微观经济学：PricingwithMarketPower
曼昆微观经济学答案ch14
Firms in Competitive MarketsWHAT’S NEW IN THE THIRD EDITION:There have been no substantial changes to this chapter.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:what characteristics make a market competitive.how competitive firms decide how much output to produce.how competitive firms decide when to shut down production temporarily.how competitive firms decide whether to exit or enter a market.how firm behavior determines a market’s short -run and long-run supply curves.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 14 is the second chapter in a five-chapter sequence dealing with firm behavior and theorganization of industry. Chapter 13 developed the cost curves on which firm behavior is based. These cost curves are employed in Chapter 14 to show how a competitive firm responds to changes in market conditions. Chapters 15 through 17 will employ these cost curves to see how firms with market power (monopolistic, oligopolistic, and monopolistically competitive firms) respond to changes in market conditions. The purpose of Chapter 14 is to examine the behavior of competitive firms —firms that do not have market power. The cost curves developed in the previous chapter shed light on the decisions that lie behind the supply curve in a competitive market.FIRMS IN COMPETITIVEMARKETS14264 Chapter 14/Firms in Competitive MarketsKEY POINTS:1.Because a competitive firm is a price taker, its revenue is proportional to the amount of output itproduces. The price of the good equals both the firm’s average revenue and its marginal rev enue.2.To maximize profit, a firm chooses a quantity of output such that marginal revenue equals marginalcost. Because marginal revenue for a competitive firm equals the market price, the firm chooses quantity so that price equals marginal cost. Thus, t he firm’s marginal cost curve is its supply curve.3.In the short run when a firm cannot recover its fixed costs, the firm will choose to shut downtemporarily if the price of the good is less than average variable cost. In the long run when the firm can recover both fixed and variable costs, it will choose to exit if the price is less than average total cost.4.In a market with free entry and exit, profits are driven to zero in the long run. In this long-runequilibrium, all firms produce at the efficient scale, price equals minimum average total cost, and the number of firms adjusts to satisfy the quantity demanded at this price.5.Changes in demand have different effects over different time horizons. In the short run, an increasein demand raises prices and leads to profits, and a decrease in demand lowers prices and leads to losses. But if firms can freely enter and exit the market, then in the long run the number of firms adjusts to drive the market back to the zero-profit equilibrium.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. What Is a Competitive Market?A. The Meaning of Competition1. Definition of competitive market: a market with many buyers and sellerstrading identical products so that each buyer and seller is a price taker.2. There are three characteristics of a competitive market (sometimes called aperfectly competitive market).a. There are many buyers and sellers.b. The goods offered by the sellers are largely the same.c. Firms can freely enter or exit the market.Chapter 14/Firms in Competitive Markets 265B. The Revenue of a Competitive Firm1. Total revenue from the sale of output is equal to price times quantity.2. Definition of average revenue: total revenue divided by the quantity sold.3. Definition of marginal revenue: the change in total revenue from anadditional unit sold.II. Profit Maximization and the Competitive Firm's Supply CurveA. A Simple Example of Profit Maximization: The Smith Dairy Farm266 Chapter 14/Firms in Competitive Markets1.In this example, profit is maximized if the farm produces 4 or 5 gallons of milk (see the fourth column).2.The profit-maximizing quantity can also be found by comparing marginal revenue and marginal cost. a. As long as marginal revenue exceeds marginal cost, increasing output will raise profit.b.If marginal revenue is less than marginal cost, the firm can increase profit by decreasing output.c.Profit-maximization occurs where marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost.B. The Marginal-Cost Curve and the Firm's Supply DecisionChapter 14/Firms in Competitive Markets 2671.Cost curves have special features that are important for our analysis. a. The marginal-cost curve is upward sloping. b. The average-total-cost curve is u-shaped.c.The marginal-cost curve crosses the average-total-cost curve at the minimum of average total cost.2. Marginal and average revenue can be shown by a horizontal line at the market price.3. To find the profit-maximizing level of output, we can follow the same rules that we discussed above.a.If marginal revenue is greater than the marginal cost, the firm can increase its profit by increasing output.b. If marginal cost is greater than marginal revenue, the firm can increase its profit by decreasing output.c. At the profit-maximizing level of output, marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost.268 Chapter 14/Firms in Competitive MarketsChapter 14/Firms in Competitive Markets 2694. If the price in the market were to change to P2, the firm would set its new levelof output by equating marginal revenue and marginal cost.5. Because the firm's marginal cost curve determines how much the firm is willingto supply at any price, it is the competitive firm's supply curve.C. The Firm's Short-Run Decision to Shut Down1. In some circumstances, a firm will decide to shut down and produce zero output.2. There is a difference between a temporary shutdown of a firm and an exit fromthe market.a. A shutdown refers to the short-run decision not to produce anythingduring a specified period of time because of current market conditions.b. Exit refers to a long-run decision to leave the market.c. One important difference is that, when a firm shuts down temporarily, itstill must pay fixed costs.3. If a firm shuts down, it will earn no revenue and will have only fixed costs (novariable costs).4. Therefore, a firm will shut down if the revenue that it would get from producingis less than its variable costs of production:Shut down if TR < VC.270 Chapter 14/Firms in Competitive Markets5.Since TR = P H Q and VC = AVC H Q , we can rewrite this condition as: Shut down if P < AVC .6.We now can tell exactly what the firm will do to maximize profit (or minimize loss).a.If the price is less than average variable cost, the firm will produce no output.b. If the price is above average variable cost, the firm will produce the level of output where marginal revenue (price) is equal to marginal cost.7.Therefore, the competitive firm's short-run supply curve is the portion of its marginal revenue curve that lies above average variable cost.8.Spilt Milk and Sunk Costs a. Definition of sunk cost: a cost that has been committed and cannot be recovered .b. Once a cost is sunk, it is no longer an opportunity cost.c.Because nothing can be done about sunk costs, you should ignore them when making decisions.Chapter 14/Firms in Competitive Markets 2719. Case Study: Near-Empty Restaurants and Off-Season Miniature Golfa. In making a decision of whether or not to open for lunch, a restaurantowner must weigh revenue with variable costs. (Much of the cost ofrunning a restaurant is somewhat fixed.)b. The same criteria would apply to a decision of whether a miniature golfcourse in a summer resort community should stay open during otherseasons. The course should only be open if revenue exceeds variablecosts.D. The Firm's Long-Run Decision to Exit or Enter a Market1. If a firm exits the market, it will earn no revenue, but it will have no costs as well.2. Therefore, a firm will exit if the revenue that it would earn from producing is lessthan its total costs:Exit if TR < TC.3. Since TR = P H Q and TC = ATC H Q, we can rewrite this condition as:Exit if P < ATC.4. A firm will enter an industry when there is profit potential, so this must meanthat a firm will enter if revenues will exceed costs:Enter if P > ATC.272 Chapter 14/Firms in Competitive Markets5.Because, in the long run, a firm will remain in a market only if P ≥ ATC , the firm's long-run supply curve will be its marginal cost curve above ATC .E.Measuring Profit in Our Graph for the Competitive Firm 1. Recall that Profit = TR - TC .2.Because TR = P H Q and TC = ATC H Q , we can rewrite this equation: Profit = (P – ATC ) H Q .3. Using this equation, we can measure the amount of profit (or loss) at the firm's profit-maximizing level of output (or loss-minimizing level of output).III. The Supply Curve in a Competitive Market A.The Short Run: Market Supply with a Fixed Number of Firms1. Example: a market with 1,000 identical firms.2. Each firm's short-run supply curve is its marginal cost curve above average variable cost.3.To get the market supply curve, we add the quantity supplied by each firm in the market at every given price.B. The Long Run: Market Supply with Entry and Exit 1. If firms in an industry are earning profit, this will attract new firms.a. The supply of the product will increase (the supply curve will shift to theright).b.The price of the product will fall and profit will decline.2.If firms in an industry are incurring losses, firms will exit.a. The supply of the product will decrease (the supply curve will shift to theleft).b. The price of the product will rise and losses will decline.3. At the end of this process of entry or exit, firms that remain in the market mustbe making zero economic profit.4. Because Profit = TR–TC, profit will only be zero when:TR = TC.5. Because TR = P H Q and TC = ATC H Q, we can rewrite this as:P = ATC.6. Therefore, the process of entry or exit ends only when price and average totalcost become equal.7. This implies that the long-run equilibrium of a competitive market must havefirms operating at their efficient scale.8. Why Do Competitive Firms Stay in Business If They Make Zero Profit?a. Profit is equal to total revenue minus total cost.b. To an economist, total cost includes all of the opportunity costs of thefirm.c. When a firm is earning zero profit, this must mean that the firm'srevenues are compensating the firm's owners for the time and moneythat they have expended to keep their businesses going.C. A Shift in Demand in the Short Run and Long Run1. Assume that the market begins in long-run equilibrium. This means that firmsare earning zero profit and price equals the minimum of average total cost.2. If the demand for the product increases, this will lead to an increase in the priceof the good.3. Firms will respond to the increase in price by producing more in the short run.4. Because price is now greater than average total cost, firms are earning profit.5. The profit will attract new firms into the industry, shifting the supply curve to theright.6. This will lower price until it falls back to the minimum of average total cost andfirms are once again earning zero economic profit.7. In the News: Entry or Overinvestment?a. Strong demand leads to high prices, high profits and then eventuallyentry of new firms.b. This is an article from The Wall Street Journal discussing how businessleaders often see entry (and therefore reduced profits) as―overinvestment.‖D. Why the Long-Run Supply Curve Might Slope Upward1. Because we assumed that all potential entrants faced the same costs as existingfirms, average total cost of each firm was unaffected by the entry of new firmsinto the industry.2. In this situation, the long-run supply of the industry will be a horizontal line atminimum average total cost.3. However, there are two possible reasons why this may not be the case.a. If a resource is limited in quantity, entry of firms will increase the priceof this resource, raising the average total cost of production.b. If firms have different costs, then it is likely that those with the lowestcosts will enter the industry first. If the demand for the product thenincreases, the firms that would enter will likely have higher costs thanthose firms already in the market.4. In this situation, the long-run supply curve of the industry will be upward sloping.5. In either case, the long-run supply curve of an industry is generally more elasticthan the short-run supply curve of the industry (due to the fact that firms canenter or exit in the long run).SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. When a competitive firm doubles the amount it sells, the price remains the same, so its totalrevenue doubles.2. The price faced by a profit-maximizing firm is equal to its marginal cost because if price wereabove marginal cost, the firm could increase profits by increasing output, while if price werebelow marginal cost, the firm could increase profits by decreasing output.A profit-maximizing firm decides to shut down in the short run when price is less than averagevariable cost. In the long run, a firm will exit a market when price is less than average total cost.3. In the long run, with free entry and ex it, the price in the market is equal to both a firm’s marginalcost and its average total cost, as Figure 1 shows. The firm chooses its quantity so that marginal cost equals price; doing so ensures that the firm is maximizing its profit. In the long run, entryinto and exit from the industry drive the price of the good to the minimum point on the average-total-cost curve.Figure 1Questions for Review1. A competitive firm is a firm in a market in which: (1) there are many buyers and many sellers inthe market; (2) the goods offered by the various sellers are largely the same; and (3) usuallyfirms can freely enter or exit the market.2. Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price (such as P*), the level ofoutput that maximizes profit is the output where marginal cost equals price (Q*), as long as price is greater than average variable cost at that point (in the short run), or greater than averagetotal cost (in the long run).Figure 23. A firm will shut down temporarily if the revenue it would get from producing is less than thevariable costs of production. This occurs if price is less than average variable cost.4. A firm will exit a market if the revenue it would get if it stayed in business is less than its totalcost. This occurs if price is less than average total cost.5. A firm's price equals marginal cost in both the short run and the long run. In both the short runand the long run, price equals marginal revenue. The firm should increase output as long asmarginal revenue exceeds marginal cost, and reduce output if marginal revenue is less thanmarginal cost. Profits are maximized when marginal revenue equals marginal cost.6. The firm's price equals the minimum of average total cost only in the long run. In the short run,price may be greater than average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or pricemay be less than average total cost, in which case the firm is making losses. But the situation is different in the long run. If firms are making profits, other firms will enter the industry, whichwill lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raise the price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits norlosses. At that point, price equals average total cost.7. Market supply curves are typically more elastic in the long run than in the short run. In acompetitive market, since entry or exit occurs until price equals the minimum of average totalcost, the supply curve is perfectly elastic in the long run.Problems and Applications1. A competitive market is one in which: (1) there are many buyers and many sellers in the market;(2) the goods offered by the various sellers are largely the same; and (3) usually firms can freelyenter or exit the market. Of these goods, bottled water is probably the closest to a competitive market. Tap water is a natural monopoly because there's only one seller. Cola and beer are not perfectly competitive because every brand is slightly different.2. Since a new customer is offering to pay $300 for one dose, marginal revenue between 200 and201 doses is $300. So we must find out if marginal cost is greater than or less than $300. To do this, calculate total cost for 200 doses and 201 doses, and calculate the increase in total cost.Multiplying quantity by average total cost, we find that total cost rises from $40,000 to $40,401, so marginal cost is $401. So your roommate should not make the additional dose.3. a. Remembering that price equals marginal cost when firms are maximizing profit, we knowthe marginal cost must be 30 cents, since that is the price.b. The industry is not in long-run equilibrium since price exceeds average total cost.4. Once you have ordered the dinner, its cost is sunk, so it does not represent an opportunity cost.As a result, the cost of the dinner should not influence your decision about stuffing yourself.5. Since Bob’s average total cost is $280/10 = $28, which is greate r than the price, he will exit theindustry in the long run. Since fixed cost is $30, average variable cost is ($280 - $30)/10 = $25, which is less than price, so Bob won’t shut down in the short run.6. Here’s the table showing costs, revenues, an d profits:a. The firm should produce 5 or 6 units to maximize profit.b. Marginal revenue and marginal cost are graphed in Figure 3. The curves cross at aquantity between 5 and 6 units, yielding the same answer as in part (a).c. This industry is competitive since marginal revenue is the same for each quantity. Theindustry is not in long-run equilibrium, since profit is positive.Figure 37. a. Figure 4 shows the short-run effect of declining demand for beef. The shift of theindustry demand curve from D1 to D2 reduces the quantity from Q1 to Q2 and reduces theprice from P1 to P2. This affects the firm, reducing its quantity from q1 to q2. Before thedecline in the price, the firm was making zero profits; afterwards, profits are negative, asaverage total cost exceeds price.Figure 4b. Figure 5 shows the long-run effect of declining demand for beef. Since firms were losingmoney in the short run, some firms leave the industry. This shifts the supply curve fromS1 to S3. The shift of the supply curve is just enough to increase the price back to itsoriginal level, P1. As a result, industry output falls still further, to Q3. For firms thatremain in the industry, the rise in the price to P1 returns them to their original situation,producing quantity q1 and earning zero profits.Figure 58. Figure 6 shows that although high prices cause an industry to expand, entry into the industryeventually returns prices to the point of minimum average total cost. In the figure, the industry is originally in long-run equilibrium. The industry produces output Q1, where supply curve S1intersects demand curve D1, and the price is P1. At this point the typical firm produces output q1.Since price equals average total cost at that point, the firm makes zero economic profit.Now suppose an increase in demand occurs, with the demand curve shifting to D2. This causes"high prices" in the industry, as the price rises to P2. It also causes the industry to increaseoutput to Q2. With the higher price, the typical firm increases its output from q1 to q2, and now makes positive profits, since price exceeds average total cost.However, the positive profits that firms earn encourage other firms to enter the industry. Their entry, "an expansion in an industry," leads the supply curve to shift to S3. The new equilibrium reduces the price back to P1, "bringing an end to high prices and manufacturers' prosperity,"since now firms produce q1 and earn zero profit again. The only long-lasting effect is thatindustry output is Q3, a higher level than originally.Figure 69. a. Figure 7 shows the typical firm in the industry, with average total cost ATC1, marginalcost MC1, and price P1.b. The new process reduces Hi-Tech’s marginal cost to MC2 and its average total cost toATC2, but the price remains at P1 since other firms cannot use the new process. Thus Hi-Tech earns positive profits.c. When the patent expires and other firms are free to use the technology, all firms’average-total-cost curves decline to ATC2, so the market price falls to P3 and firms earnno profits.Figure 710. The rise in the price of petroleum increases production costs for individual firms and thus shiftsthe industry supply curve up, as shown in Figure 8. The typical firm's initial marginal-cost curve is MC1 and its average-total-cost curve is ATC1. In the initial equilibrium, the industry supplycurve, S1, intersects the demand curve at price P1, which is equal to the minimum average total cost of the typical firm. Thus the typical firm earns no economic profit.The increase in the price of oil shifts the typical firm's cost curves up to MC2 and ATC2, and shifts the industry supply curve up to S2. The equilibrium price rises from P1 to P2, but the price does not increase by as much as the increase in marginal cost for the firm. As a result, price is lessthan average total cost for the firm, so profits are negative.In the long run, the negative profits lead some firms to exit the industry. As they do so, theindustry-supply curve shifts to the left. This continues until the price rises to equal the minimum point on the firm's average-total-cost curve. The long-run equilibrium occurs with supply curve S3, equilibrium price P3, industry output Q3, and firm's output q3. Thus, in the long run, profitsare zero again and there are fewer firms in the industry.Chapter 14/Firms in Competitive Markets 283Figure 811. a. Figure 9 illustrates the situation in the U.S. textile industry. With no international trade,the market is in long-run equilibrium. Supply intersects demand at quantity Q1 and price$30, with a typical firm producing output q1.Figure 9b. The effect of imports at $25 is that the market supply curve follows the old supply curveup to a price of $25, then becomes horizontal at that price. As a result, demand exceedsdomestic supply, so the country imports textiles from other countries. The typicaldomestic firm now reduces its output from q1 to q2, incurring losses, since the large fixedcosts imply that average total cost will be much higher than the price.c. In the long run, domestic firms will be unable to compete with foreign firms becausetheir costs are too high. All the domestic firms will exit the industry and other countrieswill supply enough to satisfy the entire domestic demand.12. a. Figure 10 shows the current equilibrium in the market for pretzels. The supply curve, S1,284 Chapter 14/Firms in Competitive Marketsintersects the demand curve at price P1. Each stand produces quantity q1 of pretzels, sothe total number of pretzels produced is 1,000 x q1. Stands earn zero profit, since priceequals average total cost.b. If the city government restricts the number of pretzel stands to 800, the industry-supplycurve shifts to S2. The market price rises to P2, and individual firms produce output q2.Industry output is now 800 x q2. Now the price exceeds average total cost, so each firmis making a positive profit. Without restrictions on the market, this would induce otherfirms to enter the market, but they cannot, since the government has limited the numberof licenses.c. The city could charge a license fee for the licenses. Since it is a lump-sum fee for thelicense, not based on the quantity of sales, such a tax has no effect on marginal cost, sowon't affect the firm's output. It will, however, reduce the firm's profits. As long as thefirm is left with a zero or positive profit, it will continue to operate. So the license fee thatbrings the most money to the city is to charge each firm the amount (P2 - ATC2)q2, theamount of the firm's profit.Figure 1013. a. Figure 11 illustrates the gold market (industry) and a representative gold mine (firm).The demand curve, D1, intersects the supply curve at industry quantity Q1 and price P1.Since the industry is in long-run equilibrium, the price equals the minimum point on therepresentative firm's average total cost curve, so the firm produces output q1 and makeszero profit.b. The increase in jewelry demand leads to an increase in the demand for gold, shifting thedemand curve to D2. In the short run, the price rises to P2, industry output rises to Q2,and the representative firm's output rises to q2. Since price now exceeds average totalcost, the representative firm now earns positive profits.c. Since gold mines are earning positive economic profits, over time other firms will enterthe industry. This will shift the supply curve to the right, reducing the price below P2.But it's unlikely that the price will fall all the way back to P1, since gold is in short supply.Costs for new firms are likely to be higher than for older firms, since they'll have todiscover new gold sources. So it's likely that the long-run supply curve in the goldChapter 14/Firms in Competitive Markets 285 industry is upward sloping. That means the long-run equilibrium price will be higher thanit was initially.Figure 1114. a. Figure 12 shows cost curves for a California refiner and a non-California refiner. Sincethe California refiner has access to lower-cost oil, its costs are lower.Figure 12b. In long-run equilibrium, the price is determined by the costs of non-California refiners,since California refiners cannot supply the entire market. The market price will equal theminimum average total cost of the other refiners; they will thus earn zero profits. SinceCalifornia refiners have lower costs, they will earn positive profits, equal to (P* - ATC C) xQ C.c. Yes, there is a subsidy to California refiners that is not passed on to consumers. Thesubsidy accounts for the long-run profits of the California refiners. It arises simplybecause the oil cannot be exported.。
微观经济学曼昆第六版课后答案
微观经济学曼昆第六版课后答案【篇一：曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第1章经济学十大原理)】class=txt>第1篇导言第1章经济学十大原理课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．稀缺性（scarcity）答：经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
稀缺性指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有用性与有限性。
人类消费各种物品的欲望是无限的，满足这种欲望的物品，有的可以不付出任何代价而随意取得，称之为自由物品，如阳光和空气；但绝大多数物品是不能自由取用的，因为世界上的资源（包括物质资源和人力资源）是有限的，这种有限的、为获取它必须付出某种代价的物品，称为“经济物品”。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，地球上就存在着资源的有限性和人类的欲望与需求的无限性之间的矛盾。
经济学的一个重要研究任务就是：“研究人们如何进行抉择，以便使用稀缺的或有限的生产性资源（土地、劳动、资本品如机器、技术知识）来生产各种商品，并把它们分配给不同的社会成员进行消费。
”也就是从经济学角度来研究使用有限的资源来生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。
2．经济学（economics）答：经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
时下经常见诸国内报刊文献的“现代西方经济学”一词，大多也都在这个意义上使用。
自从凯恩斯的名著《就业、利息和货币通论》于1936年发表之后，西方经济学界对经济学的研究便分为两个部分：微观经济学与宏观经济学。
经济学专业术语(中英文对照)
经济学专业术语（中英文对照）目录1. 经济学原理 (2)2. 像经济学家一样思考 (2)3. 相互依存性与贸易的好处 (3)4. 供给与需求的市场力量 (3)5. 弹性及其应用 (4)6. 供给需求与政策 (4)7. 消费者、生产者与市场效率 (4)8. 赋税的应用 (4)9. 国际贸易 (5)10. 外部性 (5)11. 公共物品和公共资源 (5)12. 税制设计 (5)13. 生产成本 (6)14. 竞争市场上的企业 (7)15. 垄断 (7)16. 垄断竞争 (7)17. 寡头 (7)18. 生产要素市场 (8)19. 收入与歧视 (8)20. 收入不平等与贫困 (8)21. 消费者选择理论 (9)22. 微观经济学前沿 (9)23. 一国收入的衡量 (10)24. 生活费用的衡量 (10)25. 生产与增长 (10)26. 储蓄、投资和金融体系 (11)27. 金融学的基本工具 (11)28. 失业 (12)29. 货币制度 (12)30. 货币增长与通货膨胀 (13)31. 开放经济的宏观经济学 (14)32. 开放经济的宏观经济理论 (14)33. 总需求与总供给 (14)34. 货币政策和财政政策对总需求影响 (15)35. 通胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍 (15)1.经济学原理经济:(economy)稀缺性:(scarcity)经济学:(economics)效率:(efficiency)平等:(equality)机会成本:(opporyunity cost)理性人:(rational people)边际变动:(marginal change)边际收益:(marginal benefit)边际成本:(marginal cost)激励:(incentive)市场经济:(market economy)产权:(property rights)市场失灵:(market failure)外部性:(externality)市场势力:(market power)生产率:(productivity)通货膨胀:(inflation)经济周期:(business cycle)2.像经济学家一样思考循环流量图:(circular-flow diagram)生产可能性边界:(production possibilities)微观经济学:(microeconomics)宏观经济学:(macroeconomics)实证表述:(positive statements)规范表述:(normative statements)有序数对:(ordered pair)3.相互依存性与贸易的好处绝对优势:(absolute advantage)机会成本:(apportunity cost)比较优势:(comparative advantage)进口品:(imports)出口品:(exports)4.供给与需求的市场力量市场:(market)竞争市场:(competitive market)需求量:(quantity demand)需求定理:(law of demand)需求表:(demand schedule)需求曲线:(demand curve)正常物品:(normal good)低档物品:(inferior good)替代品:(substitutes)互补品:(complements)供给量:(quantity supplied)供给定理:(law of supply)供给表:(supply schedule)供给曲线:(supply curve)均衡:(equilibrium)均衡价格:(equilibrium price)均衡数量:(equilibrium quantity)过剩:(surplus)短缺:(shortage)供求定理:(law of supply and demand)5.弹性及其应用弹性:(elasticity)需求价格弹性:(price elasticity of demand)总收益:(total revenue)需求收入弹性:(income elasticity)需求的交叉价格弹性:(cross-price elasticity)供给价格弹性:(price elasticity of supply)6.供给需求与政策价格上限:(price ceiling)价格下限:(price floor)税收归宿:(tax incidence)7.消费者、生产者与市场效率福利经济学:(welfare economics)支付意愿:(willingness to pay)消费者剩余:(consumer surplus)成本:(cost)生产者剩余:(producer surplus)效率:(efficiency)平等:(equality)8.赋税的应用无谓损失:(deadweight loss)9.国际贸易世界价格:(world price)关税:(tariff)10.外部性外部性:(externality)外部性内在化:(internalizing the externality)矫正税:(corrective taxes)科斯定理:(coase theorem)交易成本:(transaction cost)11.公共物品和公共资源排他性:(excludability)消费中的竞争性:(rivalry in consumption)私人物品:(private goods)公共物品:(public goods)公共资源:(common resources)俱乐部物品:(club goods)搭便车者:(free rider)成本-收益分析:(cost-benefit analysis)公地悲剧:(tragedy of commons)12.税制设计纳税义务:(tax lianility)预算赤字:(budget defict)预算盈余:(budget surplus)平均税率:(average tax rate)边际税率:(marginal tax rate)定额税:(lump-sum tax)受益原则:(benefits principle)支付能力原则:(ability-to-pay principle)纵向平等:(vertical equity)横向平等:(horizontal equity)比例税:(proportional tax)累退税:(regressive tax)累进税:(progressive tax)13.生产成本总收益:(total revenue)总成本:(total cost)利润:(profit)显性成本:(explicit costs)隐性成本:(implicit costs)经济利润:(economic profit)会计利润:(counting profit)生产函数:(production function)边际产量:(marginal product)边际产量递减:(diminishing marginal product)固定成本:(fixed costs)可变成本:(variable costs)平均总成本:(average total cost)平均固定成本:(average fixed costs)平均可变成本:(average variable costs)边际成本:(marginal cost)有效规模:(efficient scale)规模经济:(economies of scale)规模不经济:(diseconomies of scale)规模收益不变:(constant returns to scale) 14.竞争市场上的企业竞争市场:(competitive market)平均收益:(average revenue)边际收益:(marginal revenue)沉没成本:(sunk revenue)15.垄断垄断企业:(monopoly)自然垄断:(natural monopoly)价格歧视:(price discrimination)16.垄断竞争寡头:(oligopoly)垄断竞争:(monopolistic competition) 17.寡头博弈论:(game theory)勾结:(collusion)卡特尔:(cartel)纳什均衡:(Nash equilibrium)囚徒困境:(prisoners’ dilemma)占优策略:(dominant strategy)18.生产要素市场生产要素:(factors of production)生产函数:(production function)劳动的边际产量:(marginal product of labor)边际产量递减:(diminishing marginal product)边际产量值:(value of the marginal product)资本:(capital)19.收入与歧视补偿性工资差别:(compensating differential)人力资本:(human capital)工会:(union)罢工:(strike)效率工资:(efficiency)歧视:(discrimination)20.收入不平等与贫困贫困率:(poverty rate)贫困率:(poverty line)实物转移支付:(in-kind transfers)生命周期:(life cycle)持久收入:(permanent income)功利主义:(utilitariansm)效用:(utilitariansm)自由主义:(liberalism)最大最小准则:(maximin criterion)负所得税:(negative income tax)福利:(welfare)社会保险:(social insurance)自由至上主义:(libertarianism)21.消费者选择理论预算约束线:(budget constraint)无差异曲线:(indiffernnce curve)边际替代率:(marginal rate of subtitution)完全替代品:(perfect substitudes)完全互补品:(perfect complements)正常物品:(normal good)低档物品:(inferior good)收入效应:(income effect)替代效应:(substitution effect)吉芬物品:(Giffen good)22.微观经济学前沿道德风险:(moral hazard)代理人:(agent)委托人:(principal)逆向选择:(adverse selection)发信号:(signaling)筛选:(screening)政治经济学:(political economy)康多塞悖论:(condorcet paradox)阿罗不可能性定理:(Arrow’s impossibility)中值选民定理:(median vater theorem)行为经济学:(behavioral economics)23.一国收入的衡量微观经济学:(microeconomics)宏观经济学:(macroeconomics)国内生产总值:(gross domestic product,GDP)消费:(consumption)投资:(investment)政府购买:(government purchase)净出口:(net export)名义GDP:(nominal GDP)真实GDP:(real GDP)GDP平减指数:(GDP deflator)24.生活费用的衡量消费物价指数:(consumer price index,CPI)通货膨胀率:(inflation rate)生产物价指数:(produer price index,PPI)指数化:(indexation)生活费用津贴:(cost-of-living allowance,COLA)名义利率:(nominal interest rate)25.生产与增长生产率:(productivity)物质资本:(physical capital)人力资本:(human capital)自然资源:(natural resources)技术知识:(technological knoeledge)收益递减:(diminishing returns)追赶效应:(catch-up effect)26.储蓄、投资和金融体系金融体系:(financial system)金融市场:(financial markets)债券:(bond)股票:(stock)金融中介机构:(financial intermediaries)共同基金:(mutual fund)国民储蓄:(national saving)私人储蓄:(private saving)公共储蓄:(public saving)预算盈余:(budget surplus)预算赤字:(budget deficit)可贷资金市场:(market for loanable funds)挤出:(crowding out)27.金融学的基本工具金融学:(finance)现值:(present value)终值:(future value)复利:(compounding)风险厌恶:(risk aversion)多元化:(diversification)企业特有风险:(firm-specific risk)市场风险:(market risk)基本面风险:(fundamental analysis)有效市场假说:(efficient markets by pothesis)信息有效:(informational efficiency)随机游走:(random walk)28.失业劳动力:(laborforce)失业率:(unemployment rate)劳动力参与率:(labor-force participation rate)自然失业率:(natural rate of unemployment)周期性失业:(cyclical unemployment)失去信心的工人:(discouraged workers)摩擦性失业:(frictional unemployment)结构性失业:(structural unemployment)寻找工作:(job search)失业保险:(unemployment insurance)工会:(union)集体谈判:(collective bargaining)罢工:(strike)效率工资:(essiciency wages)29.货币制度货币:(money)交换媒介:(medium of exchange)计价单位:(unit of account)价值储藏手段:(store of value)流动性:(liquidity)商品货币:(commodity money)法定货币:(fiat money)通货:(currency)活期存款:(demand deposits)联邦储备局:(Federal Reserve)中央银行:(central bank)货币供给:(money supply)货币政策:(monetary policy)准备金:(reserves)部分准备金银行:(fractional-reserve banking)准备金率:(reserve ratio)货币乘数:(money multiplier)银行资本:(bank capital)杠杆:(leverage)杠杆率:(leverage ratio)资本需要量:(capital requirement)公开市场操作:(open-market operations)贴现率:(discount rate)法定准备金:(reserve requirements)补充金融计划:(supplementary financing program)联邦基金利率:(federal funds rate)30.货币增长与通货膨胀铲除通胀:(whip Inflation Now)货币数量论:(quantity theory of money)名义变量:(nominal variables)真实变量:(real variables)古典二分法:(classiacl dichotomy)货币中性:(monetary neutrality)货币流通速度:(velocity of money)数量方程式:(quantity equation)通货膨胀税:(inflation tax)费雪效应:(Fisher effect)皮鞋成本:(shoeleather cost)菜单成本:(menu costs)31.开放经济的宏观经济学封闭经济:(closed economy)开放经济:(open economy)出口:(exports)净出口:(net exports)贸易余额:(trade balance)贸易盈余:(trade surplus)贸易平衡:(balanced trade)贸易赤字:(trade deficit)资本净流出:(net capital outflow)名义汇率:(nominal exchange rate)升值:(appreciation)贬值:(depreciation)真实汇率:(real exchange rate)购买力平价:(purchasing-power parity)32.开放经济的宏观经济理论贸易政策:(trade policy)资本外逃:(capital flight)33.总需求与总供给衰退:(recession)萧条:(depression)总需求与总供给模型:(model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply)总需求曲线:(aggregate-demand curve)总供给曲线:(aggregate-supply curve)自然产出水平:(natural level of output)滞胀:(stagflation)34.货币政策和财政政策对总需求影响流动性偏好理论:(theory of liquidity)财政政策:(fisical policy)乘数效应:(multiplier effect)挤出效应:(crowding-out effect)自动稳定器:(automatic stabilizers)35.通胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍菲利普斯曲线:(phillips curve)自然率假说:(natural-rate hypothesis)供给冲击:(supply shock)牺牲率:(sacrifice ratio)理性预期:(rational expectations)。
曼昆《经济学原理》(微观经济学分册)整理
第1章经济学十大原理1.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
稀缺性是指社会拥有的资源是有限的，因此不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与服务。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，就存在着资源的有限性和人类欲望的无限性之间的矛盾。
因此，经济学家研究人们如何做出决策，如何相互影响以及分析影响整个经济的力量和趋势。
经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
2.人们如何做出决策由于-个经济的行为反映了组成这个经济的个人的行为，所以我们的经济学学习就应该从个人做出决策的四个原理开始：原理一：人们而临权衡取舍为了得到一件喜爱的东西，通常就不得不放弃另一件喜爱的东西。
做出决策要求人们在一个目标与另-个目标之间权衡取舍。
效率（efficient）：是指社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最大的利益。
平等（equality）：是指将这些利益平均地分配给社会成员。
原理二：某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西在很多情况下，某种行动的成本并不像乍看时那明显。
一种东西的机会成本是为了得到这种东曲所放弃的东西。
机会成本（opportunity）：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。
原理三：理性人考虑边际量经济学家通常假设，人是理性的。
在机会成本为既定的条件下，理性人（rational people）系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标。
边际变动（marginal change）：对现有行动计划的微小增量调整。
理性人通常比较边际收益（marginal benefit）与边际成本（marginal cost）来做决策。
当且仅当一种行为的边际收益大于边际成本，一个理性决策者才会采取这种行为。
原理四：人们会对激胁做出反应激励（incentive）是引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西（如惩罚或奖励的预期）。
由于理性人通过比较成本与收益做出决策，所以，他们会对激励做出反应。
当成本或收益变动时，他们的行为也会随之发生改变。
中级微观经济学 英文
中级微观经济学英文Intermediate Microeconomics is a course in economics that builds upon the foundations of microeconomics and delves deeper into the analysis of individual markets and market participants. It explores topics such as consumer theory, producer theory, market structure, and welfare economics.Intermediate Microeconomics expands on the concepts introduced in introductory microeconomics, examining the behavior of consumers and firms in more detail. It explores the theory of the consumer, including utility maximization, indifference curve analysis, and the effects of income and price changes on consumption decisions. Producer theory is also covered, including production functions, costs of production, and profit maximization.Market structure is an important aspect of intermediate microeconomics. It examines different types of market competition, such as perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly, and monopoly. The course analyzes the behavior of firms in each market structure, including pricing strategies, output decisions, and the impact of market power.Welfare economics is another key topic in intermediate microeconomics. It examines the efficiency and equity of markets and evaluates the benefits and costs of government intervention. The course explores concepts such as consumer and producer surplus, market failure, and the design of public policy.Overall, Intermediate Microeconomics provides a deeper understanding of the functioning of individual markets and the behavior of economic agents within those markets. It prepares students for further study in economics and equips them with the tools to analyze and understand real-world economic phenomena.。
曼昆经济学原理微观名词解释(中英)
曼昆经济学原理（第七版）微观经济学分册名词解释中英文归纳CHAPTER 1Ten Principles of EconomicsScarcity: the limited nature of society’s resources稀缺性:社会资源的有限性Economics: the study of how society manages its scarce resources经济学:研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源。
Efficiency: the property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resources效率:社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最大利益的特性Equality: the property of distributing economic prosperity uniformly among the members of society平等：经济成果在社会成员中平均分配的特性Opportunity cost: whatever must be given up to obtain some item机会成本:为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。
Rational people: people who systematically and purposefully do the best they can to achieve their objectives理性人:系统而有目的地尽最大努力实现其目标的人Marginal change: a small incremental adjustment to a plan of action边际变动:对行动计划的微小增量调整Incentive: something that induces a person to act激励:引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。
Market economy: an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services市场经济:当许多企业和家庭在物品与服务市场上相互交易时，通过它们的分散决策配置资源的经济。
微观经济学原理(第七版)曼昆名词解释(带英文)
微观经济学原理曼昆名词解释稀缺性（scarcity）：社会资源的有限性。
经济学(economics)：研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源。
效率(efficiency)：社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最多东西的特性。
平等(equality)：经济成果在社会成员中公平分配的特性。
机会成本(opportunity cost)：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。
理性人(rational people)：系统而有目的地尽最大努力实现起目标的人。
边际变动(marginal change)：对行动计划微小的增量调整。
激励(incentive)：引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。
市场经济(market economy)：当许多企业和家庭在物品与劳务市场上相互交易时，通过他们的分散决策配置资源的经济。
产权（property rights）：个人拥有并控制稀缺资源的能力。
市场失灵(market failure)：市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况。
外部性(externality)：一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响。
市场势力(market power)：一个经济活动者（或经济活动者的一个小集团）对市场价格有显著影响的能力。
生产率(productivity)：一个工人一小时所生产的物品与劳务量。
通货膨胀(inflation)：经济中物价总水平的上升。
经济周期(business cycle)：就业和生产等经济活动的波动（就是生产这类经济活动的波动。
）循环流向图(circular-flow diagram)：一个说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型。
生产可能性边界(production possibilities frontier)：表示一个经济在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产量的各种组合的图形。
微观经济学(microeconomics)：研究家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及它们在市场上的相互交易。
宏观经济学(macroeconomics)：研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。
萨缪尔森《微观经济学》(第19版)习题详解(含考研真题)(第10章--寡头和垄断竞争)
萨缪尔森《微观经济学》（第19版）第10章寡头和垄断竞争课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．集中：集中率，HHI（concentration：concentration ratios，HHI）答：市场力量表示单个企业或少数企业控制某一产业的价格和生产决策的程度。
市场力量最常用的衡量指标是一个产业的集中率。
其中，四企业集中率是指四家最大的厂商在某个产业的总产量（或发货量）中所占的百分比；同样，八企业集中率就是前八大厂商在某个产业总产量中所占的百分比。
在完全垄断的情况下，四家或八家企业的集中率都是100%，因为一家企业就生产了所有的产品，而对于完全竞争来说，这两种集中率都接近于零，因为即使是最大企业也只是行业中全部产出的一小部分。
许多经济学家认为，传统的集中率没有能够充分地衡量市场力量。
赫芬达尔—赫希曼指数（HHI）是一种更好的衡量那些占统治地位的企业在行业中的角色的方法。
该指数是将一个市场中所有参与者所占的市场份额的比率的平方进行加总而获得的。
完全竞争的HHI接近零，而完全垄断的HHI则是10000。
2．市场力量（market power）答：市场力量表示单个企业或少数企业控制某一产业的价格和生产决策的程度。
市场力量最常用的衡量指标是一个产业的集中率。
其中，四企业集中率是指四家最大的厂商在某个产业的总产量（或发货量）中所占的百分比；同样，八企业集中率就是前八大厂商在某个产业总产量中所占的百分比。
3．策略互动（strategic interaction）答：策略博弈的本质在于参与者的决策相互依存。
微观经济学(平狄克鲁宾费尔德)第六版课后答案--微观经济学 英文原版-CH10PINDYCK
Chapter 10
3
Review of Perfect Competition
P D Market S P Individual Firm LMC LRAC
P0
P0
D = MR = P
Q0
Q
Chapter 10
q0
Q
4
Monopoly
Monopoly
1. 2. 3. 4.
One seller - many buyers One product (no good substitutes) Barriers to entry Price Maker
or MC MR
Chapter 10
13
Monopolist’s Output Decision
At output levels below MR = MC, the decrease in revenue is greater than the decrease in cost (MR > MC) At output levels above MR = MC, the increase in cost is greater than the decrease in revenue (MR < MC)
Chapter 10
12
Monopolist’s Output Decision
1. Profits maximized at the output level where MR = MC 2. Cost functions are the same
( Q ) R ( Q ) C ( Q ) / Q R / Q C / Q 0 MC MR
Chapter 10 6
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》课后习题详解(第1篇)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》课后习题详解（第1篇）第1篇导言第1章经济学十大原理一、概念题1．稀缺性（scarcity）答：经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
稀缺性指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有用性与有限性。
人类消费各种物品的欲望是无限的，满足这种欲望的物品，有的可以不付出任何代价而随意取得，称之为自由物品，如阳光和空气；但绝大多数物品是不能自由取用的，因为世界上的资源（包括物质资源和人力资源）是有限的，这种有限的、为获取它必须付出某种代价的物品，称为“经济物品”。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，地球上就存在着资源的有限性和人类的欲望与需求的无限性之间的矛盾。
经济学的一个重要研究任务就是：“研究人们如何进行抉择，以便使用稀缺的或有限的生产性资源（土地、劳动、资本品如机器、技术知识）来生产各种商品，并把它们分配给不同的社会成员进行消费。
”也就是从经济学角度来研究使用有限的资源来生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。
2．经济学（economics）答：经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
时下经常见诸国内报刊文献的“现代西方经济学”一词，大多也都在这个意义上使用。
自从凯恩斯的名著《就业、利息和货币通论》于1936年发表之后，西方经济学界对经济学的研究便分为两个部分：微观经济学与宏观经济学。
微观经济学是以单个经济主体（作为消费者的单个家庭或个人，作为生产者的单个厂商或企业，以及单个产品或生产要素市场）为研究对象，研究单个经济主体面对既定的资源约束时如何进行选择的科学。
宏观经济学则以整个国民经济为研究对象，主要着眼于对经济总量的研究。
3．效率（efficiency）答：效率指人们在实践活动中的产出与投入之比值，或者是效益与成本之比值，如果比值大，效率就高；反之，比值小，效率就低。
效率与产出或者收益的大小成正比，而与成本或投入成反比，也就是说，如果想提高效率，必须降低成本或投入，提高收益或产出。
微观经济学：Market Power Monopoly and Monopsony
CHAPTER OUTLINE
10.1 Monopoly 10.2 Monopoly Power 10.3 Sources of Monopoly Power 10.4 The Social Costs of Monopoly Power 10.5 Monopsony 10.6 Monopsony Power
But ΔR/ΔQ is marginal revenue and ΔC/ΔQ is marginal cost. Thus the profitmaximizing condition is that
6 of 52
An Example FIGURE 10.3
EXAMPLE OF PROFIT MAXIMIZATION
5 of 52
We can also see algebraically that Q* maximizes profit. Profit π is the difference between revenue and cost, both of which depend on Q:
As Q is increased from zero, profit will increase until it reaches a maximum and then begin to decrease. Thus the profit-maximizing Q is such that the incremental profit resulting from a small increase in Q is just zero (i.e., Δπ /ΔQ = 0). Then
Part (a) shows total revenue R, total cost C, and profit, the difference between the two.
垄断微观经济学名词解释
垄断微观经济学名词解释垄断是指市场上只有一个或少数几家企业生产和销售某种产品或服务，这些企业面对的是相对缺乏竞争的市场环境。
在垄断市场中，企业通常能够控制价格和供应量，因此具有较大的市场力量。
垄断微观经济学是研究垄断市场行为和效果的分支学科，它揭示了垄断对资源配置、经济效率和社会福利的影响。
以下是对垄断微观经济学中常见名词的解释。
1. 垄断市场（Monopoly Market）垄断市场是指只有一个企业作为市场上唯一的供应者，没有其他企业可以直接进入该市场进行竞争。
企业能够通过控制价格和限制供应量来实施市场操纵，以追求更高的利润。
2. 垄断定价（Monopoly Pricing）垄断定价是指垄断企业根据市场需求和成本条件来确定产品或服务的价格。
垄断企业通常选择高于边际成本的价格，以获取最大利润。
垄断定价往往导致消费者支付较高的价格，并减少消费者剩余。
3. 自然垄断（Natural Monopoly）自然垄断是指某些行业或市场由于规模经济的存在而只能容纳一个企业。
在自然垄断下，一个企业能够以较低的成本生产并满足整个市场的需求，其他企业难以进入并与其竞争。
4. 垄断权（Monopoly Power）垄断权是指垄断企业在市场上掌握的能够影响价格和供应量的市场力量。
具有垄断权的企业能够通过调整价格和供应量来最大化利润，并在一定程度上控制市场。
5. 垄断利润（Monopoly Profit）垄断利润是指垄断企业由于在市场上独占地位而获得的超额利润。
由于缺乏竞争，垄断企业能够以较高的价格销售产品或服务，从而实现利润最大化。
6. 垄断入门壁垒（Monopoly Entry Barrier）垄断入门壁垒是指阻止其他企业进入垄断市场并与垄断企业竞争的因素。
壁垒可以是经济性的，如高度专业化的技术、成本优势和规模经济；也可以是法律或政府规定的，如专利权和专有权。
7. 垄断失灵（Monopoly Failure）垄断失灵指垄断市场下企业的行为和结果与社会经济利益相悖。
宏微观经济学英文名词解释
宏微观经济学英文名词解释Macroeconomics and Microeconomics: Key Concepts Explained。
In the realm of economics, two fundamental branches govern the analysis and understanding of economic systems: macroeconomics and microeconomics. These disciplines delve into the intricate workings of economies, albeit from different perspectives. Below, we elucidate the key concepts in both macro and microeconomics, shedding light on their significance and how they shape our understanding of economic phenomena.Macroeconomics:。
1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): GDP serves as a cornerstone indicator in macroeconomics, representing the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders over a specific period. It encapsulates the economic health and performance of a nation, reflecting its overall output and standard of living.2. Inflation: Inflation denotes the rate at which the general price level of goods and services rises over time. It erodes purchasing power and influences consumer behavior, investment decisions, and government policies. Central banks often target a specific inflation rate to maintain economic stability.3. Unemployment: Unemployment measures the proportion of the labor force actively seeking employment but unable to find jobs. It reflects underutilization of labor resources within an economy, impacting income distribution, social welfare, and government expenditure on welfare programs.4. Fiscal Policy: Fiscal policy pertains to the use of government spending and taxation to influence economic conditions. Governments employ fiscal measures to stimulate or restrain economic growth, manage inflation, and address unemployment through budgetary adjustments and public expenditure programs.5. Monetary Policy: Monetary policy involves the regulation of money supply and interest rates by central banks to achieve macroeconomic objectives. Through tools like open market operations and reserve requirements, monetary authorities aim to control inflation, stabilize currency value, and promote economic growth.Microeconomics:。
人大微观经济学课件第6章完全竞争市场
微观经济学
2、利润最大化的原则：MR=MC
MR>MC ，每增加一单位产品所增加的收益大于这一单 位的成本，厂商有利可图，必然扩大产量；
MR<MC ，每增加一单位产品所增加的收益小于这一单 位的成本，厂商会亏损，必然减少产量；
❖ 只有在MR=MC时，厂商既不扩大，也不缩小产量， 而是维持产量，表明该赚的利润都赚到，即实现生产 者利润最大化。
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微观经济学
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微观经济学第八章 完全竞争
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微观经济学八 经济管理学院
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微观经济学八 经济管理学院
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微观经济学八 经济管理学院
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微观经济学八 经济管理学院
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美国的石油大王洛克菲勒是怎样起家的？
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卸下，那里的居民正等着火油点灯。
不幸的是，轮船在海上爆炸了。别的死里逃生的旅客都在忙
着晒衣服、找饭吃、找住宿。而洛克菲勒却租了一匹快马，长途
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微观经济学有市场势力的定价
优惠券的使用者价格弹性
• 该研究证实优惠 券的使用者倾向 于有更加价格敏 感的需求。 • 若非优惠券使用 者的价格应该是 对使用者价格的 1.5 倍左右。则如 果一盒什锦饼卖 1.50 美 元 ， 那 么 公司应该发可打 50 美 分 折 扣 的 优 惠券。
案例：如何定机票价格 ？
• 从纽约到洛杉矶的头等舱飞机票价几乎要2000美元；常规(无限制的)经济舱 票价大约1200美元；而待那折扣份只要少到500美元就能买到。航空公司为什 么要这样定票价呢? • 不同的票价给航空公司提供了一种有利可图的价格歧视方式。 • 从这种歧视的得益是巨大的，因为需求弹性差别很大的不同类型的顾客会分 别购买不同类型的机票。对折扣票的需求的价格弹性是头等舱和无限制二等 舱的2～3倍。 • 折扣票通常是家庭或其他有闲暇的旅行者购买的，而头等舱和无限的二等舱 票则常常是商务旅客购买。商务旅客对何时旅行往往很少能选择，且他们的 公司会承担费用。
或：
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特例：不向较小的市场销售
价格歧视的数学表述
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