新编简明英语语言学教程戴炜栋第13章课后练习题答案
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（音位学）【圣才出品】
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（⾳位学）【圣才出品】第2章⾳位学2.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech Organs发⾳器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅⾳和元⾳的区别、分类及描写规则3. Phonemes and Allophones⾳位和⾳位变体4. Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features⾳系规则和区别特征5. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation⾳节结构、重⾳和语调本章考点：1. 语⾳学语⾳学的定义；发⾳器官的英⽂名称；英语辅⾳的定义、发⾳部位、发⾳⽅法和分类；英语元⾳的定义和分类、基本元⾳；发⾳语⾳学；听觉语⾳学；声学语⾳学；语⾳标记，国际⾳标；严式与宽式标⾳法。
2. ⾳系学⾳系学的定义；⾳系学与语⾳学的联系和区别；⾳素、⾳位、⾳位变体、最⼩对⽴体、⾃由变体的定义；⾃由变体；⾳位的对⽴分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段⾳位学；⾳节；重⾳(词重⾳、句⼦重⾳)；⾳⾼和语调。
本章内容索引：I. The phonic medium of languageII. Phonetics1. The definition of phonetics2. Three research fields3. Organs of speech▼4. Voiceless sounds▼5. Voiced sounds6. Orthographic representations of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions7. Classification of English speech sounds(1) Definition(2) Classification of English consonants(3) Classification of English vowelsIII. Phonology1. Relationship between Phonology and phonetics2. Phone, phoneme3. Allophone4. Some rules in phonology(1) Sequential rules(2) Assimilation rule(3) Deletion rule5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonation(1) Stress(2) Tone(3) IntonationI. The phonic medium of language（语⾔的语⾳媒介）II. Phonetics（语⾳学）1. The definition of phonetics（语⾳学的定义）Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语⾳学被定义为对语⾔的语⾳媒介的研究；它涉及所有出现在世界语⾔中的声⾳。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when theneed arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language答：First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the abilityto acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language Think of your own examples for illustration.答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shoppi ng with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication Of the two, which one is primary and why答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused答：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, . the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It i s called dark [] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [pht] and spit is transcribed as [spt].4. How are the English consonants classified答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels答：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [] 4) [w] 5) [] 6) []答：A. (1) [] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ] (5) [ :] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist Why答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone How is it different from a phoneme How are allophones related to a phoneme 答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phoneswhich can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, . discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . []; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”count eract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntaxSyntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N,3. What is category How to determine a word's categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it haveThe structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elementsbeing conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element playA phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriatetree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrowyou would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册(打印版),戴炜栋
《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have, which can not be foundin animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority to written language inmodern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版(总26页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式)Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use.B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rulesfor “correct and standard” behavior in using language, . to tel l people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(形态学)【圣才】
Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台Байду номын сангаас
圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
第 3 章 形态学
3.1 复习笔记
本章要点： 1. Open class and closed class
开放词类与封闭词类 2. Morpheme
语素 3. Analyzing word structure
分析词语结构 4. Derivational and inflectional morphemes
words are formed, including inflection and word formation. 形态学研究词的内部结构以及构词规则，包括屈折变化和构词法两个领域。
II. Open class and closed class（开放类和封闭类） 1. Open class words: in English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are the content words of a language. 开放性词类：在英语中，名词、动词、形容词和副词占词汇的绝大部分。它们是一门语 言中的实义词，经常有新词产生。 2. Closed class words: The other syntactic categories include “grammatical” or “functional” words. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of relatively few words and new words are not usually added to them. 封闭性词类：其他的句法范畴包括“语法性的”或者“功能性的”词。连词、介词、冠 词和代词相对较少，通常不会增加新词。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册(打印版)_戴炜栋(word文档良心出品)
《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have, which can notbe found in animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority to writtenlanguage in modern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。
新编简明英语语言学教程 戴伟栋版
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure) 2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A： micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式)Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in whichthe symbols are arranged and combined to form words. Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use.B： macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔) Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基)Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册簿(打印版)_戴炜栋
《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have,which can not be found in animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority towritten language in modern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的容。
新编简明英语语言学教程 戴伟栋版
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（中）【圣才出品】
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（中）【圣才出品】第4章句法学1. What is syntax?Key: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that governs the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?Key: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is calleda phrase structure rule.3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Key: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. T o determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely, meaning, inflation and distribution.4. What is coordinate structure? What properties does it have?Key: The structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction are called coordinate structures. It has four properties: first, there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories. Second, a category at any level can be coordinated. Third, coordinated categories must be of the same type. Fourth, the category type of the coordinate phrase isidentical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what rule does each element play? Key: The phrase elements are specifiers, complements and modifiers. Specifiers help make more precise the meaning of the head. They typically mark a phrase. The complements provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Modifiers specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?Key: The structure that formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties is called the deep structure. The structure that corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformation is called surface structure.7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.b) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.c) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the school.d) This cloth feels quite soft.Key:8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) an augment against the proposalsd) already above the windowKey: a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsd) already above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Key: (The modifiers are represented by italics.)a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.Key: a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.Key: a) You know that I hate war.。
圣才教育：戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》
内容摘要
实用性：这本书不仅注重理论知识的学习，还强调实际应用能力的培养。每一章节都附有大量实 例和案例分析，帮助学生更好地理解和掌握语言学知识。书中的关键词和思考题也为学生提供了 实际应用的指导。 时代性：这本书的内容紧跟时代步伐，反映了当今语言学研究的前沿。它不仅介绍了最新的语言 学理论和研究成果，还涉及了语言与文化、社会、认知等领域的交叉研究，有助于学生拓宽视野， 了解学科前沿。 内容丰富：这本书涵盖了语言学的各个方面，包括语音、词汇、语法、语义、语用等基础理论知 识和应用。同时，它还涉及了二语习得和语言习得的理论和实践，使得学生能够全面了解语言学 及应用。
该章节介绍了计算机与语言的、计算机与自然语言处理的关系以及自然语言处 理的基本任务和应用领域。
该章节介绍了认知科学的定义、认知科学的学科交叉性、语言与认知的关系以 及认知语言学的定义和基本原理。
该章节介绍了隐喻和转喻的定义、隐喻和转喻的认知功能以及隐喻和转喻在英 语词汇和表达中的应用。
该章节介绍了文化的定义、文化与语言的关系以及文化适应和文化休克的概念。 同时，还介绍了跨文化交际能力和跨文化意识的培养方法。
精彩摘录
语言是人类最重要的交际工具，是音义结合的符号系统。
语言的音和义、语素和词汇的意义是约定俗成的，语言的音义之间没有必然的 关系。
语言的底层是一套音位和音位的组合规则；上层是音义结合的语言符号。
语言具有创造性，它能够产生并理解无限量的语句。
语言具有创造性，它能够产生并理解无限量的语句。
该章节介绍了形态学的定义、词素和词根、词干和词缀、屈折变化和派生变化、 复合词和短语以及形态学在自然语言处理中的应用。
该章节介绍了句法学的定义、语法和句法的关系、短语、句子和句法结构、句 法规则的类型和应用、转换语法和句法分析的基本原则以及句法学在自然语言 处理中的应用。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》章节题库(导言) 【圣才出品】
第1章导言I. Multiple choices:1. Which of the following does NOT state how the linguist discovers the nature and the rules of the underlying language system?A. He has to collect and observe language facts.B. He has to display and then generalize some similarities of the language facts.C. He has to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.D. He has to deal with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models andmethods applicable in any linguistic study.【答案】D【解析】语言学家为了找出潜在的语言系统中的实质和规则，须要收集和观察语言事实，找出某些语言事实的相似性并对其作出概括；然后，对语言结构进行某种假设，再对照所观察到的事实进行反复验证以充分证明它们的有效性。
因此，本题的正确答案为D。
2. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language?A. Arbitrariness.B. Productivity.C. Cultural transmission.D. Finiteness.【答案】D【解析】语言的区别性特征有五个：arbitrariness（任意性），productivity（多产性）或creativity（创造性），duality（二重性），displacement（移位性），cultural transmission （文化传递性）。
(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程 戴伟栋版(word文档良心出品)
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》章节题库(语言与大脑) 【圣才出品】
第12章语言与大脑I. Multiple choices:1. ______ is the study of language in relation to the mind.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. LinguisticsD. Semantics【答案】A【解析】心理语言学是对语言和心理之间的关系所作的研究。
顾名思义，心理语言学是心理学和语言学的交叉学科。
因此，本题的正确答案为A。
2. ______ studies the relationship between brain and language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. NeurolinguisticsD. Semantics【答案】C【解析】神经语言学研究的是人类语言和大脑之间的关系。
因此，本题的正确答案为C。
3. A signal coming in the left ear will go to the ______ hemisphere.A. rightB. leftC. frontD. back【答案】A【解析】人脑分为左脑和右脑，也可以被称为左半球和右半球，左脑负责接收来自右侧身体的信号，右脑则负责接收来自左侧身体的信号。
因此，本题的正确答案为A。
4. Which of the following is NOT the primary function of the left hemisphere of the brain?A. Analytic reasoning.B. Temporal ordering.C. Associative thought.D. Visual and spatial skills.【答案】D【解析】左右脑容量大约相当，但是它们分管不同的认知功能，左半球主要负责语言和言语行为能力、分解推理、时间顺序、读写能力、计算、联想等，右半球则主要负责非语言声音的感知、整体推理、视觉及空间能力、模型辨认、音乐旋律的识别等。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题考研真题
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解完整版>精研学习䋞>无偿试用20％资料
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第1章导言
1.1复习笔记
1.2课后习题详解
1.3考研真题与典型题详解
第2章音位学
2.1复习笔记
2.2课后习题详解
2.3考研真题与典型题详解
第3章形态学
3.1复习笔记
3.2课后习题详解
3.3考研真题与典型题详解
第4章句法学
4.1复习笔记
4.2课后习题详解
4.3考研真题与典型题详解
第5章语义学
5.1复习笔记
5.2课后习题详解
5.3考研真题与典型题详解
第6章语用学
6.1复习笔记
6.2课后习题详解
6.3考研真题与典型题详解
第7章语言变化
7.1复习笔记
7.2课后习题详解
7.3考研真题与典型题详解
第8章语言与社会
8.1复习笔记
8.2课后习题详解
8.3考研真题与典型题详解
第9章语言与文化
9.1复习笔记
9.2课后习题详解
9.3考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言习得
10.1复习笔记
10.2课后习题详解
10.3考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言习得
11.1复习笔记
11.2课后习题详解
11.3考研真题与典型题详解第12章语言与大脑
12.1复习笔记
12.2课后习题详解
12.3考研真题与典型题详解。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》章节题库(音位学) 【圣才出品】
第2章音位学Ⅰ. Multiple choices:1. ______ is the study of the phonic medium of language.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. PhoneD. Phoneme【答案】A【解析】语音学被定义为对语言的语音媒介的研究，它涉及所有出现在世界语言中的声音；音位学的研究目的是发现一门语言中的语音是如何形成的，这些语音是如何在语言交际中传达意义的；音素是一个语音单元或音段，我们在交际中所听到和发出的语音都是音素；音位是一个具有区别性意义的抽象单位，它不是任何一个特定的语音，而是由一个特定音素（phone）在一定语音语境中来表达或实现的。
因此，本题的正确答案为A。
2. Which of the following is NOT a branch of phonetics?A. Articulatory phonetics.B. Auditory phonetics.C. Acoustic phonetics.D. Articulate phonetics.【答案】D【解析】语音学的三个分支分别为发音语音学、听觉语音学和声学语音学。
其中发音语音学的历史最长，然而，声学语音学和听觉语音学中一些重要的事实已经被发现或证实了。
因此，本题的正确答案为D。
3. Which of the following is NOT the organ of speech?A. The pharyngeal cavity.B. The oral cavity.C. The nasal cavity.D. The vocal cavity.【答案】D【解析】人类发音器官包含在三个重要区域中：咽腔—喉咙；口腔—口；鼻腔—鼻。
声腔不属于发音器官。
因此，本题的正确答案为D。
4. ______ is the minimal sound segments of language systems that distinguish meaning.A. PhoneticsB. PhoneC. PhonemeD. Allophone【答案】C【解析】音位是语言系统中可以区分意义的最小语音音段；而语音学被定义为对语言的语音媒介的研究，它涉及所有出现在世界语言中的声音。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册(打印版),戴炜栋
《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have, which can not be foundin animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority to written language inmodern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。
戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记3
戴炜栋《简明语⾔学教程》配套笔记3Chapter 12 PsycholinguisticsThe study of language in relation to the mindP.S. some of the following discussed sometimes fall into the scope of neurolinguistics and sociolinguistics, esp. concerning the structure of the brain.[A] The biological foundations of languageHuman linguistic ability largely depends on the structure and dynamics of the human brain, rather than, the structure of the vocal cords.Neuronsàcerebral cortexàhemisphereBrain lateralization (specific to human beings): the left hemisphere has primary responsibility for language, while the right hemisphere controls visual and spatial skills as well as the perception of nonlinguistic sounds and musical melodies.The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.[B] Linguistic lateralizationLeft hemispheric dominance for language, this hypothesis has been proved by Dichotic listening research（两⽿分听试验）The sound presented in the right ear goes directly to the left brain. The sound heard in the left ear, on the other hand, must first go to the right hemisphere, from where it is transferred to the left side of the brain for processing.Right ear advantage:（右⽿优势）it appears to exist primarily for linguistic stimuli, both meaningful and nonsensical.[C] The language centers①Broca’s area (French surgeon and anatomist): The frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere damaged extreme difficulty in producing speech;[Speech production deficit] word-finding difficulties and problems with syntax②Wernicke’s area (German physician, 1874): Strengthened Broca’s claim, and generated intense interest in the hypothesis that different areas within the left hemisphere fulfill different linguistic functions[Speech comprehension deficit] difficult in understanding speech (posterior speech cortex)③The angular gyrus（⾓形脑回）: It is responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versaThe word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke’s area. This signal is then transferred via the arcuate fasciculus to Broca’s area (the angular gyrus), where preparations are made to produce it. A signal is then sent to the motor cortex to physically articulate the word.④language perception, comprehension and production[D] The critical period for language acquisitionßneurobiologist Eric LennebergIt refers to a period in one’s life extending from about two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction.Language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period.{Language can be acquired after the critical period.}[E] Early views on language and thoughtMentalistà thought and language were identical, proposed by PlatoEmpiricistà languages were signs of psychological experiences (Aristotle)Bloomfield, American psychologist, founder of Behaviorism, supported the mentalist: thinking was a system of movements that had been reduced from actual speech to the point where they were no longer visible.Violates the following two phenomena:Non-speaking humansà display complex thought processI didn’t mean to say thatThe Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: (the American anthropologist-linguist Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf)“We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significance as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way—an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language.”Linguistic determination—the strong notion: Language determines thoughtLinguistic relativism—speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic backgroundThis hypothesis appears plausible, but its strong version has very few adherents today.Whorf did not only depend too heavily on the literal use of words but also on grammatical structure.The weaker version is accepted. Language may be used to provide ideas, bring about a change in beliefs and values, solve problems, and keep track of things in memory. Language does influence the perceptions, memory tasks, and other verbal and nonverbal behavior of human beings by its convenience, availability, and habitual use.[F] Argues for and against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis①Words and meaning: Relation is arbitrary; without the particular words of snow doesn’t mean he can not perceive differences in varieties of snow…②Grammatical structureMany grammatical features of a language are purely superficial aspects of linguistic structure. They don’t have the kind of interdependent relationship with the perceptual system of the speakers of that language. (Grammatical gender)③TranslationSuccessful translation between languages can be made.That he (Sapir) can explain/describe Hopi concepts in English for an average English speaker to understand easily fully proves that translation can be obtained.④Second language acquisitionBilingualism: have a consistent conceptual-perceptual system of the physical world. Don’t have to have double minds.⑤language and world viewsPeople who use the same language may have different world views.People who use different languages may have the similar world views.One language can describe many different world views.[G] Understanding the relationship between language and thought①functions of language:Interpersonal communication: convey information, thoughts, feelings from one to anotherIntrapersonal communication: language facilitates thinking, speech behavior, and action for the individualHalliday: ideational, interpersonal and textual functionsa) Informativeb) Interpersonal function(1) Performative function(2) Emotive function(3) Expressive function(4) Phatic functionc) Recreational functiond) Metalingual function②Language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles overlapping in some parts.When language and thought are identical or closely paralleled to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”, and speech as “overt thought”Nonverbal signals: facial expression_r_rs, grimaces, gestures, postures, or proxemic space can be used to express thoughts.The relationship between the coding system of language on the one hand and the conceptualizing system of thought on the other is conventional rather than genetic. Bilingual speakers switch between the two languages concerned, not converting one mode of thinking into the other, but rather, making transition between the two linguistic coding systems.Chapter 13 First Language Acquisition (FLA)Language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up (naturally and successfully).[A] The biological basis of language acquisitionWhat is meant by the biological, or nativist, view of language acquisition is that human are equipped with the neural perquisites for language and language use, just as birds are biologically “prewired” to learn the songs of their species.No language is inferior, or superior, to any other language.No single human is a better or worse language acquire than any other human.Different languages have a similar level of complexity and detail, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic system called the Universal Grammar (UG).[B] Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rulesBefore 5, knowing most of the intricate grammatical system of their native languageWhat is acquired is not a bunch of utterances but a set of rules, conditions, and elements (fundamental grammatical rules) that allow one to speak and understand speech.[C] The role of input and interaction, instruction, correction and reinforcement, imitation①the role of input and interactionGenetic predisposition + an appropriate linguistic environmentAccess to language data and opportunities to interact with the inputModified speechßrelationshipà language acquisitionCaretaker speech (babytalk, motheress, or parentese): without it doesn’t mean acquiring language slowlyAdvantages: 1) help heighten its comprehensibility2) make it easier for children to match linguistic forms with their meanings②the role of instruction“Children learn to speak because adults teach them to speak.”1) this view overestimates what adults can do, and at the same time2) this view underestimates what children can do, and what they actually doChildren require little conscious instruction. Parents often fail their attempt to teach children grammatical rules, and only playing a minor role at best③the role of correction and reinforcementAssumption 1: children received constant correction for using a “bad” grammar and rewards when using a “good” grammar Assumption 2: children learnt to produce sentence because they were positively reinforced when they said something right and negatively reinforced when they said something wrong.Behaviorist learning theoryàa child’s verbal behavior was conditioned through association between a stimulus and a relevant response.Correction plays a minor role; even when syntactic correction does occur, children often do not know what the problem is and are unable to make corrections.④the role of imitationThe hypothesis that children learnt language by simply imitating the speech of those around them is not true.A more reasonable explanation is that: children are attempting to construct and generalize their own grammatical rules. Besides, children who cannot speak can learn the language spoken to them and understand what is said.Children don’t blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted ways to improve their linguistic skills[D] Stages of first language acquisitionIn general, children begin uttering their first words sometimes during the second year of life. During the following 4 to 5 years, linguistic development occurs quite rapidly.①the prelinguistic stage (babbling age)3 months: /k/, /u/3-4 months: babbling speech like sounds6 months: able to sit up; produce a number of different vowels and consonants (meaningless), deaf baby, baby born of non-speaking deaf parents also babble②the one-word stageàholophrastic sentences2 year-old: use one word to serve a naming function, to refer to familiar people, toys, pets, drinks and objects in the child’s environment, indicate certain actions and demands, or convey emotions.Simple nouns and verbsVery few functional words such as prep., art., and aux. verbsChoose the most informative word that applies to the situation being commented uponOverextension (underextension of reference): use the same word for things that have a similar appearance③the multiword stage2-3 year-old: the salient feature of the utterances at this stage ceases to be the number of words, but the variation in strings of lexical morphemes (telegraphic speech)Lacking grammatical morphemes, but following the principles of sentence formation [make no word order errors at this stage]5 year-old: has an operating vocabulary of more than 2000 words[E] The development of grammatical system①the development of phonologyThe emergence of articulatory skills begins around the age when children start to produce babbling sounds.Children first acquire the sounds found in all languages of the world, and in later stages acquire the “more difficult” sounds. Certain sounds that occur in babbling are lost when children began to speak the language, and then reappear at a later stage: /l/ and /r/②the development of syntaxChildren’s early language is not only semantically based, but also makes reference to syntactic categories, and grammatical relations.Two-word stage: noun-like element + predicate-like elementThen, add functional words as well as inflectional and derivational morphemes of the language-ing, in, on, the regular plural ending “-s”Negative sentences: no/all gone /// negative words occur at the beginning of expression_r_rs /// insert the negative “no”,“can’t” or “don’t” inside the sentence, usually between subject and the predicateEnglish questions have developed in the similar way, in an interrelated way with the development of the auxiliary verb system③the development of morphologyBeyond the telegraphic stage: incorporate some of the inflectional morphemes1st one: -ing; 2nd one: marking of regular plurals with the “-s” form (overgeneralization); 3rd one: -ed rule to all verbs; begin to learn both regular and irregular forms as individual words④the development of vocabulary of semanticsThe first two years: 50-100 wordsSemantic referent to a word expands: overgeneralizationThe age of two and a half years: vocabulary is expanding rapidlyThe age of three: hundreds of wordsConnection between a word and its denotative meaning is more like that of adult languageBy five: 4.6 words per sentenceIncrease of about 25 words per dayThe age of six: 7800 wordsà English-speaking school childrenBy the age of eight: 17600 words or 28300 including derived formsIn general, children have virtually acquired the basic fabric of their native language at the age of five or six.Per-school years are crucial period for first language acquisition.Chapter 14 Second language Acquisition/Learning[A] Acquisition v. learningAcquisition: refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations; or the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations (by American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen)Learning: refers to a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of a language, usually obtained in school setting.[B] Transfer and interferenceTransfer: while learning the target language consciously or unconsciously, learners will subconsciously use their L1knowledge in learning a second language.Positive or negativeInterference (negative transfer) was once believed to be the major source of difficulties experienced and errors made by L2 learners.Contrastive analysis: establish the linguistic differences between the native and target language systems, to predict problems and errors[Old view]: L2 errors were predominantly the result of negative transfer, or mother tongue interference. Thus, learning a L2 is always to overcome the differences.Empirical investigation:3%àinterference errors, 85%àdevelopmental errors[New view]: L2 learning is a process of contracting and modifying rules of communication[C] Error analysis and the natural route of SLA developmentThere was supposed to be a universal route in L2 learning because negative transfer is not the major factor in SLA as it was once assumed to be.L2=L1 hypothesis: the process of SLA and FLA are very similar.This was investigated through the analysis of learner errors. There are striking similarities in the ways in which different L2 learners acquire a new language.L2 learners follow broadly similar routes, although minor differences exist due to variable learner factors and learning situations.[D] Interlanguage and fossilizationInterlanguage: the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA. It consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in between and yet distinct from the learner’s native and target languages. Fossilization: it was once assumed that learners’ Interlanguage would develop gradually in the direction of the target language competence if provided with sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and interaction. But most L2 learners failed to reach the end-point of the interlanguage continuum and acquire the native-like competence in the target language.Explanation: learns’ interlanguage fossilized some way short of target language competence while the internalized rule system contained rules that are different from those of the target language system.Chinese sound /d/àEnglish /W/, /T/; he for he or sheThe use of the present tense form for a past tense verb3rd person singular form without “s”[E] The role of input and formal instruction①SLA takes place only when the learner has access to L2 input and the opportunity to interact with the input. Input may take the form of exposure in natural settings or formal instruction, either spoken or written; optimum input is needed.Comprehensible input: the use of learned structures and vocabulary, the linguistic and extralinguistic contexts of the input data, and the learner’s general knowledge to interpret new language items.Two very important kinds of input methods:Interaction: taking parting in communication activitiesIntake: the input that is assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system②in general, studies of the effects of formal instruction support the hypothesis that instruction aids SLAL2 learners are much more likely to obtain comprehensible input in the intake-type environment of a classroom setting, other than in the exposure-type environment of a natural setting.Casual and spontaneous conversation helps a little, while planned speech, writing or career-oriented examination help a lot.[F] Individual leaner factors like age, motivation, acculturation and personalityThe rate and ultimate success in SLA are affected not only by learner’s experience with optimal input and instruction, but also by individual learner factors.①the optimum age for second language acquisitionAdolescents: quicker and more effective L2 learners than young childrenWhy: the learner’s flexibility of the language acquisition faculty has not been completely lost while one’s cognitive skills have developed considerably to facilitate the processing of linguistic features of a new language.②motivationMotivation: the learner’s overall goal and orientationInstrumental motivation: learner’s goal is functional （功能性学习动机）Integrative motivation: learner’s goal is social （介⼊性学习动机）③acculturation（⽂化移⼊，⽂化适应）It has some relation with integrative motivation, the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community. This adaptation process is called acculturationThe learning of a second language involves, and is dependent on, the acquisition of the culture of the target language community.The acculturation hypothesis states simply that the more a person aspires to acculturate to the community of the target language, the further he or she will progress along the developmental continuum, but focuses not so much on the actual processing of the second language as on the social and psychological conditions under which L2 processing is most likely to take place successfully.④personalityOutgoing personality may contribute to language acquisitionExtrovertedßàintrovertedResearch results lead only partial support to this hypothesis.Oral fluency, not overall proficiency in a second languageIn general, a good second language learner is, among other things, an adolescent who has a strong and well-defined motivation to learn, who is able to respond and adaptable to different learning situations, who seeks out all opportunities and makes maximum use of them to interact with the input, who employs appropriate learning strategies, and who is willing to identify himself or herself with the culture of the target language community.。