2010_Judges_Com

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recurrent_neural_network_regularization

2
R ELATED

WORK
Dropout Srivastava (2013) is a recently introduced regularization method that has been very successful with feed-forward neural networks. While much work has extended dropout in various ways Wang & Manning (2013); Wan et al. (2013), there has been relatively little research in applying it to RNNs. The only paper on this topic is by Bayer et al. (2013), who focuses on “marginalized dropout” Wang & Manning (2013), a noiseless deterministic approximation to standard dropout. Bayer et al. (2013) claim that conventional dropout does not work well with RNNs because the recurrence ampliﬁes noise, which in turn hurts learning. In this work, we show that this problem can be ﬁxed by applying dropout to a certain subset of the RNNs’ connections. As a result, RNNs can now also beneﬁt from dropout. Independently of our work, Pham et al. (2013) developed the very same RNN regularization method and applied it to handwriting recognition. We rediscovered this method and demonstrated strong empirical results over a wide range of problems. Other work that applied dropout to LSTMs is Pachitariu & Sahani (2013).

NOI2010(1)

单选题：1. NOI 机试使用的操作系统是：A. WindowsB. LinuxC. MacOSD. Vxworks答案：B2. Linux 中为文件改名使用的命令是：A. mvB. renC. chrootD. su答案：A3. 在Linux 中返回上一级目录使用的命令是：A. cd答案：CB. cd .C. cd ..D. cd ./4. 在Linux 中删除当前目录下的test 目录的命令是：A. mv testB. rm –p testC. rm –r testD. rm –f test答案：C5. 当前目录下有一个编译好的可执行文件a.out，执行它使用的命令是：A. a.outB. . a.outC. ./a.outD. ./a答案：C6. 使用高级语言编写的程序称之为：A. 源程序B. 编辑程序C. 编译程序D. 链接程序答案：A7. 属于面向对象程序设计语言的是：A. C C. Pascal 答案：BB. C++ D. Basic8. 下列哪个程序在NOI Linux 系统中可以用来调试程序：A. gdb C. debug 答案：AB. gbd D. grub9. 在Linux 系统中，下面的说法中正确的是：A. 文件夹中的文件可以与该文件夹同名B. 文件夹中的文件不能与该文件夹同名C. 在不同文件夹中的两个文件不可以使用相同的文件名D. 以上说法都不对10. Linux 系统中杀死名为test 的后台进程的命令是：A. kill test答案：CB. kill -9 testC. killall testD. kill -1 test11. Linux 系统中可以查看隐藏文件的命令是：A. ls -d C. ls -R 答案：BB. ls -a D. ls -l12. Linux 系统中编译C 程序的编译器是：A. gcc C. vc答案：A B. g++ D. fpc13. Linux 系统中编译Pascal 程序的编译器是：A. gcc C. vc答案：D B. g++ D. fpc14. Linux 系统中编译C++程序的编译器是：A. gcc C. vc答案：B B. g++ D. fpc15. Linux 系统中，将当前目录下的文件名打印到tmp 文件中的命令是：A. ls >tmp C. vi .答案：A B. ls tmp D. ls -a tmp16. Linux 系统中，测量当前目录下程序test 运行时间的命令是：A. ./test C. gdb test . 答案：BB. time ./test D. time test17. vim 编辑器中，强制退出不保存修改应当输入：A. :qq C. :q! . 答案：CB. :q D. :wq18. vim 编辑器中，强制退出并保存修改应当输入：A. :qq C. :q! .B. :q D. :wq19. vim 编辑器中，定位到文件中第12 行应当输入：A. /12B. :12C. 12答案：B. D. -1220. vim 编辑器中，在文件中查找字符串“12”应当输入：A. /12 C. 12答案：A B. :12 D. -1221. 使用gcc 编译C 程序时，生成调试信息的命令行选项是：A. -g C. -c答案：A B. -O2 D. -Wall22. 使用gcc 编译C 程序时，生成所有警告信息的命令行选项是：A. -g C. -c答案：D B. -O2 D. -Wall23. 使用gcc 编译C 程序时，只编译生成目标文件的命令行选项是：A. -g C. -c答案：C B. -O2 D. -Wall24. 使用gcc 编译C 程序时，指定输出文件名的命令行选项是：A. -g C. -c答案：B B. -o D. -Wall25. 如果C 程序中使用了math.h 中的函数，在编译时需要加入哪个选项：A. –omB. –lmC. –omD. –gm答案：B26. Linux 系统中具有最高权限的用户是：A. AdminB. AdministratorC. rootD. supervisor答案：C27. 如何在Linux 的各个虚拟控制台中切换：A. Ctrl+FnB. Ctrl+Alt+FnC. Shift+FnD. Alt+n答案：B28. 在NOI Linux 中，从字符控制台切换回桌面环境使用的快捷键是：D. Ctrl+Alt+F7A. Ctrl+F1B. Ctrl+F7C. Alt+F1答案：D29. 在NOI Linux 中默认使用的Shell 是：A. kshB. bashC. cshD. busybox答案：B30. 在Linux 中查看当前系统中的进程使用的命令是：D. lsA. freeB. ifconfigC. ps答案：C31. 在Linux 中如何查看进程的CPU 利用率：D. cpuinfoA. freeB. ifconfigC. ps答案：C32. 如果自己的程序进入死循环，应当如何终止：A. Ctrl-CB. Ctrl-DC. Alt-CD. Alt-D答案：A33. 可执行文件a.out 从标准输入读取数据。

A statistical interpretation of term specificity and its application in retrieval

Reprinted fromJournal of DocumentationVolume 60 Number 5 2004 pp. 493-502Copyright © MCB University Press ISSN 0022-0418and previously fromJournal of DocumentationVolume 28 Number 1 1972 pp. 11-21A statistical interpretation of term specificityand its application in retrievalKaren Spärck JonesComputer Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UKAbstract: The exhaustivity of document descriptions and the specificity of index terms are usually regarded as independent. It is suggested that specificity should be interpreted statistically, as a function of term use rather than of term meaning. The effects on retrieval of variations in term specificity are examined, experiments with three test collections showing, in particular, that frequently-occurring terms are required for good overall performance. It is argued that terms should be weighted according to collection frequency, so that matches on less frequent, more specific, terms are of greater value than matches on frequent terms. Results for the test collections show that considerable improvements in performance are obtained with this very simple procedure.Exhaustivity and specificityWe are familiar with the notions of exhaustivity and specificity: exhaustivity is a property of index descriptions, and specificity one of index terms. They are most clearly illustrated by a simple keyword or descriptor system. In this case the exhaustivity of a document description is the coverage of its various topics given by the terms assigned to it; and the specificity of an individual term is the level of detail at which a given concept is represented.These features of a document retrieval system have been discussed by Cleverdon et al. (1966) and Lancaster (1968), for example, and the effects of variation in either have been noted. For instance, if the exhaustivity of a document description is increased by the assignment of more terms, when the number of terms in the indexing vocabulary is constant, the chance of the document matching a request is increased. The idea of an optimum level of indexing exhaustivity for a given document collection then follows: the average number of descriptors per document should be adjusted so that, hopefully, the chances of requests matching relevant documents are maximized, while too many false drops are avoided. Exhaustivity obviously applies to requests too, and one function of a search strategy is to vary request exhaustivity. I will be mainly concerned here, however, with document descriptions. Specificity as characterized above is a semantic property of index terms: a term is more or less specific as its meaning is more or less detailed and precise. This is a natural view for anyone concerned with the construction of an entire indexing vocabulary. Some decision has to be made about the discriminating power of individual terms in addition to their descriptive propriety. For example, the index term "beverage" may be as properly used for documents about tea, coffee, and cocoa as the terms "tea", "coffee", and "cocoa". Whether the moregeneral term "beverage" only is incorporated in the vocabulary, or whether "tea", "coffee", and "cocoa" are adopted, depends on judgements about the retrieval utility of distinctions between documents made by the latter but not the former. It is also predicted that the more general term would be applied to more documents than the separate terms "tea", "coffee", and "cocoa", so the less specific term would have a larger collection distribution than the more specific ones.It is of course assumed here that such choices when a vocabulary is constructed are exclusive: we may either have "beverage" or "tea", "coffee", and "cocoa". What happens if we have all four terms is a different matter. We may then either interpret "beverage" to mean "other beverages" or explicitly treat it as a related broader term. I will, however, disregard these alternatives here.In setting up an index vocabulary the specificity of index terms is looked at from one point of view: we are concerned with the probable effects on document description, and hence retrieval, of choosing particular terms, or rather of adopting a certain set of terms. For our decisions will, in part, be influenced by relations between terms, and how the set of chosen terms will collectively characterize the set of documents. But throughout we assume some level of indexing exhaustivity. We are concerned with obtaining an effective vocabulary for a collection of documents of some broadly known subject matter and size, where a given level of indexing exhaustivity is believed to be sufficient to represent the content of individual documents adequately, and distinguish one document from another.Index term specificity must, however, be looked at from another point of view. What happens when a given index vocabulary is actually used? We predict when we opt for "beverage", for example, that it will be used more than "cocoa". But we do not have much idea of how many documents there will be to which "beverage" may appropriately be assigned. This is not simply determined even when some level of exhaustivity is assumed. There will be some documents which cry out for "beverage", so to speak, and we may have some idea of what proportion of the collection this is likely to be. There will also be documents to which "beverage" cannot justifiably be assigned, and this proportion may also be estimated. But there is unfortunately liable to be some number of documents to which "beverage" may or may not be assigned, in either case quite plausibly. In general, therefore, the actual use of a descriptor may diverge considerably from the predicted use. The proportions of a collection to which a term does and does not belong can only be estimated very roughly; and there may be enough intermediate documents for the way the term is assigned to these to affect its overall distribution considerably. Over a long period the character of the collection as a whole may also change, with further effects on term distribution.This is where the level of exhaustivity of description matters. As a collection grows maintaining a certain level of exhaustivity may mean that the descriptions of different documents are not sufficiently distinguished, while some terms are very heavily used. More generally, great variation in term distribution is likely to appear. It may thus be the case that a particular term becomes less effective as a means of retrieval, whatever its actual meaning. This is because it is not discriminating. It may be properly assigned to documents, in the sense that their content justifies the assignment; but it may no longer be sufficiently useful in itself as a device for distinguishing the typically small class of documents relevant to a request from the remainder of the collection. A frequently used term thus functions in retrieval as a nonspecific term, even though its meaning may be quite specific in the ordinary sense. Statistical specificityIt is not enough, in other words, to think of index term specificity solely in setting up an index vocabulary, as having to do with accuracy of concept representation. We should think of specificity as a function of term use. It should be interpreted as a statistical rather than semantic property of index terms. In general we may expect vaguer terms to be used more often, but the behaviour of individual terms will be unpredictable. We can thus redefine exhaustivity and specificity for simple term systems: the exhaustivity of a document description is the number of terms it contains, and the specificity of a term is the number of documents to which it pertains. The relation between the two is then clear, and we can see, for instance, that a change in the exhaustivity of descriptions will affect term specificity: ifdescriptions are longer, terms will be used more often. This is inevitable for a controlled vocabulary, but also applies if extracted keywords are used, particularly in stem form. The incidence of words new to the keyword vocabulary does not simply parallel the number of documents indexed, and the extraction of more keywords per document is more likely to increase the frequency of current keywords than to generate new ones.Once this statistical interpretation of specificity, and the relation between it and exhaustivity, are recognized, it is natural to attempt a more formal approach to seeking an optimum level of specificity in a vocabulary and an optimum level of exhaustivity in indexing, for a given collection. Within the broad limits imposed by having sensible terms, i.e. ones which can be reached from requests and applied to documents, we may try to set up a vocabulary with the statistical properties which are hopefully optimal for retrieval. Purely formal calculations may suggest the correct number of terms, and of terms per document, for a certain degree of document discrimination. Work on these lines has been done by Zunde and Slamecka (1967), for instance. More informally, the suggestion that descriptors should be designed to have approximately the same distribution, made by Salton (1968), for example, is motivated by respect for the retrieval effects of purely statistical features of term use.Unfortunately, abstract calculations do not select actual terms. Nor are document collections static. More importantly, it is difficult to control requests. One may characterize documents with a view to distinguishing them nicely and then find that users do not provide requests utilizing these distinctions. We may therefore be forced to accept a de facto non-optimal situation with terms of varying specificity and at least some disagreeably non-specific terms. There will be some terms which, whatever the original intention, retrieve a large number of documents, of which only a small proportion can be expected to be relevant to a request. Such terms are on the whole more of a nuisance than rare, over-specific terms which fail to retrieve documents.These features of term behaviour can be illustrated by examples from three well-known test collections, obtained from the Aslib Cranfield, INSPEC, and College of Librarianship Wales projects. In fact in these the vocabulary consists of extracted keyword stems, which may be expected to show more variation than controlled terms. But there is no reason to suppose that the situation is essentially different. Full descriptions of the collections are given in Cleverdon et al. (1966), Aitchison et al. (1970), and Keen (forthcoming). Relevant characteristics of the collections are given in Section A of Table I. The INSPEC Collection, for instance, has 541 documents indexed by 1,341 terms. In all the collections, there are some very frequently occurring terms: for example in the Cranfield collection, one term occurs in 144 out of 200 documents; in the INSPEC one term occurs in 112 out of 541, and in the Keen collection one term occurs in 199 out of 797 documents. The terms concerned do not necessarily represent concepts central to the subject areas of the collections, and they are not always general terms. In the Keen collection, which is about information science, the most frequent term is "index-", and other frequent ones include "librar-", "inform-", and "comput-". In the INSPEC collection the most frequent is "theor-", followed by "measur-" and "method-". And in the Cranfield collection the most frequent is "flow-", followed by "pressur-", "distribut-" and "bound-" (boundary). The rarer terms are a fine mixed bag including "purchas-", and "xerograph-" for Keen, "parallel-" and "silver-" for INSPEC, and "logarithm-" and "seri-" (series) for Cranfield.Table ISpecificity and matchingHow should one cope with variable term specificity, and especially with insufficiently specific terms, when these occur in requests? The untoward effects of frequent term use can in principle be dealt with very naturally, through term combinations. For instance, though the three terms "bound-", "layer-", and "flow-" occur in 73, 62, and 144 documents each in the Cranfield collection, there are only50 documents indexed by all three terms together. Relying on term conjunction is quite straightforward. It is in particular a way of overcoming the untoward consequences of the fact that requests tend to be formulated in better known, and hence generally more frequent, terms. It is unfortunate, but not surprising, that requests tend to be presented in terms with an average frequency much above that for the indexing vocabulary as a whole. This holds for all three test collections, as appears in Section B of Table I. For the Cranfield collection, for example, the average number of postings for the terms in the vocabulary is nine, while the average for the terms used in the requests is 31.6; for Keen the figures are 6.1 and 44.8.But relying on term combination to reduce false drops is well-known to be risky. It is true that the more terms in common between a document and a request, the more likely it is that the document is relevant to the request. Unfortunately, it just happens to be difficult to match term conjunctions. This is well exhibited by the term-matching behaviour of the three collections, as shown in Section C of Table I. The average number of starting terms per request ranges from 5.3 for Keen to 6.9 for Cranfield. But the average number of retrieving terms per request, i.e. the average of the highest matching scores, ranges from 3.2 to 5.0. More importantly, the average number of matching terms for the relevant documents retrieved ranges from only 1.8 for Keen to 3.6 for Cranfield, though fortunately the average for all documents retrieved, which are predominantly non-relevant, ranges from a mere 1.2 to 1.8.Clearly, one solution to this problem is to provide for more matching terms in some way. This may be achieved either by providing alternative substitutes for given terms, through a classification; or by increasing the exhaustivity of document or request specifications, say by adding statistically associated terms. But either approach involves effort, perhaps considerable effort, since the sets of terms related to individual terms must be identified. The question naturally arises as to whether better use of existing term descriptions can be made which does not involve such effort.As very frequently occurring terms are responsible for noise in retrieval, one possible course is simply to remove them from requests. The fact that this will reduce the number of terms available for conjoined matching may be offset by the fact that fewer non-relevant documents will be retrieved. Unfortunately, while frequent terms cause noise, they are also required for reasonably high recall. For all three test collections, the deletion of very frequent terms by the application of a suitable threshold leads to a decline in overall performance. For the INSPEC collection, for example, the threshold was set to delete terms occurring in 20 or more documents, so that 73 terms out of the total vocabulary of 1,341 were removed. The effect in retrieval performance is illustrated by the recall/precision graph of Figure 1 for the Cranfleld collection. Matching is by simple term co-ordination levels, and averaging over the set ofrequests is by straightforward average of numbers. Precision at ten standard recall values is then interpolated. The same relationship between full term matching and this restricted matching with non-frequent terms only is exhibited by the other collections: the recall ceiling is lowered by at least 30 per cent, and indeed for the Keen collection is reduced from 75 per cent to 25 per cent, though precision is maintained.Inspection of the requests shows why this result is obtained. Not merely is request term frequency much above average collection frequency; the comparatively small number of very frequent terms plays a large part in request formulation. "Flow-" for example, appears in twelve Cranfield requests out of 42, and in general for all three collections about half the terms in a request are very frequent ones, as shown in Section D of Table I. Throwing very frequent terms away is throwing the baby out with the bath water, since they are required for the retrieval of many relevant documents. The combination of non-frequent terms is discriminating, but no more than that of frequent and non-frequent terms. The value of the non-frequent terms is clearly seen, on the other hand, when matching using frequent terms only is compared with full matching, also shown in Figure 1. Matching levels for total and relevant documents are nearly as high as for all terms, but the non-frequent terms in the latter raise the relevant matching level about I.These features of term retrieval suggest that to improve on the initial full term performance we need to exploit the good features of very frequent and non-frequent terms, while minimizing their bad ones. We should allow some merit in frequent term matches, while allowing rather more in non-frequent ones. In any case we wish to maximize the number of matching terms.Figure 1Weighting by specificityThis clearly suggests a weighting scheme. In normal term co-ordination matches, if a request and document have a frequent term in common, this counts for as much as a non-frequent one; so if a request and document share three common terms, the document is retrieved at the same level as another one sharing three rare terms with the request. But it seems we should treat matches on non-frequent terms as more valuable than ones on frequent terms, without disregarding the latter altogether. The natural solution is to correlate a term's matching value with its collection frequency. At this stage the division of terms into frequent and non-frequent is arbitrary and probably not optimal: the elegant and almost certainly better approach is to relate matching value more closely to relative frequency. The appropriate way of doing this is suggested by the term distribution curve for the vocabulary, which has the familiar Zipf shape. Let f(n)=m such that 2m-1 < n<=2m. Then where there are N documents in the collection, the weight of a term which occurs n times is f(N) - f(n) + 1. For the Cranfield collection with 200 documents, for example, this means that a term occurring ninety times has weight 2, while one occurring three times has weight 7.The matching value of a term is thus correlated with its specificity and the retrieval level of a document is determined by the sum of the values of its matching terms. Simple co-ordination levels are replaced by a more sophisticated quasi-ranking. The effect can be illustrated by the different retrieval levels at which two documents matching a request on the same number of relatively frequent and relatively non-frequent terms respectively. With the Cranfield range of values, a document matching on two terms with frequencies 15 and 43 will be retrieved at level 5+3=8, while one matching on terms with frequencies 3 and 7 will be retrieved at level7+6=13. Clearly, as the range of levels is "stretched", more discrimination is possible.The idea of term weighting is not new. But it is typically related to the presumed importance of a term with respect to a document in itself. For instance, if a document is mainly about paint and only mentions varnish in passing, we may utilize some simple weighting scale to assign a weight of 2 to the term "paint" and 1 to Varnish". More informally, in putting a request, we may state that during searching term x must be retained, but term y may be dropped. More systematic weighting on a statistical base may be adopted if the necessary information is available. If the actual frequency of occurrence of terms in a document (or abstract) is known, this may be used to generate weights. Artandi and Wolfe (1969) report the use of frequency to select a weight from a three-point scale, while Salton (1968) more wholeheartedly uses the frequency of occurrence as a weight. In a range of experiments Salton has demonstrated that weighting terms in this way leads to a noticeable improvement in performance over that obtained for unweighted terms.Weighting by collection frequency as opposed to document frequency is quite different. It places greater emphasis on the value of a term as a means of distinguishing one document from another than on its value as an indication of the content of the document itself. The relation between the two forms of weighting is not obvious. In some cases a term may be common in a document and rare in the collection, so that it would be heavily weighted in both schemes. But the reverse may also apply. It is really that the emphasis is on different properties of terms.The treatment of term collection frequency in connection with term matching does not seem to have been systematically investigated. The effect of term frequency on statistical associations has been studied, for example by Lesk, but this is a different matter. The fact that a given term is likely to retrieve a large number of documents may be informally exploited in setting up searches, in particular in the context of on-line retrieval as described by Borko (1968), for example. More whole-hearted approaches are probably hampered by the lack of the necessary information. Such a procedure as the one described is also much more suited to automatic than manual searching. It is of interest, therefore, that term frequencies have been exploited in the general manner indicated within an operational interactive retrieval system for internal reports implemented at A.D. Little (Curtice and Jones, 1969). In this system indexing keywords are extracted automatically from text, and the weighting is therefore associated with a changing vocabulary and collection. However, no systematic experiments are reported.Experimental resultsThe term weighting system described was tried on the three collections. As noted, these are very different in character, with different sizes of vocabulary, document description, and request specification, as indicated in Table I. In all cases, however, matching with term weighting led to a substantial improvement in performance over simple term matching. The results presented in the form mentioned earlier, are given in Figures 2, 3 and 4. A simple significance test based on the difference in area enclosed by the curves shows that the improvement given by weighted terms is fully significant, the difference being well above the required minimum.These results are of interest for two reasons. All three collections have been used for a whole range of experiments with different index languages, search techniques, and so on: see Cleverdon et al. (1966), Salton (1968), Salton and Lesk (1968), Spärck Jones (1971), Aitchison et al. (1970) and Keen (forthcoming). The performance improvement obtained here nevertheless represents as good an improvement over simple unweighted keyword stem matching as has been obtained by any other means, including carefully constructed thesauri: Salton's iterative search methods are not comparable. The details of the way these experimental results are presented varies, so rigorous comparisons are impossible: but the general picture is clear. Indeed, insofar as anything can be called a solid result in information retrieval research, this is one. The second point about the present results is that the improvement in performance is obtained by extremely simple means. It is compatible with an initially plain method of indexing, namely the use of extracted keywords, which may be reduced to stems automatically; it is readily implemented given an automatic term-matching procedure, since all that is required is a term frequency list and this is easily obtained; and it has the merit that the weight assigned to terms is naturally adjusted to follow the growth of and changes in a collection. Experiments with very much larger collections than those used here are clearly desirable; they will hopefully not be long delayed.Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4ReferencesAitchison, T.M., Hall, A.M., Lavelle, K.H., Tracy, J.M., 1970, Comparative evaluation of index languages, Part II; Results, Project INSPEC, Institute of Electrical Engineers, London. Artandi, S., Wolf, E.H., 1969, "The effectiveness of automatically-generated weights and links", American Documentation, 20, 3, 198-202.Borko, H., 1968, "Interactive document storage and retrieval systems - design concepts", Samualeson, Mechanised Information Storage, Retrieval and Dissemination, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 591-9.Cleverdon, C.W., Mills, J., Keen, E.M., 1966, Factors Determining the Performance of Indexing Systems, 2 vols, Aslib-Cranfield Project, Cranfield.Curtice, R.M., Jones, P.E., 1969, An Operational Interactive Retrieval System, Arthur D. Little Inc., Cambridge, MA.Keen (forthcoming, Digger, J.A., 1972, Report of an Information Science Index Languages Test, 2 vols, College of Librarianship, Wales, Aberystwyth.Lancaster, F.W., 1968, Information Retrieval Systems: Characteristics, Testing and Evaluation, Wiley, New York, NY.Salton, G., 1968, Automatic Information Organization and Retrieval, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.Salton, G., Lesk, M.E., 1968, "Computer evaluation of indexing and text processing", Journal of the ACM, 15, 1, 8-36.Spärck Jones, K., 1971, Automatic Keyword Classification for Information Retrieval, Butterworths, London.Zunde, P., Slamecka, V., 1967, "Distribution of indexing terms for maximum efficiency of information transmission", American Documentation, 18, 104-8.。

NOIP2010题解---关押罪犯

到以上，我们就有了一个粗略的想法：就是通过枚举的思想，枚举最大的边，将比它大的边删去，那么，对于剩下的图来说，如果我们能够将之划分成二分图，则当前所枚举的最大边就将是一个可行的解。并且，我们可以想到的一个判断二分图的可行方法就是宽度搜索：将图中的一个没选过的点标上1，与之相连的点标上2，然后再依次标上1,2......，当然，如果其中出现了矛盾，则说明这个图不可二分。
var
n,m:longint;
f,s:array[0..maxn+1] of longint;
a,b,c:array[0..maxm+1] of longint;
function findsets(k:longint):longint;
var
y:longint;
begin
begin
writeln(c[i]);
exit;
end;
end
else combinesets(a[i],b[i]); {否则将二者合并，建立关系}
end;
writeln(0);{删去所有的边后仍然符合条件，则说明此时应当输出0}
if f[k]<>k then
begiy); {路径的压缩}
s[k]:=(s[k]+s[y]) mod 2; {在路径压缩中正确的建立与新的父亲的新的关系}
end;
exit(f[k]);
end;
if not (i>j) then
begin
y:=a[i]; a[i]:=a[j]; a[j]:=y;
y:=b[i]; b[i]:=b[j]; b[j]:=y;
y:=c[i]; c[i]:=c[j]; c[j]:=y;

2010考研英语一阅读及答案

Text 1（2010）Of all the changes that have taken place in English-language newspapers during the past quarter-century, perhaps the most far-reaching has been the inexorable decline in the scope and seriousness of their arts coverage.It is difficult to the point of impossibility for the average reader under the age of forty to imagine a time when high-quality arts criticism could be found in most big-city newspapers. Yet a considerable number of the most significant collections of criticism published in the 20th century consisted in large part of newspaper reviews. To read such books today is to marvel at the fact that their learned contents were once deemed suitable for publication in general-circulation dailies.We are even farther removed from the unfocused newspaper reviews published in England between the turn of the 20th century and the eve of World War II, at a time when newsprint was dirt-cheap and stylish arts criticism was considered an ornament to the publications in which it appeared. In those far-off days, it was taken for granted that the critics of major papers would write in detail and at length about the events they covered. Theirs was a serious business, and even those reviewers who wore their learning lightly, like George Bernard Shaw and Ernest Newman, could be trusted to know what they were about. These men believed in journalism as a calling, and were proud to be published in the daily press. “So few authors have brains enough or literary gift enough to keep their own end up in journalism,” Newman wrote, “that I am tempted to define ‘journalism’ as ‘a term of contempt applied by writers who are not read to writers who are.’”Unfortunately, these critics are virtually forgotten. Neville Cardus, who wrote for the Manchester Guardian从1917直至1975年去世，他主要作为板球的散文作家广为人知。

2010年考研英语(一)阅读理解全文翻译及解析

Text 1①Of all the changes that have taken place in English-language newspapers during the past quarter-century, perhaps the most far-reaching has been the inexorable decline in the scope and seriousness of their arts coverage.①It is difficult to the point of impossibility for the average reader under the age of forty to imagine a time when high-quality arts criticism could be found in most big-city newspapers. ②Yet a considerable number of the most significant collections of criticism published in the 20th century consisted in large part of newspaper reviews. ③To read such books today is to marvel at the fact that their learned contents were once deemed suitable for publication in general-circulation dailies.① We are even farther removed from the unfocused newspaper reviews published in England between the turn of the 20th century and the eve of World War 2,at a time when newsprint was dirt-cheap and stylish arts criticism was considered an ornament to the publications in which it appeared. ②In those far-off days, it was taken for granted that the critics of major papers would write in detail and at length about the events they covered. ③Theirs was a serious business. and even those reviews who wore their learning lightly, like George Bernard Shaw and Ernest Newman, could be trusted to know what they were about. ④These men believed in journalism as a calling, and were proud to be published in the daily press. ⑤So few authors have brains enough or literary gift enough to keep their own end up in ournalism,Newman wrote, "that I am tempted to define "journalism" as "a term of contempt applied by writers who are not read to writers who are".①Unfortunately, these critics are virtually forgotten. ②Neville Cardus, who wrote for the Manchester Guardian from 1917 until shortly before his death in 1975, is now known solely as a writer of essays on the game of cricket. ③During his lifetime, though, he was also one of England's foremost classical-music critics, and a stylist so widely admired that his Autobiography (1947) became a best-seller. ④He was knighted in 1967, the first music critic to be so honored.⑤Yet only one of his books is now in print, and his vast body of writings on music is unknown save to specialists.①Is there any chance that Cardus's criticism will enjoy a revival? ②The prospect seems remote.③Journalistic tastes had changed long before his death, and postmodern readers have little use for the richly uphostered Vicwardian prose in which he specialized. ④Moreover,the amateur tradition in music criticism has been in headlong retreat.全文翻译：在过去的25 年英语报纸所发生的变化中，影响最深远的可能就是它们对艺术方面的报道在范围上毫无疑问的缩小了，而且这些报道的严肃程度也绝对降低了。

学术英语写作_东南大学中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年

学术英语写作_东南大学中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年1.Which of the following is NOT the purpose of nominalization?答案:Express concrete concepts.2.Which of the following statement is TRUE?答案:The sentence nominalization formula consists of 4 steps, writing a simple sentence, nominalizing a main verb or adjective, adding a second verb and writing the additional information.3.To avoid plagiarism, graduate students can________.答案:not use exactly the same language when borrowing ideas4.Which of the following statements is TRUE in terms of paraphrasing?答案:Lexical+syntactic paraphrasing is better than separate use of lexical orsyntactic paraphrasing.5.To begin the Discussion section, you may remind readers of your ______,preferably in a single sentence.答案:goals6.Discussion sections which do not have a Conclusion may end with _________.答案:what the findings imply7.Unlike the Abstract and Introduction, the Conclusions section does not_________.答案:provide background details8.One of the key elements of the Conclusion section is a final _________ on thesignificance of the findings in terms of their implications and impact, along with possible applications to other areas.judgment9.________ answer the question “Why did the event happen?”答案:Causes10.If you can discuss a cause without having to discuss any other causes, thenvery likely it is a ______ cause.答案:direct11. A ________ means two unrelated things happening together.答案:coincidence12.If you are describing ideas and concepts, ________ language is appropriate.abstractpared with the sign ‘HOUSE FOR SALE’, ‘HOME FOR SALE’ may bepreferred for advertisement because the word ‘home’ is full of _________.答案:connotations14.Speaking of basic sentence structures we may think of all of the followingexcept ________.答案:common sentences15. A ___ thesis statement may make a claim that requires analysis to support andevolve it.答案:strong16.“Shopping malls are wonderful places.” is a weak thesis statement in that it_________.答案:offers personal conviction as the basis for the claim17. A weak thesis statement _________.答案:either makes no claim or makes a claim that does not need proving18.Which of the following words or expressions can NOT be used as a sequentialmarker？答案:although19.The authors prefer to use the adjectives such as “apparent” and “obvious”when describing the information of the graphs because they want to____ the significant data.答案:highlight20.Which of the following statements is NOT true when we describe theinformation in a graph and make some comparison?答案:We only compare the information which we are very familiar with.21.Which of the words and expressions can be used to show contrast?答案:on the contrary22.The Method Section provides the information by which the ______ andcredibility of a study can ultimately be judged.答案:validity23.Which of the statements is NOT true about the Method Section?答案:The Method Section is very important because it provides the information of data collection and data analysis.24.When referring to a figure, you can use an expression like ______.答案:As shown in Figure 1…25.To write a literature review, what should you write about after discussing thelimitations of the previous works?答案:The gap revealed by these limitations.26.If you plan to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of keyconcepts in your literature review, which of following method would youadopt to organize it?答案:Theoretical27.Which of the following tenses could be used to refer to ongoing situations, i.e.when authors are still investigating a particular field?答案:The present perfect28.______ is used for communication between the editor and authors.答案:Cover letter29.The register of the following discourse is ____.Dear Professor Adams, I’m texting you to ask for a sick leave for your class of next week. I was just diagnosed as having flu, which is contagious. Can I have your PowerPoint to make it up? Thank you very much for your understanding.答案:consultative30.The register of the following discourse is ____.I’m sick and tired of your crap!答案:personal31.For beginner writers, the title should be as short as possible.答案:错误32.If you find a book highly relevant to your essay, you don't have to search forother materials.答案:错误33. A student should choose a topic for their essay based on professors’ interest.答案:错误34.Nominalization makes writing more “written” and professional.答案:正确35.Keywords can be selected from the method used in a paper.答案:正确36.IEEE style is always used in medicine.答案:错误37.There are only two reference styles.答案:错误38.Reference is used to avoid unethical behaviors in academic writing.答案:正确39.For a paper, properly selected keywords can increase its possibilities of beingread and cited.答案:正确40.Cover letter is written to the author of a paper.答案:错误41.The contact information is unnecessary to be provided in a cover letter.答案:错误42.Acknowledgement sometimes will be omitted in a paper.答案:正确43.Acknowledgement is used to express gratitude to tutors but not fundproviders.答案:错误44.The elements included in the Method Section should be the same in differentjournals.答案:错误45.When you conduct your experiments by following other researchers’methods, you should acknowledge these researchers to avoid plagiarism.答案:正确46.We only use the past tense when writing the Method Section and the ResultsSection.答案:错误47.The purpose of writing a literature review is to produce a thesis statementbased on the current understanding about the research topic.答案:正确48.The simple literature review model not only presents the current state ofknowledge about a topic but also argues how this knowledge reasonablyleads to a problem or to a question requiring original research.答案:错误49.Your professor discussed some interesting ideas in today’s lecture on Plato. Itis not academically dishonest if you decide to use these ideas in your paper without giving the source.答案:错误50.To summarize is to give a shortened version of the written or spokenmaterial, stating the main points and leaving out anything that is notessential.答案:正确。

CURRENTGRADUATESTUDENTSFORMERGRADUATE…

George NagyCURRENT GRADUATE STUDENTSFORMER GRADUATE STUDENTSABDALI, Kamal NSF, Stanford U MS 1968 U. Montreal ABU TARIF, Asad GE Medical Image Syracuse MS May 1998ABU TARIF, Asad GE Medical Image Syracuse PhD Dec 2002 advisor ADAMS, Marseta (now M. Dill) FAA ME Dec 2003AHMED, Zubair X6032 274 8236 PhD May 1991 committee ALI, Michael (Prof. Stephanou) PhD July 1999 committee AL KHOFAHI, Khalid (Badri Roysam) Thompson R&D, MN PhD 2001 comittee ALLEN, David Lincoln Labs MS May 1986 ANAGNOSTOPOULOS, Tasso MS May 1996ANDRA, Srinivas Soros NYC PhD 2006 advisor ANSON, Ed Tulip MS 1975 UNL BATTACHARYYA, Anoop Epson Research PhD Dec 1994 committee Belik, David (Prof. Nelson) PhD May 1983 committee BARNEY SMITH, Elisa Boise State U.PhD Dec 1998 advisor BHASKAR, Kasi MS 1977 UNLBOHN, Jan (Prof. Wozny) VPI PhD Aug 1993 committee CARPINELLI, John Stevens Institute? PhD Aug 1987 committee CHANDRASEKHAR, Narayanaswami (Pf. Franklin)IBM Watson PhD Dec 1990 committee CHEN, Ying (B. Roysam) PhD Dec 2009 committee CHRISTENSEN, Neil PhD May 1986 committee CHUGANI, Mahesh (Prof. Savic) National Instruments PhD May 1996 committee COGDELL, David U. Miss. PhD Dec 1987 committee DEFFENBAUGH, Grant CMU PhD Dec 2003 advisorEL-NASAN, Adnan U. Yarmouk PhD Aug 2003 advisor DOUGLASS, Barry UT Dallas PhD Dec 1989 committee FALSAFI, Aram Digital MS May 1989GATTANI, Abhishek Stryker Endoscopy MS August 2005GODA, Brian (Jack McDonald) US Army PhD May 2001 committee GUO, Hwei Chi PhD May 1997 committee GREEN, Ed (Prof. Moorthy) Union College PhD May 1996 committee GUERRIERI, Ernesto (Prof. Freeman?) PhD May 1989 committee GUR-ALI, Ozden (Dec’n Science) GE CRD PhD Aug 1994 committee Hallquist, Roy (Prof. Nelson, UNL) PhD May 1973 committee HARMSEN Jeremiah (Prof. Pearlman) PhD Aug 2005 committee Jeong Yongwon (Prof. Radke) PhD Dec 2006 committee HILAIRE, Thierry (ME) Renault R&D PhD Dec 1993 committee HIRAOGLU, Muzaffer Analogic Corp Peabody ? PhD May 1992 advisor HIJAZI, Nabil (Prof. Savic) PhD May 2000 committee HOMBAL, vadi (Prof. Sanderosn) PhD Dec 2009 committee HONG, Shen (Badri Roysam) Siemens NJ PhD 2000 committee INANC, Metin (WRF) Sync NJ PhD 2008 Committee Jandhyala, Chakradhar, Ramana Blomberg NYC MS mAY 2010 advisor JEANNE, Philippe France MS Aug 1990Jha, Piyushee BEA Endicott MS May 2008 advisor JIANG, Ming (Prof. Ji) PhD Dec 2005 committee, JOGLEKAR, Indrajeet MS 2008 advisor JORGE, Joachim (Prof. Glinert) U.Lisbon PhD May 1995 committee JOSHI, Ashutosh Fair Isaac San Francisco PhD May 2005 advisor JOSHI, Raviv (Prof. Sanderson) PhD Dec 1996 committee JUNG, Dz-Mou Yahoo San Diego MS Dec 1989" PhD May 1995 advisor KANAI, Junichi RPI PhD Aug 1990 advisor KALAFALA, Kerim IBM Fishkill MS Dec 1997KANG, Hang Bong Samsung PhD Dec 1993 committee KANJILAL, Shuvayu Oracle MS May 1997 KANKAHALLI, Mohan (Prof. Franklin) Nat'l U Singapore PhD Dec 1990 committee KIM, Jaesok (Prof. E. Walker) Bell Labs PhD 1988 committee KIM, Beong-Jo (Prof. Pearlman) Korean Army PhD Dec 1997 committee KLINE, Jaclyn Moorny NYS Labor Dept MS 2009KODEIH, Mohamad SUNY, New Paltz PhD 1988 committee Kucharen, Promote (Prof. Modestino) ME May 1996KURADA, Lakshmi Vijaya MS Aug 1996KWAK, William Digital PhD Dec 1988 committee Leibovich, Ilya ME May 1996LIAO, Wenhui Thomson Reuters PhD 2006?? committee??LIMNER, Joel (ME) GMR PhD Aug 1997 committeeLU, Zhitao (Bill Pearlman) PhD Dec 2000 committeeLu, Renzhi (Radke) PhD` 2007 committeeLui, Roy MS 2010 advisorLYON, Doug Fairfield U. PhD Dec 1991 advisor MACULOTTI, Marina U. Genova Laurea July 1988MALLOCH, Chuck (Prof. Gerhardt) Pratt&whitney – Atrey PhD Dec 1989 committee MANJUNATH, D (Prof. Pearlman) PhD July 1993 committee MARTIN, Kenneth Morris (Prof. Wozny) GE PhD May 1998 committee MARTINO, Peter (C. Stewart?) Digital PhD May 1988 committee MAULIK, Amitava Connectiva, Kolkota PhD May 1992 advisorMEHTA, Shashank IIT Kanpur PhD Aug 1985 advisorMILLER, Anne AOL NYC (Roger Grice) MS Dec 2008 co-advisor MILLER, Jimmy (Prof. Stewart) GE CRD PhD Aug 1997 committee MITHAL, Sam Digital MS May 1989MUKHERJEE, Maharaj IBM Fishkill PhD 1992 advisorNAIR, Hari X2896 I MS May 1988NARENDRA, N.C. PhD May 1991 advisor NICEWARNER, Keith PhD Feb 1995 committee PADFIELD, Dirk GE PhD May 2009 committee PADMANABHAN, Raghav RPI PhD Program MS 2009PERARA, Amitha (Prof. Stewart) GE Research PhD May 2003,committee PEDRINO, Helio (Prof. Franklin) PhD May 2000 committee PHILHOWER, Robert (Prof. McDonald) IBM Watson PhD 1993 committee PRUETT, David off:914-385-6190 IBM MS Dec 1988RAJAIDEHKORDY, Barry MS 1983 UNLRAY, Clark (Prof. Franklin) West Point MC PhD May 1994 committee ROUSSEL, Nicolas PhD 2007 committeeSALLA, Trevor, Media Tech, Philly MS May 1995SATHYAMURTHY, Radhika Dupont MS 1992SARKAR, Prateek PARC, Palo Alto MS Dec 1994SARKAR, Prateek Palo Alto Research Ctr (PARC)PhD May 2000 advisor SHAPIRA, Andrew (Prof. Moorthy) OneXero Seattle MS 1998?SHAPIRA, Andrew (Prof. Moorthy) OneXero Seattle PhD Dec 2000 committeeSHEN, Weicheng U. New Hamp. PhD Dec 1987 committee SORENSEN, Jeff (Prof. Savic) IBM Watson PhD 1993 committee? SRIDHARAN, K. IIT Madras) PhD May 1996 committee SIVASUBRAMANIAM, Suthaharan Oracle ME Dec 1998SUMMERS, Jason PostDoc, NEC Japan PhD Aug 2003SWANN, Jonquil METHOMAS, Mathews Digital MS May 1988TONG, Yan (Prof. Q. Ji) GE Research PhD Dec 2007 Committee TSERKEZOU, Polly Zurich MS May 1988VISWANATHAN, Mahesh IBM Watson Yorktown NY PhD Dec 1991 advisor VEERAMACHANENI, Harsha Thompson R&D Eagan MN PhD Dec 2002 advisorVIZCAYA, Jose(Prof. Gerhardt)U. Javeriana Colombia PhD May 1998 committee VOUGIKIAS, Stavros PhD Dec 1995 committee WACLAWIK, Jim Boston MS Dec 1991WAGLE, Sharad retired PhD May 1978 advisorWANG, Xiaoyin Qualcom MS Dec 1995WANG, Peng (Prof. Ji) U. Penn PhD Dec 2005 committeeXU, Yihong EMC PhD Aug 1998 advisor Yanamadala, Bhavani Shankar Atlanta MS 2007YU, Jim Bell Labs MS Dec 1986ZHANG, Tong Brontes Tech, Woburn MA PhD May 2004 advisorZ NLM, NIH Bathesda MD ZOU, Jie NLM, NIH Bathesda MD PhD May 2004 advisorEXTERNAL READER OR EXAMNER FOR:SKUCE, D.R. McGill University MS Jun 1971DYDYK, R.B. U. Waterloo PhD Mar 1972 HUSSAIN, A.B.S. UBC PhD Jun 1972 POULSEN, R.S. McGill University PhD Apr 1973 NAGARAJA, G. IISc Bangalore PhD Apr 1975BANSAL, Veena IIT Kanpur PhD Dec 1997PAL, Umada ISI Calcutta PhD Dec 1997RICE, Stephen UNLV PhD 1996DE JESUS, Edison, U. Campinas PhD 1997PABST, Frederic U. Fribourg PhD Dec 1998WALTER, Fredrik SLU, Uppsala PhD Oct 1999WIMMER, Zsolt ENST, Paris PhD Dec 1998BOLDO, Didier Sorbonne, Paris PhD July 2002 BAGDANOV, Andrew U. Amsterdam PhD June 2002MURALI, S. U. Mysore PhD Nov 2002 OLIVETTI, Emanuele U. Trento PhD May 2008GARDES, Joel U. Lyon PhD 2009LONG, Vanessa Mcquerrie, Australia PhD 2010Zhu, Yaoyao Prof. Huang Lehigh PhD 2012Chen, Jin Prof. Lopresti Lehign PhD 2013 ?RENSSELAER UNDERGRADUATESBARGHAVA, Anuba Cervitor SURP 2010 BAUSEWEIN, Jason X 7928 (518) 863-4811 URP 1990 BERG, Andrew Ballow Camera NYS CATS 2009 CAMPOFOIERE, Kyle RFID, URP for credit 2009 CELENTANO, Kathryn Cervitor RCOS 2009 CHAN, Hing Lun 1992-93? CHENG, Greenie CAVIAR Summer project 2003 CHOW, Man Chit Francis 1992? CLIFFORD, Bryan Cybertrust REU, RCOS 2008-2009 DERBY, Laura CAVIAR URP 2004 DING, Mike Cervitor RCOS URP 2009 FLIZARDO, Daniel Ballots UTP 2011 FELKAMP, Amanda Cervitor URP 2011-12 GAGOSKI, Borjan CAVIAR SUMMER URP 2003 GREEN, Matthew SUMMER 2004 HILDEBRAND, Dan CAVIAR RCOS 2009 HUBER,John independent research 1996 HUNTER Travis TANGO URP 2009 ISLAM, Ashfaqul Calligraphy URP 2011 JIANG, Haimei CAVIAR independent research URP 2001 KELLEY, Sean TANGO RCOS 2009 KIM, Sung Hun URP 1994 KONG, Jialiang, Jason ASR MS CMU Qualcom 09 URP 2005 KORDON, Mark X 8897 304 William URP 1990 KYRIAZIS, George Athens 30 1 2026780 272-6197 Tables Senior project 1990 MCAVOY, Dave Ballot camera RCOS 2009 MCCAUGHRIN,Eric,******************X4599URP 1990 MOSHER, Doug SURP 2010 MURPHY, Luke TANGO URA 2007 MUTALATHU, Max TANGO, Cybertrust REU 2009 NGUYEN, Tram Model car? URP 1997 POLYAK, Ilya URP 1991 POPLAWSKI Seven TANGO SURP 2010 ROBERTS, Sam Ballot Images RCOS 2009 ROTHCHILD, Russ CAI Student monitor Senior project 1989TRANLONG, Luke Model car Senior Project 1991 SAJJAD, Syed Senior Project 1993 SHRIVASTAVA, Vivek X 7800 Senior Project 1991 SILVA, Gregory R-dropping URP 2011 SILVERSMITH, William TANGO REU, NSF 2009 STEVENS, Robert RFID, URP for credit Lutron 2009 SUH, Ria URP 1994-95 SWEIS, Slameh Line wrap Design Project 1994 TAMHANKAR, Mangesh TANGO URP 2011 VERNIKOWSKY, Makim TANGO URP 2011 VULIN, Lillian URP 1996 WARREN, Jeff Cervix URP 2011 WONG, Tyler Chen IBM URP 1997 WONG, Lance 273-8281 URP 1992 YU, Chang, OCR Summer Project 2005 YU, Desong GeoWeb Independent Research URP 2001 ZHANG, Qianyi “Landy” Cervitor SURP 2010 WU, Ziyan Ballots, Grad Student in PicProc 2011?INCOMPLETESLANGER, Jefferey URP 1999 JOHNSON, Kurt MS 1990? ??? LEU, She-Wan 1994SHIRALI, Nagesh 273-9249 PhD May 1990? supervisor Cadence Design 408 987-5221ZHONG, D. 1995STUEBEN Gregg (Moorthy) 2001MANTRI, Anup PhD 2010 advisor。

mcm_guide

THE Q uest of the MCMConquering the Math Contest in Modeling)sponsors the Math-ematical Contest in Modeling(MCM),an international contest for undergraduates.We will discuss our strategy for developing models,writing the paper,the contest timeline,and team dynamics.Contents1What is the MCM?2 2A Strong Paper4 3A Strong Team10 4A Strong Timeline14 5Searching for the Optimal Solution18 6Common Failures to Avoid21 7Closing Remarks22 A2006Questions221What is the MCM?In the MCM,three-person teams are given96hours to develop mathematical models to solve a real-world problem,evaluate their solution,and write a research paper describing the results. These papers are generally around thirty pages long.The questions are open-ended and over a broad range of topics.Past problems includeﬁngerprint identiﬁcation,submarine tracking,air traﬃc control,and velociraptor hunting strategies.Does your leisure reading include math books?Have you ever programmed a quick game on your TI-86to stave oﬀboredom?Is the Mathematica vs.Matlab debate interesting to you? Have you ever considered simulating the growth of grass?Then the MCM is for you.Even if you aren’t an¨u ber-nerd,we recommend the contest to you.Why?Practice for a thesis.The MCM will teach you a lot about organization,clarity,and time management.Reading papers.Reading previous research is essential to the MCM,and96hours of searching for critical information will develop your ability to extract useful bits quickly.Prototyping skills.You will learn to look at a problem and come up with a fast prototype solution.This is invaluable in programming,math,or science of any sort.Reputation.If you manage to win,it looks great on a r´e sum´e.Severalﬁnancial companies make a speciﬁc point of recruiting MCM winners.At the beginning of the contest,you are given a choice between two problems†.Over past contests,Problem A tends to be“continuous”—problems with continuously varying parameters, especially the modeling of physical phenomena.Problem B tends to be“discrete”—problems like queuing,routing,and scheduling.The2006contest problems are reproduced in Appendix A(p.22).A useful15-minute exercise is to read them with your teammates,discuss which one you would hypothetically choose,and brainstorm possible approaches and simplifying assumptions.JudgingMCM papers are judged by a panel of mathematicians and math educators.In theﬁrst round of judging,only the paper summaries are read.Papers that pass theﬁrst round continue to the following rounds,where papers are more carefully read and ranked into several tiers.By percentage†,the tiers are•60%Successful Participant•25%Honorable Mention•15%Meritorious•1%-2%OutstandingAdditionally,two teams receive the Ben Fusaro Prize,recognizing the development of a creative model and a paper which is pleasant to read.Outstanding papers are considered for the SIAM Prize,the MAA Prize,and the INFORMS Prize from the respective societies.Contest Rules&LogisticsYour team must be registered for the contest by early February.Once the contest begins,you may not add or change a teammate,though you may remove a teammate if necessary.A team may have at most three students,and no student may belong to more than one team.Papers must be typed and in English.Solution submissions must be paper only;non-paper materials such as computer disks are not accepted.At registration,each team is assigned a control number.The team control number must appear at the top of every page,along with the page number,for example:Team#321Page6of13Other than the control number,the paper must in no way identify the students, the advisor,or the school.For more detailed contest rules,see/undergraduate/contests/mcm/instructions.php.HistoryThe University of Colorado at Boulder has a strong history in the MCM:2001Honorable Mention Grant Macklem,Saverio Spagnolie,Tye Rattenbury Meritorious Jim Barron,Jill Kamienski,Olivia Koski2003Honorable Mention Joe Carrafa,Kimi Kano,Ian Derrington Meritorious Moorea Brega,Alejandro Cantarero,Corry LeeOutstanding,SIAM Prize Darin Gillis,Aaron Windﬁeld,David Lindstone2005Honorable Mention Brandon Booth,Rachel Danson,Kristopher Tucker Meritorious Thomas Josephson,Edmund Lewis,Laura Waterbury Outstanding Brian Camley,Brad Klingenberg,Pascal GetreuerWe hope this trend continues.That said,don’t be too disappointed if your team does not win Outstanding.Teams that participate again often progress one tier higher each year.It is unusual for a team to win Outstanding in theirﬁrst attempt.2A Strong PaperThe MCM is in part a contest of communication skills.Ultimately,it is your paper that delivers your ideas and results to the judges,and thus it is as much a presentation as a report.No matter the quality of your research,you must communicate eﬀectively in order for the judges to see it.During the contest,around half of your team’s time should be directed toward writingthe paper.Having a well-written paper is nearly as important as solving the problem itself.Background ResearchYour initial research will be critical in framing the problem.The MCM,like any research,begins by understanding the problem and reading previous research.Learn the basics of the problem context:existing models,previous approaches,and especially the nomenclature.When we solved the2004ﬁngerprint problem ourﬁrst year,we spent a very unproductiveﬁrst day before we found the concept of“minutiae”inﬁngerprints.This led us to the central postulate of our paper:twoﬁngerprints are identical if they would be identiﬁed as the same person by the FBI.If we had found Stoney and Thornton’s paper“A Critical Analysis of Quantitative Fingerprint Individuality Models”on theﬁrst day rather than the third,our paper would have been much more thorough.Ten minutes of research can save you a day’s work!!Don’t limit your research to internet sources.While internet sources are quick and convenient toﬁnd,they should primarily be used to lead to scholarly work or peer-reviewed literature.Once youﬁnd a paper on topics relevant to your problem,follow its citations and ﬁnd the journals that often write about these topics.For example,most of theﬁngerprint literature is in journals of forensic science,traﬃc studies are in specialist journals and the statistical physics literature,and irrigation is studied in agricultural literature.The Journal of the American Medical Association is more credible than the Wikipedia and Slashdot communities.Your campus library will have access to online databases of academic journals.These databases require school subscription,so you will have to access these either on campus computers or through a VPN setup.Ask your reference librarian,and get this set up ahead of time!Some starting points:•Google Scholar •Engineering •Elsevier •IEEE Transactions It All Comes Down to ModelsAs the MCM is the Math Contest in Modeling,solving the problem is all about models. Developing a successful model requires identifying the central question to the problem.Attempt to distill the given problem statement into one(or several)simple questions.Keep this question in mind while telling the“story”of your solution in your paper.Focusing on the key questions may also help to identify analogous problems in diﬀerentﬁelds.All models rely upon simplifying assumptions.Be sure that each assumption you make is explicitly identiﬁed and explained.We suggest including an entire“Assumptions”section or subsection in your paper.Try to motivate each assumption,citing work where the assumption has been made previously.When making assumptions remember that you are walking a tightrope between ignoring extraneous details and artiﬁcially changing the problem.Be sure that the key question of the problem remains unchanged.Avoid assigning aﬁxed“reasonable”value to parameters that really assume a range of values:in yourﬁnal analysis you should examine how your results depend on this parameter.For example, in the2005highway tollbooth problem,one clear parameter was the rate of incoming traﬃc. Understanding the behavior as this parameter varied was critical in solving the problem.Use Multiple ModelsMCM problems are usually better approached with not one,but multiple pare with the literature to motivate your models and to validate your results.A common approach to modeling is to use a sequence of increasingly reﬁned models.Even if theﬁrst model egregiously simpliﬁes the problem,it may provide insights to the basic behavior and inspire improved models.This progression leads to a respectable and satisfyingﬁnal model, with its validity stemming from the preceding models.At least,this is the intention.The danger with the reﬁnement approach is that later models are too easily empirically motivated,and for this reason,ad hoc.This is especially true of models based entirely on one monolithic simulation.You must compare the results of your models with theory or against the results of other models:check that you are not fooling yourself.This is partly a question of good modeling,and partly a question of ethics.The more you attack your assumptions,the more rigorous your results become.Without critical analysis and a foundational rationale,justiﬁcation for theﬁnal model is shaky andtop-heavy.It is often useful to consider the behavior of your model in limiting cases.If you have developed a model for multi-lane traﬃc,consider what it predicts when there is only one lane—is it consistent with intuition?How about data from the literature?Be sure that your model does not make absurd predictions for limiting cases.!Avoid dishonesty and bullshit.In2003,the“gamma knife”problem required teams to achieve90%coverage of the target volume.Most teams found this to be impossible,yet the Outstanding papers acknowledged this and explained their shortcomings.They did not try to conceal the fact that they could not meet the requirement.Additionally,many teams founda useful internet source on the grassﬁre transform,however,many did not cite it.Severalwould-be Outstanding teams were demoted for failing to cite sources.Write a Strong SummaryThe most important page in your paper is the summary sheet(abstract).In theﬁrst round of judging,this is the only part read.Almost half of the papers are eliminated from competition based only on their summaries.The summary should be written last,once all conclusions have been made.A good summary concisely states the problem,the methods for solution,and conclusions,while highlighting the merits of your approach.A summary should be more than a chronology of what you did(“A model wasﬁrst developed...A simulation was implemented...It was then concluded...”).On the other extreme,the point of a summary is not to create suspense—state conclusions clearly.The summary should be brief;although a whole page is devoted to the summary,it need not and should not be completelyﬁlled.In our approach to the summary,each team member independently writes a summary.Then as a group,the best sentences from each summary are strung together to produce another summary.This summary is elaborated,reworded,andﬁne-tuned,until it says everything that needs to be said as clearly and concisely as possible.Write an Easily Skimmable PaperIn the second round of judging,judges will skim your paper.To make your paper skimmable, it must include and clearly label these sections:Introduction:Introduce the background and the problem.Assumptions:Explain all of your assumptions.Conclusion:Concisely answer the original problem.Strengths&Weaknesses:Critically assess your approach.References:Cite all references.Additionally,make your paper more skimmable with the following compositional guidelines.Use sections,subsections,and sub-subsections with descriptive heading titles.Use bold,etc.on key results to catch the eye.Use bullet lists.Useﬁgures and tables with concise captions.Intersperse these elements to break up long,uninterrupted lengths of text.Keepﬁgures simple:less is more.Avoid placing a large number ofﬁgures on the same !page,especially without explanation.Also,don’t confuse plots and data visualizations with ﬁgures in the rmation-laden data visualizations are great for your understanding, butﬁgures in the paper must be as simple and direct as possible.Be sure to check that all ﬁgures are legible at the scale they are printed.Stylistic ConsiderationsIt is common to show a developing“story”of your solution in the body of the paper.As in any technical writing,write plainly and favor shorter words over longer ones.Particularly,it can be seen that theﬂamboyant,obdurate,and ostensibly decorous misuse of the passive tense and excessive vocabulary tends,thereby,to result in long,awful sentences.Among hundreds of papers,it helps if your paper has a unique,catchy title.If possible,set aside time to brainstorm paper titles.Don’t use anything pretentious like A Novel Approach to...:Just don’t.Seriously.We wouldn’t mention it if it didn’t keep on happening.As part of anyone’s writing education,worthwhile references are Strunk&White’s The Elements of Style[16]and Williams’Style:Toward Clarity and Grace[17].Speciﬁcally on technical writing style,see also the Handbook of Technical Writing by Brusaw[1].Our basic philosophy of writing is:clarity before grammar.In this sense,we recommend Strunk &White not for its grammar rules(which are questionable),but for its own style of simplicity.Section SummaryConsider the paper a presentation,not a report.Do extensive background research.Use multiple models for cross-validation.Use organizational elements to make a skimmable paper.Mind your writing style,and brainstorm a catchy title.3A Strong TeamA common division of tasks[2]is to elect the writer,whose task is handling most of the writing, the programmer,in charge of simulations and other numerical work,and“the third,”han-dling miscellaneous tasks and assisting the other two.All teammates should participate in the background research and model formulation,and all teammates should work together on the summary andﬁnal editing.However,roles need not be so clearly deﬁned.For example,our head writer also programmed, and we all contributed portions of the writing.Ideally,all three teammates can both program and write,switching between roles as necessary.ProgrammingIn any MCM team,at least one team member should be comfortable with a computer program-ming language.Prototyping languages(high-level interpreted languages like Matlab,Python, and Java)are particularly well-suited for the contest.However,the best choice of language is one where your team can most comfortably perform the following essentials.Visualize data.Line plots,surface plots,histograms,and other means to visualize data are invaluable in understanding a problem.If your choice programming environment isgraphically-limited,learn to export data to Microsoft Excel,Gnuplot,or other graphing software for visualization.Numerical algorithms.Before the contest,review numerical algorithms for fundamen-tals like interpolation,optimization,linear algebra,and solving diﬀerential equations.Be prepared to implement(or reuse)code for common numerical algorithms,see for example [6,14].Environments like Matlab include extensive numerical routines for a variety of problems.Make use of these tools and avoid reinventing the wheel.For example,never roll your own linear algebra code.Smarter people have spent years creating LINPACK and other systems—use them.Debug.Writing code naturally involvesﬁxing code.Know how to use the debugger tools oﬀered by your programming e strategies like saving multiple versions, modular programming,and descriptive commenting to promote accurate code.(But don’t get too carried away—your primary goal is correct results,not computer science poetry.)File I/O.Especially if your program is unstable and takes a long time to run,you need to be able to use intermediate results.A good time-saving precaution is to save progressive results to the harddrive.For example,a simulation that runs for45minutes could write updates to the harddrive every three minutes.Of course,a computer-savvy team need not restrict themselves to one programming language and instead use several.Ourﬁrst year,we had one person programming in Matlab,one in Perl,and one in C with side calculations on a TI-86.However,we have found that when there is more than one programmer,sticking to one language promotes code reuse and collaboration.WritingWriting,as we continue to emphasize,deserves as much attention as solving the problem itself. Under the tight4-day contest timeframe,it is vital to start writing as soon as possible,starting alongside initial research.We recommend L A T E X as the best means for producing professional-quality scientiﬁc writing, especially as an alternative to Microsoft Word.L A T E X handles equations and mathematical symbols natively,in addition to all of the bibliographical formatting,labels and cross-referencing, and page-numbering that is ridiculously tedious in standard word-processing programs.There are also aesthetic reasons to prefer L A T E pare these compositionally equivalent samples,written in L A T E X and Word: ..............................................................................................L A T E XDeﬁnition 5.21Let X be a linear space.Two norms||·||1and||·||2on X are called equivalent if there are con-stants c>0and C>0such thatc||x||1≤||x||2≤C||x||1,∀x∈X.Microsoft WordDefinition 5.21Let X be a linear space. Two norms ||·||1and ||·||2on X are called equivalent if there are constants c > 0 and C > 0 such that|| ||1|| ||2|| ||1, ∈c x < x < C x x X .__V_.............................................................................................. The most signiﬁcant typographical diﬀerence is the spacing between lines and words.The Word sample is irregular and visually unappealing,especially around inline math,while L A T E X automatically determines line breaks and word hyphenation for aesthetically optimal spacing†.To get started in L A T E X,you will need the T E X typesetting system and a PS or PDF viewer. For Windows platforms,download MikT E X from and GSview and Ghostscript from /∼ghost/gsview/.On Unix/Linux,L A T E X is already included in many distributions or available as a package.Similarly,Windows users with Cygwin() can obtain L A T E X as a Cygwin package.There are thousands of L A T E X tutorials and reference guides online;one good starting point is /cgi-bin/texfaq2html.Work through a L A T E X tutorial and write at least one practice document in L A T E X before the contest.Regardless of whether your team uses L A T E X or not,know how to do the following: Equations.It is unavoidable that any paper will involve numerous math symbols andequations.Word users should make sure their installation includes Microsoft Equation Editor or MathType.Figures.Know how to import images and createﬁgures.Confer with the team’s pro-grammer on transferring data visualizations intoﬁgures in the paper.Section e L A T E X’s section,subsection,and subsubsection commands or Word’s numbered headings to create consistently styled section e L A T E X’s tableofcontents command or Word’s Table of Contents feature(Insert◮Reference◮Index and Tables)to create an automatic table of contents.A good table of contentsmakes a paper much easier to read,and much more skimmable.Citations.Know how to write citations and bibliography entries,and be prepared witha style guide on the bibliographical formatting for various kinds of sources.Leadership&CooperationWhile your team need not have a designated team leader,working together naturally requires group and leadership skills.“Trust is the foundation of leadership”[11].Trust your teammates’abilities,and respect their opinions.Give each other the freedom to work the details of their task independently.The programmer has the responsibility and authority over the details of program implementation and the head writer has the responsibility and authority over the details of the writing.While critical review of each other’s work is healthy and productive,micromanagement is not.!Keep in frequent touch with what your teammates are doing.If one of them—or you—is not working on a relevant task,refocus the team immediately.Avoid time-costly tasks on extraneous details and eﬀorts that are otherwise unimportant to the paper.Nobody should ever have nothing to do—there is not enough time for that.Conﬂict happens easily under high pressure and little sleep.Weﬁnd that many of our dis-agreements are actually misunderstandings,and can be quickly resolved by open discussion.Unresolvable disagreements should be dealt with democratically among the three teammates.A poor decision is better than a late decision[11],especially on the tight MCM timescale.Section SummaryBe prepared to visualize data and implement numerical algorithms.Use L A T E X to typeset your paper.Trust your teammates and work cooperatively.4A Strong TimelineThe most demanding factor of the MCM is time.This section describes,based on our experience, a successful schedule for the contest.We propose an intentionally front-heavy timeline,where most of the work is optimistically planned to be done by the halfway point of the contest.The main reason for this is that early work tends to be revised or discarded,mistakes and delays happen,and this timeline provides theﬂexibility for amendments in the later half of the contest.Furthermore,a lighter schedule in the later half means more time can be devoted to the writing.To state our proposed timeline brieﬂy:On Thursday,all teammates participate in background research,formulating initial models to the problem.By Friday morning,writing te Friday to early Saturday,preliminary results are considered to revise shortcomings of theﬁrst models.By Saturday evening,the revised models yield more satisfactory results,and implications andﬁnal conclusions about the problem are drawn.The remainder of the contest is spent writing.SleepingContrary to other guides,we encourage working all-nighters on theﬁrst and third nights instead of a natural sleeping schedule.Particularly on Thursday,it is much more productive to work through the night without sleep,or to the extent that you can work without sleep.It is not necessary that all teammates are awake at the same time,just that each teammate works and sleeps productively and within their physiological limitations.In any case,don’t stop early at a “natural”point.Sleep deprivation most heavily aﬀects creative thinking.Thought that brings together informa-tion to solve a problem is called convergent thinking.Thought that requires planning,originality, or unusual ideas is called divergent thinking.Divergent thinking is signiﬁcantly impaired after one night without sleep while convergent thinking is more resilient[8].Thus,during sleepless parts of the contest,you can productively continue tasks like programming,writing,or math-ematical analysis,but brainstorming and reading should better be done when well-rested.As the contest starts with brainstorming,it is important to come into the contest fully rested.Before the ContestWith a mere96hours during the contest,do what you can in advance to prepare logistically. Plan to drop all school and social activities during the MCM,and try to arrange with your instructors to reschedule classwork.On the day of the contest,arrange your team’s working area,computers,food,writing templates,scratch paper,and anything else that can be done ahead of time.By the third year,we had started checking out books that might be useful before the contest.This paid oﬀ—we could studyﬂuid mechanics immediately when the sprinkler problem came up.Also prepare for the MCM mentally.Discuss old MCM problems with your team to learn how to brainstorm together.At least one teammate should prepare code and review the theory of nu-merical analysis fundamentals like interpolation,optimization,and solving diﬀerential equations. Ideally all teammates should learn L A T E X.Most importantly,make sure you will be healthy and fully rested for Thursday.Thursday:The Contest StartsThe contest oﬃcially starts at6:00pm†.At this time,the contest problems are posted at /undergraduate/contests/mcm and /mcm.MCM teams are given a choice between two problems.Historically,Problem A is continuous while Problem B is discrete.When choosing a problem,play to your strengths,but don’t be afraid of jumping at a problem that you allﬁnd compelling.If the choice is not immediately obvious,conducting an hour or two of background research will illuminate the problem context, likely approaches,and potential diﬃculties.Theﬁrst task in considering a problem is to read it carefully and brainstorm possible directions. Creativity and variety are better when teammates do their initial thinking independently[3];we recommend to delay group discussion until everyone has considered the problem on their own. Begin researching immediately,seeking online papers of previous research on your problem.This research will help identity the problem’s implications,and lead you to“the right way”to think about the problem.Work aggressively through the night on research,formulating models,and programming.Friday:FormulationFriday is perhaps the most eﬀective day of all,spent on more research,formulating the models, signiﬁcant coding,and preliminary writing.It is during this critical time that you will gain the most ground on solving the problem,so stay focused and work hard.Begin writing as soon as possible.Six hours of research and brainstorming have already passed—you should have something to say by now.As a late morning break after a sleepless night,make a group trip to the library for journal articles and specialized resources.Try to obtain some results from the models by Friday evening.Sleep Friday night once you have preliminary results.Saturday:Writing&RevisionSaturday should be spent onﬁnding results and signiﬁcant e your preliminary results from Friday to reconsider the models,and spend the day revising your approach and reworking results.Simplifying assumptions should be established by this e the background research to support your assumptions in the paper.Work as a team to complete the bulk of the paper.To an extent,the paper composition will guide your research.What analysis,experiments,or background research could you perform to support your claims?The writer should assign such paper subtasks to the other teammates. Don’t sleep Saturday night until most of the writing is done and all of the coding is complete.Sunday:WritingAny new coding should stop by Sunday morning.Continue working as a team toﬁll in the paper.By this point,write the Strengths&Weaknesses and Conclusion sections.Once you have written out the weaknesses of your model,do what you can toﬁx them!Run additional tests—try justify your assumptions and explore diﬀerent parameters.For the2005highway tollbooth problem,we started running our program with diﬀerent waiting time distributions on Sunday.For the2006irrigation problem,we considered diﬀerent“proﬁles”of the sprinkler.Print a draft of the paper and read it aloud as a group.Edit and repeat.By the evening,all results must be complete and the main paper should be done.If possible,write theﬁrst draft of your summary.Sleep Sunday night.。

Law Enforcement, Malfeasance, andCompensation of Enforcers

Law Enforcement, Malfeasance, and Compensation of EnforcersAuthor(s): Gary S. Becker and George J. StiglerSource: The Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1 (Jan., 1974), pp. 1-18Published by: The University of Chicago PressStable URL: /stable/724119Accessed: 18/11/2010 00:18Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ucpress.Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@.The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to TheJournal of Legal Studies.。

2010年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语试题及答案

2010年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语试题及答案Section I Use of EnglishDirections:In 1924 America's National Research Council sent two engineers to supervise a series of industrial experiments at a large telephone-parts factory called the Hawthorne Plant near Chicago. It hoped they would learn how stop-floor lighting _1_ workers' productivity. Instead, the studies ended 2 giving their name to the "Hawthorne effect", the extremely influential idea that the very 3 to being experimented upon changed subjects' behavior.The idea arose because of the —4—behavior of the women in the Hawthorne plant. According to —5——of the experiments, their hourly output rose when lighting was increased, but also when it was dimmed. It did not —6—what was done in the experiment; —7—something was changed, productivity rose. A(n) —8—that they were being experimented upon seemed to be —9—to alter workers' behavior —10—itself.After several decades, the same data were —11—to econometric the analysis. Hawthorne experiments has another surprise store —12—the descriptions on record, no systematic —13—was found that levels of productivity were related to changes in lighting.It turns out that peculiar way of conducting the experiments may be have let to —14—interpretation of what happed. —15—, lighting was always changed on a Sunday. When work started again on Monday, output —16—rose compared with the previous Saturday and 17 to rise for the next couple of days. —18—, a comparison with data for weeks when there was no experimentation showed that output always went up on Monday, workers —19—to be diligent for the first few days of the week in any case, before —20— a plateau and then slackening off. This suggests that the alleged "Hawthorne effect" is hard to pin down.1. [A] affected [B] achieved [C] extracted [D] restored2. [A] at [B] up [C] with [D] off3. [A] truth [B] sight [C] act [D] proof4. [A] controversial [B] perplexing [C] mischievous [D] ambiguous5. [A] requirements [B] explanations [C] accounts [D] assessments6. [A] conclude [B] matter [C] indicate [D] work7. [A] as far as [B] for fear that [C] in case that [D] so long as8. [A] awareness [B] expectation [C] sentiment [D] illusion9. [A] suitable [B] excessive [C] enough [D] abundant10. [A] about [B] for [C] on [D] by11. [A] compared [B] shown [C] subjected [D] conveyed12. [A] contrary to [B] consistent with [C] parallel with [D] peculiar to13. [A] evidence [B] guidance [C] implication [D] source14. [A] disputable [B] enlightening [C] reliable [D] misleading15. [A] In contrast [B] For example [C] In consequence [D] As usual16. [A] duly [B] accidentally [C] unpredictably [D] suddenly17. [A] failed [B] ceased [C] started [D] continued20. [A] breaking [B] climbing [C] surpassing [D] hittingPart ADirections:Read the following four texts. Answer the questions below each text by choosing [A], [B], [C] or [D]. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (40 points)Text 1Of all the changes that have taken place in English-language newspapers during the past quarter-century, perhaps the most far-reaching has been the inexorable decline in the scope and seriousness of their arts coverage.It is difficult to the point of impossibility for the average reader under the age of forty to imagine a time when high-quality arts criticism could be found in most big-city newspapers. Yet a considerable number of the most significant collections of criticism published in the 20th century consisted in large part of newspaper reviews. To read such books today is to marvel at the fact that their learned contents were once deemed suitable for publication in general-circulation dailies.We are even farther removed from the unfocused newspaper reviews published in England between the turn of the 20th century and the eve of World War II, at a time when newsprint was dirt-cheap and stylish arts criticism was considered an ornament to the publications in which it appeared. In those far-off days, it was taken for granted that the critics of major papers would write in detail and at length about the events they covered. Theirs was a serious business, and even those reviewers who wore their learning lightly, like George Bernard Shaw and Ernest Newman, could be trusted to know what they were about. These men believed in journalism as a calling, and were proud to be published in the daily press. ―So few authors have brains enough or literary gift enough to keep their own end up in journalism,‖ Newman wrote, ―that I am tempted to define ‗journalism‘ as ‗a term of contempt applied by writers who are not read to writers who are.‘‖Unfortunately, these critics are virtually forgotten. Neville Cardus, who wrote for the Manchester Guardian from 1917 until shortly before his death in 1975, is now known solely as a writer of essays on the game of cricket. During his lifetime, though, he was also one of England‘s foremost classical-music critics, a stylist so widely admired that his Autobiography (1947) became a best-seller. He was knighted in 1967, the first music critic to be so honored. Yet only one of his books is now in print, and his vast body of writings on music is unknown save to specialists.Is there any chance that Cardus‘s criticism will enjoy a revival? The prospect seems remote. Journalistic tastes had changed long before his death, and postmodern readers have little use for the richly upholstered Vicwardian prose in which he specialized. Moreover, the amateur tradition in music criticism has been in headlong retreat.21. It is indicated in Paragraphs 1 and 2 that[A] arts criticism has disappeared from big-city newspapers.[B] English-language newspapers used to carry more arts reviews.[C] high-quality newspapers retain a large body of readers.[D] young readers doubt the suitability of criticism on dailies.22. Newspaper reviews in England before World War II were characterized by[A] free themes. [B] casual style. [C] elaborate layout. [D] radical viewpoints.23. Which of the following would Shaw and Newman most probably agree on?[A] It is writers' duty to fulfill journalistic goals.[B] It is contemptible for writers to be journalists.[C] Writers are likely to be tempted into journalism.[D] Not all writers are capable of journalistic writing.24. What can be learned about Cardus according to the last two paragraphs?[A] His music criticism may not appeal to readers today.[B] His reputation as a music critic has long been in dispute.[C] His style caters largely to modern specialists.[D] His writings fail to follow the amateur tradition.25. What would be the best title for the text?[A] Newspapers of the Good Old Days [B] The Lost Horizon in Newspapers[C] Mournful Decline of Journalism [D] Prominent Critics in MemoryText 2Over the past decade, thousands of patents have been granted for what are called business methods. received one for its "one-click" online payment system. Merrill Lynch got legal protection for an asset allocation strategy. One inventor patented a technique for lifting a box.Now the nation's top patent court appears completely ready to scale back on business-method patents, which have been controversial ever since they were first authorized 10 years ago. In a move that has intellectual-property lawyers abuzz the U.S. court of Appeals for the federal circuit said it would use a particular case to conduct a broad review of business-method patents. In re Bilski, as the case is known , is "a very big deal", says Dennis D. Crouch of the University of Missouri School of law. It "has the potential to eliminate an entire class of patents."Curbs on business-method claims would be a dramatic about-face, because it was the federal circuit itself that introduced such patents with is 1998 decision in the so-called state Street Bank case, approving a patent on a way of pooling mutual-fund assets. That ruling produced an explosion in business-method patent filings, initially by emerging internet companies trying to stake out exclusive rights to specific types of online transactions. Later, move established companies raced to add such patents to their files, if only as a defensive move against rivals that might beat them to the punch. In 2005, IBM noted in a court filing that it had been issued more than 300 business-method patents despite the fact that it questioned the legal basis for granting them. Similarly, some Wall Street investment filmsarmed themselves with patents for financial products, even as they took positions in court cases opposing the practice.The Bilski case involves a claimed patent on a method for hedging risk in the energy market. The Federal circuit issued an unusual order stating that the case would be heard by all 12 of the court's judges, rather than a typical panel of three, and that one issue it wants to evaluate is whether it should "reconsider" its state street Bank ruling.The Federal Circuit's action comes in the wake of a series of recent decisions by the supreme Court that has narrowed the scope of protections for patent holders. Last April, for example the justices signaled that too many patents were being upheld for "inventions" that are obvious. The judges on the Federal circuit are "reacting to the anti-patent trend at the Supreme Court", says Harold C. Wegner, a patent attorney and professor at George Washington University Law School.26. Business-method patents have recently aroused concern because of[A] their limited value to business [B] their connection with asset allocation[C] the possible restriction on their granting [D] the controversy over authorization27. Which of the following is true of the Bilski case?[A] Its ruling complies with the court decisions [B] It involves a very big business transaction[C] It has been dismissed by the Federal Circuit [D] It may change the legal practices in the U.S.28. The word "about-face" (Line 1, Para 3) most probably means[A] loss of good will [B] increase of hostility[C] change of attitude [D] enhancement of dignity29. We learn from the last two paragraphs that business-method patents[A] are immune to legal challenges [B] are often unnecessarily issued[C] lower the esteem for patent holders [D] increase the incidence of risks30. Which of the following would be the subject of the text?[A] A looming threat to business-method patents[B] Protection for business-method patent holders[C] A legal case regarding business-method patents[D] A prevailing trend against business-method patentsText 3In his book The Tipping Point, Malcolm Gladwell argues that social epidemics are driven in large part by the acting of a tiny minority of special individuals, often called influentials, who are unusually informed, persuasive, or well-connected. The idea is intuitively compelling, but it doesn't explain how ideas actually spread.The supposed importance of influentials derives from a plausible sounding but largely untested theory called the "two step flow of communication": Information flows from the media to the influentials and from them to everyone else. Marketers have embraced the two-step flow because it suggests that if they can just find and influence the influentials, thoseselected people will do most of the work for them. The theory also seems to explain the sudden and unexpected popularity of certain looks, brands, or neighborhoods. In many such cases, a cursory search for causes finds that some small group of people was wearing, promoting, or developing whatever it is before anyone else paid attention. Anecdotal evidence of this kind fits nicely with the idea that only certain special people can drive trends In their recent work, however, some researchers have come up with the finding that influentials have far less impact on social epidemics than is generally supposed. In fact, they don't seem to be required of all.The researchers' argument stems from a simple observing about social influence, with the exception of a few celebrities like Oprah Winfrey—whose outsize presence is primarily a function of media, not interpersonal, influence—even the most influential members of a population simply don't interact with that many others. Yet it is precisely these non-celebrity influentials who, according to the two-step-flow theory, are supposed to drive social epidemics by influencing their friends and colleagues directly. For a social epidemic to occur, however, each person so affected, must then influence his or her own acquaintances, who must in turn influence theirs, and so on; and just how many others pay attention to each of these people has little to do with the initial influential. If people in the network just two degrees removed from the initial influential prove resistant, for example from the initial influential prove resistant, for example the cascade of change won't propagate very far or affect many people.Building on the basic truth about interpersonal influence, the researchers studied the dynamics of populations manipulating a number of variables relating of populations, manipulating a number of variables relating to people's ability to influence others and their tendency to be influenced. Our work shows that the principal requirement for what we call "global cascades"–the widespread propagation of influence through networks –is the presence not of a few influentials but, rather, of a critical mass of easily influenced people, each of whom adopts, say, a look or a brand after being exposed to a single adopting neighbor. Regardless of how influential an individual is locally, he or she can exert global influence only if this critical mass is available to propagate a chain reaction.31. By citing the book The Tipping Point, the author intends to[A] analyze the consequences of social epidemics[B] discuss influentials' function in spreading ideas[C] exemplify people's intuitive response to social epidemics[D] describe the essential characteristics of influentials.32. The author suggests that the "two-step-flow theory"[A] serves as a solution to marketing problems[B] has helped explain certain prevalent trends[C] has won support from influentials[D] requires solid evidence for its validity33. What the researchers have observed recently shows that[A] the power of influence goes with social interactions[B] interpersonal links can be enhanced through the media[C] influentials have more channels to reach the public[D] most celebrities enjoy wide media attention34. The underlined phrase "these people" in paragraph 4 refers to the ones who[A] stay outside the network of social influence[B] have little contact with the source of influence[C] are influenced and then influence others [D] are influenced by the initial influential35. what is the essential element in the dynamics of social influence?[A] The eagerness to be accepted [B] The impulse to influence others[C] The readiness to be influenced [D] The inclination to rely on othersText 4Bankers have been blaming themselves for their troubles in public. Behind the scenes, they have been taking aim at someone else: the accounting standard-setters. Their rules, moan the banks, have forced them to report enormous losses, and it's just not fair. These rules say they must value some assets at the price a third party would pay, not the price managers and regulators would like them to fetch.Unfortunately, banks' lobbying now seems to be working. The details may be unknowable, but the independence of standard-setters, essential to the proper functioning of capital markets, is being compromised. And, unless banks carry toxic assets at prices that attract buyers, reviving the banking system will be difficult.After a bruising encounter with Congress, America's Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) rushed through rule changes. These gave banks more freedom to use models to value illiquid assets and more flexibility in recognizing losses on long-term assets in their income statement. Bob Herz, the FASB's chairman, cried out against those who "question our motives." Yet bank shares rose and the changes enhance what one lobby group politely calls "the use of judgment by management."European ministers instantly demanded that the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) do likewise. The IASB says it does not want to act without overall planning, but the pressure to fold when it completes it reconstruction of rules later this year is strong. Charlie McCreevy, a European commissioner, warned the IASB that it did "not live in a political vacuum" but "in the real word" and that Europe could yet develop different rules.It was banks that were on the wrong planet, with accounts that vastly overvalued assets. Today they argue that market prices overstate losses, because they largely reflect the temporary illiquidity of markets, not the likely extent of bad debts. The truth will not be known for years. But bank's shares trade below their book value, suggesting that investors are skeptical. And dead markets partly reflect the paralysis of banks which will not sell assets for fear of booking losses, yet are reluctant to buy all those supposed bargains.To get the system working again, losses must be recognized and dealt with. America's new plan to buy up toxic assets will not work unless banks mark assets to levels which buyers find attractive. Successful markets require independent and even combative standard-setters. The FASB and IASB have been exactly that, cleaning up rules on stock options and pensions,for example, against hostility from special interests. But by giving in to critics now they are inviting pressure to make more concessions.36. Bankers complained that they were forced to[A] follow unfavorable asset evaluation rules [B] collect payments from third parties[C] cooperate with the price managers [D] reevaluate some of their assets.37. According to the author , the rule changes of the FASB may result in[A] the diminishing role of management [B] the revival of the banking system[C] the banks' long-term asset losses [D] the weakening of its independence38. According to Paragraph 4, McCreevy objects to the IASB's attempt to[A] keep away from political influences. [B] evade the pressure from their peers.[C] act on their own in rule-setting. [D] take gradual measures in reform.39. The author thinks the banks were "on the wrong planet" in that they[A] misinterpreted market price indicators [B] exaggerated the real value of their assets[C] neglected the likely existence of bad debts. [D] denied booking losses in their sale of assets.40. The author's attitude towards standard-setters is one of[A] satisfaction. [B] skepticism. [C] objectiveness [D] sympathyPart BDirections:For Questions 41-45, choose the most suitable paragraphs from the list A-G and fill them into the numbered boxes to form a coherent text. Paragraph E has been correctly placed. There is one paragraph which does not fit in with the text. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET1. (10 points)[A] The first and more important is the consumer's growing preference for eating out; the consumption of food and drink in places other than homes has risen from about 32 percent of total consumption in 1995 to 35 percent in 2000 and is expected to approach 38 percent by 2005. This development is boosting wholesale demand from the food service segment by 4 to 5 percent a year across Europe, compared with growth in retail demand of 1 to 2 percent. Meanwhile, as the recession is looming large, people are getting anxious. They tend to keep a tighter hold on their purse and consider eating at home a realistic alternative.[B] Retail sales of food and drink in Europe's largest markets are at a standstill, leaving European grocery retailers hungry for opportunities to grow. Most leading retailers have already tried e-commerce, with limited success, and expansion abroad. But almost all have ignored the big, profitable opportunity in their own backyard: the wholesale food and drink trade, which appears to be just the kind of market retailers need.[C] Will such variations bring about a change in the overall structure of the food and drink market? Definitely not. The functioning of the market is based on flexible trends dominated by potential buyers. In other words, it is up to the buyer, rather than the seller, to decide what to buy .At any rate, this change will ultimately be acclaimed by an ever-growingnumber of both domestic and international consumers, regardless of how long the current consumer pattern will take hold.[D] All in all, this clearly seems to be a market in which big retailers could profitably apply their scale, existing infrastructure and proven skills in the management of product ranges, logistics, and marketing intelligence. Retailers that master the intricacies of wholesaling in Europe may well expect to rake in substantial profits thereby. At least, that is how it looks as a whole. Closer inspection reveals important differences among the biggest national markets, especially in their customer segments and wholesale structures, as well as the competitive dynamics of individual food and drink categories. Big retailers must understand these differences before they can identify the segments of European wholesaling in which their particular abilities might unseat smaller but entrenched competitors. New skills and unfamiliar business models are needed too.[E] Despite variations in detail, wholesale markets in the countries that have been closely examined—France, Germany, Italy, and Spain—are made out of the same building blocks. Demand comes mainly from two sources: independent mom-and-pop grocery stores which, unlike large retail chains, are two small to buy straight from producers, and food service operators that cater to consumers when they don't eat at home. Such food service operators range from snack machines to large institutional catering ventures, but most of these businesses are known in the trade as "horeca": hotels, restaurants, and cafes. Overall, Europe's wholesale market for food and drink is growing at the same sluggish pace as the retail market, but the figures, when added together, mask two opposing trends.[F] For example, wholesale food and drink sales come to $268 billion in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom in 2000—more than 40 percent of retail sales. Moreover, average overall margins are higher in wholesale than in retail; wholesale demand from the food service sector is growing quickly as more Europeans eat out more often; and changes in the competitive dynamics of this fragmented industry are at last making it feasible for wholesalers to consolidate.[G] However, none of these requirements should deter large retailers (and even some large good producers and existing wholesalers) from trying their hand, for those that master→43 → E →45Part CDirections:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Your translation should be written carefully on ANSWER SHEET 2. (10 points) One basic weakness in a conservation system based wholly on economic motives is that most members of the land community have no economic value. Yet these creatures are members of the biotic community and, if its stability depends on its integrity, they are entitled to continuance.When one of these noneconomic categories is threatened and, if we happen to love it .We invert excuses to give it economic importance. At the beginning of century songbirds weresupposed to be disappearing. (46) Scientists jumped to the rescue with some distinctly shaky evidence to the effect that insects would eat us up if birds failed to control them. the evidence had to be economic in order to be valid.It is painful to read these round about accounts today. We have no land ethic yet, (47) but we have at least drawn near the point of admitting that birds should continue as a matter of intrinsic right, regardless of the presence or absence of economic advantage to us.A parallel situation exists in respect of predatory mammals and fish-eating birds. (48) Time was when biologists somewhat over worded the evidence that these creatures preserve the health of game by killing the physically weak, or that they prey only on "worthless" species.Some species of tree have been read out of the party by economics-minded foresters because they grow too slowly, or have too low a sale vale to pay as timber crops. (49) In Europe, where forestry is ecologically more advanced, the non-commercial tree species are recognized as members of native forest community, to be preserved as such, within reason.To sum up: a system of conservation based solely on economic self-interest is hopelessly lopsided. (50) It tends to ignore, and thus eventually to eliminate, many elements in the land community that lack commercial value, but that are essential to its healthy functioning. It assumes, falsely, I think, that the economic parts of the biotic clock will function without the uneconomic parts.Section ⅢWritingPart A51. Directions:You are supposed to write for the postgraduate association a notice to recruit volunteers for an international conference on globalization, you should conclude the basic qualification of applicant and the other information you think relative.You should write about 100 words. Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter. Use "postgraduate association" instead.Part B52. Directions:Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing. In your essay, you should1) describe the drawing briefly,2) explain its intended meaning, and then3) give your comments.You should write neatly on ANSHWER SHEET 2. (20 points)2010年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语试题答案Section II: Reading Comprehension (60 points)Part C (10 points)46.科学家们提出一些明显站不住脚的证据迅速来拯救，其大意是：如果鸟类无法控制害虫，那么这些害虫就会吃光我们人类。

2003-2010年全国大学生英语竞赛C类初赛、决赛真题及答案汇总集

2003-2010年全国大学生英语竞赛C类初赛、决赛真题及答案汇总2004年全国大学生英语竞赛初赛听力录音原文及参考答案Part I Listening Comprehension (30 minutes, 30 points)Section A Dialogues (10 points)Directions: In this section, you will hear 10 short dialogues. At the end of each dialogue, a question will be asked about what was said. Both the dialogue and the question will be read only once. After each question,there will be a pause. During the pause, you must read the four choices marked A, B, C and D, and decide which is the best answer. Then mark the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet with a single line through the centre.1. W: Hi, I’d like to send this package by express mail to San Francisco and I would like to buy a sheet of stamps, please.M: Here are your stamps, and just put the package on the scale.Q: Where did the conversation take place? (D)2. M: I’m going out to lunch. Do you need anything while I’m out?W: Yes, if you pass a convenience store, get me some chocolate—a Snickers bar, please.Q: What do you learn from this conversation? (B)3. W: If we go by car, how do we cross the river?M: There’s a ferry that will take your car. There’s even one for trains.Q: How will they cross the river? (D)4. W: I heard that the mayor is closing the cheese factory.M: Yes, but it is only temporary.W: Oh, I’m surprised. I thought it was going to shut down for good.Q: Why was the woman surprised? (C)5. M: I spilled tomato juice on my new white shirt. Do you think it will come out?W: That’s too bad. Leave it there and I’ll see what I can do.Q: What is the man’s problem?(B)6. W: I’m going to lunch with my bowling instructor.M: What about the committee meeting?W: Don’t worry. I’ll be back at the office before then.Q: Where is the woman probably going now? (C)7. M: How long have you had this problem with your shoulder?W: It started last week after my skiing accident.M: Let’s try some tests to determine the nature of the injury.Q: What is the man going to do? (B)8. W: Are you having a good time?M: Sure. Thanks again for inviting me.W: No problem. I just wish more people could have come.Q: How does the woman feel? (C)9. M: We finally made it, Mary! 2003-2010年全国大学生英语竞赛C类初赛、决赛真题及答案汇总集原创第2 页共33 页W: I can’t believe graduation is tonight.M: Can you come to my graduation party?W: Sure, after I finish the family celebration.M: I want to be sure we get pictures of us together.W: In our caps and gowns!Q: When will the woman go to the man’s graduation party? (A)10. M: Hi, did you pass your geography exam?W: Yeah, I did quite well in fact, I got 76%.M: Oh,well done! So they gave you a per cent? I thought they gave grades.W: Yeah, they gave both. Mine was an “A”. So how about you?M: Well, we don’t have exams.We have continuous assessment, so you just have to docoursework, and you get a mark for each essay.Q: How does the school evaluate the man’s progress in geography? (A)Section B News Items (10 points)Directions: In this section, you will hear 10 short pieces of news from BBC or VOA. After each news item and question,there will be a pause. During the pause, you must read the three choices marked A, B and C, and decide which is the best answer. Then mark the corresponding letter onthe Answer Sheet with a single line through the centre.11. Tens of thousands of health workers will go house to house over the next three days in aneffort to immunise 63 million children under the age of five in sub-Saharan Africa. The campaignis the start of monthly national immunisation days during the low season for polio. It’s hoped that vaccinating children now—when the virus is at its weakest—will be the best way of stopping transmission.Question:How old are the children to be immunised?(B)12. Amid pomp and ceremony, China launched the 2008 Olympics. Together with a Chinese counterpart, the president of the International Olympic Committee, Jacques Rogge, used a giant golden key to symbolically open what he called the most important market in the world. In his speech, he emphasised the power of the Olympic brand in China’s emerging market. Question:What does the giant golden key symbolize?(C)13. Microsoft tries to keep the code for its Windows operating system a closely guarded secret. It’s the equivalent of computer DNA and the firm fears if it falls into the wrong hands it could be used to infiltrate millions of computers worldwide. More than 90 percent of the world’s PCs run Windows.Question:What action does Microsoft intend to take?(A)14. Before he set off in November, there were fears that Francis Joyon would be unable to control his huge boat, named IDEC. With its three hulls slicing through the water and a massive rotating mast that reached 30 metres into the sky, the boat was built in 1986 for a crew of ten. It was fearedthat such a boat would be too powerful for one man in the rough seas of the Southern Ocean. Question:How many people can the boat carry?(B)15. Over timescales of thousands of years, the Earth goes through a natural cycle of warmer and colder periods, driven by changes in heat coming from the Sun. Professor William Ruddiman from the University of Virginia has now calculated that if the Earth had followed its natural cycle overthe last ten thousand years, it ought to have got steadily colder. It hasn’t,because, he believes, human activities have been keeping the temperature steady. 2003-2010年全国大学生英语竞赛C类初赛、决赛真题及答案汇总集原创第3 页共33 页Question:Has the Earth got steadily colder over the last ten thousand years?(A) 16. Inequality of health care is still paramount, says the WHO’s latest report. Industrialised countries account for less than 20 percent of the world’s population but take 90 percent of health spending. In Japan more than 500 dollars is spent on drugs per person per year. This compares to just three dollars in Sierra Leone. Only slightly more is spent in many sub-Saharan countries. Question: How much do many sub-Saharan countries spend on drugs per person per year?(B)17. The Iraqi dinar has risen a third or so in value against the dollar since the new banknotes began to circulate. One factor has been the gradual pick up of the Iraqi economy after the devastation of the war. There are simply more transactions taking place, which has supported the value of the currency. And it seems Iraqis trust the new dinar banknotes more than they did the old ones, which featured pictures of Saddam Hussein.Question:Why did the Iraqi new dinar rise in value?(C)18. The list of countries known to have the relatively new and deadly strain of bird flu is rapidly growing. The focus now is on Indonesia where tests will soon confirm whether or not the bird flu which killed several million chickens there is the often fatal H5N1, already confirmed in 5 other countries in the region. Reports of an outbreak in Laos are also being investigated.Question:What is the number of countries mentioned in this news report?(C)19. An unhealthy diet together with little exercise and smoking are the key preventable risks ofnon-communicable diseases and it’s estimated that low fruit and vegetable intake alone causes more than two and a half million deaths each year.Question:What causes more than two and a half million deaths each year?(A)20. Around Europe interest rates are at their lowest levels in half a century. But businesses are pressing for even cheaper borrowing costs amid signs of continued economic weakness.A big drop in German manufacturing announced earlier this week is cited as evidence that Europe’s most important economy may even be sliding into recession. And the rise of the euro to a four-year high against the dollar in currency dealing is a major worry for many European exporters.Question:What is the key problem for European exporters?(A)Section C Passages (10 points)Directions:In this section, you will hear 2 passages. At the end of each passage, you will hear 5 questions. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A, B, C and D. Then mark the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet with a single line through the centre.Passage OneThe world of music will never be the same since the formation of a band in Liverpool, England in 1956. The Beatles were formed by George Harrison, Ringo Starr, Paul Mc-Cartney, and John Lennon. Their first hit song Love Me Do was recorded in 1962. The Beatles quickly became the world’s best-known pop music group and many people today still regard them as the finest band in the history of pop music.Lennon and McCartney were the authors of most of the songs the group recorded. Harrison also wrote songs, often using ideas from Indian music. The drummer of the group was the famousRingo Starr and he occasionally sang. For six years the Beatles had hit after hit song. Twenty-eightof their songs were on the Top Twenty record charts and seventeen of these songs reached number one on the charts. 2003-2010年全国大学生英语竞赛C类初赛、决赛真题及答案汇总集原创第4 页共33 页The group also had a successful movie career. The comedies A Hard Day’s Night and YellowSubmarine became very successful movies. People imitated their long hairstyles, clothing, and humor. Almost all later pop bands learned from the Beatles. Beatlemania is the word used to describe how strong and loyal the fans were.Questions 21 to 25 are based on the passage you have just heard:21. What kind of music did the Beatles play?(D)22. What did many people copy from the Beatles?(D)23. Where were the members of the Beatles group from?(B)24. Which of the following is NOT true?(C)25. How many of the Beatles’songs reached number one on the record charts?(A)Passage TwoHave you ever wondered where these cute little teddy bears came from? They were named for President Theodore Roosevelt in 1902.President Roosevelt was on a hunting trip in Mississippi when members of the hunting partycaught a black bear and tied him to a tree. President Roosevelt was called to the area to shoot the bear, which he refused to do and said it was unsportsmanlike and showed poor manners.The Washington Post newspaper ran a cartoon showing the President refusing to shoot the bearand people all over America saw the cartoon.Morris Michtom, a shopkeeper in Brooklyn, New York, placed two toy bears in the window of his shop. Mr. Michtom requested permission from the President to call them “Teddy Bears”as Teddy is the nickname for Theodore Roosevelt. The sweet little bears with shiny button eyes were adelight with children everywhere. The Teddy Bears were made by Mr. Michtom’s wife. Mr. Michtom formed a new business called the Ideal Novelty and Toy Corporation.Today, Teddy Bears are treasured toys of children all over the world. They are also collected by people and many are displayed in museums. Teddy Bears are sold by many companies and youcan find them in almost any toy store, dressed in costumes or with a ribbon around the neck.Questions 26 to 30 are based on the passage you have just heard:26. Why did President Roosevelt refuse to shoot the bear?(C)27. Why did Mr. Michtom ask for the President’s permission to call the toy bears “Teddy Bears”?(A)28. Which of the following is NOT true?(D)29. How many Teddy Bears were made by Mrs. Mitchtom and placed in the window of their shop?(C)30. What did Mr. Mitchtom do after he sold the Teddy Bears in 1902?(D)Part II V ocabulary and Structure (10 minutes, 20 points)Section A Multiple Choice (10 points)31. A 32. D 33. A 34. C 35. B 36. C 37. B 38. D 39. B 40. CSection B Cloze-Test (10 points)41. B 42. A 43. A 44. B 45. A 46. B 47. C 48. D 49. D 50. APart III Word Guessing and IQ Test (5 minutes, 10 points)Section A Word Guessing (5 points)51. B 52. B 53. D 54. C 55. BSection B IQ Test (5 points)56. C 57. A 58. B 59. A 60. A 2003-2010年全国大学生英语竞赛C类初赛、决赛真题及答案汇总集原创第5 页共33 页Part IV Reading Comprehension (25 minutes,30 points)61. trays62. To preserve their colours. (or: To prevent darkening.)63. In hot-air chambers.64. dried separately and then mixed65. climbers, explorers, soldiers66. Because it takes so little time to cook them.67. The travails of comics connoisseur Harvey Pekar.68. original screenplay69. Los Angeles, New York70. Encouraged and excited.71. Bend It Like Beckham, Dirty Pretty Things, In America, The Station Agent. ( Any three of them.)72. 15.73. modern advances in surgery74. the stomach or one lung75. 20%76. The body’s tendency to reject alien tissues.77. No, it has yet to become a reality.78. your illness may be curable79. tripled80. Leeds81. Manchester82. Married women, those unmarried with partners83. “Sindies”, women in their 40s84. The sales have reached a new high, with regional variations.85. Dress, way of speaking, area of residence education and manners. (Any three of them.)86. Rulers, administrators, freemen and slaves.87. politically88. recurrent89. resident foreigners90. The rise of the burghers.Part V Error Correction (5 minutes,10 points)91. non-smoke→non-smoking92. also ∧smoked→be93. smoke→smokeless / non-smoking94. banned→banning95. to→from96. down→up97. has→has98. √99. economical→economic100. employee→employeesPart VI Translation (10 minutes, 20 points) 2003-2010年全国大学生英语竞赛C类初赛、决赛真题及答案汇总集原创第6 页共33 页Section A English-Chinese Translation(10 points)101. 即它必须在价格或质量或服务方面具有竞争力,并且还应具有能够吸引人们购买的“个性特点”。

2010年考研英语一真题答案解析二

2010年考研英语一真题答案解析二（完整版）2010年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语试题Section I Use of EnglishDirections:Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark [A], [B], [C] or [D] on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)In 1924 American’National Research Co uncil sent to engineers to supervise a series of industrial experiments at a large telephone-parts factory called the Hawthore Plant near Chicago.It hoped they would learn how stop-floor lignting__1__workers productivity. Instead, the studies ended __2___g iving their name to the “Hawthorne effect”, the extremely influential idea that the very___3____to being experimented upon changed subjects’ behavior.The idea arose because of the __4____behavior of the women in the Hawthorne plant.According to __5____of the experments, their hourly output rose when lighting was increased, but also when it was dimmed. It did not __6____what was done in the experiment; ___7_something was changed ,productivity rose. A(n)___8___that they were being experimented upon seemed to be ____9___to alter workers’ behavior ____10____itself.After several decades, the same data were _11__ to econometric the analysis. The Hawthorne experiments have another surprise in store: _12 __the descriptions on record, no systematic _13__ was found that levels of reproductivity were related to changes in lighting. It turns out that particular way of conducting the experiments may have led to__ 14__ interpretation of what happed.__ 15___ , lighting was always changed on a Sunday .When work started again on Monday, output __16___ rose compared with the previous Saturday and__ 17 _to rise for the next couple of days.__ 18__ a comparison with data for weeks when there was no experimentation showed that output always went up on Monday. Workers__ 19__ to be diligent for the first few days of the weeking week in any case , before __20 __a plateau and then slackening off. This suggests that the alleged “Hawthorne effect “ is hard to pin down.1. [A] affected [B] achieved [C] extracted [D] restored2. [A] at [B]up [C] with [D] off3. [A]truth [B]sight [C] act [D] proof4. [A] controversial [B] perplexing [C]mischievous[D] ambiguous5. [A]requirements [B]explanations [C] accounts [D] assessments6. [A] conclude [B] matter [C] indicate[D] work7. [A] as far as [B] for fear that[C] in case that [D] so long so8. [A] awareness [B] expectation [C] sentiment [D] illusion9. [A] suitable [B] excessive [C] enough [D] abundant10. [A] about [B] for [C] on [D] by11. [A] compared [B]shown [C] subjected [D] conveyed12. [A] contrary to [B] consistent with [C] parallel with [D] pealliar to13. [A] evidence [B]guidance [C]implication [D]source14. [A] disputable [B]enlightening [C]reliable [D]misleading15. [A] In contrast [B] For example [C] In consequence [D] As usual16. [A] duly [B]accidentally [C] unpredictably [D] suddenly17. [A]failed [B]ceased [C]started [D]continued18.19.20. [A]breaking [B]climbing [C]surpassing [D]hittingSection II Reading ComprehensionPart ADirections:Read the following four texts. Answer the questions below each text by choosing [A], [B], [C] or [D]. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (40 points)Text 121.[A][B][C][D]22.[A][B][C][D]23.[A][B][C][D]24.[A][B][C][D]25.[A][B][C][D]Text 2Over the past decade, thousands of patents have seen granted for what are called business methods. received one for its “one-click” online payment system. Merrill Lynch got legal protection for an asset allocation strategy. One inventor patented a technique for lifting a box. Now the nation’s top patent court appears completely ready to scale back on business-method patents, which have been controversial ever since they were first authorized 10 years ago. In a move that has intellectual-property lawyers abuzz the U.S. court of Appeals for the federal circuit said it would use a particular case to conduct a broad review of business-method patents. In re Bilski , as the case is known , is “a very big deal”, says Dennis’D. Crouch of the Unive rsity ofMissouri School of law. It “has the potential to eliminate an entire class of patents.”Curbs on business-method claims would be a dramatic about-face, because it was the federal circuit itself that introduced such patents with is 1998 decision in the so-called state Street Bank case, approving a patent on a way of pooling mutual-fund assets. That ruling produced an explosion in business-method patent filings, initially by emerging internet companies trying to stake out exclusive pinhts to specific types of online transactions. Later, move established companies raced to add such patents to their files, if only as a defensive move against rivals that might bent them to the punch. In 2005, IBM noted in a court filing that it had been issued more than 300 business-method patents despite the fact that it questioned the legal basis for granting them. Similarly, some Wall Street investment films armed themselves with patents for financial products, even as they took positions in court cases opposing the practice.The Bilski case involves a claimed patent on a method for hedging risk in the energy market. The Federal circuit issued an unusual order stating that the case would be heard by all 12 of the court’s judges, rather than a typical panel of three, and that one issue it wants to evaluate is weather it should” reconsider” its state street Bank ruling.The Federal Circuit’s action comes in the wake of a series of recent decisions by the supreme Count that has nurrowed the scope of protections for patent holders. Last April, for example the justices signaled that too many patents were being upheld for “inventions” that are obvious. The judges on the Federal circuit are “reacting to the anti-patient trend at the supreme court” ,says Harole C.wegner, a par tend attorney and professor at aeorge Washington University Law School.26. Business-method patents have recently aroused concern because of[A] their limited value to business[B] their connection with asset allocation[C] the possible restriction on their granting[D] the controversy over authorization27. Which of the following is true of the Bilski case?[A] Its rulling complies with the court decisions[B] It involves a very big business transaction[C] It has been dismissed by the Federal Circuit[D] It may change the legal practices in the U.S.28. The word “about-face” (Line 1, Paro 3) most probably means[A] loss of good will[B] increase of hostility[C] change of attitude[D] enhancement of disnity29. We learn from the last two paragraphs that business-method patents[A] are immune to legal challenges[B] are often unnecessarily issued[C] lower the esteem for patent holders[D] increase the incidence of risks30. Which of the following would be the subject of the text?[A] A looming threat to business-method patents[B] Protection for business-method patent holders[C] A legal case regarding business-method patents[D] A prevailing trend against business-method patentsText 3In his book The Tipping Point,Malcolm Aladuell argues that social epidemics are driven in large part by the acting of a tiny minority of special individuals,often called influentials,who are unusually informed,persuasive,or well-connected.The idea is intuitively compelling,but it doesn’t explain how ideas actually spread.The supposed importance of influentials derives from a plausible sounding but largely untested theory called the “two step flow of communication”: Information flows from the media to the influentials and from them to ereryone else.Marketers have embraced the two-step flow because it suggests that if they can just find and influence the influentials,those selected people will do most of the work for them. The theory also seems to explain the sudden and unexpected popularity of people was wearing, promoting or developing whaterver it is before anyone else paid attention.Anecdotal evidence of this kind fits nicely with the idea that only certain special people can drive trends.In their recent work,however,some researchers have come up with the finding that influentials have far less impact on social epidemics than is generally supposed.In fact,they don’t seem to be required of all.The researchers’ argument stems from a simple obserrating about social influence,with the exception of a few celebrities like Oprah Winfrey-whose outsize presence is primarily a function of media,not interpersonal,influence-even the most influential members of a population simply don’t interact with that many others.Yet it is precisely these non-celebring influentials who,according to the two-step-flow theory,are supposed to drive social epidemics by influcencing their friends and colleagues directly.For a social epidemic to occur,however,each person so affected,must then influcence his or her own acquaintances,who must in turn influence theirs,and so on;and just how many others pay attention to each of these people has little to do with the initial influential.If people in the network just two degrees removed from the initial influential prove resistant,for example from the initial influential prove resistant,for example the casecade of change won’t propagate very far or affect many people.Building on the basic truth about interpersonal influence,the researchers studied the dynamics of populations manipulating a number of variables relating of populations,manipulating a number of variables relating to people’s ability to influence others and their tendence to be.31.By citing the book The Tipping Point,the author intends to[A]analyze the consequences of social epidemics[B]discuss influen tials’ function in spreading ideas[C]exemplify people’s intuitive response to social epidemics[D]describe the essential characteristics of influentials.32.The author suggests that the “two-step-flow theory”[A]serves as a solution to marketing problems[B]has helped explain certain prevalent trends[C]has won support from influentials[D]requires solid evidence for its validity33.what the resarchers have observed recenty shows that[A] the power of influence goes with social interactions[B] interpersonal links can be enhanced through the media[C] influentials have more channels to reach the public[D] most celebrities enjoy wide media attention34.The underlined phrase “these people” in paragraph 4 refers to the ones who[A] stay outside the network of social influnce[B] have little contact with the source of influnence[C] are influenced and then influence others[D] are influenced by the initial influential35.what is the essential element in the dynamics of social influence?[A]The eagerness to be accepted[B]The impulse to influence others[C]The readiness to be influenced[D]The inclination to rely on othersText 4Bankers have been blaming themselves for their troubles in public. Behind the scenes, they have been taking aim at someone else: the accounting standard-setters. Their rules, moan the banks, have forced them to report enormous losses, and it’s just not fair. These rules say they must value some assets at the price a third party would pay, not the price managers and regulators would like them to fetch.Unfortunately, banks’ lobbying now seems to be working. The details may be unknowable, but the independence of standard-setters, essential to the proper functioning of capital markets, is being compromised. And, unless banks carry toxic assets at prices that attract buyers, reviving the banking system will be difficult.After a bruising encounter with Congress, America’s Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) rushed through rule changes. These gave banks more freedom to use models to value illiquid assets and more flexibility in recognizing losses on long-term assets in their income statement. Bob Herz, the FASB’s chairman, cried out against those who “question our motives.” Yet bank shares rose and the changes enhance what one lobby grou p politely calls “the use of judgment by management.”European ministers instantly demanded that the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) do likewise. The IASB says it does not want to act without overall planning, but the pressure to fold when it completes it reconstruction of rules later this year is strong. Charlie McCreevy, a European commissioner, warned the IASB that it did “not live in a political vacuum” but “in the real word” and that Europe could yet develop different rules.It was banks that were on the wrong planet, with accounts that vastly overvalued assets. Today they argue that market prices overstate losses, because they largely reflect the temporary illiquidity of markets, not the likely extent of bad debts. The truth will not be known for years. But bank’s shares trade below their book value, suggesting that investors are skeptical. And dead markets partly reflect the paralysis of banks which will not sell assets for fear of booking losses, yet are reluctant to buy all those supposed bargains.To get the system working again, losses must be recognized and dealt with. America’s new plan to buy up toxic assets will not work unless banks mark assets to levels which buyers find attractive. Successful markets require independent and even combative standard-setters. The FASB and IASB have been exactly that, cleaning up rules on stock options and pensions, for example,against hostility form special interests. But by giving in to critics now they are inviting pressure to make more concessions.36. Bankers complained that they were forced to[A] follow unfavorable asset evaluation rules[B]collect payments from third parties[C]cooperate with the price managers[D]reevaluate some of their assets.37.According to the author , the rule changes of the FASB may result in[A]the diminishing role of management[B]the revival of the banking system[C]the banks’ long-term asset losses[D]the weakening of its independence38.According to Paragraph 4, McCreevy objects to the IASB’s attempt to[A]keep away from political influences.[B]evade the pressure from their peers.[C]act on their own in rule-setting.[D]take gradual measures in reform.39.The author thinks the banks were “on the wrong planet ”in that they[A]misinterpreted market price indicators[B]exaggerated the real value of their assets[C]neglected the likely existence of bad debts.[D]denied booking losses in their sale of assets.40.The author’s attitude towards standard-setters is one of[A]satisfaction.[B]skepticism.[C]objectiveness[D]sympathyPart BDirections:For Questions 41-45, choose the most suitable paragraphs from the first A-G and fill them into the numbered boxes to from a coherent text. Paragraph E has been correctly placed. There is one paragraph which dose not fit in with the text. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET1. (10 points)[A]The first and more important is the consumer’s growing preference for eating out;the consumption of food and drink in places other than homes has risen from about 32 percent of total consumption in 1995 to 35 percent in 2000 and is expected to approach 38 percent by 2005. This development is boosting wholesale demand from the food service segment by 4 to 5 percent a year across Europe,compared with growth in retail demand of 1 to 2 percent. Meanwhile,as the recession is looming large, people are getting anxious. They tend to keep a tighter hold on their purse and consider eating at home a realistic alternative.[B]Retail sales of food and drink in Europe’s largest markets are at a standstill, le aving European grocery retailers hungry for opportunities to grow. Most leading retailers have already tried e-commerce, with limited success, and expansion abroad. But almost all have ignored the big, profitable opportunity in their own backyard: the wholesale food and drink trade, which appears tobe just the kind of market retailers need.[C]Will such variations bring about a change in the overall structure of the food and drink market? Definitely not. The functioning of the market is based on flexible trends dominated by potential buyers.In other words,it is up to the buyer,tather than the seller,to decide what to buy .At any rate,this change will ultimately be acclaimed by an ever-growing number of both domestic and international consumers,regardless of how long the current consummer pattern will take hold. [D]All in all, this clearly seems to be a market in which big retailers that master the intricacies of wholesaling in Europe may well expect to rake in substantial profits there by. At least, that is how it looks as a whole. Closer inspection reveals import differences among the biggest national markets, especially in their customer segments and wholesale structures, as well as the competitive dynamics of individual food and drink categories. Big retailers must understand these differences before they can identify the segments of European whloesaling in which particular abilities might unseat smaller but entrenched competitors. New skills and unfamiliar business models are needed too.[E]Despite variations in detail, wholesale markets in the countries that have been closely examined-France, Germany, Italy, and Spain-are made out of same building blocks. Demand comes mainly from two sources: independent morn-and-pop grocery stores which, unlike large retail chains, are two small to buy straight from producers, and food service operators range from snack machines to large institutional catering ventures, but most of these businesses are known in the trade as “horeca”: hotels, restaurants, and cafes. Overall, Europe’s retail wholesale market, but the figures, when added together, mask two opposing trends.[F]For example, wholesale food and drink sales come to ＄268 billion in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom in 2000- more than 40 percent of retail sales. Moreover, average overall margins are higher in wholesale than in retail; wholesale demand from the food service sector is growing quickly as more Europeans eat out more often; and changes in the competitive dynamics of this fragmented industry are at last making it feasible for wholesalers to consolidate.[G]However, none of these requirements should deter large retails and even some large good producers and existing wholesalers from trying their hand, for those that master the intricacies of wholesaling in Europe stand to reap considerable gains.Part CDirections:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Your translation should be written carefully on ANSWER SHEET 2. (10 points)One basic weakness in a comservation system based wholly one economic motives is that most members of the munity have no economic value.Yet these ereatures are members of the biotic community and ,if its stability depends on its inteyrity,they are entitled to continuance. When one of these noneconomic categories is threatened and,if we happen to love it .We invert excuses to give it economic importance.At the beginning of century songbiras were supposed to be disappearing.(46) Scinentists jumped to the rescue with some distinctly shaky evidence to the effect that insects would eat us up if birds failed to control them,the evideuce had to be comic in order to be valid.It is pamful to read these round about accounts today .We have no land ethic yet ,(47) but we haveat least drawn near the point of admitting that birds should continue survival as a matter of intrinsic right,regardless of the presence or absence of economic advantage to us.A panallel situation exists in respect of predatory mamals and fish-eating birds .(48) Time was when biologists somewhat over worded the evidence that these creatures preserve the health of game by killing the physical ly weak,or that they prey only on “worthless species”.Some species of tree have been read out of the party by economics-minded foresters because they grow too slowly .or have too low a sale vale to pay as imeber crops (49) In Europe ,where forestry is ecologically more advanced ,the Non-commercial tree species are recognized as members of native forest community ,to be preserved as such ,within reason.To sum up:a system of conservation based solely on economic self-interest is hopelessly lopsided.(50) It tends to ignore, and thus eventually to eliminate, many elements in the land community that lack commercial value, but that are essential to its healthy functioning.Without the uneconomic pats.Section ⅢWritingPart A51. Directions:You are supposed to write for the postgraduate association a notice to recruit volunteers for an international conference on globalization, you should conclude the basic qualification of applicant and the other information you think relative.You should write about 100 words. Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter. Use “postgraduate association” instead.Part B52. Directions:Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing. In your essay, you should1) describe the drawing briefly,2) explain its intended meaning, and then3) give your comments.You should write neatly on ANSHWER SHEET 2. (20 points)。

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Usability Analysis of Visual Programming Environments: a ‘cognitive dimensions’ frameworkT. R. G. GreenMRC Applied Psychology Unit15 Chaucer Road, Cambridge CB2 2EF, UKM. PetreDept. of Mathematics and Computer ScienceOpen University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UKCONTACT ADDRESS:T. R. G. GreenMRC Applied Psychology Unit15 Chaucer Road, Cambridge CB2 2EFUKInternet: Thomas.Green@tel: +44-1223-355294 (ext. 280)fax: +44-1223-359062To appear in Journal of Visual Languages and Computing1 Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -12 Psychology and HCI of Programming- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -3Psychology of programming- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -4HCI of programming - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -73 Sketch of a framework of cognitive dimensions- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -84 Design alternatives in VPLs - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -10Basic - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -11LabVIEW- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -11Prograph - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -13 5 Applying the Cognitive Dimensions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -14Abstraction Gradient - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -14Closeness of Mapping - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -16Consistency - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -18Diffuseness/Terseness - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -18Error-proneness - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -19Hard Mental Operations- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -20Hidden Dependencies - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -24Premature Commitment- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -26Progressive Evaluation- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -28Role-expressiveness - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -28Secondary Notation and Escape from Formalism - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -29Viscosity: resistance to local change - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -32Visibility and Juxtaposability - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -33 6 Discussion and Conclusions- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -35What the cognitive dimensions framework can tell the designer - - - - - - - -35Future progress in cognitive dimensions- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -36Future progress in VPL design - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -37 Acknowledgements - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 38 References - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 44 Appendix A Viscosity Test - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 51Usability Analysis of Visual Programming Environments:a ‘cognitive dimensions’ frameworkT. R. G. Green and M. PetreAbstract:The cognitive dimensions framework is a broad-brush evaluation technique for interactivedevices and for non-interactive notations. It sets out a small vocabulary of terms designed tocapture the cognitively-relevant aspects of structure, and shows how they can be traded offagainst each other. The purpose of this paper is to propose the framework as an evaluationtechnique for visual programming environments. We apply it to two commercially-availabledataflow languages (with further examples from other systems) and conclude that it is effec-tive and insightful; other HCI-based evaluation techniques focus on different aspects andwould make good complements. Insofar as the examples we used are representative, currentVPLs are successful in achieving a good ‘closeness of match’, but designers need to considerthe ‘viscosity’ (resistance to local change) and the ‘secondary notation’ (possibility of convey-ing extra meaning by choice of layout, colour, etc.).1. IntroductionThe evaluation of full-scale programming environments presents something of a challenge to existing HCI. Many, indeed most, of the evaluative techniques that have been proposed in HCI are designed to concen-trate on physical, low-level details of interaction between a user and a device. From GOMS [10] onwards, there has been a tradition of close inspection of ‘simple tasks’, such as deleting a word in a text editor, and of trying to predict time taken to learn or to perform the task. But that tradition is not suitable for evaluating programming environments. If we tried to evaluate a programming environment that way we would be overwhelmed by a mass of detailed time predictions of every simple task that could be performed in that environment. Even if we had the timings, and could digest them, they would only address a few of the questions that designers ask. And finally, GOMS and similar HCI approaches have not so far been applied to notational issues, such as whether to use identifier declarations in a programming language; the HCI approach has concentrated on interactive situations, rather than to notational design.Green [28], [30] presented an alternative approach, called ‘cognitive dimensions of notations’, as a frame-work for a broad-brush assessment of almost any kind of cognitive artifact. Unlike many other approaches, the cognitive dimensions framework is task-specific, concentrating on the processes and activities rather than the finished product. This broad-brush framework supplements the detailed and highly specific anal-yses typical of contemporary cognitive models in HCI and it has more to say to users who are not HCI specialists.The Cognitive Dimensions framework: ‘Cognitive dimensions’ constitute a small set of terms describing the structure of the artifact, which are mutually orthogonal (in principle) and which are derived by seeking generalised statements of how that structure determines the pattern of user activity. Any cog-nitive artifact can be described in their terms, and although that description will be at a very high level it will predict some major aspects of user activity.The dimensions are not guidelines, which are handfuls of unrelated precepts for design; they are neither descriptions of devices nor descriptions of how to use devices; and they are definitely not a cognitive model of the user, although they rest on a common-sense ‘proto-theory’ of what users do. They are discussion tools, descriptions of the artifact-user relationship, intended to raise the level of discourse.Briefly, these are the claims we make for the cognitive dimensions framework:1.Broad-brush analysis is usable by non-specialists in HCI because it avoids ‘death by detail’: it offers afew striking points covering a couple of pages, rather than pages of analysis. It is extremely quick and cheap: an afternoon of careful thought about a system is probably all that is needed.2.Because this assessment is structural, it can be used at an early stage in design. (By the same token itneeds to be supplemented at a later stage by other methods.)3.We claim that the terms it uses conform to many notions which are recognisable but unnamed in thediscourse of non-HCI specialists. Readers should not expect to discover many new ideas, but they should recognise many that were previously unformulated.4.By introducing a deﬁned vocabulary for such ideas, the framework not only makes it easier to con-verse about cognitive artifacts without having to explain all the concepts, but also provides a checklist.Designers and evaluators will ﬁnd it easier to avoid gross oversights (e.g. not including a cross-refer-encer as part of a spreadsheet).5.For different types of user activity it is possible to set up a preferred proﬁle across the dimensions.Exploratory design will require one type of proﬁle, tightly-speciﬁed safety-critical design will require a different proﬁle.6.With a deﬁned vocabulary in place it becomes much easier to describe how remedies for weaknessescan be provided, and how different dimensions trade off against each other.Explicitly presenting one’s ideas as discussion tools is, we believe, a new approach to HCI, yet doing so is doing nothing more than recognising that discussion among choosers and users carries on interminably, in the corridors of institutes and over the Internet. Our hope is to improve the level of discourse and thereby to influence design in a roundabout way. Many protagonists of HCI have tried the direct route; they have explicitly attempted to develop methods of design. Such is not our aim. Indeed, we feel it would be impertinent to suggest that cognitive psychologists can tell professional designers what to do; we have no pretensions that we can design programming languages. We do not even, in this paper, attempt to lay down a set of evaluative criteria that designs should meet, such as are to be found in books of guidelines.The purpose of the cognitive dimensions framework is to lay out the cognitivist’s view of the design space in a coherent manner, and where possible to exhibit some of the cognitive consequences of making a particular bundle of design choices that position the artifact in the space. It is the designer who has to decide on thespecification and where to locate the artifact in the design space, and to invent a solution. It is the designer, not the cognitivist, who has to weigh cognitive costs and benefits against the requirements of expense, soft-ware engineering, personnel training, organisational design, etc.Structure of paper: In this paper we present the cognitive dimensions as a method of evaluating vis-ual programming languages (VPLs) and their environments. (For simplicity we shall not be pedantic in distinguishing language and environment.) We start by briefly reviewing some of the major findings about the psychology of programming and the HCI of programming; we then present an outline of the cognitive dimensions, and show how the dimensions are based on contemporary theory. We then use the dimen-sions one by one to consider the successes and weaknesses of visual programming environments.We have chosen not to attempt to review the state of the art on VPLs. To illustrate the cognitive dimensions, we shall draw on two commercially-available VPLs, LabVIEW and Prograph. These languages are not state-of-the-art, but they are genuinely usable – complex programs have been successfully and enthusias-tically built in them by end-users who are scientific specialists, not programming specialists. Both languages adopt the dataflow model, using box-and-wire representation, but they illustrate different design decisions with different usability consequences. Brief descriptions are given in Section 4.Since they are commercially available we have been able to benefit from personal experience, from com-ments and help from experts, and from a certain amount of empirical observation. Each cognitive dimension will be related to these two languages. We have also taken examples of specific issues from other VPL designs.2. Psychology and HCI of ProgrammingThe framework of ‘cognitively-relevant dimensions’ is founded (not too tightly, alas) on present-day views on the activity of programming, which we shall review very briefly. ‘Programming’ is a seriously over-loaded term, comprising a host of different activities and situations [61]; perhaps it is fortunate that we have no space to enter into the niceties here. What follows is a very high-level view, restricted to that which is relevant to the cognitive dimensions framework.To start with, we need to consider the users and the situation. If we wish to design a programming envi-ronment, who is it for? What are they doing? What aspects of the activity are affected by the programming environment?First, we shall assume that anyone may be a user; expert or novice, end-user or computer-science profes-sional. We shall ignore the large literature on what experts know that novices do not know, but we shall take into account the extra support that novices need.Second, we shall tend to limit our discussion to situations like exploratory or incremental programming. We shall pay no attention to other design criteria, such as safety-critical design or coding for efficiency; nor to other parts of the software creation process, such as communication and negotiation during require-ments elicitation; nor to the demands of the local situation or organization, even though they are known to affect choice of cognitive strategy [87]. One thing at a time!And thirdly, within those limits we shall try to consider as much of the programming process as is affected by the programming environment. Not just coding, nor just comprehension.We shall distinguish rather loosely between the ‘psychology’ and the ‘HCI’ of the programming environ-ment, using ‘psychology’ to refer to the meaning of the code (“How do I solve this problem? What does that code mean?”) and ‘HCI’ to mean interaction with the notational system (control of layout, searching for items).2.1 Psychology of programmingThe maxims of information representation: We start with a truism that may all too easily get overlooked – data is not information. Data must be presented in a usable form before it becomes informa-tion, and the choice of representation affects the usability. But usability is not simply ‘better’ or ‘worse’; how good a representation is depends on what you want to use it for.Diagrams are famously better than text for some problems, worse for others. One school of thought main-tains that the difference lies in the cognitive processes of locating and indexing the components of information, a view well analysed for pulley problems in mechanics by Larkin and Simon [43] who show that the two representations they used, diagrammatic and symbolic, carried the same information but imposed very different processing costs.Mental processing analyses apply just as cogently to differences in programming languages. Green [26], [34] and Vessey [85], [80] have independently developed bodies of research that demonstrate notational structure effects. Their work can be summarised in two maxims.Every notation highlights some kinds of information at the expense of obscuring other kinds. Not everything can be highlighted at once. If a language highlights dataflow than it may well obscure the control flow; if a lan-guage highlights the conditions under which actions are to be taken, as in a rule-based language, then it probably obscures the sequential ordering of actions. Corollary: part of the notation design problem is to make the obscured information more visible.When seeking information, there must be a cognitive fit between the mental representations and the external repre-sentation. If your mental representation is in control flow form, you will find a dataflow language hard to use; if you think iteratively, recursion will be hard.Taken together these maxims mean that a programming system (including the language and the program-mer) will not be successful unless the language fits the tasks the programmer needs to do, and the programmer’s mental representation fit the language representations.Mental representations: The mental representation of a program is at a higher level than pure code. This has been demonstrated in various ways. Soloway and Ehrlich [81] introduced the notion of a schema or ‘programming plan’, binding together several semantically-related but dispersed statements in a Pascal-like program to make a group which taken together achieved a goal, such as ‘form a running total’. Détienne [19] reviews this literature, Rist [68], [69] extends and tightens the schema concept and relates it to a full theory of program development and comprehension in novices and experts. In Prolog, the corre-sponding notion seems to be a ‘technique’ [6], which has a similar function but is more abstract.The dislocation and dispersal of related statements has been seen by some as a major problem in learning to program. Spohrer and Soloway [82] report that, contrary to the received wisdom which says that most novice bugs are caused by misconceptions about language constructs, “many bugs arise as a result of plan composition problems — difficulties in putting the ‘pieces’ of a program together”. Even though the novice knows what bits are required, linking the bits together is too difficult. Further analysis of a familiar and distressing problem, ‘Why can’t smart students solve simple programming problems?’ [78] has brought home the importance of plan composition as a cause of failure to program.Dataflow languages have not received the same degree of attention, although recently it has been shown that the schema analysis can be applied to spreadsheets [75] and visual dataflow languages [31].Concentration on ‘programming plans’ may have led some researchers to downplay other types of knowl-edge. Gilmore [23] shows that possessing strategies for planning and debugging is a prerequisite for programming success. The development of visual programming may well give more scope for visual or spatial reasoning than the older, text-based languages. Saariluoma and Sajaniemi [72], [73], [74] ingen-iously showed that spreadsheet programmers reasoned about formulae in terms of the areas on the spreadsheet, while Green and Navarro [31] showed that mental representations of programs had different structures for Basic, for spreadsheets, and for LabVIEW. Far more research is needed in this area but the message seems to be that where possible, spatial reasoning is used as a support.Order of program development: The development of a program is not linear. Programmers nei-ther write down a program in text order from start to finish, nor work top-down from the highest mental construct to the smallest. They sometimes jump from a high level to a low level or vice versa, and they fre-quently revise what they have written so far [4], [14], [16], [34], [86]. For the purposes of programming support, that is all we need to know. Although the causes and nature of deviations from top-down devel-opment have inspired much research, the implication for a programming environment is quitestraightforward; the order of working should be left to the programmer, not prescribed by the environment.Effect of environment: Green et al. [34] showed that at the coding stage, programmers using text-based languages develop their code in little spurts (possibly corresponding to mental chunks or schemas) which are knitted in to what has been written so far. It follows that programmers need to read and under-stand what has been written so far, in order to knit the new material in. They called this the ‘parsing-gnisrap’ cycle (gnisrap = parsing backwards). Davies [17] extended this to consider the relationship with the environment: an editor which allows easy access to a large window of code makes the cycle easier. Once again, there is further work to be done here (see Ormerod and Ball, [56], for recent developments), but there is a straightforward implication, that the ‘window of access’ needs to be large enough.From problem to program: Brooks [7] described program design in terms of mappings between problem domain and program domain. Subsequent research (e.g. [58], [60]) has strongly reinforced that view. (The spatial reasoning mentioned above can be seen as using an intermediate mapping where possi-ble.) There is a powerful corollary: it is not easy to deal with entities in the program domain that do not have corresponding entities in the problem domain. Lewis and Olson [45] show that for potential end user programmers, an abundance of low-level primitives is one of the great cognitive barriers to programming. Nardi [51] persuasively argues the case for task-specific languages, since by definition they have a high proportion of entities that map very directly back to problem domain. Visual programming languages are not the only possible way to create task-specific programming languages, but they can be very effective.Anderson et al. [1] distinguish between ‘inherent goals’, which exist in the problem domain, and ‘planning goals’, which exist solely in the solution domain. Computing gross profit for the year would be an inherent goal; declaring an identifier called Profit would be a planning goal. T he crux of the problem in designing a programming language for end-users, according to Lewis and Olson [45], is to avoid spawning shoals of planning goals. The problem with an abundance of low-level primitives, in their view, is precisely that weaving them together correctly creates many planning goals. The problem of plan composition, men-tioned above, can be seen as a problem of spawning planning goals.Understanding and evaluating the program: The ‘parsing-gnisrap’ cycle shows that program-mers need to read and evaluate incomplete programs as well as finished ones. The less experienced the programmer, the smaller the amount that is produced before it must be evaluated. Novices need ‘progres-sive evaluation’ [1], an environment where it is easy to check a program fragment before adding to it. Ideally, every step could be checked individually, and combinations of steps could be checked to see whether something had gone adrift. So the environment needs to allow seriously incomplete program frag-ments to be evaluated; a far cry from early systems for, say, Pascal, where a program had to pass a rigorous syntactic check before it could be executed.Experts need to check and debug their programs, too, and – hardly surprisingly – one of the means they use to locate a recalcitrant bug in a big program is to cut the program into smaller fragments. Weiser [89]identified ‘slicing’ as an expert debugging strategy, a slice being the smallest fragment of code that could be run as a program and that reproduced the errant behaviour. Textual languages support slicing by com-menting out unwanted code.By the maxims of information presentation, the understandability of a programming language depends on the match between the way it is structured and the type of question to be answered. For example, a tradi-tional GOTO-language highlights the procedural information (the order of execution of statements) at the expense of the declarative information (how many types of input are distinguished and how each type is handled). Therefore, it is easier to answer procedural questions from a GOTO language than to answer declarative questions. This has been demonstrated for textual languages [26] and its analogue has been demonstrated for visual data flow languages [34], [49].One way to improve the ‘cognitive fit’ is to include cues to improve the accessibility of information. So tex-tual languages may include perceptual cues, such as indenting or choice of typeface, or symbolic cues [26]. Alternatively, the environment may offer comprehension aids, such as software visualization tools [20], which present their information in a structure that highlights what the programmer wants to know. These tools are usually designed purely by intuition, but one day it may be possible to design them as deliber-ately-engineered complements to the programming language they support.2.2 HCI of programmingThe previous section dealt primarily with moving between the problem domain and the program domain; in this short section we need to consider what is involved in interacting with the code, on the screen or on paper.Control of layout and text: Despite an overwhelming literature on the design of text-editors and word-processors very little is known about their use for programming. ‘Engineering estimates’ of time required for simple editing tasks using conventional editors are available [55], and it would be surprising indeed if they failed to apply to programming, but little is presently known about the use of specialised editors, program synthesizers, and the like.Still less is known about code management in visual languages, not even in the common box-and-line structure. A ‘straw’ comparison (i.e. N=1) by the authors is mentioned below (see Section 5.12 on Viscos-ity), but serious research is needed to tell us how programmers plan and manage the updating of diagrammatic notations.Searching and browsing: There is similarly very little known about searching and browsing in vis-ual programming languages – indeed, not much is known about browsing in any kind of language. But it is well-established that programmers need wide access to many parts of the program. Far from reading theprogram line by line, they visit different parts to make comparisons, establish dependencies, and so on [42], [70].Sometimes programmers use existing code as a seed for new code. This is a deliberately-supported feature of object-oriented languages, where programmers frequently specialise an existing class for new purpose, and it is also used by learners making use of example programs to guide them to solutions [52].Different types of browsers (such as scrolling through a long text versus hypertext methods) favour differ-ent strategies and impose different costs [50], but few general principles are yet forthcoming. Whatever type of browser is used, however, it will impose its own cognitive overheads, both in finding the way and in finding the way back. Hypertext systems create long trails of windows which can be so confusing that some systems give explicit support in keeping track of trails [77].3. Sketch of a framework of cognitive dimensionsThe framework of cognitive dimensions consists of a small number of terms which have been chosen to be easy for non-specialists to comprehend, while yet capturing a significant amount of the psychology and HCI of programming. Moreover, it is supposed to apply beyond programming, to a wide variety of other notations and to interactive devices as well, although we shall not discuss other applications in this paper. Finally, the ‘dimensions’, so-called, are meant to be coherent with each other, like physical dimensions.There is a place for both scientific knowledge and craft knowledge in inventing such a framework. The sci-entific knowledge, in the form of the psychological and HCI-based literature just reviewed, tells us that certain empirical effects have been observed, but we have to rely on craft knowledge to tell us whether those effects are important in context, and whether there are significant effects that have been missed. So the craft knowledge sometimes acts as a check on the scientific knowledge, strengthening or discounting its conclusions. The opposite is just as true; the craft knowledge tells us what experts think they do, but controlled observation gives us a different viewpoint and separates out some of the myths1.The framework can be tested by comparing it post-hoc with its roots, to show that each ‘dimension’ taken in turn does have empirical support; and it can be tested by trying it out, seeing whether all known phe-nomena, or at least the important ones, have a place in the framework; and it can be tested by seeing whether experienced programmers, designers or end-users respond to each ‘dimension’ with recognition and understanding, perhaps with some phrase like “Yes, I know about that, I just didn’t have a name for it until now”; and it can be tested by showing that the ‘dimensions’ have internal coherency and dynamics, perhaps one day even by formulating a ‘theory of information artifacts’. And finally, the ultimate test isshow that the different narratives of software design, as seen by different stake-holders, each have their own contributions to make [18].。

08.Finkelstein, Sidney (1992). Power in Top Management Teams Dimensions, Measurement andValidation

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In this article, I focus on thethe "dominant coalitions" of firms (Cyert & March, 1963). Although most large firms have many officers, typically only a small subset of managers is most responsible for setting policy (Thompson, 1967). It is this inner circle, or dominant coalition, that was the focus of this research.
Power in Top Management Teams: Dimensions, Measurement, and Validation Author(s): Sydney Finkelstein Source: The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 35, No. 3 (Aug., 1992), pp. 505-538 Published by: Academy of Management Stable URL: /stable/256485 . Accessed: 06/10/2011 10:01 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . /page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@.

3D Convolutional Neural Networks for Human Action Recognition

Shuiwang Ji shuiwang.ji@ Arizona State University,Tempe,AZ85287,USAWei Xu xw@ Ming Yang myang@ Kai Yu kyu@ NEC Laboratories America,Inc.,Cupertino,CA95014,USAAbstractWe consider the fully automated recognitionof actions in uncontrolled environment.Mostexisting work relies on domain knowledge toconstruct complex handcrafted features frominputs.In addition,the environments areusually assumed to be controlled.Convolu-tional neural networks(CNNs)are a type ofdeep models that can act directly on the rawinputs,thus automating the process of fea-ture construction.However,such models arecurrently limited to handle2D inputs.In thispaper,we develop a novel3D CNN model foraction recognition.This model extracts fea-tures from both spatial and temporal dimen-sions by performing3D convolutions,therebycapturing the motion information encodedin multiple adjacent frames.The developedmodel generates multiple channels of infor-mation from the input frames,and theﬁnalfeature representation is obtained by com-bining information from all channels.Weapply the developed model to recognize hu-man actions in real-world environment,andit achieves superior performance without re-lying on handcrafted features.1.IntroductionRecognizing human actions in real-world environmentﬁnds applications in a variety of domains including in-telligent video surveillance,customer attributes,andshopping behavior analysis.However,accurate recog-nition of actions is a highly challenging task due to1/projects/trecvid/handcrafted features,demonstrating that the3D CNN model is more eﬀective for real-world environments such as those captured in TRECVID data.The exper-iments also show that the3D CNN model signiﬁcantly outperforms the frame-based2D CNN for most tasks. We also observe that the performance diﬀerences be-tween3D CNN and other methods tend to be larger when the number of positive training samples is small.2.3D Convolutional Neural Networks In2D CNNs,2D convolution is performed at the con-volutional layers to extract features from local neigh-borhood on feature maps in the previous layer.Then an additive bias is applied and the result is passed through a sigmoid function.Formally,the value of unit at position(x,y)in the j th feature map in the i th layer,denoted as v xyij,is given byv xyij=tanh b ij+ m P i−1 p=0Q i−1 q=0w pq ijm v(x+p)(y+q)(i−1)m ,(1)where tanh(·)is the hyperbolic tangent function,b ij is the bias for this feature map,m indexes over the set of feature maps in the(i−1)th layer connectedto the current feature map,w pqijkis the value at the position(p,q)of the kernel connected to the k th fea-ture map,and P i and Q i are the height and width of the kernel,respectively.In the subsampling lay-ers,the resolution of the feature maps is reduced by pooling over local neighborhood on the feature maps in the previous layer,thereby increasing invariance to distortions on the inputs.A CNN architecture can be constructed by stacking multiple layers of convolution and subsampling in an alternating fashion.The pa-rameters of CNN,such as the bias b ij and the kernelweight w pqijk,are usually trained using either super-vised or unsupervised approaches(LeCun et al.,1998; Ranzato et al.,2007).2.1.3D ConvolutionIn2D CNNs,convolutions are applied on the2D fea-ture maps to compute features from the spatial dimen-sions only.When applied to video analysis problems, it is desirable to capture the motion information en-coded in multiple contiguous frames.To this end,we propose to perform3D convolutions in the convolution stages of CNNs to compute features from both spa-tial and temporal dimensions.The3D convolution is achieved by convolving a3D kernel to the cube formed by stacking multiple contiguous frames together.By this construction,the feature maps in the convolution layer is connected to multiple contiguous frames in theDate\Class Total26921349784520056182030758533220954653621870819604416235821156135898485957281848051428 Total235561Method Measure3D CNN Precision0.02820.02560.01520.0230 AUC(×103)Precision0.11090.13560.09310.1132 AUC(×103)2D CNN Precision0.00970.01760.01920.0155 AUC(×103)Precision0.05050.09740.10200.0833 AUC(×103)SPM cubegray Precision0.00880.01920.01910.0157 AUC(×103)Precision0.05580.09610.09880.0836 AUC(×103)SPM cubeMEHI Precision0.01490.01660.01560.0157 AUC(×103)Precision0.08720.08250.10060.0901 AUC(×103)In this work,we considered the CNN model for ac-tion recognition.There are also other deep architec-tures,such as the deep belief networks(Hinton et al., 2006;Lee et al.,2009a),which achieve promising per-formance on object recognition tasks.It would be in-teresting to extend such models for action recognition. The developed3D CNN model was trained using su-pervised algorithm in this work,and it requires a large number of labeled samples.Prior studies show that the number of labeled samples can be signiﬁcantly reduced when such model is pre-trained using unsupervised al-gorithms(Ranzato et al.,2007).We will explore the unsupervised training of3D CNN models in the future. AcknowledgmentsThe main part of this work was done during the intern-ship of theﬁrst author at NEC Laboratories America, Inc.,Cupertino,CA.ReferencesAhmed,A.,Yu,K.,Xu,W.,Gong,Y.,and Xing,E. Training hierarchical feed-forward visual recognition models using transfer learning from pseudo-tasks.In ECCV,pp.69–82,2008.Bengio,Y.Learning deep architectures for AI.Foun-dations and Trends in Machine Learning,2(1):1–127,2009.Bromley,J.,Guyon,I.,LeCun,Y.,Sackinger,E.,and Shah,R.Signature veriﬁcation using a siamese time delay neural network.In NIPS.1993. 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Recognizing action at a distance.In ICCV,pp.726–733,2003.Fukushima,K.Neocognitron:A self-organizing neural network model for a mechanism of pattern recogni-tion unaﬀected by shift in position.Biol.Cyb.,36: 193–202,1980.Hinton,G.E.and Salakhutdinov,R.R.Reducing the dimensionality of data with neural networks.Sci-ence,313(5786):504–507,July2006.Hinton,G.E.,Osindero,S.,and Teh,Y.A fast learn-ing algorithm for deep belief nets.Neural Computa-tion,18:1527–1554,2006.Jain,V.,Murray,J.F.,Roth,F.,Turaga,S.,Zhigulin, V.,Briggman,K.L.,Helmstaedter,M.N.,Denk, W.,and Seung,H.S.Supervised learning of image restoration with convolutional networks.In ICCV, 2007.Jhuang,H.,Serre,T.,Wolf,L.,and Poggio,T.A biologically inspired system for action recognition. In ICCV,pp.1–8,2007.Kim,H.-J.,Lee,J.S.,and Yang,H.-S.Human ac-tion recognition using a modiﬁed convolutional neu-ral network.In Proceedings of the4th International Symposium on Neural Networks,pp.715–723,2007. Laptev,I.and P´e rez,P.Retrieving actions in movies. In ICCV,pp.1–8,2007.Lazebnik,S.,Achmid,C.,and Ponce,J.Beyond bags of features:Spatial pyramid matching for recogniz-ing natural scene categories.In CVPR,pp.2169–2178,2006.LeCun,Y.,Bottou,L.,Bengio,Y.,and Haﬀner,P. Gradient-based learning applied to document recog-nition.Proceedings of the IEEE,86(11):2278–2324, 1998.LeCun,Y.,Huang,F.-J.,and Bottou,L.Learning methods for generic object recognition with invari-ance to pose and lighting.In CVPR,2004.Lee,H.,Grosse,R.,Ranganath,R.,and Ng,A.Y. Convolutional deep belief networks for scalable un-supervised learning of hierarchical representations. In ICML,pp.609–616,2009a.Lee,H.,Pham,P.,Largman,Y.,and Ng,A.Unsuper-vised feature learning for audio classiﬁcation using convolutional deep belief networks.In NIPS,pp. 1096–1104.2009b.Lowe,D.G.Distinctive image features from scale in-variant keypoints.International Journal of Com-puter Vision,60(2):91–110,2004.Mobahi,H.,Collobert,R.,and Weston,J.Deep learn-ing from temporal coherence in video.In ICML,pp. 737–744,2009.Mutch,J.and Lowe,D.G.Object class recognition and localization using sparse features with limited receptiveﬁelds.International Journal of Computer Vision,80(1):45–57,October2008.Niebles,J.C.,Wang,H.,and Fei-Fei,L.Unsupervised learning of human action categories using spatial-temporal words.International Journal of Computer Vision,79(3):299–318,2008.Ning,F.,Delhomme,D.,LeCun,Y.,Piano,F.,Bot-tou,L.,and Barbano,P.Toward automatic phe-notyping of developing embryos from videos.IEEE Trans.on Image Processing,14(9):1360–1371,2005. Ranzato,M.,Huang,F.-J.,Boureau,Y.,and LeCun, Y.Unsupervised learning of invariant feature hier-archies with applications to object recognition.In CVPR,2007.Schindler,K.and Van Gool,L.Action snippets: How many frames does human action recognition require?In CVPR,2008.Sch¨u ldt,C.,Laptev,I.,and Caputo,B.Recognizing human actions:A local SVM approach.In ICPR, pp.32–36,2004.Serre,T.,Wolf,L.,and Poggio,T.Object recognition with features inspired by visual cortex.In CVPR, pp.994–1000,2005.Yang,M.,Lv,F.,Xu,W.,Yu,K.,and Gong,Y.Hu-man action detection by boosting eﬃcient motion features.In IEEE Workshop on Video-oriented Ob-ject and Event Classiﬁcation,2009.Yu,K.,Xu,W.,and Gong,Y.Deep learning with kernel regularization for visual recognition.In NIPS, pp.1889–1896,2008.。

Personality and Individual Differences

Predicting social problem solving using personality traitsThomas J.D’Zurilla a ,Alberto Maydeu-Olivares b ,⇑,David Gallardo-Pujol ba Department of Psychology,Stony Brook University,NY 11794-2500,USAbFaculty of Psychology.University of Barcelona.P.Valle de Hebrón,171.08035Barcelona,Spaina r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 26May 2010Received in revised form 7September 2010Accepted 10September 2010Available online 12October 2010Keywords:PersonalitySocial problem solving Copinga b s t r a c tThis study examined the relations between personality traits and social problem-solving ability.Person-ality was measured by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised,the NEO Five-Factor Inventory,and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.Social problem-solving ability was assessed by the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised,which measures ﬁve different dimensions of problem-solving abil-ity.Results of stepwise multivariate multiple regression analyses showed that neuroticism was the stron-gest predictor of any single problem-solving dimension (negative problem orientation),whereas conscientiousness was the most consistent predictor across all ﬁve dimensions.Conscientiousness,open-ness,and positive affectivity predicted higher problem-solving ability,whereas neuroticism predicted lower ability.Squared multiple correlations for SPS dimensions range from 58%for negative problem ori-entation to just 19%for rational problem solving.Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionAdvances in the conceptualization of personality dimensions in recent years have led to a renewed research interest in the rela-tions between personality traits and adjustment (Miller,2003;Ozer &Benet-Martínez,2006;Roberts,Kuncel,Shiner,Caspi,&Goldberg,2007;Wiggins,1996).A key issue is what cognitive and behavioral mechanisms mediate the relations between higher-order personality dimensions and speciﬁc adaptational outcomes (Cantor,1990).It has been suggested that one of the most important mediator variables might be coping (Carver &Connor-Smith,2010;Connor-Smith &Flachsbart,2007;Matthews,Saklofske,Costa,Deary,&Zeidner,1998),which has been deﬁned as the cognitive and behavioral activities by which an individual attempts to manage a stressful situation and/or the emotions that it generates (Lazarus &Folkman,1984).According to Baron and Kenny (1986),in order to establish mediation,the independent variable (e.g.,personality)must be signiﬁcantly related to the hypothesized mediator (e.g.,coping).Hence,before examining coping as a possible mediator between personality and adjustment or psychopathology,a reasonable ﬁrst step is to identify what particular personality dimensions are associated with what coping activities.Arguably,the most important coping strategy for adjustment might be social problem solving (D’Zurilla &Goldfried,1971;D’Zurilla &Nezu,1982,1999),which refers to the general coping strategy by which a person attempts to develop effective coping responses for speciﬁc problematic situations in everyday living.Most of the research on this ﬁeld is based on the model that was originally introduced by D’Zurilla and Goldfried (1971)and later expanded and reﬁned by D’Zurilla and Nezu (1982,1999),D’Zurilla,Nezu,and Maydeu-Olivares (2002),and Maydeu-Olivares and D’Zurilla (1996).A major assumption of this model is that problem-solving outcomes in the real world are largely determined by two general,partially independent processes:(1)problem orientation and (2)problem-solving style.Problem orientation is a cognitive-emotional process that primarily serves a motivational function in social problem solving.Problem-solving style ,on the other hand,consists of the cognitive and behavioral activities by which a person attempts to understand problems and ﬁnd effective ‘‘solutions”or coping responses.Thus,D’Zurilla et al.(2002)identiﬁed a ﬁve-dimensional social problem solving model consist-ing of two different problem orientation dimensions (positive and negative)and three different problem-solving styles (rational problem solving,impulsivity/carelessness style,and avoidance style).Positive problem orientation involves the general disposition to (a)appraise a problem as a ‘‘challenge”(i.e.,opportunity for beneﬁt or gain),(b)believe that problems are solvable,and (c)believe in one’s personal ability to solve problems successfully.In contrast,negative problem orientation involves the general tendency to (a)view a problem as a signiﬁcant threat to well-being,(b)doubt one’s personal ability to solve problems successfully,and (c)easily become frustrated and upset when confronted with problems in0191-8869/$-see front matter Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.015⇑Corresponding author.Address:Faculty of Psychology,University of Barcelona,P.Valle de Hebrón,171,08035Barcelona,Spain.Tel.:+34933125133.E-mail addresses:Thomas.Dzurilla@ (T.J.D’Zurilla),amaydeu@ (A.Maydeu-Olivares),david.gallardo@ (D.Gallardo-Pujol).living.On the other hand,rational problem solving is deﬁned as the rational,deliberate,and systematic application of effective prob-lem-solving skills.Impulsivity/carelessness style is characterized by active attempts to apply problem-solving strategies and tech-niques,but these attempts are narrow,impulsive,careless,hurried, and incomplete.Finally,avoidance style is characterized by procras-tination,passivity or inaction,and dependency.The aim of the present research was to determine to which ex-tent individual differences on each of theﬁve dimensions of social problem-solving ability are related to personality traits in a large sample of undergraduate college students.The study focused on two well-established personality models:the PEN model(Eysenck, Eysenck,&Barrett,1985),and theﬁve-factor model(FFM;Costa& McCrae,1992).Because of the well-established link between certain personal-ity dimensions and emotionality,speciﬁcally,neuroticism and neg-ative emotionality,and extraversion and positive emotionality (Eysenck&Eysenck,1975;Tellegen,1985;Watson&Clark, 1992),we also included a measure of positive and negative trait affectivity in this study,namely,the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule(PANAS,Watson,Clark,&Tellegen,1988).To the authors’knowledge,this is theﬁrst large sample,com-prehensive study of the relations between these major personality models and social problem solving.Although a number of previous studies have explored the relations between different personality or affectivity measures and speciﬁc social problem-solving mea-sures(e.g.,Burns&D’Zurilla,1999;Chang&D’Zurilla,1996;Elliott, Herrick,MacNair,&Harkins,1994;Elliott,Shewchuk,Richeson, Pickelman,&Weaver Franklin,1996;Jaffee&D’Zurilla,2009; McMurran,Duggan,Christopher,&Huband,2007;McMurran, Egan,Blair,&Richardson,2001;Watson&Hubbard,1996),only one study has examined theﬁve problem-solving dimensions mea-sured by the SPSI-R(McMurran et al.,2001).McMurran et al.(2001)examined the relations between theﬁve NEO-FFI personality factors and theﬁve SPSI-R dimensions in a sample of52mentally-disordered offenders.The personality factor that was found to be most strongly associated with social problem-solving ability was neuroticism.This personality dimension was found to be positively related to all three dysfunctional problem-solving dimensions(negative problem orientation,impulsivity/ carelessness style,and avoidance style)and negatively related to both constructive dimensions(positive problem orientation and rational problem solving).The present study examined two major hypotheses.First, based on conceptual similarities between the personality,affectiv-ity,and problem-solving constructs focused on in this study,as well as the results of previous research(e.g.,McMurran et al., 2001;Watson&Hubbard,1996),we predicted that personality and affectivity will account for a signiﬁcant amount of variance in social problem solving ability.More speciﬁcally,we expected that the‘‘positive”personality and affectivity dimensions(i.e., extraversion,openness,conscientiousness,and positive affectiv-ity)would predict more constructive problem solving(i.e.,posi-tive problem orientation and rational problem solving)and less dysfunctional problem solving(i.e.,negative problem orientation, impulsivity/carelessness style,and avoidance style),whereas the ‘‘negative”personality and affectivity dimensions(i.e.,neuroti-cism,psychoticism,and negative affectivity)would predict more dysfunctional problem solving and less constructive problem solv-ing.Second,based on the assumption that the cognitive and behavioral variables in neuroticism and extraversion are likely to inﬂuence problem solving independent of the effects of affec-tivity,we predicted that neuroticism and extraversion will each account for a signiﬁcant amount of variance in social problem-solving ability even after controlling for negative and positive affectivity.2.Methods2.1.ParticipantsThe participants in this study were650undergraduate college students(104men,541women,ﬁve gender missing)enrolled in an introductory psychology course at the University of Barcelona, Spain.The mean age was20.41years(std=4.20).2.2.MeasuresThe participants completed a self-report test battery consisting of the Social Problem Solving Inventory-Revised(SPSI-R,D’Zurilla et al.,2002),the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised(EPQ-R, Eysenck&Eysenck,1975;Eysenck et al.,1985),the NEO Five-Factor Inventory(NEO-FFI,Costa&McCrae,1992)and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule(PANAS,Watson et al.,1988).We used existing Spanish adaptations of the SPSI-R(Maydeu-Olivares, Rodríguez-Fornells,Gómez-Benito,&D’Zurilla,2000)and the EPQ-R(Aguilar,Tous,&Andrés-Pueyo,1990).Spanish adaptations of the NEO-FFI and PANAS were developed for this study using the back-translation method,a judgmental method for valid cross-cultural comparisons(Berry,1980).2.2.1.Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised(SPSI-R)The SPSI-R consists ofﬁve major scales that measure theﬁve different social problem-solving dimensions described above. These scales are positive problem orientation(PPO),negative prob-lem orientation(NPO),rational problem solving(RPS),impulsivity/ carelessness style(ICS)and avoidance style(AS).The coefﬁcient al-phas for theseﬁve scales in the present sample are.68(PPO),.88 (NPO),.91(RPS),.83(ICS)and.90(AS).Further evidence supporting the reliability and validity of the SPSI-R is reported in D’Zurilla et al.(2002).2.2.2.Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised(EPQ-R)The EPQ-R consists of the following three scales:extraversion (E),neuroticism(N),and psychoticism(P).The coefﬁcient alphas for the EPQ-R scales in the present sample are.80(E),.83(N), and.67(P).Additional data supporting the reliability and validity of the EPQ-R are reported in Eysenck et al.(1985).2.2.3.NEO Five-Factor Inventory(NEO-FFI)The NEO-FFI is a short-form version of the revised NEO Person-ality Inventory(NEO-PI-R;Costa&McCrae,1992).The NEO-FFI consists of the followingﬁve scales:neuroticism(N),extraversion (E),openness(O),agreeableness(A),and conscientiousness(C). High correlations have been reported between the NEO-FFI scales and corresponding NEO-PI-R scales(ranging from.77to.94across various samples).Coefﬁcient alphas for the NEO-FFI scales in the present sample are.78(N),.86(E),.65(O),.60(A),and.81(C). Additional evidence for the reliability and validity of the NEO-FFI is reported in Costa and McCrae(1992).2.2.4.Positive and Negative Affect Schedule(PANAS)The PANAS consists of two scales that measure positive affectiv-ity(PA)and negative affectivity(NA).By modifying the instruc-tions,the PANAS can be used to measure either state affect or trait affectivity.The present study used the trait instructions(par-ticipants report how they generally feel).The coefﬁcient alphas in the present sample are.73for PA and.84for NA.Further support for the reliability and validity of the PANAS is reported in Watson et al.(1988).T.J.D’Zurilla et al./Personality and Individual Differences50(2011)142–1471433.ResultsAll social problem-solving dimensions were signiﬁcantly inter-correlated.There were also signiﬁcant relationships among some of the personality and affectivity dimensions.Bivariate correlations between the different personality and affectivity dimensions and theﬁve problem-solving dimensions are presented in Table1.As the table shows,all of the personality and affectivity dimensions except psychoticism and agreeableness were found to be signiﬁ-cantly related to at least four problem-solving dimensions, although the magnitude of some of the correlations is quite low. Three personality dimensions,NEO neuroticism,conscientious-ness,and openness are related to allﬁve problem-solving dimensions.In general,as predicted,the‘‘positive”personality and affectiv-ity dimensions(extraversion,openness,conscientiousness,and po-sitive affectivity)tend to be positively related to constructive problem solving and negatively related to dysfunctional problem solving,whereas the‘‘negative”dimensions(neuroticism,psychot-icism,and negative affectivity)tend to be positively related to dys-functional problem solving and negatively related to constructive problem solving.Because several personality and affectivity dimensions are sig-niﬁcantly related,some of the low,albeit signiﬁcant,correlations with the problem-solving dimensions in Table1may be basically spurious,reﬂecting the indirect inﬂuences of stronger,correlated predictor variables.Hence,in order to determine what personality or affectivity dimensions are the most important independent or unique predictors of social problem solving,we used stepwise mul-tivariate multiple regression to predict theﬁve different problem-solving dimensions from,(a)the EPQ-R scales,(b)the NEO-FFI scales,(c)the PANAS scales,and(d)all three sets of predictor vari-ables combined.LISREL(Jöreskog&Sörbom,2001)was used to perform these analyses with a GLSﬁtting function and a=0.01 as criterion for variable addition and removal.Because of the mul-tiple analyses on the same problem-solving measures,we adopted the more conservative signiﬁcance level of a=0.01for these anal-yses rather than the customary a=0.05.The squared multiple correlations obtained for each analysis are shown in Table2and the standardized regression coefﬁcients are presented in Table3.3.1.Predicting Problem-Solving Ability from the EPQ-RThe results of the stepwise multivariate multiple regression analysis suggest that four regression coefﬁcients are not signiﬁcant at the chosen alpha level.An overall chi-square test for these restrictions yields v2(4)=5.23,p=0.26.Thus,a regression model with these restrictions cannot be rejected.As expected from the correlations reported in Table1,the EPQ-R scales were found to substantially predict problem-solving ability,although as Table2Table1Correlations between the personality,affectivity and problem-solving measures.EPQ-E EPQ-N EPQ-P NEO-N NEO-E NEO-O NEO-A NEO-C PA NA PPO0.26**À0.31**0.06À0.38**0.32**0.22**0.000.32**0.45**À0.23** NPOÀ0.26**0.61**À0.030.70**À0.33**À0.09*À0.09*À0.37**À0.37**0.48** RPS0.05À0.06À0.09*À0.08*0.10*0.27**0.040.34**0.29**À0.03 ICS0.16**0.18**0.20**0.18**0.05À0.17**À0.17**À0.35**À0.070.14** ASÀ0.18**0.36**0.08*0.43**À0.24**À0.17**À0.13**À0.43**À0.32**0.30**Notes.N=650;SPSI-R scales:PPO=positive problem orientation,NPO=negative problem orientation,RPS=rational problem solving,ICS=impulsivity/carelessness style, AS=avoidance style;EPQ-R scales:E=extraversion,N=neuroticism,P=psychoticism;NEO-FFI scales:E=extraversion,N=neuroticism,O=openness to experience, A=agreeableness,C=conscientiousness;PANAS scales:PA=positive affect,NA=negative affect.*p<.05.**p<.01.Table2Squared multiple correlations predicting problem solving from the personality and affectivity measures.EPQ-R NEO PANAS AllPPO0.110.280.240.32 NPO0.380.550.360.58 RPS0.010.180.060.19 ICS0.110.210.020.21 AS0.140.320.180.33Notes.SPSI-R scales:PPO=positive problem orientation,NPO=negative problem orientation;RPS=rational problem solving,ICS=impulsivity/carelessness style, AS=avoidance style.Table3Standardized regression coefﬁcients obtained by stepwise multivariate multiple regression of the personality and affectivity measures on the problem-solving measures.EPQ-R as predictor EPQ-E EPQ-N EPQ-PPPO0.18À0.24–NPOÀ0.130.57–RPS––À0.12 ICS0.220.190.18 ASÀ0.110.320.11NEO-FFI as predictor NEO-N NEO-E NEO-O NEO-A NEO-CPPOÀ0.290.170.20À0.090.23 NPO0.63À0.07À0.09–À0.20 RPS––0.24–0.35 ICS0.150.21À0.15À0.14À0.34 AS0.35–À0.13–À0.35PANAS as predictor PA NAPPO0.44À0.22 NPOÀ0.360.48 RPS0.25–ICS–0.13 ASÀ0.300.30EPQ-R,NEO-FFI and PANAS as joint predictorsEPQ-E EPQ-N EPQ-P NEO-N NEO-E NEO-O NEO-A NEO-C PA NAPPO––0.08À0.27–0.08–0.190.30–NPO–0.13–0.52–––À0.17À0.16–RPS–––––0.20–0.300.14–ICS0.20–0.080.17–À0.15À0.09À0.29––AS–––0.31––À0.09À0.31À0.16–Notes.SPSI-R scales:PPO=positive problem orientation,NPO=negative problem orientation,RPS=rational problem solving,ICS=impulsivity/carelessness style, AS=avoidance style;EPQ-R scales:E=extraversion,N=neuroticism,P=psychoti-cism;NEO-FFI scales:E=extraversion,N=neuroticism,O=openness,A=agree-ableness,C=conscientiousness;PANAS scales:PA=positive affect,NA=negative affect.All regression coefﬁcients are signiﬁcant p<0.01.144T.J.D’Zurilla et al./Personality and Individual Differences50(2011)142–147shows,the amount of variance accounted for in each of theﬁve problem-solving dimensions ranges from a high of38%(negative problem orientation)to a low of only1%(rational problem solv-ing).As expected,the strongest EPQ-R predictor is clearly neuroti-cism(see Table3).Even after controlling for the other two personality dimensions,neuroticism and psychoticism were each found to be positively related to dysfunctional problem solving and negatively related to constructive problem solving.In addition, extraversion was found to be positively related to constructive problem solving and negatively related to dysfunctional problem solving.However,one speciﬁc exception to the predicted pattern is the signiﬁcant relationship between extraversion and impulsiv-ity/carelessness style,which was found to be positive rather than negative.3.2.Predicting Problem-Solving Ability from the NEO-FFIIn the second analysis,six regression coefﬁcients were found to be non-signiﬁcant at the chosen alpha level.An overall chi-square test for these restrictions yields v2(6)=11.84,p=0.06.The amount of variance accounted for in the problem-solving dimensions ranges from a high of55%(negative problem orientation)to a low of18%(rational problem solving).When compared to the EPQ-R,the NEO-FFI enhances considerably the prediction of the ﬁve problem-solving dimensions.Allﬁve personality dimensions measured by the NEO-FFI were found to be unique predictors of problem solving(see Table3).While neuroticism is the strongest predictor of any single problem-solving dimension(negative prob-lem orientation),conscientiousness is the strongest consistent pre-dictor across allﬁve dimensions.Although the relationships are not as strong,openness was also found to be a signiﬁcant predictor of allﬁve problem-solving dimensions.As expected,after controlling for the other personality dimensions,neuroticism was found to be positively related to dysfunctional problem solving and negatively related to constructive problem solving.Moreover,conscientious-ness,openness,and extraversion were each found to be positively related to constructive problem solving and negatively related to dysfunctional problem solving.Consistent with theﬁndings for EPQ extraversion and contrary to the predicted pattern,NEO extraversion was also found to be positively related to impulsiv-ity/carelessness style.3.3.Predicting Problem-Solving Ability from the PANASIn the third analysis,only two regression coefﬁcients were found to be non-signiﬁcant at the chosen alpha level.An overall chi-square test for these restrictions yields v2(2)=3.61,p=0.16. Problem-solving ability was also found to be substantially pre-dicted by the PANAS scales.As Table2shows,the amount of vari-ance accounted for in the problem-solving dimensions ranges from a high of36%(negative problem orientation)to a low of2%(impul-sivity/carelessness style).Overall,the predictive power of the PANAS is slightly greater than that of the EPQ-R,but much less than the power for the NEO-FFI.Positive affectivity and negative activity appear to be equally strong unique predictors(see Table 3).As expected,when the other affectivity dimension was con-trolled,positive affectively was found to be positively related to constructive problem solving and negatively related to dysfunc-tional problem solving,whereas the reverse was true for negative affectivity.3.4.Predicting Problem-Solving Ability from the EPQ-R,NEO-FFI,and PANAS ConjointlyAs expected from the results of theﬁrst three analyses,a model consisting of the EPQ-R,NEO-FFI,and PANAS was found to be a strong predictor of problem-solving ability.As Table2shows,the amount of variance accounted for in the problem-solving dimen-sions ranges from a high of58%(negative problem orientation) to a low of18%(rational problem solving).Comparing the predic-tive power of this combined model to that of each of its three com-ponents alone,it is clear that this model enhances the prediction of problem solving considerably when compared to either the EPQ-R or the PANAS alone,but not when compared to the NEO-FFI alone. Interestingly,when all three inventories are used to predict social problem solving,a large number of regression paths(28)are non-signiﬁcant.A regression model with these restrictions cannot be rejected v2(28)=40.29,p=0.06.Thus,these three sets of predic-tors substantially overlap.Furthermore,the standardized regres-sion coefﬁcients obtained by this analysis enable us to determine what personality and affectivity dimensions are the best indepen-dent or unique predictors of problem-solving dimensions when all other personality and affectivity dimensions are controlled.As Table3shows,the best independent predictors of problem solving appear to be conscientiousness,NEO neuroticism,positive affectivity,and openness,in that order.Although NEO neuroticism was found to be the strongest unique predictor of any single prob-lem-solving dimension(negative problem orientation),conscien-tiousness was the only dimension that was found to be a unique predictor of allﬁve problem-solving dimensions.It is noteworthy that the positive relationship between EPQ extraversion and impulsivity/carelessness style remained signiﬁcant when all other personality and affectivity dimensions were controlled,whereas the relationship between NEO extraversion and impulsivity/care-lessness style became non-signiﬁcant.It is also noteworthy that after all other personality and affectivity dimensions were con-trolled,all of the signiﬁcant relations between NEO neuroticism and problem solving remained signiﬁcant,whereas all of the rela-tions between negative affectivity and problem solving became non-signiﬁcant.On the other hand,except for the unexpected po-sitive relationship between EPQ extraversion and impulsivity/care-lessness style,all of the other signiﬁcant relations between extraversion and problem solving became non-signiﬁcant,whereas all of the relations between positive affectivity and problem solv-ing remained signiﬁcant.4.DiscussionIn general,the results of this study supported our two hypothe-ses.Except for a few speciﬁcﬁndings,strong support was found for ourﬁrst hypothesis,that personality and affectivity would account for a signiﬁcant amount of variance in social problem-solving ability. Of the three personality and affectivity models examined in this study,the best predictor of social problem-solving ability was found to be the NEOﬁve-factor personality model(NEO-FFI).Considering each of theﬁve problem-solving dimensions,the largest amount of variance accounted for by this model was in negative problem orien-tation(55%),and the least amount was in rational problem solving (18%).Based on the results for the combined predictor model (EPQ-R,NEO-FFI,PANAS),the strongest unique predictor of any sin-gle problem-solving dimension was found to be NEO neuroticism, which accounted for about27%of the variance in negative problem orientation after controlling for all of the other personality and affec-tivity dimensions.Thisﬁnding is consistent with previousﬁndings (McMurran et al.,2001).However,in contrast with the results re-ported by McMurran et al.,the most consistent unique predictor of social problem-solving ability in the present sample was conscien-tiousness,which was the only personality or affectivity dimension that was found to be signiﬁcantly related to allﬁve problem-solving dimensions after controlling for all of the other predictor variables.Considering the combined predictor model,personality and affectivity was found to account for more variance in problemT.J.D’Zurilla et al./Personality and Individual Differences50(2011)142–147145orientation than in the problem-solving styles.This model ac-counted for58%of the variance in negative problem orientation and32%of the variance in positive problem orientation.Looking at theﬁndings more speciﬁcally,however,NEO neuroticism and positive affectivity were found to be more strongly related to prob-lem orientation than the problem-solving styles,whereas the re-verse was true for conscientiousness and openness.Of the three problem-solving styles,rational problem solving(i.e.,effective problem-solving skills)was most strongly related to conscientious-ness and openness.This is not surprising,as the emotionality in neuroticism and positive affectivity are clearly more conceptually similar to problem orientation than the problem-solving styles. Individuals who score high on conscientiousness and openness are described as persistent,industrious,organized,and open to varied experiences and ideas,which appear to be important char-acteristics for rational problem solving.As expected,after controlling for all of the other personality and affectivity variables,conscientiousness,openness,and positive affectivity signiﬁcantly predicted more constructive problem solv-ing and less dysfunctional problem solving.In addition,neuroti-cism and psychoticism signiﬁcantly predicted more dysfunctional problem solving,but only NEO neuroticism also predicted less con-structive problem solving.One notable exception to the predicted pattern was the signiﬁcant positive relationship that was found be-tween EPQ extraversion and impulsivity/carelessness style.It ap-pears that individuals with a more extraverted personality style also tend to have a more impulsive/careless problem-solving style. Thisﬁnding is not surprising when one considers the fact that one of the characteristics of EPQ extraversion is a general tendency to be impulsive.Regarding our second hypothesis,that neuroticism and extra-version would each signiﬁcantly predict problem solving even after controlling for negative and positive affectivity,strong sup-port was found for neuroticism but only weak support was found for extraversion.Overall,results suggest that the signiﬁcant rela-tions that have been found between negative affectivity and dysfunctional problem solving(e.g.,Chang&D’Zurilla,1996;Elliott et al.,1994,1996)can be accounted for by neuroticism,and that the signiﬁcant relations that have been found between extraver-sion and constructive problem solving(McMurran et al.,2001; Watson&Hubbard,1996)can be accounted for by positive affec-tivity.This is of particular importance given the relationships that have been established between personality disorders and social problem solving(McMurran et al.,2001)and that problem solving might be one of the key issues to address in the treatment of personality-disordered people(Crawford,2007).In closing,the results of this study suggest individuals who are generally more conscientious(persistent,industrious,organized), more open(receptive toward varied experiences and ideas),and more likely to experience positive emotions are also more likely to possess good problem-solving ability,whereas individuals who have more neurotic characteristics(worry,anxiety,moodiness, depression)are more likely to have poor problem-solving ability. The results of this study contribute to a better understanding of the problem-solving activities that are associated with the person-ality and affectivity dimensions.Speciﬁcally,they suggest that con-scientiousness,openness,and positive affectivity may predict more effective problem solving and,consequently,better adjustment, whereas neuroticism is likely to predict more ineffective problem solving and,therefore,more maladjustment and psychopathology. 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深口袋理论

问题：CPA考试教材（2010版）中的第27页提到“深口袋理论”（Deep-Pocket Theory)。

在司法实施中，“深口袋理论”是何含义？该理论在注册会计师或会计师事务所承担法律责任的过程中是如何得到实践的？有何利弊？Accounting firms facing rise in negligence（失职）claims（诉讼）amid credit crunch fallout(信贷危机的影响)Alex SpenceLeading accounting firms are facing more professional negligence claims as they are targeted by investors who lost money in the credit crunch.There were 13 negligence cases against accountants in the High Court last year, according to research by Reynolds Porter Chamberlain, the City law firm, compared with four claims in the previous five years.Although the number of claims last year was far lower than the 61 that reached the High Court in the wake of the dot-com collapse —when auditors were criticised for their their role in corporate scandals such as those involving Enron and WorldCom（安然和世界通讯公司）— lawyers predict that this is the beginning of a wave of cases that will emerge from the financial crisis.“The sudden jump in professional negligence claims suggests that cases relating t o the credit crunch have started to reach the courts,”Jane Howard, a partner of Reynolds Porter Chamberlain, said.RELATED LINKS•US ruling could scare off foreign companies•Doubt raised over BAE fraud inquiry pact•Ernst & Young hits back at Lehman criticsThe big accounting firms are often regarded by investors as their best hope of recovering losses in the aftermath（余波）of acompany failure, because they are perceived as having deeppockets and remain standing while other parties may havedisappeared or been declared insolvent.In 2005 Ernst & Young was sued for £700 million by Equitable Life, its former audit client, after the insurance company almostcollapsed. The claim was dropped but could have bankrupted the accountant’s UK division if it had succeeded.Further cases relating to the financial crisis have been filed against the big accounting firms in other countries. KPMG was sued for $1 billion by creditors of New Century, a failed American sub-prime lender, and PricewaterhouseCoopers has faced questions over itsaudit of Satyam, the Indian outsourcing company that was hit by an accounting fraud. Several firms are facing lawsuits relating to their auditing of the feeder funds that channelled investors into Bernard Madoff’s Ponzi scheme.Ms Howard said that claims in the British courts would be likely to centre on allegations that accountants had failed to spot a fraud （发现诈骗）while auditing a company’s accounts or that they had overvalued a company’s assets.The accountants’ tax practices may also face accusations of negligently mis-selling schemes intended to mitigate or defer （减轻或者是保护）income or capital gains tax（资本收益税）, or of giving bad advice to clients about the risk of a successful challenge by the taxman.The role of auditors in the financial crisis had received relatively little scrutiny（审计人员的工作缺少监视）until this month when Ernst & Young, one of the “big four”, was cast into the spotlight for its auditing of Lehman Brothers, the collapsed investment bank. （雷曼银行倒闭案）A strongly critical 2,200-page report by Anton Valukas, an examiner appointed by a federal bankruptcy court in New York, criticised Ernst & Young’s advice to Lehman as failing to measure up toprofessional standards.（审计师的建议没有达到专业标准）The firm, which has defended its work, could now face legal action by the bank’s creditors, although lawyers said that this was likely to take place in the United States rather than in the UK.It is more difficult for investors to sue accountants successfully for negligence in Britain than in the United States, lawyers said, because the legal threshold for proving liability is higher.“We’ve seen a lot of threats of credit crun ch-related claims against accountants that are highly speculative and often fall by the wayside at the pre-action stage when firmly rebutted（揭露）,” Ms Howard said.Last year, in the most recent big negligence case against a City accountant, Britain’s law lords threw out a multimillion-pound claim against Moore Stephens, which had been accused of failing to uncover a £58 million fraud at Stone & Rolls, a commodity trader that it had audited from 1997 to 2001.The case centred on whether Moore Stephens should have known that Stone & Rolls was allegedly being used by its managing director as a vehicle for defrauding banks through a letter-of-credit scam.The law lords dismissed the claim on the ground that the company’s liquidators could not pursue the auditors for losses suffered as a result of the company’s own behaviour. However, the judges’ split decision provided less clarity about auditors’ liability for fraud than the industry had hoped for.Although negligence cases can be difficult to win, accounting firms are worried about the threat of legal action. They can be held liable for the full amount of losses in the event that a business that they audit collapses（审计失败）, even if they were only partly to blame. The accountants fear that a big lawsuit, such as that faced by Ernst & Young over Equitable Life, could put one of them out of business. Led by the big four, the profession has lobbied the Government to enc ourage companies to cap their auditors’ liability. So far their efforts have failed“深口袋”理论即任何看上去拥有经济财富的都可能受到起诉，不论其应当受到惩罚的程度如何。

2024届浙江省温州市苍南县市级名校中考英语模拟精编试卷含答案

2024届浙江省温州市苍南县市级名校中考英语模拟精编试卷含答案考生须知：1．全卷分选择题和非选择题两部分，全部在答题纸上作答。

选择题必须用2B铅笔填涂；非选择题的答案必须用黑色字迹的钢笔或答字笔写在“答题纸”相应位置上。

2．请用黑色字迹的钢笔或答字笔在“答题纸”上先填写姓名和准考证号。

3．保持卡面清洁，不要折叠，不要弄破、弄皱，在草稿纸、试题卷上答题无效。

Ⅰ. 单项选择1、---Who is the man under tree?--- He is person who has devoted himself to doing a lot of research on hybrid rice.A．the, the B．an, / C．a, / D．a, the2、—What do you want to eat for lunch? 1 will prepare earlier today,—Honey, you____________. Let's go out to have something different.A．mustn't B．can't C．shouldn't D．don't have to3、The self-diving plane proves to be useful in many ways.___smart invention it is!A．What B．What a C．What an D．How4、Miss Zhao is very friendly. We all like ________ .A．me B．you C．her D．him5、Tony is my cousin. He is two years______ than me.A．old B．older C．oldest D．the oldest6、The soup tastes terrible because I put too much salt into it ______.A．simply B．exactly C．carelessly D．properly7、--Look! Someone the classroom.--Well,it wasn't me. I didn't do it.A．is cleaning B．was cleaning C．has cleaned D．will clean8、I want to have ________ English pen pal.A．a B．the C．an D．/9、_______ good advice she provided! It did help me a lot!A．How a B．What aC．How D．What10、There is ________ “o” and ______ “n” in the expression “positive energy”.A．an; a B．an; an C．an; the D．the; aⅡ. 完形填空11、阅读下面短文，然后从各题所给的四个选项中选出一个最佳答案。