任务型教学法task
任务型教学法在大学英语教学中的应用
任务型教学法在大学英语教学中的应用任务型教学法在大学英语教学中的应用关键词：任务型教学法大学英语教学任务设计任务实施一、任务型教学法的兴起和发展任务型教学法（Task－based Teaching Approach），兴起于20世纪80年代，是一种以任务为核心来计划、组织和实施课堂教学活动的教学模式。
英籍印度语言学家Prabhu于1983年提出了“任务型教学”的概念。
Yalden在1987年指出，交际法在发展中逐渐形成了五个主要分支：功能法、协商法、法、内容法和任务法，任务型教学是交际法的五大分支之一。
到了90年代，任务型教学理论和实践探索渐成热点，英国语言学家Willis研究了任务型教学的模式。
Ellis在2003年对任务型教学进行了理论的梳理和，提出新的教学模式——分阶段的任务型教学，标志着任务型教学的理论研究已进入一个新的阶段。
随着任务型教学法的不断发展，我国很多学者对任务型教学法的理论和教学实践进行了研究。
教育部于2007年公布的《大学英语课程教学要求》强调了学生在教学中的主体地位，指出大学英语的教学目标是培养学生的英语综合应用能力，特别是听说能力；在教学模式上要改进以教师讲授为主的单一教学模式；使英语的教与学朝着个性化和自主学习的方向发展。
任务型教学法注重培养学生应用能力和创新能力，强调学生要在真实情境中的任务驱动下，在探究完成任务或解决问题的过程中进行学习活动，从而自然地习得语言。
这与大学英语课程的教学要求不谋而合，因此在大学英语教学中实施任务型教学法，对推进大学英语改革和培养学生英语运用能力具有重大意义。
本文将对任务型教学法在大学英语教学中的应用进行探讨，旨在为更好地运用任务型教学法以提高大学英语教学效率探索一些不同的思路。
二、任务型教学法在大学英语教学中的应用1．任务设计第一，分析教学内容和学生情况。
教师在设计任务时应以教学大纲和教材为基础，对教学内容进行认真细致的分析，在充分分析教学内容的基础上，明确教学内容的重点与难点及各个知识点之间的相互关系。
任务型教学法-Task-based-language-teaching
Definitions of task
Task is as a central unit of planning and teaching. It is an activity or goal that is carried out using language,
such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, making a telephone call, writing a letter, or reading a set of instructions and assembling a toy:
vocabulary here includes the consideration of lexical phrases, sentence stems, prefabricated routines, and collocations.
“Conversation” is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition: the majority of tasks proposed within
Approach: Theory of language
浅析任务型教学法中“任务”的概念界定-最新教育文档
浅析任务型教学法中“任务”的概念界定-最新教育文档浅析任务型教学法中“任务”的概念界定一、任务型教学法的概况任务型教学法虽然产生的的时间不长（20世纪80年代），但是发展迅速、被众多国家采用。
它是钻研外国语言教学和第二语言习得的专家们经过一次次理论研究和实际应用而归纳总结出来的、以任务为核心的语言教学形式。
它主张“learning by doing”即“从用中学”和“doing things with the language ”即“用语言做”；是一种把语言应用的基本理念化为具有实践意义的课堂教学方式，是交际教学法的延伸与发扬。
详细地来分析，教师根据本次课堂教学要求和目标，设计通俗易懂的、具有可操作性的任务；学生则通过各种各样的语言行为，比如口头表述、提出疑问、沟通商量等，完成教师布置的任务，以达到本次课堂的学习目标。
由此总结，该教学法具有科学严谨的结构；同时它也具有计划性，以学生为中心，模拟人们在学校、生活等不同场合中以语言为依托、开展的各种行为和活动，使学生把学到的语言和日常生活相互结合，学习者用目的语所做的事情应该来源于现实世界或与现实世界密切相关，集中于意义的交流，同时也关注形式。
因此，该教学法对英语教学课堂的改革至关重要。
二、“任务”的概念界定学者Long，M（1985）提出“任务”其实是“人们为自己或让人所做的义务的或者有一定酬劳的工作，例如：给围栏刷漆、给儿童穿衣、购买衣服、预定机票、考驾驶执照、给病人量体重、分捡邮件、预订旅店、填写支票、找出要去的街区、帮助他人穿行马路”；一般称Long所定义的任务为“真实任务”（real-world tasks）。
Richards， Platt 和 Weber（1986）三位学者以教育为出发点，给出建议：“任务是学习者在处理或理解语言的基础上完成的一个活动或行动，一般要求教师明确完成任务的标准”。
简单来说，任务就是学习者在理解语言和输出语言的基础上完成的各种行为动作。
从Task板块看任务型教学模式的设计原则
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板块看任 务型教 学模 式 的设计原则
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学模式 的设计原则 。所 以， 探讨 Ｔ ｓ ａｋ板 块的设计 ，我们从 中可 以发现任务型教 学模式的一些基本的设计原则和教学要 求。把握这些设计原则和教学要求 ， 有助
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是步骤二 ， 动的开展是有一定难度 的， 活
任务型教学法英语缩写
任务型教学法英语缩写
任务型教学法英语缩写为：TBLT。
任务型教学法（Task-Based Language Teaching，TBLT）是一种以任务为中心的教学方法，旨在任务型教学法（Task-Based Language Teaching，TBLT）是一种以任务为中心的教学方法，旨在通过完成真实的语言任务来促进学生的语言学习。
该方法强调学生在交际中运用语言的能力，注重培养学生的自主学习和合作学习能力。
在任务型教学法中，教师会设计一系列与现实生活相关的任务，例如解决问题、交流信息、完成任务等。
学生需要通过与他人合作或独立完成任务来达到学习目标。
在这个过程中，学生不仅能够提高自己的语言技能，还能够培养自己的思维能力、解决问题的能力和团队合作精神。
任务型教学法的优点在于它能够激发学生的学习兴趣和积极性，提高学生的学习效果。
同时，它也能够帮助学生更好地理解和运用所学知识，从而更好地适应未来的工作和生活。
因此，任务型教学法已经成为现代英语教学中一种非常受欢迎的教学方法。
任务型教学法解析
Design: Syllabus
传统大纲 功能 主题 能力 语言结构 语篇类型 词汇目标 听、说、读、写
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Design: Syllabus
Nanan对任务的分类：
（1）真实性的交际任务 观点：直接通过课堂让学生用英语完成各种真实的生活、 学习、工作等任务。
（2）教学型的交际任务 观点：学习语言知识的活动，即为教学而设计的活动。
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关注点 情景 结果 语言 错误
练习 VS 任务
练习 形式 无场景 正确的形式 练习既定的语言形式 即时修改
任务 意义 真实交际场景 任务的完成 选择语言形式和内容 延时修改
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Approach: Theory of language
关于语言本质的假想：
1. 语言主要是一种可以创造意义的工具。
Krashen：理解性输入是语言习得成功的基本保证。 Swain: 研究表明，在加拿大沉浸式语言教学中的某些学生，多年之后， 其语言能力仍然落后于英语为母语的学生。所以不仅要有足够的输入， 还应该有足够的“可理解的输出”。在任务型语言教学过程中，学生 应分小组或结对完成各种任务。通过这种小组活动，学生的语言能力 得以成倍地增长。 其他观点：“意义的交流”，把它作为作为第二语言习得的必要基础。 “意义的交流”把学习者的注意力聚焦于表达，因此可被看成是语言 习得的刺激因素。
要求：安排多种任务帮助学生意识到目的语的特征 26
任务改编者 教师在设计任务时应考虑多方面的因素： 学生现有的语言水平 学生在完成任务过程中的可能出现的困难 任务完成过程中如何保证良好的课堂秩序 任务的真实性、可操作性 任务完成后以何种方式呈现结果最具直观性和展示性
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Design: The role of instructional materials
任务型教学法
任务型教学法(Task-based Language Teaching Approach)任务型教学(Task-based Language Teaching)是指教师通过引导语言学习者在课堂上完成任务来进行的教学。
这是20世纪80年代兴起的一种强调“在做中学”(lear ning by doing)的语言教学方法，是交际教学法的发展，在世界语言教育界引起了人们的广泛注意。
近年来，这种“用语言做事”(doing things with the language)的教学理论逐渐引入我国的基础英语课堂教学，是我国外语课程教学改革的一个走向。
该理论认为：掌握语言大多是在活动中使用语言的结果，而不是单纯训练语言技能和学习语言知识的结果。
在教学活动中，教师应当围绕特定的交际和语言项目，设计出具体的、可操作的任务，学生通过表达、沟通、交涉、解释、询问等各种语言活动形式来完成任务，以达到学习和掌握语言的目的。
任务型教学法是吸收了以往多种教学法的优点而形成的，它和其它的教学法并不排斥。
其优点是：1. 完成多种多样的任务活动，有助于激发学生的学习兴趣。
2. 在完成任务的过程中，将语言知识和语言技能结合起来，有助于培养学生综合的语言运用能力。
3. 促进学生积极参与语言交流活动，启发想像力和创造性思维，有利于发挥学生的主体性作用。
4. 在任务型教学中有大量的小组或双人活动，每个人都有自己的任务要完成，可以更好地面向全体学生进行教学。
5. 活动内容涉及面广，信息量大，有助于拓宽学生的知识面。
6. 在活动中学习知识，培养人际交往、思考、决策和应变能力，有利于学生的全面发展。
7. 在任务型教学活动中，在教师的启发下，每个学生都有独立思考、积极参与的机会，易于保持学习的积极性，养成良好的学习习惯，任务型教学法在英语教学中的应用引言：以任务为中心的语言教学思路是最近20年来交际思想的一种新的发展形态，它把语言应用的基本理念化为具有实践意义的课堂教学方式。
初中英语“任务型”教学
初中英语“任务型”教学初探《英语课程标准》所提倡的任务型教学模式，是把综合语言运用能力的培养落实在教学过程中，倡导体验、实践、参与、交流和合作的学习方式，实现任务的目标，感受成功，强调学生能用英语做事情。
任务型教学模式是培养学生运用语言进行交际的有效途径之一。
为配合好新教材的使用，我们把任务型语言教学的理论应用于初中英语教学，从初一开始，希望赋予英语课堂教学新的内涵，并带来生机和活力。
一、什么是“任务型”教学任务型教学（task-based language teaching）作为一种语言教学模式，是在20世纪80年代外语教学研究和实践中提出来的，对初中英语教学具有重要影响。
任务型教学就是指教师通过引导语言学习者在课堂上完成任务来进行的教学。
它以具体的任务作为学习的动力，以完成任务的过程作为学习的过程，以展示任务成果的方式（而不是以测试的分数）来体现教学成就。
该模式是20多年来交际教学思想的一种发展状态，它把语言运用的基本理念转化为具有实践意义的课堂教学方式，是一种师生之间、学生之间交流、合作、互动的学习过程。
具体地说，任务型语言教学（task-based language teaching）就是直接通过课堂教学，让学生用英语完成各种真实的生活、学习、工作等任务（task），将课堂教学的目标真实化、任务化，从而培养其运用英语的能力。
以具体的任务为载体，以完成任务为动力，把语言知识和运用技能合为一体，通过听、说、读、写等活动，用所学语言去完成一定的目标任务，在过程中发展运用自己所学的语言。
简单地说，任务型教学就是为用而学，在用中学，学中用，学了就用。
它立足于学生本身，把学生作为教学的主体，教师从学生“学”的角度设计出各种教学活动。
使学生在完成各种任务的过程中逐步形成运用语言的能力。
二、“任务型”教学的步骤willis（1996）认为，“任务型”教学可分为三个步骤：前任务（pre-task）——教师引入任务。
任务型教学法(Task-based English teaching method)
任务型教学法(Task-based English teachingmethod)IntroductionTask-based language teaching was first invented by an English linguist Allwright in the 1970s, popularized abroad in the 1980s, and introduced into China in the 1990s.The purpose of this article is to outline the principles that underlie task-based language teaching and to give examples of classroom activities within the approach. Task-based language teaching can be regarded as one particular development within the broader “communicative approach”. It is currently much discussed in many parts of the world and, indeed, is recommended in the official curriculum documents of a growing number of countries and regions.This article has five main sections. The first looks at what is meant by t he term “task”. The second looks at the continuum from “focusing on form” to “focusing on meaning” with the continuum I hope to illuminate the distinction often made between “tasks” and other kinds of activity. The continuum is described and explored in more detail in the third section, which provides a range of examples from different parts of it. The fourth section presents a framework for looking at tasks in terms of how they contribute to the linguistic, cognitive and personality development of the students. The conclusion summarizes some of the main aims and benefits of task-based learning by means of a mnemonic base on the word “task” itself.Ⅰ. What is task?Different teachers and writers use different definitions of the term “task”, such as:1﹑…a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interesting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on the meaning rather on the form. The task should have a sense of completeness, being also to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right. (Nahan, 1989,15)2﹑…any structured language learning endeavor which has a particular objective appropriate contents, a specified working procedure, and range of outcomes for those who undertake the task . (Breen via Brown, 1994, 83)3﹑…an activity which is designed to he lp achieve a particular goal .A number of dimensions of tasks influence their use in language teaching. (Richards Etal, 2000, 468)Most people would probably agree on certain basic characteristics:1﹑Tasks are activities in which students work purposefully towards an objective.2﹑The objective may be one that students have set for themselves or one which has been set by the teacher.3﹑Tasks may be carried out in competition with other or(more often) in collaboration.4﹑They may be carried out individually or (more often) in groups.5﹑The outcome may be something concrete( e.g. a report or presentation) or something intangible(e.g. agreement or the solution to a problem). The main area of disagreement revolves around the relationship between tasks and communication. Some teachers and writers do not see this relationship as crucial. They define a language learning task as including almost anything that students are asked (or choose) to do in the classroom, including formal learning activities such as grammar exercises and controlled practice activities, provided the objective of the activity is related to learning the language.Within this broad definition, some writers distinguish subcategories such as communication tasks and enabling tasks according to the extent to which they involve communication or focus on form.Many other teachers and writers use a more restricted definition. They exclude activities where the learners focus on formal aspects of the language (such as grammar, pronunciation or vocabulary) and reserve the term “task” for activities in which purpose is related to the communication of meanings. Willis (1996,p.23) is one writer who adopts this definition. In this book tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.Activities which focus upon and practice specific elements of knowledge, skills and strategies needed for the task are called exercises. The same distinction between tasks and exercises is supported by Ellis Nunan and Skehan. Skehan, for example, describes the criteria for a task as follows: 1﹑meaning is primary; 2﹑there is some communication problem to solve ; 3﹑there is some sort of relationship to real-world activities; 4﹑task completion has some priority; 5﹑the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome .The definition reflects the meth od’s interaction but we can’t make a clear-cut distinction between “task” and “exercises”. This will be discussed in the next section.Ⅱ﹒ Communication, Tasks and Exercises.As we’ve seen, one of the key features of a communicative task is that centers focus on communicating meanings rather than learning orpracticing forms. However it is not usually simply a question of learning focusing either on meaning or on form. More often, it is a matter of degree. For example, there are some activities in which the learner may focus mainly on the production of certain forms that are being practiced, but he or she ma still be using these forms to convey meanings to somebody. This would be the case in, for example, this “Questionnaire survey” activity, in which the stu dents needs to use “can you…?” in order to find classmates who can do certain things, such as: who can speak three languages/ use a computer/ make cakes/ ride a bike/swim? In this activity, although the students have a communicative purpose (to find classmates with particular skills) it is also clear that they are practicing specific forms. At other times, the emphasis on communicating meanings may increase but students may still pay attention to the forms they are producing (and which indeed, they may just have been taught). This might be the case in this role play if students are asked to perform it shortly after learning how to make enquiries and give information about hotel accommodation. Each student has one of the following role cards: student A: You arrive at a small hotel one evening. In the foyer, you meet the manager(ess) and 1. Ask if there is a room vacant. 2. Ask the price, including the breakfast.3. Say how many nights you would like to stay.4. Say what time you would like to have breakfast; student B: You are the manager(ess) of a small hotel that prides on itself on its friendly, homely atmosphere. You have a single and a double room vacant for tonight. The prices are: ＄100 for the single room, ＄160 for the double room. Breakfast is ＄15 extra per person. For guests with cars, there is a free car park. Since it is impossible to draw a clear dividing line between activities where the focus is on form (exercise) and activities where the focus is ion meaning (task), it is useful to think of a continuum with varying degrees of focus on form and/or meaning. Activities can then be classified according to where they lie along this continuum. The continuum is divided into five sections. From sectionⅠ to sectionⅤ , the content from forms to meaning is becoming stronger and stronger.1. Non-communicative learning. Focusing on the structures of language, how they are formed and what they mean, e.g. through exercise, “discovery” and awareness-raising activities. 2. Pre-communicative language practice. Practicing language with some attention to meaning but not communicating new messages to others, e.g. in “question- and- answer” practice. 3. Communicative language practice. Practicing language in a context where it communicates new information, e.g. information gap activities or personalized questions. 4. Structured communication. Using language to communicate in situations where elicit pre-learnt language but with some unpredictability, e.g. in structured role-play and simpleproblem-solving. 5. Authentic communication. Using language to communicate in situations where meanings are unpredictable, e.g. increative role-play, more complex problem-solving and discussion. The activities at the top are obviously “exercises”. Those at the bottom are obviously “tasks”. Those in the middle (2-4) have features of both.Ⅲ. From Non-Communicative Learning to AuthenticCommunication.The section will elaborate on the previous one by giving examples of activities from five parts of the continuum from “focus on form” to “focus on meaning”. In the terms discussed above, thi s corresponds also to a progression from clearly defined ‘exercises” to clearly defined “tasks”.1. Non-Communicative Learning.It is in this category that there is the least element of communication.Here, for example, students are involved in “discovering” a rule of grammar on the basis of examples. In the examples below, look carefully at the position of the adverbs “always”, “often”, “sometimes”, “usually”, and “never”.What are the rules?A. We are usually hungry when we come home.John is always late.His parents were often tired in the evening.I never sure whether this word is correct.B. I sometimes go to the cinema on Fridays.We never eat much in the morning.Jane often arrives at school early.They always come home late at night.C. They have never written to me again.You can always come and visit me.I will never know why he did it.Pat has often seen him with two dogs.The students are then required to apply this rule to a new set of examples: Put the adverbs into the right places in the sentence below.A. We play football in the evening (often).I can catch the first bus in the morning (never).Jack and Jill are very happy (always).They visit me (sometimes).You write very good English (usually).B. They have been to Jinan (often).We drink tea for breakfast (always).You are cheerful (usually).John can keep a secret (never).He has refused to speak to me (sometimes)2. Pre-Communicative Language Practice.In this category the focus is still on the practice of discrete items of language but, in order to produce the appropriate forms, the students have to pay attention to aspect of meaning. In the first activity, they have to find out what Richard and Fiona “have to do” and what they “would like to do”. Richard’s obligations are cleaning floors, washing windows and emptying the bins. His desires are to go to evening school, to geta better job and to marry Fiona. Fiona’s obligations are typing letters,answering the telephone and doing photocopying. Her desires are to earn more money, to take holiday abroad and to marry her boss.The best known type of activity that belongs to this category is the familiar “question-and-answer practice” in which students have to answer (and sometimes ask) questions about a situation, picture, or topic.The answers are already known but students have to pay attention to meaning in order to produce them. The questions are as follows: How many students are there in the class? Are there more boys than girls? Who is sitting next to Jane? Which lesson is this now? etc.3. Communicative Language PracticeThe main difference between this category and the previous one is that there is now some kind of “information gap”, that is, the language conveys meanings that were not previously known to everybody. Thequestion-and-answer practice just described would come into this category, if the questions elicit information that was previously unknown, e.g. what students did at the weekend or who their favorite singers are. In a task-based approach, however, the practice is more likely to be structured in some way so that there is a recognizable context, purpose and outcome.This structuring may be achieved in a variety of ways, for example, a “guessing-game” format. Another common question probl em is to use simple questionnaire surveys in which the information gap is created by the students’ own individual experiences and ideas. For example, who is one’s favorite singer/actor/actress etc.?As a written follow- up task, students may be asked (individually or in groups) to write a short report on what they have found out about their classmates’ preferences.4. Structured CommunicationIn the examples given so far, it has been possible to predict the exact language that is needed in order to perform the exercise or task. These activities therefore offer clear ways to practice specific areas of grammar. As we move to the next category along the continuum, we entera domain in which the focus shifts further on to the communication ofmeanings. This means that, as we move further into this domain, it becomesincreasingly difficult to predict what language will be required and therefore to associate an acting with the practice of specific linguistic structures. It is, however, possible to structure the activity in sucha way that it is likely to elicit a particular range of language and, aboveall, so that the teacher knows that the students are equipped with language to perform it. Thus, in this activity, the students will need to makethe use of role-play in which the students are given general instructions as to what views or ideas they should express but left to decide for themselves on the exact meanings and language. An example of this was the role-play described earlier, in which students were asked to book hotel accommodation.5. Authentic CommunicationOne of the characteristi cs of “authentic communication” is that the language that is used depends on the meanings that arise naturally in the course of communication. The teacher still “controls” the activity, by creating a situation which he or she thinks is suitable, but has even less control than in “structured communication” over the actual language that students will need. Students may need to activate any part of their language knowledge that is relevant to the meanings they want tounderstand or convey. In authentic communication, then, the students are not asked to focus on individual parts of the grammar. Rather, they areasked to draw on the whole of the grammar that they have so far internalized and use it as a means for conveying whatever meanings may arise. There was always also a strong element of this in structured communication, but there the students were more “protected” from the unpredictable needs that arise in natural communication.In authentic communication activities it is important to have a context and purposeful developments towards an outcome. They are therefore often larger in scope than those discussed earlier. This is not necessarily the case, however, as we see from this example:I Love Music!How do you feel when you listen to music? Why do you like music? Discuss with your partner. Write down five reasons.Here is an example which is larger in scope and also illustrates the principle of “task-dependency”, in which individual tasks are connected with each other to form a more extended task or project:Module: Study, School Life, Work.Unit: Part-time work?Task: Making the Right Choice, Part 1The following are 4 case students of fellow students who wish to take part-time work.1. In groups of four, discuss whether they should take up part-timejobs and give reasons.2. Suggest alternatives to each one of them. Instead of taking uppart-time work, what else can they do to address their needs?3. Each group will select a spokesperson to report theirconclusions to the whole class. After listening to all the groups, the class will vote for the group with the best suggestions.Case 1: MichaelMichael is tall and strong and spends a lot of time on sports activities in school. He lives far away from school. His grades are average.He wants a part-time job so that he can buy more expensive sportsequipment.Case 2: PansyPansy is very smart and is the best student of the form. She is quiet and shy. She wants to take up a part-time job to gain some work experience and develop more confidence when working with other people. She has strong computer skills.Case 3: NickNick’s father has been out of work for a long time and his mother may soon lose her job. Nick wants very much to earns some money for the family. His grades in school are not very good. He is polite andhardworking.Case 4: LucyLucy has average grades in school. She is the only child in the family and her parents are busy at work all the time. She feels bored at home. She wants to take up a part-time job because she thinks it may be fun. She loves music and plays the piano and violin.Module: Study, School Life and WorkUnit: Part-time work?Task: Making the Right Choice, Part 2The 4 people in Part 1—Michael, Pansy, Nick and Lucy—have read the following 8advertisements for part-time work and have made the following choices:Michael: Distributing leafletsPansy: Chinese Character Input.Nick: Poster DistributionLucy: Fish and Chips ShopYou think one of them has selected a job highly unsuitable for him/her. Write a letter about 150 words to persuade him/her not to take up the job. You may consider the factors discussed in Part 1, such as: his/her need for a part-time job, the working hours, traveling time, the pay, effects on his/her health and studies, nature of the work, his/her personality and skills and alternatives which may address his/her problem At the beginning of this section, two examples of “grammar discovery” activities were given, one relating to the placement of adverbs and the other to the use of the passive. These were described as examples from the “form-focused” end of the form-to-meaning continuum (i.e. as “exercises”), because the students’ purpose was to discover grammar rules rather than communicate with each other. If, however, the students are asked to discover the rule in groups and the language which they use is English, then the activity fulfils the criteria for a “task”: the discussion has a context, a communicative purpose and an outcome. Indeed, in the context of the English classroom, discovery tasks related to grammar are a natural component, comparable to discovery tasks in science and other so-called “content” subjects.Ⅳ Three “generations” of taskIn the previous section we moved from the domain of exercise and into the domain of tasks: the first two subsections contained clearly “tasks”; the last two subsections contained clearly “tasks”; and the middle subsection was a transition or mixed category. Now we will start in the “task” part of the continuum and look at tasks from another perspective, namely, the ways in which they contribute to the communicative, cognitive and personality development of the students. The discussion will take us through three “generations” of tasks, from relatively small-scale tasks in which students practice aspects of communication, through tasks whichdemand greater cognitive input from the students, to larger-scale tasks which also deve lop other aspects of students’ personality.This framework is the one presented by Ribé and Vidal (1993). The examples are also taken from the same source.First Generation TasksThe main aim of “first generation” tasks is develop students’ communicative ability in a specific type of situation or area of language.The task is often structured around a particular set of functions or a simple problem (often involving an “information gap”). Here are two examples:SimulationYou are a customer in a big store. You want to buy the following items:a pair of slippers, two compact-discs, and a filofax. Walk around and askpolitely for directions to the departments/counters you need. Buy the items. Use the language you have practices in class.Problem-solvingThe students have a map of London with bus underground routes. They discuss and select the best route for going from one point to another according to a set of given variables (price, time, distance, comfort, etc.)Second Generation TasksThe tasks in the second category pose challenges of a broader nature.They aim at developing not only communication skills but also general cognitive strategies of handling and organizing information, such as:1. analyzing what information is needed in order to complete the task.2. deciding on procedures3. collecting information.4. selecting relevant data5. presenting data in an organized way6.analyzing process and resultsThe language is now a medium for carrying out a “real” piece of work, similar to what students may also need do outside their language course. Students therefore need to draw on a wider range of language. They also need to engage in continuous processing of input and output (reading for information producing reports, etc.). For example, “Throu ghforeigners’ eyes”. The objective of this task is to collect and analyze information on what tourists of different nationalities think ofstudents’ country/city/town.1. Students decide (a) what they need to know; (b) how to get thisinformation (interviews, questionnaires, tourist brochures, etc) (c) where to get the information (airport, beach, library, touristinformation office, etc) (d) when to obtain the information (e) whatgrids/database format they want to use to collate the information (f) the kind of questionnaires/interviews they want to devise (g) the language they need to carry out the interviews.2. Students carry out the research, transcribe the interviews andput the information together.3. Students select relevant data, decide on a format (posters,dossiers, etc) for their presentation.4. Students make a report and present itThird Generation TasksWith third generation tasks, the scope widens further. In addition to the communicative and cognitive strategies mentioned above, they also aim to develop the personality of the students through the experience of learning a foreign language. They go further than the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider educational objectives, such as enhancingmotivation and awareness, developing creativity and interpersonal skills, etc. they also go further than the previous tasks in their degree of authenticity and the extent to which they involve all aspects of the students’ personality and experience. Here is the example given by Ribé and Vidal (1993, p.3):Designing an alternative world1. Students and teachers brainstorm aspects of the environmentthey like and those would like to see improved. These may include changes to the geographical setting, nature, animal-life, housing, society, family, leisure activities, politics, etc.2. Students are put into groups according to common interests. Thegroups identify the language and information they need. The students carry out individual and group research on the selected topics. The students discuss aspects of this “Alternative reality” and then report back. They decide on the different ways (stories, recordings, games, etc) to link all the research and present the final product.3. Students present the topic and evaluate the activity.The three generations of tasks and their contribution to the students’ development are summarized below:▲ First generation task: communicative development▲ Second generation task: communicate development and cognitive development.▲ Third generation task: communicative development cognitive development and global personality development.Second and (particularly) third generation tasks will often be integrated into extended project work.The n otion of “generations” of tasks implies that each category has developed out of the preceding one and is thus in some way more advanced in the demands it makes on learners and teachers alike. It may thus beexpected that learners and teachers will not start with second or third generation tasks but begin with the simpler, first generation tasks and as they gain in experience, gradually extend their repertoire to include those which are more advanced.Within this framework, student and teacher are no longer two separate poles (i.e. the teacher gives information and the students receives it) as in the more traditional type of teaching, but two entities working together, planning, taking decisions, carrying out the task and sharing the final sense of achievement.Ⅴ ConclusionTo conclude this article, I would like to use a simple mnemonic, based on the word “task” itself, to summarize some of the aims and benefits that we can hope for task-based learning to achieve: T (together: speaking or silently) A (activate: purposefully) S (skills: communicative, cognitive and interpersonal) K (knowledge: from all domains ofexperience). The message is self-explanatory. Together, over coming the isolation of the traditional classroom, students with their teacher activate their skills and knowledge. Often this togetherness may take the form of overt speaking, but even in silent tasks students may keep a sense of the classroom as a learning community. The activity that takes place is not unguided “busy-work” but purposeful mov ement towards targets and objectives (both in the overall direction of learning and in terms of specific learning activities). The skills which students perform and develop are communicative and also —particularly as they move into the second and third generations of tasks—cognitive and interpersonal.Finally the boundary between the classroom and the outside world is increasingly reduced, as the tasks encourage students to relate learning to the whole domain of their experience.Acknowledgement:This paper would not have been possible without Mr. Li Zhiqiang, whoheld the light of understanding while explored the darkness. It was his patience and sound advice that saw me through.It would be impossible to name Mr. Xie Hongming and other friends who offered their advice and great help.Sincerely thank you all.References:1. Byrne, D.1986. Teaching Oral English. London: Longman2. Freed-Booth, D. 1986.Project Work. Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress.3. Ellis, R 2000. Task-based research and language pedagogy.Language Teaching Research: 193-220.4. William Littlewood 1981. Communicative Language Teaching: AnIntroduction. Cambridge University Press.5. Harmer, J. 1987.Teaching and Learning Grammar. Longman.6. Skehan, P. 1998 A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning.Oxford University Press.7. Nunan, D. 1989. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom.Cambridge University Press8. Ribē,R. and N. Vidals. 1993. Project Work: step by Step.Oxford, Heinemann.9. 鲁子问. Task-based Language Teaching Design（《任务基础上的语言教学设计》 2002）10. 杨树香. On designing Tasks.（《浅议任务设计》2003.）。
任务型教学
为什么要采用任务型教学？任务型语言教学模式与传统的PPP教学模式最大的区别是什么？凯西一、任务型教学任务型教学（Task-Based Learning）是20世纪80年代由勃雷泊从教学的角度提出来的，其目的是使学生通过用语言完成任务的方式学习语言。
在此基础上，纽南（Nunan, 1989）对交际任务设计模式的研究以及威莉斯（Willis, 1996）对任务型学习框架的分析，进一步深化了任务型教学的内涵。
随后，人们提出了交互假设、交际效度理论、任务型学习的方法论与社会文化观。
这些研究丰富了任务型学习的理论，使任务型教学从单一走向多元化。
综观各个学者对于任务的定义我们可以发现任务必须涉及情景、目标、活动、结果、意义、评价六个部分的内容。
首先，任务型教学倡导真实的语言情景的创设，在真实的语言情景下产生真实的交际需要；其次，任务要有一定的目标，即在规定的时间内解决实际的交际问题；再次，任何任务都必须以活动的形式进行，它是在同伴之间通过合作、交流、探究的方式进行学习的；第四，任何任务的最终都要形成一定的产品，即结果，以检测学生们在学习中的效果；第五，任何任务都必须有意义，否则就是对语言的机械训练；最后，对于结果的评价也不容忽视，因为它是对学生劳动的肯定，同时也是一种激励。
二、“PP P”教学法“PP P”教学法是在20世纪70年代形成的交际语言教学（Communicative Language Teaching，即CLT）模式下的产物。
“PP P” 教学法把语言教学分为以下三个阶段：演示（presentation）→ 操练（practice）→ 成果（production）。
在教学过程中教师通过对语言知识的呈现和操练让学生掌握，然后再让学生在控制或半控制之下进行假设交际，从而达到语言的输出，形成学习成果。
在“PP P”教学法中学生对于语言的运用是建立在知识层面上的，而并非是真实的生活交际需要。
所以它是一种以教师的教为中心的知识单向传递的过程，它忽视了学生在学习中的地位和其真正的学习需要。
任务型教学法(task-basedenglishteachingmethod)
任务型教学法(T a s k-b a s e d E n g l i s ht e a c h i n g m e t h o d) -CAL-FENGHAI-(2020YEAR-YICAI)_JINGBIAN任务型教学法(Task-based English teachingmethod)IntroductionTask-based language teaching was first invented by an English linguist Allwright in the 1970s, popularized abroad in the 1980s, and introduced into China in the 1990s.The purpose of this article is to outline the principles that underlie task-based language teaching and to give examples of classroom activities within the approach. Task-based language teaching can be regarded as one particular development within the broader “communicative approach”. It is currently much discussed in many parts of the world and, indeed, is recommended in the official curriculum documents of a growing number of countries and regions.This article has five main sections. The first looks at what is meant by the term “task”. The second looks at the continuum from “focusing on form” to “focusing on meaning” with the continuum I hope to illuminate the distinction often made between “tasks” and other kinds of activ ity. The continuum is described and explored in more detail in the third section, which provides a range of examples from different parts of it. The fourth section presents a framework for looking at tasks in terms of how they contribute to the linguistic, cognitive and personality development of the students. The conclusion summarizes some of the main aims and benefits of task-based learning by means of a mnemonic base on the word “task” itself.Ⅰ. What is task?Different teachers and writers use different definitions of the term “task”, such as:1﹑…a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interesting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on the meaning rather on the form. The task should have a sense of completeness, being also to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right. (Nahan, 1989,15)2﹑…any structured language learning endeavor which has a particular objective appropriate contents, a specified working procedure, and range of outcomes for those who undertake the task . (Breen via Brown, 1994, 83)3﹑…an activity which is designed to help achieve a particular goal . A number of dimensions of tasks influence their use in language teaching. (Richards Etal, 2000, 468)Most people would probably agree on certain basic characteristics:1﹑Tasks are activities in which students work purposefully towards an objective. 2﹑The objective may be one that students have set for themselves or one which has been set by the teacher.3﹑Tasks may be carried out in competition with other or(more often) in collaboration.4﹑They may be carried out individually or (more often) in groups.5﹑The outcome may be something concrete( e.g. a report or presentation) or something intangible(e.g. agreement or the solution to a problem). The main area of disagreement revolves around the relationship between tasks and communication. Some teachers and writers do not see this relationship as crucial. They define a language learning task as including almost anything that students are asked (or choose) to do in the classroom, including formal learning activities such as grammar exercises and controlled practice activities, provided the objective of the activity is related to learning the language.Within this broad definition, some writers distinguish subcategories such as communication tasks and enabling tasks according to the extent to which they involve communication or focus on form.Many other teachers and writers use a more restricted definition. They exclude activities where the learners focus on formal aspects of the language (such as grammar, pronunciation or vocabulary) and reserve the term “task” for activities in which purpose is related to the communication of meanings. Willis (1996,p.23) is one writer who adopts this definition. In this book tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.Activities which focus upon and practice specific elements of knowledge, skills and strategies needed for the task are called exercises. The same distinction between tasks and exercises is supported by Ellis Nunan and Skehan. Skehan, for example, describes the criteria for a task as follows:1﹑meaning is primary; 2﹑there is some communication problem to solve ; 3﹑there is some sort of relationship to real-world activities; 4﹑task completion has some priority; 5﹑the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome .The definition reflects the method’s interaction but we can’t make a clear-cut distinction between “task” and “exercises”. This will be discussed in the next section.Ⅱ﹒ Communication, Tasks and Exercises.As we’ve seen, one of the key features of a communicative task is that centers focus on communicating meanings rather than learning or practicing forms. However it is not usually simply a question of learning focusing either on meaning or on form. More often, it is a matter of degree. For example, there are some activities in which the learner may focus mainly on the production of certain forms that are being practiced, but he or she ma still be using these forms to convey meanings to somebody. This would be the case in, for example, this “Questionnaire survey” activity, in which the stude nts needs to use “can you…” in order to find classmates who can do certain things, such as: who can speak three languages/ use a computer/ make cakes/ ride a bike/swim In this activity, although the students have a communicative purpose (to find classmates with particular skills) it is also clear that they are practicing specific forms. At other times, the emphasis on communicatingmeanings may increase but students may still pay attention to the forms they are producing (and which indeed, they may just have been taught). This might be the case in this role play if students are asked to perform it shortly after learning how to make enquiries and give information about hotel accommodation. Each student has one of the following role cards: student A: You arrive at a small hotel one evening. In the foyer, you meet the manager(ess) and 1. Ask if there is a room vacant. 2. Ask the price, including the breakfast. 3. Say how many nights you would like to stay. 4. Say what time you would like to have breakfast; student B: You are the manager(ess) ofa small hotel that prides on itself on its friendly, homely atmosphere. You have asingle and a double room vacant for tonight. The prices are: ＄100 for the single room, ＄160 for the double room. Breakfast is ＄15 extra per person. For guests with cars, there is a free car park. Since it is impossible to draw a clear dividing line between activities where the focus is on form (exercise) and activities where the focus is ion meaning (task), it is useful to think of a continuum with varying degrees of focus on form and/or meaning. Activities can then be classified according towhere they lie along this continuum. The continuum is divided into five sections.From sectionⅠ to sectionⅤ , the content from forms to meaning is becomingstronger and stronger.1. Non-communicative learning. Focusing on the structures of language, how they are formed and what they mean, e.g. through exercise,“discovery” and awareness-raising activities. 2. Pre-communicative languagepractice. Practicing language with some attention to meaning but notcommunicating new messages to others, e.g. in “question- and- answer” practice. 3.Communicative language practice. Practicing language in a context where itcommunicates new information, e.g. information gap activities or personalizedquestions. 4. Structured communication. Using language to communicate insituations where elicit pre-learnt language but with some unpredictability, e.g. in structured role-play and simple problem-solving. 5. Authentic communication. Using language to communicate in situations where meanings are unpredictable, e.g. in creative role-play, more complex problem-solving and discussion. The activities at the top are obviously “exercises”. Those at the bottom are obviously “tasks”. Tho se in the middle (2-4) have features of both.Ⅲ. From Non-Communicative Learning to AuthenticCommunication.The section will elaborate on the previous one by giving examples of activities from five parts of the continuum from “focus on form” to “focus on meaning”. In theterms discussed above, this corresponds also to a progression from clearly defined ‘exercises” to clearly defined “tasks”.1. Non-Communicative Learning.It is in this category that there is the least element of communication. Here, forexample, students are involved in “discovering” a rule of grammar on the basis ofexamples. In the examples below, look carefully at the position of the adverbs“always”, “often”, “sometimes”, “usually”, and “never”.What are the rules?A. We are usually hungry when we come home.John is always late.His parents were often tired in the evening.I never sure whether this word is correct.B. I sometimes go to the cinema on Fridays.We never eat much in the morning.Jane often arrives at school early.They always come home late at night.C. They have never written to me again.You can always come and visit me.I will never know why he did it.Pat has often seen him with two dogs.The students are then required to apply this rule to a new set of examples: Put the adverbs into the right places in the sentence below.A. We play football in the evening (often).I can catch the first bus in the morning (never).Jack and Jill are very happy (always).They visit me (sometimes).You write very good English (usually).B. They have been to Jinan (often).We drink tea for breakfast (always).You are cheerful (usually).John can keep a secret (never).He has refused to speak to me (sometimes)2. Pre-Communicative Language Practice.In this category the focus is still on the practice of discrete items of language but, in order to produce the appropriate forms, the students have to pay attention toaspect of meaning. In the first activity, they have to find out what Richard and Fiona “have to do” and what they “would like to do”. Richard’s obligations are cleaning floors, washing windows and emptying the bins. His desires are to go to evening school, to get a better job and to marry Fiona. Fiona’s obligations are typing letters, answering the telephone and doing photocopying. Her desires are to earn more money, to take holiday abroad and to marry her boss.The best known type of activity that belongs to this category is the familiar“question-and-answer practice” in which students have to answ er (and sometimes ask) questions about a situation, picture, or topic. The answers are already known but students have to pay attention to meaning in order to produce them. Thequestions are as follows: How many students are there in the class Are there more boys than girls Who is sitting next to Jane Which lesson is this now etc.3. Communicative Language PracticeThe main difference between this category and the previous one is that there is now some kind of “information gap”, that is, the language co nveys meanings that were not previously known to everybody. The question-and-answer practice justdescribed would come into this category, if the questions elicit information that was previously unknown, e.g. what students did at the weekend or who their favorite singers are. In a task-based approach, however, the practice is more likely to bestructured in some way so that there is a recognizable context, purpose andoutcome. This structuring may be achieved in a variety of ways, for example, a“guessing-g ame” format. Another common question problem is to use simplequestionnaire surveys in which the information gap is created by the students’ own individual experiences and ideas. For example, who is one’s favoritesinger/actor/actress etc.As a written follow- up task, students may be asked (individually or in groups) to write a short report on what they have found out about their classmates’preferences.4. Structured CommunicationIn the examples given so far, it has been possible to predict the exact language that is needed in order to perform the exercise or task. These activities therefore offer clear ways to practice specific areas of grammar. As we move to the next category along the continuum, we enter a domain in which the focus shifts further on to the communication of meanings. This means that, as we move further into this domain, it becomes increasingly difficult to predict what language will be required andtherefore to associate an acting with the practice of specific linguistic structures. It is, however, possible to structure the activity in such a way that it is likely to elicit a particular range of language and, above all, so that the teacher knows that thestudents are equipped with language to perform it. Thus, in this activity, theof role-play in which the students are given general instructions as to what views or ideas they should express but left to decide for themselves on the exact meanings and language. An example of this was the role-play described earlier, in whichstudents were asked to book hotel accommodation.5. Authentic CommunicationOne of the characteristics of “authentic communication” is that the language that is used depends on the meanings that arise naturally in the course of communication.The teacher still “controls” the activity, by creating a situation which he or she thinks is suitable, but has even less control than in “structured communication” over the actual language that students will need. Students may need to activate any part of their language knowledge that is relevant to the meanings they want to understand or convey. In authentic communication, then, the students are not asked to focus on individual parts of the grammar. Rather, they are asked to draw on the whole of the grammar that they have so far internalized and use it as a means for conveyingwhatever meanings may arise. There was always also a strong element of this in structured communication, but there the students were more “protected” from the unpredictable needs that arise in natural communication.In authentic communication activities it is important to have a context andpurposeful developments towards an outcome. They are therefore often larger in scope than those discussed earlier. This is not necessarily the case, however, as we see from this example:I Love Music!How do you feel when you listen to music Why do you like music Discuss with your partner. Write down five reasons.Here is an example which is larger in scope and also illustrates the principle of “task-dependency”, in which individual tasks are connected with each other t o form a more extended task or project:Module: Study, School Life, Work.Unit: Part-time work?Task: Making the Right Choice, Part 1The following are 4 case students of fellow students who wish to take part-time work.1. In groups of four, discuss whether they should take up part-time jobs and givereasons.2. Suggest alternatives to each one of them. Instead of taking up part-time work,what else can they do to address their needs?3. Each group will select a spokesperson to report their conclusions to the whole class.After listening to all the groups, the class will vote for the group with the bestsuggestions.Case 1: MichaelMichael is tall and strong and spends a lot of time on sports activities in school.He lives far away from school. His grades are average. He wants a part-time job so that he can buy more expensive sports equipment.Case 2: PansyPansy is very smart and is the best student of the form. She is quiet and shy. She wants to take up a part-time job to gain some work experience and develop more confidence when working with other people. She has strong computer skills.Case 3: NickNick’s father has been out of work for a long time and his mother may soon lose her job. Nick wants very much to earns some money for the family. His grades inschool are not very good. He is polite and hardworking.Case 4: LucyLucy has average grades in school. She is the only child in the family and her parents are busy at work all the time. She feels bored at home. She wants to take upa part-time job because she thinks it may be fun. She loves music and plays the pianoand violin.Module: Study, School Life and WorkUnit: Part-time work?Task: Making the Right Choice, Part 2The 4 people in Part 1—Michael, Pansy, Nick and Lucy—have read the following 8advertisements for part-time work and have made the following choices: Michael: Distributing leafletsPansy: Chinese Character Input.Nick: Poster DistributionLucy: Fish and Chips ShopYou think one of them has selected a job highly unsuitable for him/her. Write a letter about 150 words to persuade him/her not to take up the job. You mayconsider the factors discussed in Part 1, such as: his/her need for a part-time job, the working hours, traveling time, the pay, effects on his/her health and studies, nature of the work, his/her personality and skills and alternatives which may addresshis/her problemAt the beginning of this section, two examples of “grammar discovery” activities were given, one relating to the placement of adverbs and the other to the use of the passive. These were described as examples from the “form-focused” end of theform-to-meaning continuum (i.e. as “exercises”), because the students’ purpose wasto discover grammar rules rather than communicate with each other. If, however, the students are asked to discover the rule in groups and the language which they use is English, then the activity fulfils the criteria for a “task”: the discussion has a context, a communicative purpose and an outcome. Indeed, in the context of the English classroom, discovery tasks related to grammar are a natural component, comparable to discovery tasks in science and other so-called “content” subjects.Ⅳ Three “generations” of taskIn the previous section we moved from the domain of exercise and into the domain of tasks: the first two subsections contained clearly “tasks”; the last two subsections contained clearly “tasks”; and the middle subsection was a transition or mixed category. Now we will start in the “task” part of the continuum and l ook at tasks from another perspective, namely, the ways in which they contribute to the communicative, cognitive and personality development of the students. The discussion will take us through three “generations” of tasks, from relatively small-scale tasks in which students practice aspects of communication, through tasks which demand greater cognitive input from the students, to larger-scale tasks which also develop other aspects of students’ personality.This framework is the one presented by Ribé and Vidal (1993). The examples are also taken from the same source.First Generation TasksThe main aim of “first generation” tasks is develop students’ communicative ability in a specific type of situation or area of language. The task is often structured around a particular set of functions or a simple problem (often involving an “information gap”). Here are two examples:SimulationYou are a customer in a big store. You want to buy the following items: a pair of slippers, two compact-discs, and a filofax. Walk around and ask politely for directions to the departments/counters you need. Buy the items. Use the language you have practices in class.Problem-solvingThe students have a map of London with bus underground routes. They discuss and select the best route for going from one point to another according to a set of given variables (price, time, distance, comfort, etc.)Second Generation TasksThe tasks in the second category pose challenges of a broader nature. They aim at developing not only communication skills but also general cognitive strategies of handling and organizing information, such as:1. analyzing what information is needed in order to complete the task.2. deciding on procedures3. collecting information.4. selecting relevant data5. presenting data in an organized way6.analyzing process and resultsThe language is now a medium for carrying out a “real” piece of work, similar to what students may also need do outside their language course. Studentstherefore need to draw on a wider range of language. They also need to engage in continuous processing of input and output (reading for information producingreports, etc.). For example, “Through foreigners’ eyes”. The objective of this task is to collect and analyze information on what tourists of different nationalities think of students’ country/city/town.1. Students decide (a) what they need to know; (b) how to get this information(interviews, questionnaires, tourist brochures, etc) (c) where to get the information (airport, beach, library, tourist information office, etc) (d) when to obtain theinformation (e) what grids/database format they want to use to collate theinformation (f) the kind of questionnaires/interviews they want to devise (g) the language they need to carry out the interviews.2. Students carry out the research, transcribe the interviews and put the informationtogether.3. Students select relevant data, decide on a format (posters, dossiers, etc) for theirpresentation.4. Students make a report and present itThird Generation TasksWith third generation tasks, the scope widens further. In addition to the communicative and cognitive strategies mentioned above, they also aim to develop the personality of the students through the experience of learning a foreignlanguage. They go further than the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill widereducational objectives, such as enhancing motivation and awareness, developing creativity and interpersonal skills, etc. they also go further than the previous tasks in their degree of authenticity and the extent to which they involve all aspects of the students’ personality and experience. Here is the example given by Ribé and Vidal (1993, p.3):Designing an alternative world1. Students and teachers brainstorm aspects of the environment they like and thosewould like to see improved. These may include changes to the geographical setting, nature, animal-life, housing, society, family, leisure activities, politics, etc.2. Students are put into groups according to common interests. The groups identifythe language and information they need. The students carry out individual and group research on the selected topics. The students discuss aspects of this “Alternative reality” and then report back. They decide on the different ways (stories, recordings, games, etc) to link all the research and present the final product.3. Students present the topic and evaluate the activity.The three generations of tasks and their contribution to the students’ developmen t are summarized below:▲ First generation task: communicative development▲ Second generation task: communicate development and cognitive development.▲ Third generation task: communicative development cognitive development and global personality development.Second and (particularly) third generation tasks will often be integrated intoextended project work.The notion of “generations” of tasks implies that each category has developed out of the preceding one and is thus in some way more advanced in the demands it makes on learners and teachers alike. It may thus be expected that learners and teachers will not start with second or third generation tasks but begin with thesimpler, first generation tasks and as they gain in experience, gradually extend their repertoire to include those which are more advanced.Within this framework, student and teacher are no longer two separate poles(i.e. the teacher gives information and the students receives it) as in the moretraditional type of teaching, but two entities working together, planning, takingdecisions, carrying out the task and sharing the final sense of achievement.Ⅴ ConclusionTo conclude this article, I would like to use a simple mnemonic, based on the word “task” itself, to summarize some of the aims and benefits that we can hope for task-based learning to achieve: T (together: speaking or silently) A (activate: purposefully) S (skills: communicative, cognitive and interpersonal) K (knowledge: from alldomains of experience). The message is self-explanatory. Together, over coming the isolation of the traditional classroom, students with their teacher activate their skills and knowledge. Often this togetherness may take the form of overt speaking, but even in silent tasks students may keep a sense of the classroom as a learningcommunity. The activity that takes place is not unguided “busy-work” but purposeful movement towards targets and objectives (both in the overall direction of learning and in terms of specific learning activities). The skills which students perform and develop are communicative and also —particularly as they move into the second and third generations of tasks—cognitive and interpersonal. Finally the boundarybetween the classroom and the outside world is increasingly reduced, as the tasks encourage students to relate learning to the whole domain of their experience.Acknowledgement:This paper would not have been possible without Mr. Li Zhiqiang, who held the light of understanding while explored the darkness. It was his patience and sound advice that saw me through.It would be impossible to name Mr. Xie Hongming and other friends who offered their advice and great help.Sincerely thank you all.References:1. Byrne, D.1986. Teaching Oral English. London: Longman2. Freed-Booth, D. 1986.Project Work. Oxford:Oxford University Press.3. Ellis, R 2000. Task-based research and language pedagogy. Language TeachingResearch: 193-220.4. William Littlewood 1981. Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction.Cambridge University Press.5. Harmer, J. 1987.Teaching and Learning Grammar. Longman.6. Skehan, P. 1998 A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford UniversityPress.7. Nunan, D. 1989. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. CambridgeUniversity Press8. Ribē,R. and N. Vidals. 1993. Project Work: step by Step. Oxford, Heinemann.9. 鲁子问. Task-based Language Teaching Design（《任务基础上的语言教学设计》2002）10. 杨树香. On designing Tasks.（《浅议任务设计》2003.）。
任务型教学法
四、课程设计
1、目标：
任务的选择基于对现实世界中学习者需求的分析； 任务教学法的目标一般也由特定学习者的具体需求决定
2、教学大纲——以任务为纲
任务大纲涉及： 任务的选择 任务的排序
传统教学大纲与任务型教学大纲的区别：
（1）传统的语言教学大纲： 结构、功能、话题、技能、能力、体裁、词汇目标 大纲的重点在于学习结果上 （2）任务型教学大纲： 把大纲的重点从学习结果转向学习任务和学习活动本身
语言的正确使用 无信息差 应用特定的语言
正确使用语言
三、理论来源
1、语言学理论 （1）语言首先是产生意义的一种方式 （2）贯穿了语言的多种模型 （3）词汇是语言应用和学习的中心 （4）对话是语言的焦点和语言习得的重点
2、学习理论： （1）任务为语言习得提供了必需的输入和输出
程序； （2）活动和成果构成学习的动机； （3）为特定的教学目的，学习难度可以协商和
——通过使用语言来完成的活动或目标，并将意义作为它 的主要焦点。
这是任务吗？
• 要求去商场买联欢会表演需要的葫芦丝，要求在购物时使 用如下的语言点，例如：葫芦丝多少钱一个？能不能便宜点？ 等
• 老师让小明和小红分别扮演顾客和导购完成这个要求。
2、任务与练习的区别 （1）目标：信息的交流 （2）特点：有信息差 （3）语言：应用已有的语言 （4）评价：完成任务
（2）任务准备过程中，教师巡视课堂提供相应 帮助；
（3）任务后，将语言标准融入评价中，巩固复 习相关表达。
应用任务教学法的建议：
1、依据学习者需求选择任务 2、关注意义的同时要引导学习者对语言的关注
； 3、任务设计要考虑学习者参与时锻炼机会的均
等性； 4、任务最好构成任务链，每个任务既相对独立
任务型教学法 Task-based Language Teaching
• Lexical units are central in language use
and language learning (e.g. Skehan 1996)
• “Conversation” is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition
2.Theory of learning
• Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language acquisition
• Task activity and achievement are motivational
• Learning difficulty can be negotiated and finetuned for particular pedagogical purposes
Goals:
• The task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for the learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning activities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purposes. （香港中小学英语大纲）
Source and history:
任务型教学法(Task-based-English-teaching-method)
任务型教学法(Task-based English teachingmethod)IntroductionTask-based language teaching was first invented by an English linguist Allwright in the 1970s, popularized abroad in the 1980s, and introduced into China in the 1990s.The purpose of this article is to outline the principles that underlie task-based language teaching and to give examples of classroom activities within the approach. Task-based language teaching can be regarded as one particular development within the broader “communicative approach”. It is currently much discussed in many parts of the world and, indeed, is recommended in the official curriculum documents of a growing number of countries and regions.This article has five main sections. The first looks at what is meant by t he term “task”. The second looks at the continuum from “focusing on form” to “focusing on meaning” with the continuum I hope to illuminate the distinction often made between “tasks” and other kinds of activity. The continuum is described and explored in more detail in the third section, which provides a range of examples from different parts of it. The fourth section presents a framework for looking at tasks in terms of how they contribute to the linguistic, cognitive and personality development of the students. The conclusion summarizes some of the main aims and benefits of task-based learning by means of a mnemonic base on the word “task” itself.Ⅰ. What is task?Different teachers and writers use different definitions of the term “task”, such as:1﹑…a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interesting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on the meaning rather on the form. The task should have a sense of completeness, being also to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right. (Nahan, 1989,15)2﹑…any structured language learning endeavor which has a particular objective appropriate contents, a specified working procedure, and range of outcomes for those who undertake the task . (Breen via Brown, 1994, 83)3﹑…an activity which is designed to help achieve a particular goal .A number of dimensions of tasks influence their use in language teaching. (Richards Etal, 2000, 468)Most people would probably agree on certain basic characteristics:1﹑Tasks are activities in which students work purposefully towards an objective.2﹑The objective may be one that students have set for themselves or one which has been set by the teacher.3﹑Tasks may be carried out in competition with other or(more often) in collaboration.4﹑They may be carried out individually or (more often) in groups.5﹑The outcome may be something concrete( e.g. a report or presentation) or something intangible(e.g. agreement or the solution to a problem). The main area of disagreement revolves around the relationship between tasks and communication. Some teachers and writers do not see this relationship as crucial. They define a language learning task as including almost anything that students are asked (or choose) to do in the classroom, including formal learning activities such as grammar exercises and controlled practice activities, provided the objective of the activity is related to learning the language.Within this broad definition, some writers distinguish subcategories such as communication tasks and enabling tasks according to the extent to which they involve communication or focus on form.Many other teachers and writers use a more restricted definition. They exclude activities where the learners focus on formal aspects of the language (such as grammar, pronunciation or vocabulary) and reserve the term “task” for activities in which purpose is related to the communication of meanings. Willis (1996,p.23) is one writer who adopts this definition. In this book tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.Activities which focus upon and practice specific elements of knowledge, skills and strategies needed for the task are called exercises. The same distinction between tasks and exercises is supported by Ellis Nunan and Skehan. Skehan, for example, describes the criteria for a task as follows:1﹑meaning is primary; 2﹑there is some communication problem to solve ; 3﹑there is some sort of relationship to real-world activities; 4﹑task completion has some priority; 5﹑the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome .The definition reflects the method’s interaction but we can’t make a clear-cut disti nction between “task” and “exercises”. This will be discussed in the next section.Ⅱ﹒ Communication, Tasks and Exercises.As we’ve seen, one of the key features of a communicative task is that centers focus on communicating meanings rather than learning orpracticing forms. However it is not usually simply a question of learning focusing either on meaning or on form. More often, it is a matter of degree. For example, there are some activities in which the learner may focus mainly on the production of certain forms that are being practiced, but he or she ma still be using these forms to convey meanings to somebody. This would be the case in, for example, this “Questionnaire survey” activity, in which the students needs to use “can you…?” in order to find classmates who can do certain things, such as: who can speak three languages/ use a computer/ make cakes/ ride a bike/swim? In this activity, although the students have a communicative purpose (to find classmates with particular skills) it is also clear that they are practicing specific forms. At other times, the emphasis on communicating meanings may increase but students may still pay attention to the forms they are producing (and which indeed, they may just have been taught). This might be the case in this role play if students are asked to perform it shortly after learning how to make enquiries and give information about hotel accommodation. Each student has one of the following role cards: student A: You arrive at a small hotel one evening. In the foyer, you meet the manager(ess) and 1. Ask if there is a room vacant. 2. Ask the price, including the breakfast.3. Say how many nights you would like to stay.4. Say what time you would like to have breakfast; student B: You are the manager(ess) of a small hotel that prides on itself on its friendly, homely atmosphere. You have a single and a double room vacant for tonight. The prices are: ＄100 for the single room, ＄160 for the double room. Breakfast is ＄15 extra per person. For guests with cars, there is a free car park. Since it is impossible to draw a clear dividing line between activities where the focus is on form (exercise) and activities where the focus is ion meaning (task), it is useful to think of a continuum with varying degrees of focus on form and/or meaning. Activities can then be classified according to where they lie along this continuum. The continuum is divided into five sections. From sectionⅠ to sectionⅤ , the content from forms to meaning is becoming stronger and stronger.1. Non-communicative learning. Focusing on the structures of language, how they are formed and what they mean, e.g. through exercise, “discovery” and awareness-raising activities. 2. Pre-communicative language practice. Practicing language with some attention to meaning but not communicating new messages to others, e.g. in “question- and- answer” practice. 3. Communicative language practice. Practicing language in a context where it communicates new information, e.g. information gap activities or personalized questions. 4. Structured communication. Using language to communicate in situations where elicit pre-learnt language but with some unpredictability, e.g. in structured role-play and simpleproblem-solving. 5. Authentic communication. Using language to communicate in situations where meanings are unpredictable, e.g. increative role-play, more complex problem-solving and discussion. The activities at the top are obviously “exercises”. Those at the bottom are obviously “tasks”. Those in the middle (2-4) have features of both.Ⅲ. From Non-Communicative Learning to AuthenticCommunication.The section will elaborate on the previous one by giving examples of activities from five parts of the continuum from “focus on form” to “focus on meaning”. In the terms discussed above, this corresponds also to a progression from clearly defined ‘exercises” to clearly defined “tasks”.1. Non-Communicative Learning.It is in this category that there is the least element of communication.Here, for example, students are involved in “discovering” a rule of grammar on the basis of examples. In the examples below, look carefully at the position of the adverbs “always”, “often”, “sometimes”, “usually”, and “never”.What are the rules?A. We are usually hungry when we come home.John is always late.His parents were often tired in the evening.I never sure whether this word is correct.B. I sometimes go to the cinema on Fridays.We never eat much in the morning.Jane often arrives at school early.They always come home late at night.C. They have never written to me again.You can always come and visit me.I will never know why he did it.Pat has often seen him with two dogs.The students are then required to apply this rule to a new set of examples: Put the adverbs into the right places in the sentence below.A. We play football in the evening (often).I can catch the first bus in the morning (never).Jack and Jill are very happy (always).They visit me (sometimes).You write very good English (usually).B. They have been to Jinan (often).We drink tea for breakfast (always).You are cheerful (usually).John can keep a secret (never).He has refused to speak to me (sometimes)2. Pre-Communicative Language Practice.In this category the focus is still on the practice of discrete items of language but, in order to produce the appropriate forms, the students have to pay attention to aspect of meaning. In the first activity, they have to find out what Richard and Fiona “have to do” and what they “would like to do”. Richard’s obligations are cleaning floors, washing windows and emptying the bins. His desires are to go to evening school, to geta better job and to marry Fiona. Fiona’s obligations are typing letters,answering the telephone and doing photocopying. Her desires are to earn more money, to take holiday abroad and to marry her boss.The best known type of activity that belongs to this category is the familiar “question-and-answer practice” in which students have to answer (and sometimes ask) questions about a situation, picture, or topic.The answers are already known but students have to pay attention to meaning in order to produce them. The questions are as follows: How many students are there in the class? Are there more boys than girls? Who is sitting next to Jane? Which lesson is this now? etc.3. Communicative Language PracticeThe main difference between this category and the previous one is that there is now some kind of “information gap”, that is, the language conveys meanings that were not previously known to everybody. Thequestion-and-answer practice just described would come into this category, if the questions elicit information that was previously unknown, e.g. what students did at the weekend or who their favorite singers are. In a task-based approach, however, the practice is more likely to be structured in some way so that there is a recognizable context, purpose and outcome.This structuring may be achieved in a variety of ways, for example, a “guessing-game” format. Another common question problem is to use simple questionnaire surveys in which the information gap is created by the students’ own individual experiences and ideas. For example, who is one’s favorite singer/actor/actress etc.?As a written follow- up task, students may be asked (individually or in groups) to write a short report on what they have found out about their classmates’ preferences.4. Structured CommunicationIn the examples given so far, it has been possible to predict the exact language that is needed in order to perform the exercise or task. These activities therefore offer clear ways to practice specific areas of grammar. As we move to the next category along the continuum, we entera domain in which the focus shifts further on to the communication ofmeanings. This means that, as we move further into this domain, it becomesincreasingly difficult to predict what language will be required and therefore to associate an acting with the practice of specific linguistic structures. It is, however, possible to structure the activity in sucha way that it is likely to elicit a particular range of language and, aboveall, so that the teacher knows that the students are equipped with language to perform it. Thus, in this activity, the students will need to makethe use of role-play in which the students are given general instructions as to what views or ideas they should express but left to decide for themselves on the exact meanings and language. An example of this was the role-play described earlier, in which students were asked to book hotel accommodation.5. Authentic CommunicationOne of the characteristics of “authentic communication” is that the language that is used depends on the meanings that arise naturally in the course of communication. The teacher still “controls” the activity, by creating a situation which he or she thinks is suitable, but has even less control than in “structured communication” over the actual language that students will need. Students may need to activate any part of their language knowledge that is relevant to the meanings they want tounderstand or convey. In authentic communication, then, the students are not asked to focus on individual parts of the grammar. Rather, they areasked to draw on the whole of the grammar that they have so far internalized and use it as a means for conveying whatever meanings may arise. There was always also a strong element of this in structured communication, but there the students were more “protected” from the unpredictable needs that arise in natural communication.In authentic communication activities it is important to have a context and purposeful developments towards an outcome. They are therefore often larger in scope than those discussed earlier. This is not necessarily the case, however, as we see from this example:I Love Music!How do you feel when you listen to music? Why do you like music? Discuss with your partner. Write down five reasons.Here is an example which is larger in scope and also illustrates the principle of “task-dependency”, in which individual tasks are connected with each other to form a more extended task or project:Module: Study, School Life, Work.Unit: Part-time work?Task: Making the Right Choice, Part 1The following are 4 case students of fellow students who wish to take part-time work.1. In groups of four, discuss whether they should take up part-timejobs and give reasons.2. Suggest alternatives to each one of them. Instead of taking uppart-time work, what else can they do to address their needs?3. Each group will select a spokesperson to report theirconclusions to the whole class. After listening to all the groups, the class will vote for the group with the best suggestions.Case 1: MichaelMichael is tall and strong and spends a lot of time on sports activities in school. He lives far away from school. His grades are average.He wants a part-time job so that he can buy more expensive sportsequipment.Case 2: PansyPansy is very smart and is the best student of the form. She is quiet and shy. She wants to take up a part-time job to gain some work experience and develop more confidence when working with other people. She has strong computer skills.Case 3: NickNick’s father has been out of work for a long time and his mother may soon lose her job. Nick wants very much to earns some money for the family. His grades in school are not very good. He is polite andhardworking.Case 4: LucyLucy has average grades in school. She is the only child in the family and her parents are busy at work all the time. She feels bored at home. She wants to take up a part-time job because she thinks it may be fun. She loves music and plays the piano and violin.Module: Study, School Life and WorkUnit: Part-time work?Task: Making the Right Choice, Part 2The 4 people in Part 1—Michael, Pansy, Nick and Lucy—have read the following 8advertisements for part-time work and have made the following choices:Michael: Distributing leafletsPansy: Chinese Character Input.Nick: Poster DistributionLucy: Fish and Chips ShopYou think one of them has selected a job highly unsuitable for him/her. Write a letter about 150 words to persuade him/her not to take up the job. You may consider the factors discussed in Part 1, such as: his/her need for a part-time job, the working hours, traveling time, the pay, effects on his/her health and studies, nature of the work, his/her personality and skills and alternatives which may address his/her problem At the beginning of this section, two examples of “grammar discovery” activities were given, one relating to the placement of adverbs and the other to the use of the passive. These were described as examples from the “form-focused” end of the form-to-meaning continuum (i.e. as “exercises”), because the students’ purpose was to discover grammar rules rather than communicate with each other. If, however, the students are asked to discover the rule in groups and the language which they use is English, then the activity fulfils the criteria for a “task”: the discussion has a context, a communicative purpose and an outcome. Indeed, in the context of the English classroom, discovery tasks related to grammar are a natural component, comparable to discovery tasks in science and other so-called “content” subjects.Ⅳ Three “generations” of taskIn the previous section we moved from the domain of exercise and into the domain of tasks: the first tw o subsections contained clearly “tasks”; the last two subsections contained clearly “tasks”; and the middle subsection was a transition or mixed category. Now we will start in the “task” part of the continuum and look at tasks from another perspective, namely, the ways in which they contribute to the communicative, cognitive and personality development of the students. The discussion will take us through three “generations” of tasks, from relatively small-scale tasks in which students practice aspects of communication, through tasks whichdemand greater cognitive input from the students, to larger-scale tasks which also develop other aspects of students’ personality.This framework is the one presented by Ribé and Vidal (1993). The examples are also taken from the same source.First Generation TasksThe main aim of “first generation” tasks is develop students’ communicative ability in a specific type of situation or area of language.The task is often structured around a particular set of functions or a simp le problem (often involving an “information gap”). Here are two examples:SimulationYou are a customer in a big store. You want to buy the following items:a pair of slippers, two compact-discs, and a filofax. Walk around and askpolitely for directions to the departments/counters you need. Buy the items. Use the language you have practices in class.Problem-solvingThe students have a map of London with bus underground routes. They discuss and select the best route for going from one point to another according to a set of given variables (price, time, distance, comfort, etc.)Second Generation TasksThe tasks in the second category pose challenges of a broader nature.They aim at developing not only communication skills but also general cognitive strategies of handling and organizing information, such as:1. analyzing what information is needed in order to complete the task.2. deciding on procedures3. collecting information.4. selecting relevant data5. presenting data in an organized way6.analyzing process and resultsThe language is now a medium for carrying out a “real” piece of work, similar to what students may also need do outside their language course. Students therefore need to draw on a wider range of language. They also need to engage in continuous processing of input and output (reading for information producing reports, etc.). For example, “Throughforeigners’ eyes”. The objective of this task is to collect and analyze information on what tourists of different nationalities think ofstudents’ country/city/town.1. Students decide (a) what they need to know; (b) how to get thisinformation (interviews, questionnaires, tourist brochures, etc) (c) where to get the information (airport, beach, library, touristinformation office, etc) (d) when to obtain the information (e) whatgrids/database format they want to use to collate the information (f) the kind of questionnaires/interviews they want to devise (g) the language they need to carry out the interviews.2. Students carry out the research, transcribe the interviews andput the information together.3. Students select relevant data, decide on a format (posters,dossiers, etc) for their presentation.4. Students make a report and present itThird Generation TasksWith third generation tasks, the scope widens further. In addition to the communicative and cognitive strategies mentioned above, they also aim to develop the personality of the students through the experience of learning a foreign language. They go further than the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider educational objectives, such as enhancingmotivation and awareness, developing creativity and interpersonal skills, etc. they also go further than the previous tasks in their degree of authenticity and the extent to which they involve all aspects of the students’ personality and experience. Here is the example given by Ribé and Vidal (1993, p.3):Designing an alternative world1. Students and teachers brainstorm aspects of the environmentthey like and those would like to see improved. These may include changes to the geographical setting, nature, animal-life, housing, society, family, leisure activities, politics, etc.2. Students are put into groups according to common interests. Thegroups identify the language and information they need. The students carry out individual and group research on the selected topics. The students discuss aspects of this “Alternative reality” and then report back. They decide on the different ways (stories, recordings, games, etc) to link all the research and present the final product.3. Students present the topic and evaluate the activity.The three generations of tasks and their contribution to the students’ development are summarized below:▲ First generation task: communicative development▲ Second generation task: communicate development and cognitive development.▲ Third generation task: communicative development cognitive development and global personality development.Second and (particularly) third generation tasks will often be integrated into extended project work.The notion of “generations” of tasks implies that each category has developed out of the preceding one and is thus in some way more advanced in the demands it makes on learners and teachers alike. It may thus beexpected that learners and teachers will not start with second or third generation tasks but begin with the simpler, first generation tasks and as they gain in experience, gradually extend their repertoire to include those which are more advanced.Within this framework, student and teacher are no longer two separate poles (i.e. the teacher gives information and the students receives it) as in the more traditional type of teaching, but two entities working together, planning, taking decisions, carrying out the task and sharing the final sense of achievement.Ⅴ ConclusionTo conclude this article, I would like to use a simple mnemonic, based on the word “task” itself, to summarize some of the aims and benefits that we can hope for task-based learning to achieve: T (together: speaking or silently) A (activate: purposefully) S (skills: communicative, cognitive and interpersonal) K (knowledge: from all domains ofexperience). The message is self-explanatory. Together, over coming the isolation of the traditional classroom, students with their teacher activate their skills and knowledge. Often this togetherness may take the form of overt speaking, but even in silent tasks students may keep a sense of the classroom as a learning community. The activity that takes place is not unguided “busy-work” but purposeful movement towards targets and objectives (both in the overall direction of learning and in terms of specific learning activities). The skills which students perform and develop are communicative and also —particularly as they move into the second and third generations of tasks—cognitive and interpersonal.Finally the boundary between the classroom and the outside world is increasingly reduced, as the tasks encourage students to relate learning to the whole domain of their experience.Acknowledgement:This paper would not have been possible without Mr. Li Zhiqiang, whoheld the light of understanding while explored the darkness. It was his patience and sound advice that saw me through.It would be impossible to name Mr. Xie Hongming and other friends who offered their advice and great help.Sincerely thank you all.References:1. Byrne, D.1986. Teaching Oral English. London: Longman2. Freed-Booth, D. 1986.Project Work. Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress.3. Ellis, R 2000. Task-based research and language pedagogy.Language Teaching Research: 193-220.4. William Littlewood 1981. Communicative Language Teaching: AnIntroduction. Cambridge University Press.5. Harmer, J. 1987.Teaching and Learning Grammar. Longman.6. Skehan, P. 1998 A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning.Oxford University Press.7. Nunan, D. 1989. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom.Cambridge University Press8. Ribē,R. and N. Vidals. 1993. Project Work: step by Step.Oxford, Heinemann.9. 鲁子问. Task-based Language Teaching Design（《任务基础上的语言教学设计》 2002）10. 杨树香. On designing Tasks.（《浅议任务设计》2003.）。
任务型教学法 Task-based language teaching
• Because of its links to CLT methodology and support from SLA theorists, TBLT has gained considerable attention within applied linguistics, though there have been few large-scale practical applications of it and little documentation concerning its implications or effectiveness as a basis for syllabus design, materials development, and classroom teaching
Tasks are proposed as useful vehicles for applying these principles. Early applications of this approach in Malaysian and Bangalore Projects were short lived, but the role of tasks received further support from research of SLA, without much evidence of success in grammar-focused teaching activities. Engaging learners in task work provides a better context for the activation of learning processes than form-focused activities, and hence ultimately provides better opportunities for LL to take place LL is believed to depend on immersing ss not merely in “comprehensible input” but in tasks that require them to negotiate meaning and engage in naturalistic and meaningful communication.
任务型教学法(Task-based-English-teaching-method)
任务型教学法(Task-based English teachingmethod)IntroductionTask-based language teaching was first invented by an English linguist Allwright in the 1970s, popularized abroad in the 1980s, and introduced into China in the 1990s.The purpose of this article is to outline the principles that underlie task-based language teaching and to give examples of classroom activities within the approach. Task-based language teaching can be regarded as one particular development within the broader “communicative approach”. It is currently much discussed in many parts of the world and, indeed, is recommended in the official curriculum documents of a growing number of countries and regions.This article has five main sections. The first looks at what is meant by t he term “task”. The second looks at the continuum from “focusing on form” to “focusing on meaning” with the continuum I hope to illuminate the distinction often made between “tasks” and other kinds of activity. The continuum is described and explored in more detail in the third section, which provides a range of examples from different parts of it. The fourth section presents a framework for looking at tasks in terms of how they contribute to the linguistic, cognitive and personality development of the students. The conclusion summarizes some of the main aims and benefits of task-based learning by means of a mnemonic base on the word “task” itself.Ⅰ. What is task?Different teachers and writers use different definitions of the term “task”, such as:1﹑…a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interesting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on the meaning rather on the form. The task should have a sense of completeness, being also to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right. (Nahan, 1989,15)2﹑…any structured language learning endeavor which has a particular objective appropriate contents, a specified working procedure, and range of outcomes for those who undertake the task . (Breen via Brown, 1994, 83)3﹑…an activity which is designed to help achieve a particular goal .A number of dimensions of tasks influence their use in language teaching. (Richards Etal, 2000, 468)Most people would probably agree on certain basic characteristics:1﹑Tasks are activities in which students work purposefully towards an objective.2﹑The objective may be one that students have set for themselves or one which has been set by the teacher.3﹑Tasks may be carried out in competition with other or(more often) in collaboration.4﹑They may be carried out individually or (more often) in groups.5﹑The outcome may be something concrete( e.g. a report or presentation) or something intangible(e.g. agreement or the solution to a problem). The main area of disagreement revolves around the relationship between tasks and communication. Some teachers and writers do not see this relationship as crucial. They define a language learning task as including almost anything that students are asked (or choose) to do in the classroom, including formal learning activities such as grammar exercises and controlled practice activities, provided the objective of the activity is related to learning the language.Within this broad definition, some writers distinguish subcategories such as communication tasks and enabling tasks according to the extent to which they involve communication or focus on form.Many other teachers and writers use a more restricted definition. They exclude activities where the learners focus on formal aspects of the language (such as grammar, pronunciation or vocabulary) and reserve the term “task” for activities in which purpose is related to the communication of meanings. Willis (1996,p.23) is one writer who adopts this definition. In this book tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.Activities which focus upon and practice specific elements of knowledge, skills and strategies needed for the task are called exercises. The same distinction between tasks and exercises is supported by Ellis Nunan and Skehan. Skehan, for example, describes the criteria for a task as follows:1﹑meaning is primary; 2﹑there is some communication problem to solve ; 3﹑there is some sort of relationship to real-world activities; 4﹑task completion has some priority; 5﹑the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome .The definition reflects the method’s interaction but we can’t make a clear-cut disti nction between “task” and “exercises”. This will be discussed in the next section.Ⅱ﹒ Communication, Tasks and Exercises.As we’ve seen, one of the key features of a communicative task is that centers focus on communicating meanings rather than learning or practicing forms. However it is not usually simply a question of learning focusing either on meaning or on form. More often, it is a matter of degree. For example, there are some activities in which the learner may focus mainly on the production of certain forms that are being practiced, but he or she ma still be using these forms to convey meanings to somebody. This would be the case in, for example, this “Questionnaire survey” activity, in which the students needs to use “can you…?” in order to find classmates who can do certain things, such as: who can speak three languages/ use a computer/ make cakes/ ride a bike/swim? In this activity, although the students have a communicative purpose (to find classmates with particular skills) it is also clear that they are practicing specific forms. At other times, the emphasis on communicating meanings may increase but students may still pay attention to the forms they are producing (and which indeed, they may just have been taught). This might be the case in this role play if students are asked to perform it shortly after learning how to make enquiries and give information about hotel accommodation. Each student has one of the following role cards: student A: You arrive at a small hotel one evening. In the foyer, you meet the manager(ess) and 1. Ask if there is a room vacant. 2. Ask the price, including the breakfast.3. Say how many nights you would like to stay.4. Say what time you would like to have breakfast; student B: You are the manager(ess) of a small hotel that prides on itself on its friendly, homely atmosphere. You have a single and a double room vacant for tonight. The prices are: ＄100 for the single room, ＄160 for the double room. Breakfast is ＄15 extra per person. For guests with cars, there is a free car park. Since it is impossible to draw a clear dividing line between activities where the focus is on form (exercise) and activities where the focus is ion meaning (task), it is useful to think of a continuum with varying degrees of focus on form and/or meaning. Activities can then be classified according to where they lie along this continuum. The continuum is divided into five sections. From sectionⅠ to sectionⅤ , the content from forms to meaning is becoming stronger and stronger.1. Non-communicative learning. Focusing on the structures of language, how they are formed and what they mean, e.g. through exercise, “discovery” and awareness-raising activities. 2. Pre-communicative language practice. Practicing language with some attention to meaning but not communicating new messages to others, e.g. in “question- and- answer” practice. 3. Communicativelanguage practice. Practicing language in a context where it communicates new information, e.g. information gap activities or personalized questions. 4. Structured communication. Using language to communicate in situations where elicit pre-learnt language but with some unpredictability, e.g. in structured role-play and simpleproblem-solving. 5. Authentic communication. Using language to communicate in situations where meanings are unpredictable, e.g. in creative role-play, more complex problem-solving and discussion. The activities at the top are obviously “exercises”. Those at the bottom are obviously “tasks”. Those in the middle (2-4) have features of both.Ⅲ. From Non-Communicative Learning to AuthenticCommunication.The section will elaborate on the previous one by giving examples of activities from five parts of the continuum from “focus on form” to “focus on meaning”. In the terms discussed above, this corresponds also to a progression from clearly defined ‘exercises” to clearly defined “tasks”.1. Non-Communicative Learning.It is in this category that there is the least element of communication.Here, for example, students are involved in “discovering” a rule of grammar on the basis of examples. In the examples below, look carefully at the position of the adverbs “always”, “often”, “sometimes”, “usually”, and “never”.What are the rules?A. We are usually hungry when we come home.John is always late.His parents were often tired in the evening.I never sure whether this word is correct.B. I sometimes go to the cinema on Fridays.We never eat much in the morning.Jane often arrives at school early.They always come home late at night.C. They have never written to me again.You can always come and visit me.I will never know why he did it.Pat has often seen him with two dogs.The students are then required to apply this rule to a new set of examples: Put the adverbs into the right places in the sentence below.A. We play football in the evening (often).I can catch the first bus in the morning (never).Jack and Jill are very happy (always).They visit me (sometimes).You write very good English (usually).B. They have been to Jinan (often).We drink tea for breakfast (always).You are cheerful (usually).John can keep a secret (never).He has refused to speak to me (sometimes)2. Pre-Communicative Language Practice.In this category the focus is still on the practice of discrete items of language but, in order to produce the appropriate forms, the students have to pay attention to aspect of meaning. In the first activity, they have to find out what Richard and Fiona “have to do” and what they “would like to do”. Richard’s obligations are cleaning floors, washing windows and emptying the bins. His desires are to go to evening school, to geta better job and to marry Fiona. Fiona’s obligations are typing letters,answering the telephone and doing photocopying. Her desires are to earn more money, to take holiday abroad and to marry her boss.The best known type of activity that belongs to this category is the familiar “question-and-answer practice” in which students have to answer (and sometimes ask) questions about a situation, picture, or topic.The answers are already known but students have to pay attention to meaning in order to produce them. The questions are as follows: How many students are there in the class? Are there more boys than girls? Who is sitting next to Jane? Which lesson is this now? etc.3. Communicative Language PracticeThe main difference between this category and the previous one is that there is now some kind of “information gap”, that is, the language conveys meanings that were not previously known to everybody. Thequestion-and-answer practice just described would come into this category, if the questions elicit information that was previously unknown, e.g. what students did at the weekend or who their favorite singers are. In a task-based approach, however, the practice is more likely to be structured in some way so that there is a recognizable context, purpose and outcome.This structuring may be achieved in a variety of ways, for example, a “guessing-game” format. Another common question problem is to use simple questionnaire surveys in which the information gap is created bythe students’ own individual experiences and ideas. For example, who is one’s favorite singer/actor/actress etc.?As a written follow- up task, students may be asked (individually or in groups) to write a short report on what they have found out about their classmates’ preferences.4. Structured CommunicationIn the examples given so far, it has been possible to predict the exact language that is needed in order to perform the exercise or task. These activities therefore offer clear ways to practice specific areas of grammar. As we move to the next category along the continuum, we entera domain in which the focus shifts further on to the communication ofmeanings. This means that, as we move further into this domain, it becomes increasingly difficult to predict what language will be required and therefore to associate an acting with the practice of specific linguistic structures. It is, however, possible to structure the activity in sucha way that it is likely to elicit a particular range of language and, aboveall, so that the teacher knows that the students are equipped with language to perform it. Thus, in this activity, the students will need to makeAnother common way of creating contexts for structured communication is the use of role-play in which the students are given general instructions as to what views or ideas they should express but left to decide for themselves on the exact meanings and language. An example of this was the role-play described earlier, in which students were asked to book hotel accommodation.5. Authentic CommunicationOne of the characteristic s of “authentic communication” is that the language that is used depends on the meanings that arise naturally in the course of communication. The teacher still “controls” the activity, by creating a situation which he or she thinks is suitable, but has even less control than in “structured communication” over the actual language that students will need. Students may need to activate any part of their language knowledge that is relevant to the meanings they want tounderstand or convey. In authentic communication, then, the students are not asked to focus on individual parts of the grammar. Rather, they are asked to draw on the whole of the grammar that they have so far internalized and use it as a means for conveying whatever meanings may arise. There was always also a strong element of this in structured communication, but there the students were more “protected” from the unpredictable needs that arise in natural communication.In authentic communication activities it is important to have a context and purposeful developments towards an outcome. They are therefore often larger in scope than those discussed earlier. This is not necessarily the case, however, as we see from this example:I Love Music!How do you feel when you listen to music? Why do you like music? Discuss with your partner. Write down five reasons.Here is an example which is larger in scope and also illustrates the principle of “task-dependency”, in which individual tasks are connected with each other to form a more extended task or project:Module: Study, School Life, Work.Unit: Part-time work?Task: Making the Right Choice, Part 1The following are 4 case students of fellow students who wish to take part-time work.1. In groups of four, discuss whether they should take up part-timejobs and give reasons.2. Suggest alternatives to each one of them. Instead of taking uppart-time work, what else can they do to address their needs?3. Each group will select a spokesperson to report theirconclusions to the whole class. After listening to all the groups, the class will vote for the group with the best suggestions.Case 1: MichaelMichael is tall and strong and spends a lot of time on sports activities in school. He lives far away from school. His grades are average.He wants a part-time job so that he can buy more expensive sportsequipment.Case 2: PansyPansy is very smart and is the best student of the form. She is quiet and shy. She wants to take up a part-time job to gain some work experience and develop more confidence when working with other people. She has strong computer skills.Case 3: NickNick’s father has been out of work for a long time and his mother may soon lose her job. Nick wants very much to earns some money for the family. His grades in school are not very good. He is polite andhardworking.Case 4: LucyLucy has average grades in school. She is the only child in the family and her parents are busy at work all the time. She feels bored at home.She wants to take up a part-time job because she thinks it may be fun.She loves music and plays the piano and violin.Module: Study, School Life and WorkUnit: Part-time work?Task: Making the Right Choice, Part 2The 4 people in Part 1—Michael, Pansy, Nick and Lucy—have read the following 8advertisements for part-time work and have made the following choices:Michael: Distributing leafletsPansy: Chinese Character Input.Nick: Poster DistributionLucy: Fish and Chips ShopYou think one of them has selected a job highly unsuitable for him/her.Write a letter about 150 words to persuade him/her not to take up the job.You may consider the factors discussed in Part 1, such as: his/her need for a part-time job, the working hours, traveling time, the pay, effects on his/her health and studies, nature of the work, his/her personality and skills and alternatives which may address his/her problem At the beginning of this section, two examples of “grammar discovery” activities were given, one relating to the placement of adverbs and the other to the use of the passive. These were described as examples from the “form-focused” end of the form-to-meaning continuum(i.e. as “exercises”), because the students’ purpose was to discover grammar rules rather than communicate with each other. If, however, the students are asked to discover the rule in groups and the language which they use is English, then the activity fulfils the criteria for a “task”: the discussion has a context, a communicative purpose and an outcome. Indeed, in the context of the English classroom, discovery tasks related to grammar are a natural component, comparable to discovery tasks in science and other so-called “content” subjects.Ⅳ Three “generations” of taskIn the previous section we moved from the domain of exercise and into the domain of tasks: the first t wo subsections contained clearly “tasks”; the last two subsections contained clearly “tasks”; and the middle subsection was a transition or mixed category. Now we will start in the “task” part of the continuum and look at tasks from another perspective, namely, the ways in which they contribute to the communicative, cognitive and personality development of the students. The discussion will take us through three “generations” of tasks, from relatively small-scale tasks in which students practice aspects of communication, through tasks which demand greater cognitive input from the students, to larger-scale tasks which also develop other aspects of students’ personality.This framework is the one presented by Ribé and Vidal (1993). The examples are also taken from the same source.First Generation TasksThe main aim of “first generation” tasks is develop students’ communicative ability in a specific type of situation or area of language. The task is often structured around a particular set of functions or a sim ple problem (often involving an “information gap”). Here are two examples:SimulationYou are a customer in a big store. You want to buy the following items: a pair of slippers, two compact-discs, and a filofax. Walk around and ask politely for directions to the departments/counters you need. Buy the items. Use the language you have practices in class.Problem-solvingThe students have a map of London with bus underground routes. They discuss and select the best route for going from one point to another according to a set of given variables (price, time, distance, comfort, etc.)Second Generation TasksThe tasks in the second category pose challenges of a broader nature.They aim at developing not only communication skills but also general cognitive strategies of handling and organizing information, such as:1. analyzing what information is needed in order to complete the task.2. deciding on procedures3. collecting information.4. selecting relevant data5. presenting data in an organized way6.analyzing process and resultsThe language is now a medium for carrying out a “real” piece of work, similar to what students may also need do outside their language course. Students therefore need to draw on a wider range of language. They also need to engage in continuous processing of input and output (reading for information producing reports, etc.). For example, “Throughforeigners’ eyes”. The objective of this task is to collect and analyze information on what tourists of different nationalities think ofstudents’ country/city/town.1. Students decide (a) what they need to know; (b) how to get thisinformation (interviews, questionnaires, tourist brochures, etc) (c) where to get the information (airport, beach, library, touristinformation office, etc) (d) when to obtain the information (e) what grids/database format they want to use to collate the information (f) the kind of questionnaires/interviews they want to devise (g) the language they need to carry out the interviews.2. Students carry out the research, transcribe the interviews andput the information together.3. Students select relevant data, decide on a format (posters,dossiers, etc) for their presentation.4. Students make a report and present itThird Generation TasksWith third generation tasks, the scope widens further. In addition to the communicative and cognitive strategies mentioned above, they also aim to develop the personality of the students through the experience of learning a foreign language. They go further than the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider educational objectives, such as enhancingmotivation and awareness, developing creativity and interpersonal skills, etc. they also go further than the previous tasks in their degree of authenticity and the extent to which they involve all aspects of the students’ personality and experience. Here is the example given by Ribé and Vidal (1993, p.3):Designing an alternative world1. Students and teachers brainstorm aspects of the environmentthey like and those would like to see improved. These may include changes to the geographical setting, nature, animal-life, housing, society, family, leisure activities, politics, etc.2. Students are put into groups according to common interests. Thegroups identify the language and information they need. The students carry out individual and group research on the selected topics. The students discuss aspects of this “Alternative reality” and then report back. They decide on the different ways (stories, recordings, games, etc) to link all the research and present the final product.3. Students present the topic and evaluate the activity.The three generations of tasks and their contribution to the students’ development are summarized below:▲ First generation task: communicative development▲ Second generation task: communicate development and cognitive development.▲ Third generation task: communicative development cognitive development and global personality development.Second and (particularly) third generation tasks will often be integrated into extended project work.The notion of “generations” of tasks implies that each category has developed out of the preceding one and is thus in some way more advanced in the demands it makes on learners and teachers alike. It may thus be expected that learners and teachers will not start with second or third generation tasks but begin with the simpler, first generation tasks and as they gain in experience, gradually extend their repertoire to include those which are more advanced.Within this framework, student and teacher are no longer two separate poles (i.e. the teacher gives information and the students receives it) as in the more traditional type of teaching, but two entities working together, planning, taking decisions, carrying out the task and sharing the final sense of achievement.Ⅴ ConclusionTo conclude this article, I would like to use a simple mnemonic, based on the word “task” itself, to summarize some of the aims and benefits that we can hope for task-based learning to achieve: T (together: speaking or silently) A (activate: purposefully) S (skills: communicative, cognitive and interpersonal) K (knowledge: from all domains ofexperience). The message is self-explanatory. Together, over coming the isolation of the traditional classroom, students with their teacher activate their skills and knowledge. Often this togetherness may take the form of overt speaking, but even in silent tasks students may keep a senseof the classroom as a learning community. The activity that takes place is not unguided “busy-work” but purposeful movement towards targets and objectives (both in the overall direction of learning and in terms of specific learning activities). The skills which students perform and develop are communicative and also —particularly as they move into the second and third generations of tasks—cognitive and interpersonal. Finally the boundary between the classroom and the outside world is increasingly reduced, as the tasks encourage students to relate learning to the whole domain of their experience.Acknowledgement:This paper would not have been possible without Mr. Li Zhiqiang, whoheld the light of understanding while explored the darkness. It was his patience and sound advice that saw me through.It would be impossible to name Mr. Xie Hongming and other friends who offered their advice and great help.Sincerely thank you all.References:1. Byrne, D.1986. Teaching Oral English. London: Longman2. Freed-Booth, D. 1986.Project Work. Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress.3. Ellis, R 2000. Task-based research and language pedagogy.Language Teaching Research: 193-220.4. William Littlewood 1981. Communicative Language Teaching: AnIntroduction. Cambridge University Press.5. Harmer, J. 1987.Teaching and Learning Grammar. Longman.6. Skehan, P. 1998 A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning.Oxford University Press.7. Nunan, D. 1989. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom.Cambridge University Press8. Ribē,R. and N. Vidals. 1993. Project Work: step by Step.Oxford, Heinemann.9. 鲁子问. Task-based Language Teaching Design（《任务基础上的语言教学设计》 2002）10. 杨树香. On designing Tasks.（《浅议任务设计》2003.）（注：文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，供参考。
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Nunan将任务定义为指导学生在学习目的语的过程中领悟、使用、输出语言和互动的课堂交际活动，它重点关注的是意义，而非语言形式。
任务为语言学习和使用提供了一个目的，而不再是单纯地学习一门语言。
在大量文献资料中对任务的定义，产生了三个共同特性：一、任务具有较为明确的目标指向，比如说画一幅地图或者预订一家旅馆；二、输入材料，关于如何画画的指令或者一份旅馆的广告宣传；三、一个及以上的相关活动或程序，如基于广告提供的信息来决定预订哪一家旅馆。
任务型教学法是从20世纪80年代逐渐发展起来，现在任务型教学法已在第二语言教学大纲设计和二语习得研究中广泛应用。
因为任务特别是小组合作能促进自然地学习与交流，催化习得过程，这种方式与交际教学法更为契合。
任务型教学会根据教学方面的因素来分类，也就是说他们有效建立课堂互动过程和产生协商交流的能力；此外还会依据心理学的因素来分类，也就是刺激内部习得教工过程的潜能。
在目标任务、真实任务以及课堂任务之间也产生了区别。
一项在语言教学中被广泛使用的任务就是信息差任务。
信息差任务也就是一位参与者持有另一位参与者所不知道的信息，而必须通过互换信息来完成任务。
“找出不同点”是一个典型的信息差任务，参与者会得到一些类似却有略微不同的图片，在不看别人图片的情况下，所有人在找出不同点上达成一致。
另一项交际性任务是问题解决任务，比如说，提供参与者线索并要求他们做出解释直到最终解决问题。
决策任务是期望参与者在所提供的结果中选择一个结果。
还有一些别的任务例如拼图、角色扮演、模拟、口头讨论和设计任务。
在任务设计方面存在的一个问题就是如何在选择和界定目标时找到一个清晰的标准。
这是因为有诸多因素对任务产生干扰，包括任务的认知困难，学习者需要加工和产生的语言的数量，执行任务时产生的心理压力，时间压力以及所涉及的知识背景的数量和类型。
比如说，“找出不同点”只要求学生建立一个存在或不存在（未描述的）的项目，这个要求显然比需要精确描述的要求来的低。
同样的，加工处理一段包括标题，副标题，照片，图画、图表、曲线图等的内容显然比加工处理一段没有任何前后文联系的文章来的容易。
二语习得研究表明有一些任务比其余的更有利于学习者的语言发展，例如，双向任务即在交互过程中每一个参与者都拥有信息来提供交换，这种方法比单向任务（一个参与者提供信息，另一个参与者仅对给出的信息产生反馈）更为有效。
汇总型任务（一个加过必须进行商定统一）比分散型任务（接受来自参与者的不同观点）能产生更多的言语。
另一个根据任务结构的难度和复杂性的划分包括前任务和后任务活动的结合，为学习者提供视觉支持和任务框架。
任务设计的突出点包括真实的文本和活动以及语言技能的整合。
各类任务提供了三种不同的基本的教学大纲类型：过程、程序和任务。
不管任务型教学大纲的简短历史，任务型教学在产生刺激性的教学材料上有很大的影响力，而且从根本观念上改变了25年前所以为的好的教学实践活动。