认知语言学作业
认知语言学
F. de Saussure regarded language as a well-defined object like an edifice; meaning, correlative to the relationships between one another. Sapir’s definition (1921) “Language is a purely human and noninstinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”
Stimulus-Response(Bloomfield)； 言语行为与其效果：但言与行毕竟是两回事
Intentionism(意向)
与讲话人意向、目的联系起来
Use Theory
后期维氏在“实指教学”的启发与鼓励下断然翻案： “‘5‘这个词...根本谈不上有意义...有的只是它究 竟是如何被使用的...（1964：3）”。所以/‗faiv/与 “5‖的命名关系名存实亡，“每一个记号就其本身 而言都是死的。...它的生命在于它的使用。（1964： 128）”。 问题：①使用前，没意义？ ②不用就没意义？
3.1Cognitive Views
Experiential View 很多语言学著作和教材都谈到了语言的性 质, 如交际性、社会性、符号性、系统性、 全民性、民族性、任意性、生成性、超时空 性、心智性等。 不同的语言学派往往强调语言的不同性质, 如结构主义语言学更强调语言的符号性、系 统性、任意性; 社会语言学更强调语言的社 会性和交际性; 转换生成语法学派更强调语 言的心智性和生成性; 而认知语言学则更强 调语言的体验性和认知性。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库(认知语言学)【圣才出品】
第10章认知语言学I. Fill in the blanks.1. ______ is the mental process of classification, while ______ is the products of the preceding process.【答案】Categorization; category【解析】范畴化是人类对经验进行分类的过程。
范畴是范畴化的产物。
2. ______ is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.【答案】Cognitive linguistics【解析】认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。
3. There are three aspects in basic-level categories: ______, ______ and ______.【答案】perception; communication; knowledge organization【解析】基本层次范畴的三方面：感知，交流和知识系统。
Ⅱ. Multiple Choices.1. In the following sentences, which is not a metonymy?A. The sax has the flu today.B. Watergate changed American politics.C. Wall Street is in a panic.D. She is the apple in her parents’eyes.【答案】D【解析】其他三句为转喻，D为暗语。
认知语言学英语作文范文
在当代社会，英语已成为全球通用的语言之一，其重要性不言而喻。
作为一名资深的英语老师，我见证了许多学生在学习英语过程中的挑战和成长。
本文将分享一些关于如何通过认知语言学来提高英语水平的经验和见解。
首先，认知语言学是一种研究语言和思维之间关系的学科。
它认为语言不仅仅是一种交流工具，更是我们认知世界的方式。
在教授英语时，我鼓励学生从认知的角度去理解语言，而不仅仅是记忆单词和语法规则。
例如，当教授动词时态时，我不仅仅告诉学生规则，而是让他们通过实际情境去体验和理解时态的用法。
通过这种方式，学生能够更深刻地理解时态在不同情境下的意义，从而更自然地运用它们。
此外，认知语言学还强调语言的创造性。
在教学过程中，我鼓励学生发挥想象力，创造新的句子和表达方式。
这种创造性的练习不仅能够提高学生的语言表达能力，还能激发他们对英语的兴趣。
我还发现，通过比较母语和英语之间的差异，可以帮助学生更好地理解英语的语法结构。
例如，中文和英语在表达方式上存在很大差异，通过比较这些差异，学生能够更快地掌握英语的表达习惯。
在教学过程中，我也注意到了文化因素在语言学习中的重要性。
英语不仅仅是一种语言，更是一种文化。
了解英语国家的文化背景，可以帮助学生更深入地理解语言的含义和用法。
因此，我在课堂上经常引入相关的文化元素，如英语国家的节日、习俗等，让学生在了解文化的同时，提高语言能力。
然而，学习英语并非易事，学生在学习过程中难免会遇到挫折。
作为一名老师，我认为鼓励和支持学生是非常重要的。
我会耐心地解答学生的问题，给予他们积极的反馈，帮助他们建立自信心。
总之，通过认知语言学的方法，我们可以更有效地帮助学生学习英语。
这不仅需要老师的努力，也需要学生的积极参与和创造性思维。
我相信，只要我们用心去教，用心去学，每个人都能够掌握这门美丽的语言。
作业我对语言学的认识
我对语言学的认识语言学，顾名思义，是研究语言的科学。
语言是语言学的研究对象。
语言现象是人类社会普遍具有的现象，是人类生活中最司空见惯的现象。
语言现象在我们生活中是普遍存在的。
我们日常生活中总是以言语的形式与他人交流互动。
语言学就是研究我们日常生活交际中所使用的语言的发展规律以及语言所表现的结构，当然这个语言既包括声音形式的口语，也包括了我们读书看报所涉及的书面语。
语言现象是最早纳入人类研究视野的现象之一。
语言学的发展也经历了漫长的发展古城。
中国、印度、希腊-罗马是语言学的三大发源地，在传统语文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就。
其中，中国传统的语言研究主要是围绕着解读文言文典籍的需要进行的。
语言本身的构造很复杂，需要从不同的角度、不同的方面进行研究。
通常来说，语言系统大致可以分为语音、语法、词汇等几个子系统。
正是这几个子系统才会构成纷繁复杂的语言结构。
也正是因为语言结构的复杂，变化多端，所以我在学习的过程中才会困难。
由于语言用于日常交际互动，语言与社会生活也有密切的关联。
语言既有自身结构的独立性和自主性，同时也与人类自身以及社会环境存在着密切的关联。
语言学除了关注语言本体的结构性质和发展规律，同时也要探究语言系统与人、与社会之间错综复杂的联系。
可以说，语言的发展变化是随着时代发展变化而变化的，语言的变化反应这社会生活的变迁。
语言形式与内容之间的关系，是语言研究的最根本的问题。
随着时代的发展和科学思想的进步，语言学和各个时代的自然科学思潮同样体现出密切的相关性。
语言学是自然科学与人文社会科学联系的桥梁。
在历史上，语言研究曾为解读古代经典、继承传统文化提供了基本保证。
随着社会的发展和科学体系的完善，语言学的应用价值越来越广泛。
语言学在科学发展中正发挥着越来越大的作用。
语言学既有作为基础学科的魅力和学术价值，同时也具有广泛的应用前景，是一门既有悠久历史又具有科学前沿性的充满活力的科学。
那语言的功能有什么呢？第一功能是社会功能。
期末考核作业
试论认知语言学对二语习得的不同解释在认知语言学领域，二语习得研究被看作认知科学的一个分支。
认知语言学认为语言结构与人的概念知识、身体经验以及话语功能有关，把语言习得纳入人的基本认知能力的范畴。
作为认知能力的一部分，语言学习从一开始就受到认知的合理性制约。
语言具有符号性，语言符号既能反映客观世界各种事物与关系，又能反映主观世界的各种意念与思想。
二语习得研究的３个重要组成部分分别为语言输人与输出研究，习得者内部与外部因素研究和中介语系统研究。
在认知语言学领域，这３个部分更是紧密联系，互相影响。
认知语言学从20世纪80年代以来，无论是在国际还是在国内都受到了广泛的欢迎，得到了蓬勃的发展。
主要集中于探讨认知语言学理论并应用这些理论来描述英语，汉语等具体的语言习得。
最这研究的不断深入和成熟，其研究成果不断的被应用于二语习得中来。
认知语言学对语言习得基本观点主要是从母语习得和二语习得两方面进行讨论。
主要为：母语是以具体用法为基础逐步习得的。
习得语言就像其他复杂的认知活动一样，从具体的食物中提炼出抽象结构或图式。
二语习得与其他知识一样，是通过经验学会的。
学习者从输入中接触到众多的形符，通过加工后作为类符储存起来。
而后通过归纳概括出高层次的类符。
在此过程中有两类因素至关重要，主观因素是学习者的动机和注意，客观因素是语言的频率。
因此二语习得应重视在具体语境的具体用法。
儿童习得常规结构和非常规结构的方式相同，都是通过一般的学习机制获得的。
儿童的语言发展依赖于人类共有的认知和社会过程，主要包括意图识别和文化学习，类比于结构映衬，结构合并。
二语习得也是如此。
二语习得本质上是与母语习得相同的，他们都受到下列因素的影响：频率，提示与结果关系的关联度，多个提示之间的竞争，凸显度，但除此之外，二语习得还受到母语知识的遮蔽和阻断等因素的影响。
二语习得要充分利用语言的动因着重从相似性和语言意识方面强调，要认识到语言的动因在二语习得中的重要性。
认知语言学考试题目
From 1964 to 1976, Frank William Abagnale successfully impersonated a co-pilot in Pan American Airways; a chief resident pediatrician at a Georgia Hospital; an assistant attorney general for the state of Louisiana.1. Feature Comparison ModelWearing a hat or a cap: FBI manAfter Frank successfully escaped and reluctantly left Brenda alone on the eve of wedding ceremony, he told Brenda to meet him at the Miami Airport International at 10 o’clock. So Brenda was standing in front of the gate of the airport, and waiting for the appearance of Frank. When Frank stepped out of his car, he suddenly recognized that men with hat or cap were scattering around Brenda, in streets, in cars or on top of the building. As is clear known to Frank that wearing a hat or a cap is the feature of being a FBI man, Frank had to get back into his car and left Brenda again, for he clearly knew that he would very likely to expose himself if he wanted to pick Brenda up at the gate of the airport.Using the word “concur”: doctor or pediatricianIn order to well impersonate a doctor, Frank learned some jargons in the video of a surgery such as “Do you concur with …” As for Frank, he believed that doctor would often say the word “concur”when seeking agreement of other doctors. So when he was a chief resident pediatrician at a Georgia Hospital, he used the same word by saying “Do you concur?” Confused by Dr. Harris, he replied, “Concur with what?”“Concur with what Dr. Ashland just said?”As we can see, Frank skillfully used the word “concur” to show he was not a fake doctor but a professional. Mentioning of the jury and the defendant: a lawyerIn order to well impersonate a lawyer, Frank learned some words from the video in which the jury and the defendant have been mentioned. In reality, however, it was a preliminary hearing. There was no defendant, nor jury. It was just the judge and Frank himself present at the court. Thus, the judge cried out to Frank, “What in hell is wrong with you?” As we can see, what applied to the video did not applied to the real situation happened to Frank, yet Frank just remembered that as a lawyer, he must mention the jury and the defendant. It’s a feature of the court.2. Prototype Approach Prototype of FamilyAs a child growing in a broken family with his mother deviated, Frank strongly desired a perfectly warm family with his parents being together happily. In this film, the reason why Frank attempted to escape time and time again was that he wanted to try his best to united his ever broken family, to bring his mother back to his father again. As we can find such evidence in the film as,1. After Frank was engaged to Brenda, he wanted to use the opportunity of his wedding ceremony to bring his mother back. He also wanted to buy beautiful dress for his father, making him a ever handsome young man who had won his mother back home from a dance party filled with 1600 young men. But after Frank learned the news that his mother had already married, he completely gave up his last hope and run away.2. When Frank was with Brenda’s family that night, he saw Brenda’s parent were romantically watching TV together, holding and embracing with each other. Frank also wished that his parents could be together like this couple.3. When he learned the news that his father had died of an accident and his mother were happily living with another guy with a four-year-old daughter, he was totally defeated and asked Carl to take him into the car; he had no hope or courage to resist any hardship in his life.From the evidence mentioned above, we can see that Frank has a perfect example of what a familyis, of what a warm family should be, for him a warm family is a harbor of his life full of vicissitude.。
认知语言学
THE +BILLIARD BALL+ METAPHOR (1) after being activated by the touch of the cue(球杆) (2) the white ball is pushed against another ball, and then part of the original energy is transmitted to the second ball, which hits a third ball again and transmits energy to it and so on. (3) the remaining energy is absorbed by the cushioned edges or by the pockets of the billiard table.
Susan
is peeling a banana. subject=agent Susan loves bananas. subject=experiencer The hammer breaks the glass. subject=instrument The glass broke. subject=patient
Susan
resembles my sister. Susan is peeling a banana. Susan loves bananas. The hammer breaks the glass. Susan has a large library. Susan received the present . Susan swam the Channel. The garden is swarming with bees. There was a loud bang.
《神经认知语言学》练习题
《神经认知语言学》练习题（2009）一、简答题1. 阐述汉语与英语在视觉识别上的区别。
提示：（1）汉语是汉字是从词符文字过渡到词素文字的典型，而英语属于纯音素文字；（2）汉字构造复杂，符号繁多，每个汉字具有多层次的分析性和高度的综合性。
它的排列是多向行进的，由上下、左右、内外三种基本位置排列组合而成，呈三维结构。
而英语与语音的关系密切，其字形构造简单，为单向线性排列的视读单位，以先左后右一维结构的形式呈现在读者眼前，形成的视觉映像复杂程度较低。
2. 应用所学的神经认知语言学知识，分析“能否在翻译能力测试时，只运用汉译英或英译汉的单一题型？”，并阐述你的理由（300字以内）。
提示：(1)相关研究表明：通过fMRI技术揭示了汉语双语者在进行翻译的过程中，前向翻译（汉－英）和后向（英－汉）引起的脑激活模式不同，【前向翻译主要激活了背侧前额叶，而后向翻译主要激活双侧颞极】。
说明前向翻译和后向翻译存在不同类型的语义加工。
（2）翻译能力的测试是综合能力的反映。
需要测试了解被试两种完全不同的能力。
3. 简述皮层四大语言中枢的定位。
提示：四大语言中枢是：Broca区、Wernicke区、阅读中枢和书写中枢。
（1）Broca区: 位于额下回后部（44、45）。
（2）Wernicke区：位于颞上回（42、22）区皮质。
（3）阅读中枢：位于顶下小叶的角回，即39区，。
（4）书写中枢：位于额中回后部（6、8）。
二、判断题1.崔刚（2001）撰写的英文专著《失语症的口语表达障碍研究》一书是国内第一部从语言学角度研究失语症的专著。
（T）2. 就句子的生产时间而言，主动句所需时间最短,其次是把字句,被字句生成时间最长。
（F）3.主动句法结构与被动句法结构在大脑结构中表现出一种相对独立而又互相联系的平行式储取机制。
（T）4. 在中文大脑词库中的形、音、义码关系中，形和义结合较牢固而形和音结合较脆弱。
（F）5.王德春等(1997)编著的《神经语言学》一书是目前国内唯一系统介绍神经语言学的著作。
G认知语言学13题
13. Why did Lakoff abandon the semantic theory in TG and begin to establish cognitive semantics?(ONE)TG’s early theory pay little heed to semantics and holds that the core of language study is syntax with two interpretive components: semantics, and phonology. Then in 1968, generative grammar incorporated semantics and phonology and became three separated components: semantics, syntax, and phonology (Chomsky 1965). The first semantic theories designed to be compatible with transformational syntax were interpretive s emantics. Interpretative semantics claims that syntax is autonomous with respect to semantics and prior to semantics and defines meaning as interpretation. But Chomsky’s student, Lakoff and other linguists soon realized that syntax is not autonomous in our language, but closely related to and largely influenced by meaning, pragmatics and context. And many examples are available at hand to prove this view:A. The cat who tries to fool me.B. The cat that weights ten pounds.In the two sentences in which the antecedent is the same “cat”, but the relative prons are different. Thus we can see that the meaning of cat rather than syntactic rules determines the choice of using relative prons, that is either you see the cat as a family member or just an object.Abundant examples can prove that semantics, pragmatics and context are indispensable in understanding and deciding the choosing of syntax, and they should become part of syntax. Based on these findings, Lakoff and other linguists forwarded the generative semantics, which developed out of TC grammar in the mid 1960s, but stood largely in opposition to work by Noam Chomsky. Generative semanticists holds that semantics is prior to syntax, and took Chomsky's concept of Deep Structure and ran with it, assuming that deep structures were the sole input to semantic interpretation.But Lakoff soon found that generative semantics also has some problems whichare hard to explain: first, some sentences have no deep structure. Second, some sentences cannot be transformed freely, which are determined by context and embodiment. Third, generative semantics only focus on the study of linguistic competence, and fail to make explanations on the specific use of language. Gradually, Lakoff shifted his interest away from the narrow study syntax and semantics and gradually abandoned the semantics theory in TG.In 1975, Lakoff participated in a seminar on cognitive science in the Institute of Berkeley. Four lecturers had changed his views on semantics totally, and they are Paul Kay (color and color terms), Eleanor Rosch (category prototype and basic level category), Fillmore (frame semantics) and Leonard Talmy (spatial relations in languages). These four lectures are significant and revolutionary. They highlight on the importance of human’s interaction, embodiment, experience and cognition with the world, which reconfirmed Lakoff’s belief that TG and formal logic ha ve misled our language study. In the following years, Lakoff, together with other linguists like Fauconnier, langacker, established and developed the cognitive linguistics. Cognitive semantics, part of the cognitive linguistics movement and typically used as a tool for lexical studies, holds that lexical meaning is conceptual. That is, the meaning of a lexeme is not reference to the entity or relation in the "real world" that the lexeme refers to, but to a concept in the mind based on experiences with that entity or relation.(TWO)TG’s early theory pay little heed to semantics and holds that the core of language study is syntax with two interpretive components: semantics, and phonology. Then in 1968, generative grammar incorporated semantics and phonology and became three separated components: semantics, syntax, and phonology (Chomsky 1965). The first semantic theories designed to be compatible with transformational syntax were interpretive s emantics. Interpretative semantics claims that syntax is autonomous with respect to semantics and prior to semantics and defines meaning as interpretation. But Chomsky’s student, Lakoff and other linguists soon realiz ed that syntax is notautonomous in our language, but closely related to and largely influenced by meaning, pragmatics and context. And many examples are available at hand to prove this view:A. The cat who tries to fool me.B. The cat that weights ten pounds.In the two sentences in which the antecedent is the same “cat”, but the relative pronouns are different. Thus we can see that the meaning of cat rather than syntactic rules determines the choice of using relative pronouns, that is either you see the cat as a family member or just an object.Abundant examples can prove that semantics, pragmatics and context are indispensable in understanding and deciding the choosing of syntax, and they should become part of syntax. Based on these findings, Lakoff and other linguists forwarded the generative semantics, which developed out of TC grammar in the mid 1960s, but stood largely in opposition to work by Noam Chomsky. Generative semanticists holds that semantics is prior to syntax, and took Chomsky's concept of Deep Structure and ran with it, assuming that deep structures were the sole input to semantic interpretation.But Lakoff soon found that generative semantics also has some problems which are hard to explain: first, some sentences have no deep structure. Second, some sentences cannot be transformed freely, which are determined by context and embodiment. Third, generative semantics only focus on the study of linguistic competence, and fail to make explanations on the specific use of language. Gradually, Lakoff shifted his interest away from the narrow study syntax and semantics and gradually abandoned the semantics theory in TG.In 1975, Lakoff participated in a seminar on cognitive science in the Institute of Berkeley. Four lecturers had changed his views on semantics totally, and they are Paul Kay (color and color terms), Eleanor Rosch (category prototype and basic level category), Fillmore (frame semantics) and Leonard Talmy (spatial relations inlanguages). These four lectures are significant and revolutionary. They highlight on the importance of human’s interaction, embodiment, experience and cognition with the world, which reconfirmed Lakoff’s belief that TG and formal logic have misled our language study. In the following years, Lakoff, together with other linguists like Fauconnier, Langacker, established and developed the cognitive linguistics. Cognitive semantics, part of the cognitive linguistics movement and typically used as a tool for lexical studies, holds that lexical meaning is conceptual. That is, the meaning of a lexeme is not reference to the entity or relation in the "real world" that the lexeme refers to, but to a concept in the mind based on experiences with that entity or relation.(523 words)。
认知语言学考试
The definition of Cognitive Linguistics:In linguistics, cognitive linguistics (CL) refers to the branch of linguistics that interprets language in terms of the concepts, sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue, which underlie its forms. It is thus closely associated with semantics but is distinct from psycholinguistics, which draws upon empirical findings from cognitive psychology in order to explain the mental processes that underlie the acquisition, storage, production and understanding of speech and writing. Cognitive linguistics goes beyond the visible structure of language and investigates the considerably more complex backstage operations of cognition that create grammar, conceptualization, discourse, and thought of itself. It is cognition oriented, meaning-centered, explainable-aimed and universal linguistics.The background of Cognitive Linguistics:Cognitive Linguistics is a branch that study language from the point of view of cognition which grows up in 1980s. Its theoretical background lies in the second generation of cognitive science and embodied philosophy. It was born on against for the mainstream linguistics of transformational generative grammar and mold during the 1980s and 1990s.The earliest thinking about Cognitive Linguistics began with Talmy(1978). The symbols of the emergence of Cognitive Linguistics are the publications: M. Johnson <The Body in the Mind>（1987）, （G. Lakoff）<Women, fire and dangerous things>（1987）and R. Langacker <Cognitive Grammar>（1987）. In 1989, the first conference on Cognitive Linguistics was organized in Duisburg, Germany, by Rene Dirven. After the conference, < Cognitive Linguistics> was published and ICLA：International Cognitive Linguistics Association was also founded and a series of books of Cognitive Linguistics Research appeared. Then the magazine <Pragmatics and Cognition> is published by John Benjamins Publishing Company in 1993. From the later period of 1980s, Cognitive Linguistics developed vigorously in the western countries as a new approach to explain the Language phenomenon, especially in America.The main figures of Cognitive Linguistics:George Lakoff, Mark Johnson and Ronald Wayne Langacker are generally considered the main figures of Cognitive Linguistics.The main schools of Cognitive Linguistics:1.Fillmore——Frame Semantics(框架语义学)koff，Talmy…——Cognitive Semantics(认知语义学)ngcker——Cognitive Grammar(认知语法)4.S. Lamb——Neurocognitive Linguistics（神经认知语言学）The viewpoint of Cognitive Linguistics：1.experiential view: conceptual experience(经历观)2.prominence view: prominence is the result of cognition.(凸显观)3.attention view: (关注观)a.Cognitive linguistics is characterized by adherence to three central positions. First, it denies that there is anautonomous linguistic faculty in the mind; second, it understands grammar in terms of conceptualization; andthird, it claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use.b.Cognitive linguists deny that the mind has any module for language-acquisition that is unique andautonomous. This stands in contrast to the stance adopted in the field of generative grammar. Althoughcognitive linguists do not necessarily deny that part of the human linguistic ability is innate, they deny that itis separate from the rest of cognition. They thus reject a body of opinion in cognitive science which suggeststhat there is evidence for the modularity of language. They argue that knowledge of linguistic phenomena —i.e., phonemes, morphemes, and syntax —essentially conceptual in nature. However, they assert that thestorage and retrieval of linguistic data is not significantly different from the storage and retrieval of otherknowledge, and that use of language in understanding employs similar cognitive abilities to those used inother non-linguistic tasks.c.Departing from the tradition of truth-conditional semantics, cognitive linguists view meaning in terms ofconceptualization. Instead of viewing meaning in terms of models of the world, they view it in terms of mentalspaces.d.Finally, cognitive linguistics argues that language is both embodied and situated in a specific environment.This can be considered a moderate offshoot of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, in that language and cognitionmutually influence one another, and are both embedded in the experiences and environments of its users. Cognitive Linguistics and other schools of Linguistics:1.Against with Formal Linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics holds that human capacity is not independent but closelyrelated to people’s general cognitive ability.2.Against with Formal Linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics thinks that cognitive syntax which is one part of languagestructure is not self-sufficient. Syntax and the vocabulary and semantic parts of language are closely related and the latter is more important.3.Different from Formal Linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics persists that meaning is not only the truth condition ofobjective but also combine objective and subjective together. The study of meaning is always concerned with people’s subjective view or mental factor.4.Different from Formal Linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics persists that the unit categories of language arenon-discrete and the boundary is not clear like most of the established categories.5.Different from Formal Linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics pays more attention to different national cognitivecharacter’s influence to language expression on the basis of admit the communalities of human cognition.The definition of Cognitive Semantics:Cognitive semantics which dealing mainly with lexical semantics, separates semantics (meaning) into meaning-construction and knowledge representation. It is the central content of Cognitive Linguistics. Lakoff & Johnson（1999：497 ）think that Cognitive Semantics mainly studies human conceptual system, meaning and inference. Cognitive Semantics descripts conceptual structure that is the result of cognitive process. Cognitive is closely related with human psychological experience, cognitive modal and knowledge structure which constitute the basis of Cognitive Semantics. They emphasize human experience and knowledge capacity and there are no meaning and objective truth independent of cognition. They strongly against the truth value of corresponding of objectivism and they hold that meaning is a kind of mental phenomenon. Meaning construction is at the same time with human conceptualization. Meaning is closely related with concept, function and human knowledge. Meaning construction is conceptualization which is based on the process of body experience. Concept is formed by body, mind and world experience and only through that can be understood.Logical Semantics and Cognitive Semantics:Logical Semantics is also called truth conditional semantics or objective semantics which is a major research method of semantic studies before Cognitive Semantics. Logical Semantics applies Logistics to semantic analysis which holds that semantic is the sufficient and necessary condition to make the proposition true, or we call it” truth condition”.Logical Semantics concludes the true value of corresponding and condition. Truth value lies in the correspondence between symbols and things. If the utterance is correspondent with the situation, it is true, or else it is false. Logical Semantics belongs to objectivism essentially which get rid of the influence of psychological factors when descripting meaning and meaning has no relationship with any kinds of concept formation and cognitive process. While Cognitive Semantics holds that meaning is not only the truth condition of objectives but also has a direct relationship with human’s conceptual structure and its formation process. Lakoff & Johnson reject descripting meaning by formalism and semantic elements analysis. They hold that meaning has great relationship with human knowledge, and they propose encyclopedia type of semantic analysis method. And meaning is dynamic, variable and uncertain because of the certain Ambiguity and uncertainty in category division. Cognitive Semantics interface something objective and subjective, so it has more explainable force than the traditional one.The principles of Cognitive Semantics:1.Conceptual structure is embodying.2.Semantics structure is conceptual structure.3.Meaning representation is mind representation and multidimensional.4.Meaning construction is conceptualization.The main approaches of Cognitive Semantics:bine cognition with language;2.Apply encyclopedia, multidimensional and multidisciplinary study point;3.Study meaning in the process of conceptualization;4.Apply metaphor view5.Start from non-objectivism and emphasize human-centered;6.Explain the complex language phenomenon through embodiment view;7.Observe meaning construction from the dynamic view;8.Pay more attention to intergradation of multiple space and emergence and development of innovation structure;9.Emphasize the prominence of meaning and cognition.Encyclopedia view of meaning:Meaning is encyclopedia knowledge at root which is a major hypothesis of Cognitive Semantics. This hypothesis includes two aspects: one is that linguistic units (word) provide an access point to encyclopedia knowledge rather than bring the meaning which was packed previously. According to this, the meaning of word cannot exist independently without the encyclopedia knowledge attaches to it. People can know the structure knowledge through meaning structure. The other is encyclopedia knowledge roots in the interactive between human and social experience and the surrounding world (physical experience). This view of meaning has fundamental difference with the traditional dictionary view. This view provides us a total new standpoint for understanding the essence of meaning. And also provides the instructive significance to English vocabulary teaching. Encyclopedia knowledge is a kind of world knowledge and it should not be the object which semantics studies. This view is correspondent to the modularity hypothesis of formal linguistics.ICM:It is short for Idealized Cognitive Models, which was proposed by Lackoff. It is a kind of abstract, unified and idealized understanding of speakers experience and knowledge of certain fields with special culture background. We organize the knowledge through ICM. And category structure and prototype effect are the results of it. ICM is a kind of relative stable relational model between conceptions according to people’s experience. The most important character of ICM is that the gestalt structure is always bigger than the elements added together simply.Prototype theory:Prototype category theory is always called prototype theory or typical theory. It originates from Wittgenstein’s family resemblance. It is a new conceptual building model which was proposed by American psychologist Eleanor Rosch when the sufficient and necessary conditions in the traditional category model face the shortness in actual using. This theory has a great influence on many levels of language studies. It is different with the Classical theory of Aristotle period. It is based on priori guess but not the result of experience. Prototype theory is an inside psychological schema which is guided by the daily use of language. It holds that meaning is the experience of human body. According to prototype theory, word meaning is given by actual language use but linguists and philosophers. What prototype theory studies is the flesh and blood of language and its user. It pays more attention to language user’s experience to meaning category.The shortcomings of prototype theory：1.Prototype theory can solve part of semantic problem like the vagueness of semantic. People’s knowledge aboutmany things in the world is clear because of not all the things in the world are vague. So in language, not all the semantic domains are vague. The prototype theory is not better than the traditional way of component analysis in the analysis of unequivocal semantic domain. Even if in the study of semantic domain, the prototype theory’s applicable scope is narrow. Beyond the scope, the prototype theory will lost its advantage.2.The second problem of prototype semantics is its overlook of the rational content of semantic domain which isshowed by Wittgenstein’s analysis of “spiel”. Wittgenstein ho lds that the category like “spi e l” has no common attribute at all which is obviously wrong. Labov and Rosch inherit this wrong ideas which persist that not only the “spi e l” category but the daily categories which include cup, furniture, desk, chair and sofa and so on are build up on the family resemblance and have no common attribute at all. The studies didn’t withstand the test of human common sense and intuition. The members of one category do exist some common attribute (though very few) to distinguish it from other categories.3.The prototype of semantic domain and its basic level category has the cultural basis or we can say that theprototype analysis of semantic domain should take culture implication into consideration and unite the analysis ofcultural factors of semantic domain changes. The prototype and basic level theory is changing with the cognitive and culture model. But so far, the prototype analysis of semantic domain always ignored the pragmatic culture analysis of semantic.The advantages of using Cognitive Semantics in foreign language teaching:1.In foreign language teaching, Cognitive Semantics provides more effective learning method to help students toremember word and meaning of word phrases.2.Cognitive Semantics brings a new development thought and creates more effective teaching modals and thetheoretical supports for teaching method.3.Prototype theory using in foreign language teaching is accordant with the rule that prototype members can berecognized and studied and remembered or acquisition earlier. Study along with this regulation is correspondent with the human cognition rule which help the acquisition of language. And students can understand the problem of language transfer. Knowing about this, students can learn language actively and access to positive transfer.4.The basic level vocabulary is the shortest and is used very frequently in communication, so it can be learnt bylearners.ing Cognitive theories like image schema, prototype theory and metaphor views to polysemous words teachingcan help students connect the meanings of the same word together and analysis from the basis to use the word flexible.6.Foreign language learning is the process of frame study. Understanding and using idioms through the study of thisspecial frame can help students to improve the language capacity.7.From the associative and family resemblance theory, learners can test the word meanings from the word netwhich are connected. They can think of insect, wings, fly and moth and so on when they come across the word “butterfly”.The advantages of using Cognitive Linguistics to foreign language teaching:Cognitive Linguistics plays the role of theoretical tool in foreign language teaching.1.The experiential view, prototype theory, and hierarchical category theory have the instructive significance inforeign language teaching. The target of experiential view is to combine the teaching content with the experience that students already had and from that they can acquire new language and culture. Then new language cultural knowledge consolidates on the known knowledge and language cognitive space is expanded. Typical reference theory requires teachers find out and apply typical case to make meaning be understood sufficiently. Hierarchical category theory of language is good for students to grasp the range and difficulty.2.Prominence view in language teaching, using and actual operation has great importance.3.Attention view: it is the main content which can improve students’ grasping, operating and using languagecapacity and skills. According to the theory, students can pay attention to text, sentence and case of language statements and describes to improve actual language capacity through study and grasp different level, angle and viewpoint which can open students’ range of mind and nurture acute insight.Cognitive Linguistics pays more attention to human nature. Teacher can organize classroom teaching centered on cognitive process which includes communication features and meaning construction. Explicit and formal teaching (grammar teaching) methods are important in foreign language teaching. Image schema theory applies to listening and reading can give background knowledge. Iconicity of distance has great advantage in vocabulary teaching.Constructivism model in translation helps students get familiar with common features and differences of bilingual concept system and possess intercultural competence to construct text in diversity of context.The complementary of Pragmatics and Cognitive Linguistics reflect in what aspects? Give some examples.Pragmatics and Cognitive Linguistics all belong to science socialist ideological trend of modern western philosophy, Classic socialist philosophy, Britain and American analytical philosophy, Pierce semiotics and linguistics that studies mental activity and Physiological activities of language from the internal aspect of organisms. The theoretical base of pragmatics and cognitive linguistics is Pierce’s semio tics and through which can be explained.1.Psychological context in Cognitive Linguistics and physical context in Pragmatics are closely related. Pragmaticsproceeds logical reasoning on language motivation (the intention of speaker) according to specific situation (physical context). Cognitive Linguists give explanation of language cause and process of psychological activities. Incommunication, addressee explains utterances according to his psychological context (mind, experience and cognition). While in cognitive communication, the logical reasoning on language motivation and explanation based on psychological context are always alternate and complementary.2.‘Speaker and hearer’in background and context is similar to the ‘background’ in Cognitive Grammar. In these twoconcepts, speaker and hearer both are the most important component. In Cognitive Linguistics and Pragmatics, speaker and hearer is the “explainer” in Pierce semiotics which is the subject of cognition and plays important role in it.3.Relevance theory transfers the importance of pragmatic inference to Cognitive psychology or we can say that it isthe combination of Pragmatics and Cognitive Linguistics. From reference, we can see that in reference or analysis, physical and psychological context like logical reasoning and cognition based on experience are closely related. No matter metaphor and metonymy, the conceptual rejecting which can be easily activated between the two cognitive domains provides the necessary bridge to pragmatic reference. Pragmatic reference and cognitive analysis are complex and comprehensive and cannot be separated.4.According to Cognitive Linguistics, preference is not only semantic and pragmatic phenomenon but also a kind ofcognition process.5.The experiential view provides pragmatic reference study new perspective and theoretical reference point.The theories of Cognitive Semantics that can be used in intensive reading teaching:1.Prototype theory using in foreign language teaching is accordant with the rule that prototype members can berecognized and studied and remembered or acquisition earlier. Study along with this regulation is correspondent with the human cognition rule which help the acquisition of language. And students can understand the problem of language transfer. Knowing about this, students can learn language actively and access to positive transfer.2.Foreign language learning is the process of frame study. Understanding and using idioms and phrases in readingthrough the study of this special frame can help students to improve the language capacity.ing Cognitive theories like image schema to intensive reading teaching can help students connect the meaningsof the expressions with the specific situations and analysis from the basis to use the word flexible.4.According to metaphor view, students can learn the figure of speech of the articles which will help understand thepassage better. And students also can learn writing method through study the writing style or specific expressions of professional articles of many kinds.5.According to meaning construction view, students can reference human psychological experience based onconceptual system.6.Meaning is encyclopedia knowledge at root which is a major hypothesis of Cognitive Semantics. According to this,the meaning of word cannot exist independently without the encyclopedia knowledge attaches to it. From intensive reading, students can learn the detail knowledge of certain fields which will expand their vision. This view of meaning has fundamental difference with the traditional dictionary view. This view provides us a total new standpoint for understanding the essence of meaning.The inspirations of Cognitive Semantics to Chinese study:Inflectional change is the main field of western language study, but it is neglected in Chinese study. According to Tamly’s work Toward Cognitive Semantics, he gives some ideas of Cognitive Semantics and inflection and uses symbol theory to distinguish grammatical items and lexical items. He proposes that grammatical units have internal meaning and are closed but lexical items are open. Language plays roles based on lexical items and conceptual content by itself. According to Tamly, the conception that expressed by lexical forms is infinite because of the endless of human experience and knowledge and comprehension. But the conception that expressed by grammar forms has an end. From Tamly’s analysis, Chinese linguistics began to study the inflection of Chinese lexical item change and pay more attention to grammar. Theyre-definite the meaning of inflection according to Chinese character attributes that different from western countries and conclude the characteristics and clarification of Chinese inflection. They also talk about the effect of inflection to meaning of Chinese character and other factors which deepen the study of Chinese.It is probably not accurate to say that contrastive analysis was replaced by error analysis and that error analysis was replaced by performance analysis, etc., but rather that each respective analysis subsumed that earlier one. Please discuss about it.CA appeared in 1950s and flourished in 1960s which held that the difficulty the L2 language learner face is the interference of L1. The solution to this problem is to descript and contrast L1 and L2. The target of CA is to predict the learning difficulty in L2 learning through difference contrast. But studies show that the difficulties that CA predicted do not ex ist at all in learner’s actual language use. CA began to decline in the earlier 1970s. It faced the challenge not only on theories but practice. Studies showed that the difficulty cannot predict from the difference of two languages directly and the difficulty cannot fully lead to errors. Its formula doesn’t accord with the fact. EA took place of CAs because of its declines in 1960s and flourished in 1970s. On the basis of CA, EA pays more attention to leaner’s language system which is considered an accurate start for SLA. EA is the inheritance and development of CA. It promoted the development of SLA and its studies provided feedback to teaching design, classroom teaching, teaching materials compiling and test. But it had many problems in method which includ e: take learner’s language competence as homogeneous and cannot explain the variation in language errors. It only investigated learner’s errors but the whole process of SLA. And EA is static and cannot distinguish errors in different stages. And it cannot observe the avoidance of error of learners. EA declined after 1970s. PA uncovers several perspectives on a problem. It pays more attention to the actual language use analysis and finds problems through communication and other aspect which is relatively comprehensive than EA.In what sense are inter-actionist theories more powerful than mentalist or environmentalist theories?Environmentalism holds that learner is the machine to produce language and language environment is the determiner. Language input has direct relationship with output. Learning took place when learners had the opportunity to practice making the correct response to a given stimulus-response connection. Learners imitated models of certain language forms and sentence patterns from speakers and then to internalization. Mentalism emphasizes the black box of learners which is called Language Acquisition Device that language learner possess innately. Although language input is necessary, its function is only to trigger internal language processing mechanism. Students cannot materialize the internalization of language rules only depend on language input process. Environmentalist theory tried to explain language learning from external factors, while mentalists emphasize the internal factors. Both of them are unilateral. Inter-actionist theory takes language acquisition as the result of interaction of learner internal thinking ability and outside environment. Language process mechanism determines the nature of language input and is determined by the nature of language input. Also the quality of language input influence the nature of internal mechanism. It is obviously observed the inter-action in internal and external factors in the discourse between learner and others.Define and give some examples of learning strategies. How to train learning strategies.Learner strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners employ to try to learn an L2. They can be behavioral or mental. They are typically problem-oriented.Different kinds of learning strategies have been identified:1.Cognitive strategies: are those that are involved in the analysis, synthesis, or transformation of learning materials.An example is ‘recombination’, which involves constructing a meaningful sentence by recombining known elements of the L2 in a new way.2.Metacognitive strategies: are those involved in planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning. An example is‘selective attention’, where the learner makes a conscious decision to attend to particular aspects of the input.3.Social\affective strategies: concern the ways in which learners choose to interact with other speakers. An examplei s ‘questioning for clarification’.In vocabulary learning, training students to use strategies that involving target words has generally proved successful. For example, the key word method requires learners to form two kinds of associations. First, learners associate the target word with a word which is the same or similar to an L1 word. Second, the L1 word is linked to a mental image that incorporates the meaning of the target word. In listening teaching, students can learn to predict and select answers. Teacher must help students use many kinds of strategies and change them flexibly according to different stages or tasks. The most important thing is that students must form autonomous learning ability and find their own ways of learning. Please explain the roles of input in L2 acquisition.Input, itself, includes all the language signals, i.e. words, phrases and sentences of one particular language, and。
认知语言学英语作文
认知语言学英语作文英文：Cognitive linguistics is a fascinating field that explores the relationship between language and the human mind. It examines how our mental processes shape and are shaped by language, and how language in turn influences our cognition. As a student of cognitive linguistics, I have come to appreciate the intricate ways in which language reflects and influences our thought patterns.One interesting aspect of cognitive linguistics is the concept of linguistic relativity, or the idea that the structure of a language can affect the way its speakers perceive and think about the world. For example, the famous Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that the language we speak can influence our perception of reality. A classic example of this is the Inuit people having multiple words for "snow," reflecting their deep understanding and categorization of different types of snow. This shows howlanguage can shape our perception and understanding of the world around us.Another intriguing concept in cognitive linguistics is the role of metaphor in language and thought. Metaphors are not just literary devices, but are deeply ingrained in the way we conceptualize and understand the world. For instance, we often talk about time as if it's a physical object that we can save, waste, or spend. This metaphorical understanding of time shapes the way we think about andtalk about it.中文：认知语言学是一个迷人的领域，它探讨了语言和人类思维之间的关系。
认知语言学英语作文
认知语言学英语作文英文：As a student of cognitive linguistics, I am fascinated by the way language shapes our thinking and understandingof the world. Language is not just a tool for communication, but it also influences how we perceive and interpret the world around us.For example, in English, we often use the phrase "timeis money" to convey the idea that time is valuable and should be used wisely. This metaphorical expressionreflects the cultural value placed on efficiency and productivity. In contrast, in Chinese, there is a similar expression "一寸光阴一寸金" which conveys the same conceptof the value of time. However, the use of different metaphors reflects the cultural differences in how time is perceived and valued in these two languages.Furthermore, the grammatical structure of a languagecan also shape our thinking. For instance, in English, we use the passive voice to focus on the action rather than the doer of the action. This can lead to a different emphasis and interpretation of events compared to languages that do not use the passive voice as frequently. 。
认知语言学例子
认知语言学例子
1. 你知道吗，就像我们说“给你点颜色看看”，这其实就是认知语言学的一个例子呀！我们用“颜色”来隐喻“厉害的手段或后果”，多有意思！
2. 想想看，“他发火了”这句话，这里的“火”就是用具体的事物来类比情绪的激烈程度呀，这难道不是认知语言学的奇妙之处吗？
3. 哎呀，“时间就是金钱”这句大家都常说的话，不也是认知语言学的体现嘛！把时间和金钱这两个看似不相关的概念联系在一起，让人更容易理解时间的宝贵呢！
4. 有没有注意到“我心都凉了”这话呀，用“凉”来形容心情的低落，可不就是认知语言学在生活中的应用嘛，多神奇呀！
5. 嘿，“他的话像刀子一样伤人”，这不就是用“刀子”来隐喻话语的伤害性嘛，你说认知语言学是不是无处不在呀！
6. 哇，“她笑开了花”，是用“花”来表现她开心的程度，这种认知语言学的例子就在我们身边随时能发现呢！
7. 你瞧，“他是个老狐狸”，把人比作狐狸来表达其狡黠的特点，这也是认知语言学超有趣的地方呀！
我觉得认知语言学真的充满了各种奇妙和有趣的现象，它让我们的语言更加丰富、生动且富有表现力。
认知语言学入门答案
认知语言学入门答案在阅读理解训练中，教师要正确引导学生。
A.在阅读理解中，教师要在学生阅读理解的过程中对学生进行启发引导 B.在阅读理解中，教师要注意引导学生把握语言的特点和规律 C.在阅读理解中，教师要注意把握训练内容 D.在阅读理解中，教师要注意对学生进行引导。
A.对于学生来说 A是最重要的 B.在阅读理解和记忆上，除了在知识获取上，其他能力是 B.在记忆上，学生通常表现出更多的语言特征 C.在阅读能力上，学生可以更好地完成阅读任务 D.在记忆上，学生需要记住的内容越多 C.其他能力是 C.除了学习能力外 D.其它能力是 E.认知能力由于大脑拥有了丰富的信息，所以认知能力被认为是最重要的一种感觉。
在阅读理解中，教师应该使学生掌握如何进行文本阅读。
A.根据文章的结构安排段落（选择、修改、删除); B.运用逻辑推理方法解决阅读问题; C.运用其他方法完成其它任务。
在写作中，学生要写出语句之间的逻辑关系以及所包含的内容，并要准确地表达出来。
以下哪一选项属于逻辑思维品质？1. A.善于观察和发现问题 B、善于抓住事物间的因果关系 C、总是从自身角度思考问题2.（多选）的任务是确定选择适当的时间做出判断，但不做过多的准备工作。
（单选）任务完成之后，再进行分析。
（多选）任务只要求正确理解，而不要求有意义。
（少填）任务要求在规定的时间内完成，并要根据实际情况进行调整。
如在一个有大量信息的环境中，我们要保证一定时间内全部收集到相应的信息。
否则会影响自己对有效信息产生的兴趣3.(判断推理或逻辑思维）过程是一种独立于大脑经验而存在一个主体——人类思维过程，由一系列动作所组成。
当意识到行动与语言活动之间存在着某种联系时，人就开始用语言来模仿行为和感觉。
2. B.能够正确地评价与把握 A的逻辑推理能力3.阅读理解中，教师应让学生把握如何进行文本阅读，以及如何掌握文本阅读方法，使学生掌握如何进行文本阅读。
A.利用各种方法将内容组织成文章; c.利用逻辑推理方法解决阅读问题; d.运用其他方法完成其它工作; E.使用信息技术工具；阅读理解作为一种基本课程形式，它由三个主要部分组成:(1)阅读理解知识;(2)读书、阅读学习和阅读思考;(3)阅读理解能力水平。
认知语言学主要内容2000字(9篇)
认知语言学主要内容2000字(9篇)关于认知语言学主要内容，精选6篇范文，字数为2000字。
语言教学的目的是帮助学生形成正确的人生观和价值观，具体地说，就是要让学生通过语言的交流来体验语言的魅力和价值，形成积极健康的心理品质。
认知语言学主要内容(范文)：1语言教学的目的是帮助学生形成正确的人生观和价值观，具体地说，就是要让学生通过语言的交流来体验语言的魅力和价值，形成积极健康的心理品质。
语言教学的目标应该是：培养学生形成良好的语言学习习惯。
1)、养成良好的语言习惯。
在教学中，要注意引导学生通过语言活动，丰富语言的积累，培养语感，发展思维能力，增强说话的自信心和语言表达能力。
2)、形成正确的语言习惯。
教学的目的是培养学生良好的语言习惯。
在教学中，应注意从小培养学生具有良好的语言习惯。
3)、培养语言能力。
在教学中，应注意让学生掌握语言的发展，培养语言表达、组织能力，发展学生的观察力、思维能力、想象力等，培养语言的综合运用能力，发展思维的迁移能力。
语言教学重视语言运用，语言运用的效果直接影响到语言知识的学习，语言教学要注意培养学生良好的语言习惯。
4)、培养学生形成正确的语言习惯。
在教学过程中，要注意引导学生学生通过语言活动，丰富语言的积累，培养语言的形成能力，发展思维的迁移能力等。
5)、培养学生养成语言表达的习惯。
教师在教学中要注意引导学生通过语言活动，丰富语言的积累，培养语言的形成能力。
6)、培养学生养成读书、说话、写字、整理书信的习惯。
教学中，要注意培养学生良好的读书习惯。
7)、培养学生养成了良好的口语交际习惯，使学生形成基本的交往能力，培养学生的语言应用能力和交往能力。
语言教学需要老师有计划有针对地指导。
教学中，要针对教学的内容，针对学生的实际，根据教学的要求，采取适合学生学习的方法，使其在原有基础上，不断提高。
认知语言学主要内容(范文)：2中心论文一、教学目标1、通过语言实践活动，促进了语言学部语言实践能力、语言学习方法、语言学习能力和语言教学能力的提高，培养了语言学部人员的综合能力。
认知语言学英语作文
认知语言学英语作文下载温馨提示:该文档是我店铺精心编制而成，希望大家下载以后，能够帮助大家解决实际的问题。
文档下载后可定制随意修改，请根据实际需要进行相应的调整和使用，谢谢!并且，本店铺为大家提供各种各样类型的实用资料，如教育随笔、日记赏析、句子摘抄、古诗大全、经典美文、话题作文、工作总结、词语解析、文案摘录、其他资料等等，如想了解不同资料格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by theeditor. I hope that after you download them,they can help yousolve practical problems. The document can be customized andmodified after downloading,please adjust and use it according toactual needs, thank you!In addition, our shop provides you with various types ofpractical materials,such as educational essays, diaryappreciation,sentence excerpts,ancient poems,classic articles,topic composition,work summary,word parsing,copyexcerpts,other materials and so on,want to know different data formats andwriting methods,please pay attention!I love languages. They fascinate me and I enjoyexploring their intricacies. Language is not just a meansof communication; it is a reflection of our culture, our history, and our identity. Every language has its ownunique features and quirks, and I find it incredibly interesting to discover and understand them.English, in particular, is a language that has captivated me. Its rich vocabulary and diverse grammar make it a versatile and expressive language. From the formal elegance of Shakespearean English to the colloquial slangof modern-day conversations, English has a range of styles and registers that allow for creative expression.One aspect of English that I find fascinating is its extensive use of idioms. These expressions, which oftenhave a figurative meaning that is different from theirliteral interpretation, add color and depth to the language. For example, when someone says "break a leg" to wishsomeone good luck, it is not meant to be taken literally. Understanding and using idioms correctly can be a challenge, but it is also a fun way to immerse oneself in the language.Another interesting feature of English is its pronunciation. English words can be pronounced in different ways depending on their context, and this can sometimeslead to confusion. For example, the word "read" can be pronounced as "reed" or "red" depending on whether it is in the present or past tense. This aspect of English adds an element of unpredictability to the language, making it both challenging and exciting to learn.Grammar is another aspect of English that I find intriguing. While it may seem complex at first, understanding the rules and structures of English grammar can greatly enhance one's ability to communicateeffectively. From the correct use of tenses to theformation of complex sentences, English grammar is a puzzle waiting to be solved.In conclusion, the study of language is a never-endingjourney of discovery. Whether it is exploring the nuancesof idioms, mastering pronunciation, or unraveling the intricacies of grammar, there is always something new to learn. English, with its diverse vocabulary, expressive idioms, unpredictable pronunciation, and complex grammar, offers a wealth of opportunities for linguistic exploration. So let's dive in and embrace the beauty of the English language!。
认知语言学作业
网络流行语语音变异分析—基于认知社会语言学视角于靖(江南大学外国语学院，无锡 050201)摘要：随着网络E时代逐步深入人心，网民这一群体随之诞生。
大多数人在网络上的交流日益增多，网络语言也就传播开来。
然而，在网络语言中，网络流行语活跃地存在着，它们以语音、语义和语法的变体得以流传，在众多变体中本文主要以语音变异为主，通过对变异类型进行分类，探讨其存在的认知社会理据，寻找网络流行语语音变异的社会意义建构。
关键词：网络流行语，语音变异，社会认知，意义建构英文题目：The Analysis of Pronunciation Variation Among Network Catchwords—based on Cognitive SociolinguisticsYu Jing(School of Foreign Languages, Jiang Nan University, Wu Xi 050201)Abstract: With the development of Network Era, the group of netizen is created. As more and more people choose to communicate on the internet, cyber language is to be fast spread. Meanwhile, the network catchwords play a much more important role among the network languages, which exist with the variations of pronunciation, semantics and grammar. The study focuses on the pronunciation variation, aiming to categorize the variations and seek for the reasons and social meaning construction from the perspective of cognitive sociolinguistics.Key words: network catchwords; pronunciation variation; cognitive sociolinguistics; meaning construction1.社会语言学社会语言学是20世纪60年代在美国首先兴起的一门边缘性学科，它主要是指利用语言学和社会学等学科的理论方法从不同的社会科学角度去研究语言的社会本质和差异的一门学科。
[试题]认知语言学
![[试题]认知语言学](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/fbba6e382bf90242a8956bec0975f46527d3a79b.png)
——认知语言学的基本理论及应用一，认知语言学的基本理论1原型范畴理论（The Theory of Prototypes）1.1原型范畴理论的发展历程原型理论的产生经历了一段过程。
著名认知语言学家莱考夫（Lakoff.G）曾形象地将经典的范畴化理论的实质比作“容器”，具备定义性特征的个体就在里面，不具备的就在外面。
而著名的哲学家维特根斯坦（Wittgenstein）却提出了著名的“家族相似性”（family resemblance），认为其中类别的成员如同一个家族的成员，每个成员都和其他一个或者数个成员共有一项或者数项特征，但几乎没有一项特征是所有成员都共有的，于是以这样环环相扣的方式通过相似性而联系起来成为一类。
即下图方式：从七十年代开始，以罗施（Rosch）为代表的心理学家和以拉波夫（Labov）为代表的语言学家对cup ,bird ,fruit, furniture, vegetable, toy, vehicle, clothing等概念做了一系列深入的定量实验研究，发现了在范畴化中起到关键性作用的是认知上显著的“原型”理论。
第一，个体范畴化的依据是其属性（attributes）而非其基本特征（essential features）。
属性是事物性质的心理体现，与人们认知及现实的互动模式密切相关；基本特征被理解为事物固有的本质属性，它们与主体认知无关，是客观而独立的存在的。
第二，对自然类的范畴化而言，传统理论所说的起定义作用的特征往往难以找到。
例如furniture（家具），在著名的Webster英语词典定义为“movable article used in readying an area as a room or patio for occupancy or use （用于装备房间、内院之类的地方，使便于居住或者使用的可移动物件）”，词典只是勉强找出的非确定性的描述，而算不上是可以根据来确切分类的充分必要条件（比如，壁柜、电话、地毯这类算不算furniture？）。
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认知语言学概述摘要：本文主要根据研究认知语言学学者的研究成果中摘录了部分内容，试图通过他们较成熟的研究成果和总结帮助初学者了解认知语言学这门课程。
关键词：认知语言学语言认知认知语言学是认知科学与语言学结合的一门边缘学科，在最近十几年内受到了语言学界的青睐，国外关于认知语言学的研究正如火如荼地进行着，而国内认知语言学的研究也是一派欣欣向荣的景象。
认知语言学向占主导地位的、以乔姆斯基为首的转换生成语言学发起了挑战，语言学家也进一步地深入研究、证实。
本文主要阐释认知语言学的理论基础、研究范围、研究方法，学界对认知语言学的评价等几个方面。
一、认知语言学的一些基本理论基础1、哲学理论基础。
认知语言学的研究是根据马克思主义理论中以客观为基础，主客观相结合的经验现实主义（简称经验主义）为哲学依据。
经验主义认为没有绝对客观的现实，也没有完全离开客观现实而独立存在的感知和思维。
经验主义强调经验在人的认知和语言中的重要性，而人类的经验源于人与大自然(物理的、生理的)，人与人(社会的、文化的)之间的相互作用，来源于人类自身的感觉动力器官和智力与自然环境的相互作用(吃、穿、住、行)及人与人之间的交往(社会、政治、经济、宗教等)。
但大脑不是象一面镜子一样一成不变地反映客观世界，而是具有自身的认识事物的结构和规律。
每一种经验都遵循一定的规律，具有一定的结构，正是这种多维的结构构成了经验的完型。
因此，客观现实反映在大脑中形成了认知世界或认知结构。
认知语言学就是研究这一认知结构及其规律对语言的影响。
在此基础上，对传统的范畴理论、知识、意义、理解、语言、推理、真理等都提出新的解释。
（赵艳芳，2000）2、心理学理论基础。
认知语言学继承和发展了心理学中关于经验联想主义和认知心理学的一些观点，崇尚皮亚杰的相互作用论，批判其他人认为的大脑是人体的“指挥中心”的观点。
它从人的生理基础出发，认为大脑与人身不可分，提出了“身在心中，心在身中”观点，即认为大脑的认知是以自身为基础向外扩展的，大脑的思维开始于大脑所存在的、与外界发生作用的人自身。
认知是人对客观世界的感知与经验的结果，是人与外部世界相互作用的产物。
认知最基本的要素是基本范畴和动觉图式，而基本范畴和动觉图式是通过人自身与外界发生作用而直接被理解的，其他概念和范畴是通过隐喻认知和转喻认知模式而间接被认识的。
认知具有自己动态的完整结构和模式，不是机器可以模拟的（王廷，汪安圣，1996）。
乔姆斯基认为人的智能结构和认知能力是人类大脑生物结构所固有的，人类所有的知识都是从天赋予的大脑结构特征中来的。
人类习得语言是人类先天具有习得语言的特殊机制的结果，即“语言习得机制”。
它是在人们无法了解语言在人的大脑中是如何生成,理解,而儿童又能在较短的时间里习得复杂的母语的背景下提出的一种假想。
Chomsky的普遍语法认为人类大脑中先天存在一种跨越不同语言的语法通则,语言获得的过程实际上就是“普遍语法”向个体语法(即特定语言的语法)转化的过程。
假如没有这种天赋,在语言数据输入不充分的情况下,语言习得将不可能产生。
也就是说,语言习得,包括二语习得是人类先天具备的语言习得机制的产物。
由这一假说派生的“管约理论”、“原则—参数语法”、“最简理论”都根本上继承了原则,即人类有一个与生俱来的、自足的形式系统,这是生物进化的结果给人类的语法设定了原则（尚亚宁,雷宏友，2008）。
3、语言学理论基础。
认知语言学认为语言是人的智能活动之一，是人类认知的一个组成部分，两者有着密切的联系。
语言是人类普遍认知组织的一部分，它产生于个体认知发展的一定阶段。
一方面，语言的发展以最初的认知发展为前提;另一方面，语言的发展又促进了认知的发展。
1）认知发展先于语言，并决定语言的发展，语言是认知能力发展到一定阶段的产物，也有认识了的事物才能用语言表达。
而且，从个系和种系认知能力发展的观点看，认知具有前语言阶段，即认识了的事物还尚未发展到具有外在语言符号的阶段。
就此而言，认知是决定性的。
2）语言能促进认知的发展皮亚杰曾经说过，语言不能包括全部的认知能力，也不能决定认知能力的发展，但能促进认知能力的发展。
(桂诗春，1985)语言的产生对认知能力的发展起很大的促进作用。
一方面语言能帮助人们更好地思维和认知新事物。
而且，人们可以借助于己有的语言更好地认识具有一定关联的新事物。
另一方面，有了语言，人们才可以交流思想，交换信息，增加经验，从而互相沟通认识，互相调整、适应、趋同，促进种系和个体认知的发展。
3）语言是巩固和记载认知成果的工具人们认识客观世界的全部过程有两个:一是通过直接经验，二是通过间接经验。
对一个人来说是间接经验的东西，其实是他人或前人的直接经验。
人的直接经验和认知只有通过语言(口头或文字的)才能表达、交流、记载、保存，从而传给下一代，成为后人间接的认知成果。
人们对客观世界的认识也只有依靠语言才能变个人的为集体的，变集体的为社会的、全人类的，形成全人类共同的认知成果，一代一代传下去，不断积累，不断巩固。
二、认知语言学的研究范围就语言本身而言，认知语言学认为语言不完全是形式的东西，不是一套规则系统，不能用生成和转换以及对形式描述的方法来对语言共性进行解释。
语言的词汇和语法结构都是不同层次的语言单位，是形式与意义相结合构成的具有内在结构的象征符号，具有真实的认知地位。
句法的不同形式来自并反映不同的语义。
语义不是基于客观的真值条件，而是对应于认知结构，表层形式的句法结构又直接对应于语义结构，所以，认知语言学认为语义结构才是语言研究的重点。
语言的意义不限于语言内部，而是植根于人与客观世界的互动的认知，植根于使用者对世界的理解和信念。
因此，语义知识和语用知识是不可分的，而语言形式是认识、语义、语用等形式之外的因素促动的结果。
总之，认知语言学在对认知科学一些基本问题进行深刻反思后而形成的新的认知观基础上建立的，是批判地继承和创新的结果。
认知语言学的认知结构完形的组织原则来源于格式塔心理学，它的主客观互动的信念显然来自皮亚杰的心理发展的相互作用论。
认知语言学也接受了认知心理学中关于原型和范畴的研究。
意象、图式和扫描的观念直接受到认知心理学关于表象和知觉研究的启发。
认知语言学的一个最基本理论主张是，语义和句法之间存在着一对一的映射关系。
这一论断包括以下两层意思：1）任何两个同素不同构的语法格式必然有不同的语义值，任何不同的语义结构都对应于不同的语法结构。
2）任何语法标记都有自己的语义值。
三、认知语言学的理论研究方法1、框架语义学是研究词义及句法结构意义的一种方法。
自20世纪70年代中期以来,菲尔莫就一直从事“语义框架”(semantic frame)的研究。
由于语义框架这一概念在认知语言学的许多研究领域中起着重要作用,因此,研究语义框架具有非常重要的意义。
框架语义学认为,要理解词语的意义,就必须首先具备概念结构,即语义框架的知识。
语义框架为词义的存在及其使用提供了背景和动因。
词语可以通过其所在的语言结构,按照一定的原则或方式选择和突出基本的语义框架的某些方面。
因此,解释词语的意义和功能,就可以按照这样的思路进行:首先描写词语的基本语义框架,然后对选择方式的特点加以详细刻画。
（文旭，2002）2、认知语法是兰格克的语言学理论,最初称为“空间语法”(Space Grammar)。
该理论认为,词汇与语法形成一个连续统,其描写只包括符号结构,并且所有语法成分都是某种概念输入的结果,尽管这种概念输入可能是抽象的或多余的。
一个符号成分,词汇的或语法的,通常是多义的,具有一个以典型为中心的相关意义的家族,其中一些意义与另外的意义具有图式相关性。
认知语法认为,意义是一种心理现象。
心理经验的各个方面都具有潜力作为一个语言表达式意义的一部分,以这种方式起作用的概念被称为“认知域”。
概念的范围可以从基本的时间、空间、颜色概念到更高级别的概念,如概念合成物,甚至是整个知识系统。
认知域的范围也是从丰富而详细的概念结构到高度抽象的意象图式(image schemas),而这些意象图式是认知结构和认知发展的基础。
某些复杂概念也是基本的,它们存在于我们的经验中,在语言和认知中起着重要作用,兰格克把这种复杂概念称为“概念原型”(conceptual archetype)。
（文旭，2002）3、认知语义学的基本思想可以概括为下列几点:概念在大脑中并不以孤立的原子单位出现,其理解要依赖由背景知识组成的语境；心智或大脑中语义表征与经验世界之间的关系，认知语义学认为,心智在语义结构的建构过程中具有重要的作用,并以某种方式对世界经验进行概念化。
不同的说话人可以用不同的方式对相同的经验进行概念化,这样,语言的许多方面,特别是语法结构、词语以及语法的屈折变化等,就可以看成是对不同经验进行概念化的编码；范畴结构的研究方法，认知语义学认为范畴有一个内部结构,通常称为“典型结构”,即是说,一个范畴涉及范畴成员之间的关系,而范畴延伸的关系就是一个范畴中典型成员与边缘(非典型)成员之间的关系；隐喻和转喻在生成语言学中被看成是语言的偏离现象,常被忽视或不予研究，但在认知语义学中,隐喻和转喻却具有非常重要的地位,被认为是“我们对抽象范畴进行概念化的有力的认知工具”；认知语义学中最重要的语义结构是意象图式,它们是隐喻的基础,并与人类的经验紧密相关；雷科夫和约翰逊认为,像“容器”、“路径”、“系联”这样的意象图式是最基本的意义载体,人们根据这些意象图式可以理解和认知更复杂的概念。
（文旭，2002）4、句式语法是语法分析的一种方法。
在句式语法里,句法、语义以及语用信息是同等重要的,任何一方都不能独立于其他两方而起作用。
句式语法采纳了传统语法的观点:语法是由形式和意义的规约对应组成的,即语法句式。
句式语法的这种非模块特征实际上是把形式和意义看成是一个语法成分的一部分,而不是语法中彼此独立的成分。
句式语法特别强调这样一个事实:“语用信息”可能与特殊的语言形式具有规约的联系,从而组成语法句式。
（文旭，2002）5、心理空间理论是研究自然语言意义的一种方法。
该理论认为,要理解语言的组织结构就要研究人们谈话或听话时所建立起来的域(do-main),以及人们用成分(elements)、角色(roles)、策略(strategies)和关系(relations)建构的域,这些域就是心理空间,它们不是语言自身的一部分,也不是语法的一部分。
心理空间虽不是语言表征的隐藏层次,但语言离开了它们是无法表征的。
（文旭，2002）从上述内容可以看出，认知范式中的诸多理论方法虽有一定差别,但它们在很大程度上是相互一致的,具有共同的研究目标和基本原则。
四、对认知语言学的评价认知语言学把语言看作是一种认知活动,是以认知为出发点,研究语言形式和意义及其规律的科学,“是基于人们对世界的经验和对世界进行感知和概念化的方法来研究语言的学科”。