockout or tagout devices removal. Each lockout or tagout device shall be removed from each energy isolating device by the employee who applied the device. Exception to paragraph (e)(3): When the authorized employee who applied the lockout or tagout device is not available to remove it, that device may be removed under the direction of the employer, provided that specific procedures and training for such removal have been developed, documented and incorporated into the employer's energy control program. The employer shall demonstrate that the specific procedure provides equivalent safety to the removal of the device by the authorized employee who applied it. The specific procedure shall include at least the following elements:(e)(3)(i)Verification by the employer that the authorized employee who applied the device is not at the facility:(e)(3)(ii)Making all reasonable efforts to contact the authorized employee to inform him/her that his/her lockout or tagout device has been removed; and(e)(3)(iii)Ensuring that the authorized employee has this knowledge before he/she resumes work at that facility.(f)Additional requirements.Testing or positioning of machines, equipment or components thereof. In situations in which lockout or tagout devices must be temporarily removed from the energy isolating device and the machine or equipment energized to test or position the machine, equipment or component thereof, the following sequence of actions shall be followed:(f)(1)(i)Clear the machine or equipment of tools and materials in accordance with paragraph (e)(1) of this section;(f)(1)(ii)Remove employees from the machine or equipment area in accordance with paragraph (e)(2) of this section;(f)(1)(iii)Remove the lockout or tagout devices as specified in paragraph (e)(3) of this section;(f)(1)(iv)Energize and proceed with testing or positioning;(f)(1)(v)Deenergize all systems and reapply energy control measures in accordance with paragraph (d) of this section to continue the servicing and/or maintenance.(f)(2)Outside personnel (contractors, etc.).Whenever outside servicing personnel are to be engaged in activities covered by the scope and application of this standard, the on-site employer and the outside employer shall inform each other of their respective lockout or tagout procedures.(f)(2)(ii)The on-site employer shall ensure that his/her employees understand and comply with the restrictions and prohibitions of the outside employer's energy control program.Group lockout or tagout.(f)(3)(i)When servicing and/or maintenance is performed by a crew, craft, department or other group, they shall utilize a procedure which affords the employees a level of protection equivalent to that provided by the implementation of a personal lockout or tagout device.Group lockout or tagout devices shall be used in accordance with the procedures required by paragraph (c)(4) of this section including, but not necessarily limited to, the following specific requirements:(f)(3)(ii)(A)Primary responsibility is vested in an authorized employee for a set number of employees working under the protection of a group lockout or tagout device (such as an operations lock);(f)(3)(ii)(B)Provision for the authorized employee to ascertain the exposure status of individual group members with regard to the lockout or tagout of the machine or equipment and(f)(3)(ii)(C)When more than one crew, craft, department, etc. is involved, assignment of overall job-associated lockout or tagout control responsibility to an authorized employee designated to coordinate affected work forces and ensure continuity of protection; and(f)(3)(ii)(D)Each authorized employee shall affix a personal lockout or tagout device to the group lockout device, group lockbox, or comparable mechanism when he or she begins work, and shall remove those devices when he or she stops working on the machine or equipment being serviced or maintained.(f)(4)Shift or personnel changes. Specific procedures shall be utilized during shift or personnel changes to ensure the continuity of lockout or tagout protection, including provision for the orderly transfer of lockout or tagout device protection between off-going and oncoming employees, to minimize exposure to hazards from the unexpected energization or start-up of the machine or equipment, or the release of stored energy.Note: The following appendix to § services as a non-mandatory guideline to assist employers and employees in complying with the requirements of this section, as well as to provide other helpful information. Nothing in the appendix adds to or detracts from any of the requirements of this section.[54 FR 36687, Sept. 1, 1989, as amended at 54 FR 42498, Oct. 17, 1989; 55 FR 38685, 38686, Sept. 20, 1990; 61 FR 5507, Feb. 13, 1996; 76 24698, May 2, 2011]。
kin10结构域
kin10结构域
Kin10结构域指的是一种存在于植物中的保守的蛋白质结构域。
它是一个约187个氨基酸残基长度的结构域，属于蛋白激酶家族。
Kin10结构域在植物中扮演着重要角色，参与调控能量代谢、生长和应激响应等过程。
它被认为是植物中调控碳代谢和脂肪酸合成的关键蛋白。
Kin10结构域具有典型的蛋白激酶结构，包括N-末端激酶保守区、C-末端激酶保守区以及活性中心（激酶区）。
这些结构特征使得Kin10结构域能够与底物结合，并催化底物上的磷酸化反应。
Kin10结构域包含许多重要的保守序列和催化残基，如ATP结合部位和底物结合部位等。
这些保守序列和催化残基对于Kin10结构域的功能至关重要。
总之，Kin10结构域是一种在植物中广泛存在的蛋白质结构域，参与调控能量代谢和生长等重要生理过程。
它具有典型的激酶结构，通过磷酸化底物来调控多种生物化学反应。
奥夫鲍原理
奥夫鲍原理
奥夫鲍原理（The Overlearning Effect）是指在学习过程中，超过正常学习要求的反复练习和重复学习可以提高记忆的保持和记忆的持久性。
奥夫鲍原理最早由美国心理学家奥夫鲍（Herman Ebbinghaus）提出。
他通过自身的实验研究发现，在学习新知识后，通过反复练习和重复学习，可以增强记忆的效果，并延长记忆的保持时间。
根据奥夫鲍原理，学习者在初次掌握某个知识点后，继续进行反复练习和重复学习，可以巩固记忆并提高记忆的稳定性。
这种过度学习的方法有助于将学习的内容转化为长期记忆，使其更容易召唤和应用。
奥夫鲍原理的关键是通过反复练习和重复学习来加强学习的效果。
这种过度学习可以通过不断的复习、回顾和应用知识，或者通过解决相关问题和任务来实现。
通过反复练习和重复学习，学习者可以巩固记忆，提高信息的存储和检索能力，从而增强学习的效果。
然而，需要注意的是，过度学习并不意味着不断地重复学习相同的内容，而是在掌握基础知识后，通过变化和应用来加深理解和掌握。
过度学习需要根据学习者的能力和需求进行调整，以避免学习的枯燥和无效。
同时，结合其他有效的学习策略，如理解性学习、概念连接和实际应用等，可以更好地利用奥夫鲍原理来提高学习效果。
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Global Competition
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Bargaining Power of Suppliers
• When suppliers have leverage, they can raise prices high enough to affect the profitability of their customers • Leverage accrues when
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Bargaining Power of Buyers
• Buyers seek to pay the lowest possible price • Buyers have leverage over suppliers when
– They purchase in large quantities (enhances supplier dependence on buyer) – Suppliers’ products are commodities – Product represents significant portion of buyer’s costs – Buyer is willing and able to achieve backward integration
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Barriers to Entry
• Economies of Scale • Distribution channels • Product differentiation • Government policy • Capital • Cost advantages requirements independent of scale economies • Switching costs • Competitor response
• Occurs when a firm takes a global view of competition and sets about maximizing profits worldwide, rather than on a countryby-country basis
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Strategic Elements of Competitive Advantage
Chapter 10
Global Marketing
Industry Analysis
• Industry – group of firms that produce products that are close substitutes for each other • Five forces influence competition in an industry
• Government is also an influence on determinants through roles
– Buyer of products – Maker of policies – Regulator of commerce
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Threat of Substitute Products
• Availability of substitute products places limits on the prices market leaders can charge • High prices induce buyers to switch to the substitute
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Rivalry among Competitors
• Refers to all actions taken by firms in the industry to improve their positions and gain advantage over each other
– Suppliers are large and few in number – Supplier’s products are critical inputs, are highly differentiated, or carry switching costs – Few substitutes exist – Suppliers are willing and able to sell product themselves
Figure 10-7: The Complete System
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14
Figure 10-4: National Diamond
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Role of Chance and Government
• Chance events are occurrences that are beyond control
– They create major discontinuities
Low Cost Differentiation
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Figure 10-2: Generic Strategies
TARGET MARKET
Narrow Product Mix Width Narrow
Focused Differentiation Cost Focus
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Current Rivalry
Bargaining Power of Suppliers
3
Threat of New Entrants
• New entrants mean downward pressure on prices and reduced profitability • Barriers to entry determines the extent of threat of new industry entrants
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Porter’s Five Forces Model
Threat of New Entrants Industry Competitiveness Threat of Substitutes
Bargaining Power of Buyers
Broad
Product Differentiation Cost Leadership
Wide
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Figure 10-3: The Flagship Model
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Approaches to Competitive Innovation
– – – – Price competition Advertising battles Product positioning Differentiation
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Competitive Advantage
• Achieved when there is a match between a firm’s distinctive competencies and the factors critical for success within its industry