英语语言学概论 chapter 1 language
英语语言学第一章、第二章
第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。
为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。
语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。
语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。
语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。
心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。
它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
语言学第一章
语言学第一章Chapter 1 Invitation to linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageJacobson——language has six functions:1. Referential指称功能: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative意动功能: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic寒暄功能: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual元语功能: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday ——that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to thehearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spokenand written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.Hu Zhuanglin——language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, suc h as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” t o talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealtsolely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances (and in language acquisition for example).1.8.2 Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties1, the characteristics of their functions2, and the characteristics of their speakers3. (123相互作用构成一个speech community 语言社团)1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the history and structure of formerly unwritten language, the emergence of language and the divergence of languages.1.8.4 Computational linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive描写vs. Prescriptive规定A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses the facts observed.It is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for the “correct” use of language.1.9.2 Synchronic共时vs. Diachronic历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study.The description of a language as it changes through the time is a diachronic study.The distinction between synchronic and dischronic studies is only theoretically clear.原因：①Languages are in a constant state of changing.②The language of any speech community is never uniform.③When a language changes, one set o f features are not suddenly replaced by another set of features.1.9.3 Langue 语言& parole言语Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.区别：①Langue is abstract but parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.②Langue is not actually spoken by anyone; parole is alwaysa naturally occurring event.③Langue is relatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concretesituations is called performance.Competence is the ideal language user`s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.。
语言学导论第一章
displacement(不受时空限制的特征): Language can be used to refer to things which are present or absent, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. e.g.A:When are you moving to America? B:I’m not sure yet. Maybe next month.
What are the functions of human languages?
3.functions of language phatic: Hello. Good morning. Lovely weather, isn’t it? 吃饭了吗? 去哪里呀? directive: Pass me the salt, please. Don’t do that any more. You’d better do it yourself.
the evolutionary theory: In the long process of evolution, men gradually stood up. Free use of the lungs and the vocal cords made it possible for men to articulate sounds.
1.main branches of linguistics phonetics, phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics
stylistics sociolinguistics neurolinguistics psycholinguistics applied linguistics computational linguistics
英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter One language(word文档良心出品)
English Linguistics:An Introduction 英语语言学概论(王永强支永碧)Chapter One language• 1 What is language?• 2 What are the features of language?• 3 What are the functions of language?The definition of language•Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交际的任意性的发音的符号系统。
•First ，language is a system: sound ,words, rules, meaningsElements of language are combined according to rules. Every language contains a set of rules. By system ，we mean the recurring patterns or arrangement or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. The sounds and the words which form sentences are used in fixed patterns that speakers of a language can understand each other. It is because every language has its system that it conveys the same meaning to its speakers. 语言的元素组合根据规则。
每一种语言包含一组规则。
语言学教程第一章总结
1115101044 李素萍Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.1 Why Study Language?Language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted.Language plays a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings.1.2 What Is Language?Language is the systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression.(David Crystal, 1992)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(Ronald Wardhaugh)To give the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication. In short, language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.1.3 Design Features of LanguageArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their sound and meaning. The dog barks wow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level. language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:Primary units …words‟ (meaningful) consist of secondary units …sounds‟ (meaningless).CreativityLanguage is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. Information imparted by animals is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages, as birds, bees.Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.Language is creative in another sense,that is, its potential to create endless sentences.DisplacementHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole.In a word, intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.1.4 Origin of LanguageThe”bow-wow”, the” po oh-pooh” and the” yo-he-yo” theory1.5 Functions of LanguageLinguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc.For Jakobson, language is above all for communication.While for many people, the purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.In conjunction with speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:referential (to convey message and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic (to establish communion with others)，metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.Informative function(ideational function)信息功能Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud.Language serves for the expression of content and give helps to determine our way of looking at things.Interpersonal Function人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society， e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant.It is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation.Performative Function施维功能Language canbe used to do things, to perform action.It is primarily to change the social status of persons and is usually quite formal and even ritualized. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an. Emotive Function感情功能It is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.Phatic Communion寒暄功能It refers to the social interaction of language.We all use small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day often state the obvious.Recreational Function娱乐功能The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulnessThe use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.Metalingual Function元语言功能Our language can be used to talk about itself, for example, I can use the word book to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “book” itself.1.6 What Is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the scientific study of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language. Linguistics is a rich and exciting field.Linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of humanities and social sciences as well.1.7 Main Branches of LinguisticsPhonetics语音学Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.Phonology音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.Morphology形态学Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. Syntax 句法学Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatics语用学Pragmatics is the study of meaning in particular context. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.1.8 MacrolinguisticsOther disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language. Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structureof formerly unwritten languages.Computational Linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language(also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages).To this field, linguistics contributes an understanding of the special properties of language data, and provides theories and descriptions of language structure and use.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing)is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes throughtime is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, andit may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time whereinTHE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis,namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existedlong long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or thatthe speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, giveslanguage new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carriedthrough space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carriedthrough time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby,so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly,oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional(causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encouragerepeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech,different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for??“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptivebecause many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammarswere based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should bedescribed in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy.These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualizedlanguage, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to thespeaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always anaturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a massof confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguistought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole,i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make thanthe subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance? According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledgeof the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of thisknowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand anindefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of hisnative language.Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , thoughsimilar to , F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a propertyof the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociologicalor sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issuespsychologically or psycholinguistically.。
英语语言学概论-整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from anyanimal system of communication.2. Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely largequantities of sentences in their native language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationshipbetween a linguistic form and its meaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents somethingelse by association or convention.5. discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language aremeaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used totalk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other ofmeaning, is known as duality of structure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on fromone generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and areceiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules.By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’slanguage? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. A dult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with languagein general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics tracesthe historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes withlanguages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics (微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure oflanguage system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all themembers of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguisticregulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing(口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is writtencodes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) Peopleactually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes thehorizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language asa means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning withoutusing language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and thedescription.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning ofsentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is calledarticulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speechsounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditoryphonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked,or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and ispronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the twolips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly iscalled affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming acircular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs(双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another throughintervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs (三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position toanother and then rapidly and continuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels andlax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatoryphonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds iscalled acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditoryphonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution(对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and thesubstitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution (互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,thenthey are said to be in complementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of onefor the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme fromanother.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups largerthan the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning atphrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, whilephonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstractdescription of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution becausesubstituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are incomplementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, andthe two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are thesuprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect onone sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a stringof several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades ofpronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes(词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes(屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do notchange its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and asentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents (直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units thatconstitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into newwords are said to be morphological rules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of formingnew words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixationalmorphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function andposition.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivationalaffixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level withina syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis (标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived fromdeep structure by transformational rules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used tobreak a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structurescorrespond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings ofsentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we start with surface structures or with deepstructures? How differently are they generated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.Chapter 7 Semantics 语义学1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation(外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expressionindependent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaningof, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but isorganized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and amore specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have thesame form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does heclassify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theoryin defining meaning of words?请浏览后下载，资料供参考，期待您的好评与关注！。
自考英语语言学概论大纲考核章节精华中文版教材
第一章语言（Language）●本章主要考点●课文理解与重点内容分析：本章介绍语言的基本知识，包括语言的定义、语言的识别性特征和语言的功能。
1. 语言的定义语言是用于人类交际的任意性的发音的符号系统。
该定义有五个要点，即系统、任意性的、发音/声的、系统、用于人类交际。
2. 语言的识别性特征语言的识别性特征指人类语言区别于任何其他动物交流系统的特点。
主要包括：1）能产性：能产性也称创造性，人们能用语言创造新的意义，并立即被从未接触过它的人所理解。
创造性归因于语言的二重性和递归性。
2）离散性：3）不受时空限制的属性/位移性：人类语言可以让使用者表达说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体、事件和观点。
这一特性赋予人们概括和抽象的能力。
4）任意性：任意性是语言的核心特征，指符号的形式或声音与意义间没有理据或逻辑关系。
任意性有不同的程度。
5）文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过教与学，由人们接触的文化代代传递的。
6）结构二重性：二重性指底层有限的语音结构是上层词、句和语篇结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则，使语言拥有强大的能产性。
7）互换性：互换性指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接收者。
3. 语言的功能按照韩礼德的表述，幼儿语言有如下七个功能：1）工具功能：说话人可以使用语言做事情。
2）调节功能：语言可用来控制事件。
3）表现功能：语言可用来传达知识、汇报事件、进行陈述、说明、解释关系、传递信息等。
4）互动功能：语言可用来与周围的人进行交际。
5）自指性功能：语言可以用来表达个人的情感并展示个性。
6）启发功能：使用语言可以获得知识、了解世界。
语言可以用于学习，语言可以用于问答、用于争辩，用于验证假设、推导结论和新奇发现。
7）想象功能：语言用于创造想象系统，可以是文学作品、哲学领域里，也可以是空想、白日做梦和发呆遐想。
成人语言有三大元功能：人际功能、概念功能和语篇功能。
国内著名学者胡壮麟等人在其《语言学教程》中，用如下词语来表达语言的七大功能：1）信息功能：被认为是语言最主要的功能。
英语语言学概论整理(1-7)
Chapter 1 Language语言1.★What is language?(ok)linguisticsymbol and what the symbol stands for. Itbecause words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but2.★What are the design features of language? (ok)Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication(Charles Hockett). They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.3.What are the design features of language? （具体）I.Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehendingindefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language，including sentencesthey never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one hasever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an Africangibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understa nd it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language,thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).II.arbitrariness (任意性) （核心）Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. By “arbitrariness”, wemean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog mightbe a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language istherefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be somesound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, whichare motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to beone word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivatedwords, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the wordsthat make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.III.（symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.）IV.discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.V.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, aseasily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things,things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too.When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be somethingthat had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When adog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone thatexists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a boneto be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is anunspeakable tiny share.VI.duality of structure (结构二重性) Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At thefirst, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units(such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence ofsegments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units ofmeaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets ofstructures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings oflanguage. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can bearranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we havedictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for aperson to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication systemenjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.VII.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather thanby inheritance. This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generationto generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by eachspeaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it“language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language aperso n learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barkingsystem. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The WolfChild reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” whenhe was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain humanlanguage.VIII.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. (1) Interchangeability means that anyhuman being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and onother occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to makeme happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differe ntiationin the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yetin principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a womancannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the otherperson is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker andthe first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possibleand acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), andcertain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboringdogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” andwhich listening.4.Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.5.What functions does language have?6.★(Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions ofchildren’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s langua●Instrumental function(工具功能)refers to the fact that language allows speakers to getthings done. It allows them to control things in the environment .people can cause thingsto be done and happen through the use of words alone.●Regulatory function(调节功能)refers to language used in an attempt to control eventsonce they happen. Those events may involve the self as well as others . People do try tocontrol themselves through language.●Representational function(表现功能)refers to the use of language to communicateknowledge about the world ,to report events ,to make statements ,to give accounts , toexplain relationships, to relay messages and so on. This function of language isrepresented by all kinds of record-keeping .●Interactional function(互动功能)refers to language used to ensure social maintenance.Phatic communication is a part of it .●Personal function(自指性功能)refers to language used to express the individual’sfeelings ,emotions and personality. A person’s individuality is usually characterized byhis or her use of personal of communication.●Heuristic function(启发功能) [osbQtq`kf`h] refers to language used in order toacquire knowledge and understanding of the world .language may be used for learning.Questions can lead to answers , argumentation to conclusion and hypothesis-testing tonew discoveries. It provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the differentdisciplines .Language allows people to ask questions about the nature of the world theylived in and to construct possible answers.●Imaginative function(想象功能)refers to language used to create imaginary system,whether these are literary works ,philosophical systems or utopian visions one the onehand ,or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand .II.Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇◆phatic function（寒暄功能）: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for settingup a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanginginformation or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?”“Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.◆directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get thehearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform th is function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direct ion too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”◆informative function(信息功能): Language serves an “informational function” when used totell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.◆interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an“interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well,e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note thatrhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.◆expressive function: The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal somethingabout the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.◆evocative function(感情功能): The “evocative function” is the use of language to createcertain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.◆performative function（表达功能）: This means people speak to “do things” or performactions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are pe r formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学1.What is linguistics?1）“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It may be a study of language ,the history of history of language ,the function of language ,etc. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)./2）Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language.It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human languages, guided by three canons of science:(i) exhaustiveness: it strives for thorough-goingness in the examination of relevant materials;(ii)consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement;(iii)economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is to be preferred to one that is longer or more complex.The subject matter of linguistics is all natural languages, living or dead. It studies the origin, growth, organization, nature and development of language and discovers the general rules and principles governing language.It has two main purposes. One is that it studies the nature of language and tries to establish a theory of language, and describes languages in the light of the theory established. The other is that it examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human life.2.★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?✧general linguistics and descriptive linguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学) The formerdeals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.✧synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachroniclinguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.✧theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The formercopes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.✧microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学)at its narrowest. theformer studies only the structure of language system. at its broadest , the latter deals with everything that is related in any way at all to languages and language .3.Linguistics :the scienceThe scientific method of linguistic study involves the following steps(Wen Qiufang):1)Gather data concerning languages ;2)Construct a tentative rule based on the data obtained;3)Examine the tentative rule against the further data and make necessary changes;4)Finalize the rule which must be able to account for all the relevant data.Mei Deming gives a similar summarization of the process of linguistic study:1)Linguistic facts observed ;2)Generalizations made about the linguistic facts;3)Hypotheses formulated to explain the linguistic facts;4)The hypotheses tested and examined by more and further observations;5) A certain linguistic theory of language constructed.Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of thetheory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significantgeneralizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.4.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages. ///// It is the scientific study of speech sounds, including the articulation, transmission and reception of specch sounds, the description and classification of speech sounds.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.//// it is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized, the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and shape of syllables. It can be considered the functional pnonetics of a particular languange.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed./// It is concerned with the internal organization, the formation of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processes.Syntax: it is the grammar of sentence construction, dealing with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not. ///5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences./// It is concerned with the study of meaning in all its aspects, examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words, but also with levels of language below the word and above it.6) Pragmatics. 语用学/// it is the study of meaning in context, in use. It deals with particularutterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.5.some distinction in linguisticslangue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstrac t linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rulesof his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Inother words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similarto, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.synchronic and diachronic(共时与历时) The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope. (1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language newscope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the lastcentury and theretofore.linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.6.Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsWhat are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学1.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.2.Phonetics sub-branchess◆articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds iscalled articulatory phonetics.◆acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission ofspeech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.◆auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is calledauditory phonetics.3.How are the vocal organs formed?(p29-30)The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.4.the definition of consonant and vowelconsonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.5.The place of articulation:（辅音分类）◆bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped orrestricted by the two lips.◆Labiodentals: consonant brought about by bringing the bottom lip to the upper teeth.◆Dentals/interdentals: consonant for which the flow of air is restricted by catching the tonguebetween the teeth .◆Alveolars: consonant produced by bringing the tip of the tongue into contact with the upperteeth-ridge to create the obstruction.◆Post-alveolars: consonant produced by bringing the tip of the tongue to the rear part of thealveolar ridge.◆Alveo-palatals: consonants formed by putting the tongue at the very front part of the hardpalate,near the alveolar ridge. Palatals: consonants made by bringing the back of the tongue to the hard palate.◆Velars: consonants made by bringing the back of the tongue to the soft palate.◆Glottals: sounds produced by bringing the vocal cords momentarily together to create theobstruction.6.classifications of English consonants7.★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1)The position of the soft palate.2)The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3)The place of articulation.4)The manner of articulation.8.★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?。
(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。
语言学概论
Chapter 1Invitation to Linguisticsnguage (语言) (p.2): A systematic system of meaningful symbols used for human communication, e.g. Chinese, English, Russian, etc..2.Design features of language (语言的区别性特征) (p.3): Features that distinguish human language from animal communication.○1Arbitrariness of language(任意性):The arbitrariness of language refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs generally bear no natural relationship to the meanings they carry (p.4).○2Duality of language(二重性):: The duality of language refers to the fact that human language has two levels of structures.○3Creativity of language (创造性): Because of its duality and recursiveness, language is resourceful and is capable of producing various and numerous expressions. (p.7) ○4Displacement of language (移位性): Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication. (p.7)3.Functions of language: ○1informative信息功能○2interpersonal function人际功能○3 performative施为功能○4emotive function感情功能○5phatic communion寒暄功能○6 recreational function娱乐功能○7metalingual function元语言功能4.Branches of linguistics (语言学分支) (p.15): Different fields/areas of linguistic study Phonetics语音学, phonology音系学，morphology形态学, syntax句法学，semantics 语义学，pragmatic语用学5.Interdisciplinary fields of linguistics (跨学科语言学) (p.18): Fields of linguistic studies that are related to other sciences, incl. psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, etc.6.Major distinctions in linguistics (语言学中的相对概念) (p.20): Contrastive pairs of linguistic concepts, e.g. prescriptive grammar vs. descriptive grammar, language competence vs. language performance, etcChapter 2Speech Sounds1.The IPA (国际音标) (p.28): A system of symbols designed to represent sounds of various languages, esp. vowels and consonants.2.Consonants and vowels(辅音和元音) (p.29): Sounds that are obstructed when pronounced are consonants, e.g. /p/, /f/; those that are not are vowels, e.g. /i:/, /e/, etc.3.Phoneme and allophone (音位与音位变体) (p.38): A phoneme is a group of sounds that sound similar and are in complementary distribution, e.g. /t/. /s/, etc.; the different members of a phoneme are called allophones, e.g. the different pronunciations of /t/ at different positions of syllables in words: too /tu:/, put /put/ and stick /stik/.4.Distinctive features (of phonemes) (音位的区别性特征) (p.45): Features that can distinguish a phoneme from other phonemes, e.g. the consonants /s/ and /z/ are distinguished by the feature of + or – voice.5.Phonological process (音变过程/类型) (p.41): A process in which the pronunciation of phonemes/sounds changes because of the impact of otheradjacent/immediate phonemes/sounds, incl. assimilation (同化), epenthesis (增音), etc.6.Suprasegmental (超切分音位) (p.47): A Phonological unit that usually spreads over more than one phoneme, incl. syllable, stress, intonation, tone, rhythm, etc Chapter 3From Morpheme to Phrase1.Morpheme and allomorph (词位/词素/语素与词位变体) (p.52): The morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language which often has variants called allomorphs (changed forms, not the meaning), e.g. the negative morpheme {in-} consists of such allomorphs as im-, il-, ir-, etc.2.Free morpheme and bound morpheme (自由词位与粘着性词位) (p.53): A morpheme that can be used freely as a word is a free morpheme while one that can not and has to be combined with at least one other morpheme is a bound morpheme, e.g. “hat” and “the” are free morphemes while “pre-” and “-ed” are bound morphemes.3.Word root, word base and affix (词根, 词基与词缀) (p.53):4.Word (词) (p.57): A morpheme or a combination of morphemes that can be used freely in a language, e.g. “school”5.Inflection (屈折变化) (p.61): The process in which an inflectional affix (indicating number, tense, etc.) is added to a word stem, e.g. when “-ing” is added to the verb “beat” to create continuous tense: beating.6.The word-formation process of derivation (派生) is not included as inflection, and the affixes used in this process are called “derivational affixes”.7.Major processes of word-formation (主要构词法) (p.61):Derivation (派生法), Compounding (合成法), Conversion (class shift) (词性转换法).Chapter 4: From Word to Text1.Syntactic relations (句法关系): ○1positional relation位置关系○2Substitutability可替代性关系refers to the relation between a word/phrase in a phrase/sentence and another word/phrase that can replace it without affecting the grammatical structure, e.g. the noun “building” can be used to replace the noun “forest” in the phrase “get out of the forest” without affecting the grammatical structure of the phrase.○3Co-occurrence同现关系refers to the relation between the words/phrases in a phrase/sentence, e.g. the relation between the words in the phrase “leave Guangzhou for Zhuhai”.2.Immediate constituents (直接成分) (p.76): Linguistic units that join and make up a higher unit (as related to the higher unit), e.g. the two parts “Mary” and “arrived on time” are immediate constituents of the sentence “Mary arrived on time”.3.Endocentric and exocentric constructions (向心结构与离心结构) (p.78)4. Grammatical category (语法范畴)(p.85): A feature or features that can distinguish one class of linguistic units from another, incl. number, gender, case, tense, voice, mood, comparative degree, etc.5. Recursiveness of language (递归性) (p.90): A creative feature of language that enables human to make an expression as long as needed by means of conjoining,embedding, subordination, etc. (Refer to creativity—a design feature)Chapter 5 MeaningMajor difference between sense and reference (p.97):(1)Sense (意义): abstract properties of an entity实体.Eg.猫(2)Reference (所指): a (non-linguistic) entity it refers to (in the real world). Eg.我家的白猫注：Functional words (虚词) usually have sense but not reference because they don’t refer to any entity in the real world.Sense relations (语义关系) and lexical meanings of words1.Sense relations (语义关系) (p.97):Sense relations refer to the relations between the senses of words in a language, including synonymy同义关系, antonymy反义关系, hyponymy上下义关系, etc.ponential analysis (语义成分分析法) (p.102): A method/theory applied to the analysis of the meanings/sensesof words in a language.3.Logical semantics (逻辑语义学) (p.108): A method/theory which applies the theory of logic to the analysis of the meanings of linguistic expressions at various levels in a language.Chapter 6Language and Cognition语言与认知1.Psycholinguistics (心理语言学) (p.117): The study of the psychological aspect of language, including the acquisition *ˌækwɪˈzɪʃn]习得, comprehension理解and production of language语言的生成.2.Cognitive [ˈkɒgnətɪv] linguistics (认知语言学) (p.129): The school of linguistics that aims at understanding language creation, learning, and usage as best explained by reference to human cognition in general.3.Construal[kən'stru:əl] and construal operations (识解与识解过程) (p.130): Construal refers to the ways people structure their experiences through language; we can interpret these ways through construal operations, including Attention / Salience (突显), Judgment / Comparison (比较), Perspective / Situatedness (位置), and Constitution / Gestalt (完形).4.Categorization*ˌkætəɡəraɪ'zeɪʃn] (范畴化) (p.132): The process of classifying our experiences into different kinds based on their commonalities共性and differences, including 3 basic levels: Basic (基本范畴), Superordinate (上位范畴) and Subordinate (下属范畴).5.Image schemas (意象图式) (p.134): A recurring, dynamic pre-conceptual pattern of the activities in the mind (our perceptual interactions and motor programs (运动程式) that gives coherence and structure to our experience, including Center-periphery schema (中心-边缘), containment schema (容器), cycle schema (循环), etc.通过感知相互作用以及动觉程序获得的对事物经验给以连贯和结构的反复出现的动态模式。
语言学概论Chapter1WhatisLanguage
语言学概论研究生课程使用教材：语言学入门（英语版）An Introduction to Linguistics by Stuart C. Poole 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press麦克米伦出版社Macmillan Publishers Ltd参考资料：[1] Halliday, M. A. K. (1994[1985]) An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2nd edn. London:Edward Arnold.[2] Labov, William 1966. The Social Stratification of English in York City. Washington, DC:Center for Applied Linguistics.[3] Ladefoged, Peter. 1993. A Course in Phonetics . 3rd ed. Fort Worth,TX: Harcourt Brace.[4] Lakoff, George & M. J. Johnson 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of ChicagoPress.[5] Leech, G. 1969. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. Longman.[6] Leech, G. and M. Short. 1981. Style in Fiction. Longman.[7] Radford, Andrew et all. 1999. Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.[8] Roach, Peter. 1991. English Phonetics and Phonology. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press.[9] Yule, George. 1996. The Study of Language, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.[10] 胡壮麟. 2001.《语言学教程》北京：北京大学出版社.第一章What Is Language?本章的教学目的、要求与内容：掌握语言的意义和定义、语言的功能和结构特征。
语言学chapter 1
教案（首页）教案填写说明：①教材和主要参考资料要求表明教材或参考文献的名称、作者、出版社和出版时间。
②教学方法、手段指使用直观教具、挂图、板图、多媒体教学及双语教学等方法。
③教学进程内容包括课堂教学内容、教学方法、辅助手段、师生互动、时间分配、板书设计和作业布置等。
④板书设计可在教学进程中直接用横线、浪线等标示出来。
⑤教后感是对本次教学过程中自我感觉成功的地方以及存在的不足和学生反馈的信息情况进行总结。
Teaching Plan课程名称：课程类型：第 1 次课学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 1: language and linguistics: an overview2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.3、Teaching importances: the definition of language, design features of language, functions of languageTeaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguistics4、Teaching Procedure：I.What is language?1.The boy used bad language towards his classmate.2.Mark Twain’language is brief and vivid.3.I could understand the language of law.4.You are supposed to use the English language whenever it is possible.5.The deal and dumb people use a sign language.6.The movement of the cat’s tail is part of his language of anger.What does every “ language ” mean here?1.使用的具体词汇2.个人的语言特色3.行业术语4.某一特定语言5.不使用词句的表达方式6.动物的交际方式Different people have different points of view of the definition of language.In broad terms, linguists agree to define language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.II.Features of language:Bertrand Russell “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”What is in a name? That which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweet.----Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet.The two sentences show the arbitrariness of languageMany philosophers and linguists believe that language is unique to man. Language is a human trait that sets us apart from other living creatures. They spell out a number offeatures of language, which are not found in animal communication system. Every speaker uses language creatively.1.Creativity/ProductivityIt refers to the fact that language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel message. The grammatical rules and the words of language are finite, but the sentences are infinite.2.DualityLanguage contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings. If you are given the four English speech sounds [p][l] [i][d] and asked to combine them into sequences that sound like English words, you will find [plid][pild] are permissible, while * [pdli]*[dpli] *[lipd] *[idlp], etc are not.3.ArbitrainessThe relationship between speech sounds are meanings they represent in the languages of the world is, for the most part, an arbitrary one. The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of signifier ( sound image) and signified ( referent).4.Displacement:Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present and future. When we listen to news broadcast, we know what has happened far and wide in the world. What can be spoken is not limited by time and space, while animals can merely communicate about what happens here and now.5.Cultural transmission :Language is not merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation. Children pick up their mother tongue in the process of socialization. Animal communication systems are genetically transmitted. Admittedly, the capacity for language has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person acquires or learns is a cultural fact, not a biological fact. As language is arbitrary and conventional, a child can only acquire his mother tongue through interacting with people around him.6.Interchangeablility:All members of speech community can send and receive messages.7.Reflexivity:Human languages can be used to describe themselves.Metalanguage : The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage. III.Functions of languageWhat are the specific functions of language?rmative2.Interpersonal function3.Performative4.Emotive function5.Phatic communion6.Recreational function7.Metalingual functionState the specific functions the following sentences perform in communication1. A nice day, isn’t it ?2.The linguistics class is going to have a party tonight.3.I declare you man and wife.4.Damn! I forgot the appointment.5.Flowers is spelt as F-L-O-W-E-R-S.6.(某人过年报时打碎了碗) 岁岁(碎碎)平安1.phatic communionrmative3.performative4. emotive5.metalingual6.performativeTeaching Plan课程名称：课程类型：第 2 次课学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 1: language and linguistics: an overview2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.3、Teaching importance: the definition of language, design features of language, functions of languageTeaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguistics:4、Teaching Procedure：IV. Types of language1.Natural languages and artificial languageNatural language: is one that is the mother tongue of an ethnic community. It is estimated that there are about 4000 natural languages in the world .An official language: Among the world natural languages, if a language is designatedby the government for an official use, it is called an officiallanguage.Lingua franca: When a natural language is used to break the barrier of communicationbetween nations or peoples speaking different languages, it iscalled a lingua franca. A language that is used forcommunication between different groups of people, eachspeaking a different language.Artificial language: languages which are specially invented to facilitate internationalcommunication. Computer language.Esperanto: since then a number of artificial languages have be invented, among which“Esperanto” still exists today. It was created by a Polish oculist,Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof. However, Although Esperanto istaught in some schools and university and some journals arepublished in it, the artificial language is still yet to be acceptedas an international language.2.Genetic classification of languages: Genetic( or genealogical ) classification, oneof the two main ways of classification, is based on the assumption that languages have diversified from a common ancestor. The Indo-European family is one of the largest families. Languages of this family are the ones that first spread throughout Europe and many parts of southern Asia. English belongs to West Germanic division ( See Appendix II for the divisions of Indo-European family and the daughter languages)3.The typological classification of languagesPhonological classification: Phonologically, languages can be grouped in terms ofhow many and what kinds of vowels they have, whether they use tones, and so on. Chinese, for example is a tone language, while English is not.Morphological classification: Morphologically, languages can be classified on thebasis of the way words are constructed. Some Europeanlinguists in the 19th century recognized three main types: Analytic (isolating) language: such as Chinese and Vietnamese. There areno inflations or formal changes; grammaticalrelationships are shown through word order.Synthetic(inflectional) language: which Latin Greek and Arabic as clearcases. Grammatical relationships are expressed bychanging the internalAgglutinating languageSyntactical classificationV. Language origin1.The divine sourceThe story in the Bible goes like this, “ And out of the ground the Lord God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air, and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature. That was the name thereof”Hypothesis: in isolation, infants would use the original god-given language.2.The invention theoryThe “Bow-wow” theoryThe “Pooh-pooh” theoryThe“ Yo-he-ho theory”3.The evolution theoryVI.Approaches to linguistics1.Descriptive linguists trys to discover and record all the rules to which the members of a language community actually conform and do not seek to impose upon them other rules or norms, of correctness.*Describe and record rules ; what one saysPrescriptive linguistics attempts to prescribe rules or principles for how people ought to use a language. They follow Latin rules in prescribing rules for language use.*Prescribe and lay down rules; what one says.2.Synchronic linguistics is devoted to the description and analysis of a given linguistic status or stage of a particular language.* language at a fixed point in timeDiachronic linguistics is concerned with a study of language from the point of view of its development in the course of time.*language through the course of its history3.Historical comparative linguistics studies language change and language relationships.Comparative linguistics : if a comparative study of similarities and differences among languages is made, it is called comparative linguistics.VII. Branches of linguisticsVIII Some bacis notions about linguisticsPrescriptive 规定性研究vs. Descriptive 描写性研究If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for “ correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.规定性的语言学研究着重观察，总结语言的“标准”，认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法和标准语音，其目的通常是为了规定人们说话及写作等的标准。
英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from anyanimal system of communication.2. Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely largequantities of sentences in their native language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationshipbetween a linguistic form and its meaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents somethingelse by association or convention.5. discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language aremeaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used totalk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other ofmeaning, is known as duality of structure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on fromone generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and areceiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules.By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’slanguage? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. A dult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with languagein general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics tracesthe historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes withlanguages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics (微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure oflanguage system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all themembers of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguisticregulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing(口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is writtencodes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) Peopleactually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes thehorizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language asa means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning withoutusing language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and thedescription.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning ofsentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is calledarticulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speechsounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditoryphonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked,or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and ispronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the twolips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly iscalled affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming acircular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs(双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another throughintervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs (三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position toanother and then rapidly and continuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels andlax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatoryphonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds iscalled acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditoryphonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution(对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and thesubstitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution (互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,thenthey are said to be in complementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of onefor the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme fromanother.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups largerthan the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning atphrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, whilephonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstractdescription of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution becausesubstituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are incomplementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, andthe two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are thesuprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect onone sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a stringof several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one wordfrom another in a given language.Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes(词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes(屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do notchange its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and asentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents (直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units thatconstitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into newwords are said to be morphological rules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of formingnew words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixationalmorphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function andposition.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivationalaffixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level withina syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis (标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived fromdeep structure by transformational rules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used tobreak a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structurescorrespond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings ofsentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we start with surface structures or with deepstructures? How differently are they generated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.Chapter 7 Semantics 语义学1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation(外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expressionindependent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaningof, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but isorganized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and amore specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have thesame form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does heclassify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theoryin defining meaning of words?。
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter 1概要
The major branches of linguistics (2)
Syntax studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages. Semantics studies meaning conveyed by language. Pragmatics studies the meaning in the context of language use.
competence & performance
American linguist Noam Chomsky 诺姆· 乔姆斯基 Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is defined as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.
synchronic vs. diachronic
Swiss linguist: Ferdinand de Saussure
弗迪南· 德· 索绪尔
Synchronic study studies a language at some point of time in history. Diachronic study studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter一、引言英语语言学是一门研究英语语言的学科，通过对英语语言中的语音、语法、词汇、语义以及社会文化背景等方面进行深入分析，以探寻语言的本质规律和使用方式。
本章将介绍戴炜栋英语语言学概论中的第一章，旨在为读者提供对英语语言学的整体概念和研究对象的基本了解。
二、语言学的定义及分支领域1. 语言学的定义语言学是研究语言的科学，关注语言的结构、发展、演变以及语言与思维的关系，旨在了解语言的规律和作用。
2. 语言学的分支领域- 语音学：研究语音的产生、传播和感知。
- 语法学：研究语言的句法结构和词法规则。
- 语义学：研究语言的意义和概念的表达方式。
- 语用学：研究语言的使用方式和交际功能。
- 语言变化学：研究语言的历史演变和变异现象。
- 社会语言学：研究语言与社会文化背景的关系。
三、基本语言单位1. 音素音素是语言中的最小发声单位，可以通过音标或符号进行表示。
2. 音节音节是由一个或多个音素组成的音序单位，每个音节至少包含一个核心音素。
3. 词汇词汇是语言的基本单位，是由一个或多个音节组成的，具有独立意义的单位。
4. 句子句子是语言中表达完整意义的单位，由一个或多个词汇组成，具有主谓宾结构。
四、语音学的基本概念1. 发音器官发音器官是人类用于发出语音的器官，包括呼吸器官（肺部、气管）、声带、腔道（口腔、鼻腔）等。
2. 语音语调语音语调是指人们在语音交流中所表达的语言节奏、音调和语气等。
不同语言的语音语调差异较大，是语言交流中的重要组成部分。
3. 音素分类音素可分为元音和辅音两大类，元音是声音发出时不产生任何阻塞的音，而辅音是声音发出时经过喉头或口腔等部位的阻塞或摩擦的音。
五、语法学的基本概念1. 词类和词汇词类是对词汇进行分类的方法，包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等。
每个词类都有相应的语法特征和功能。
2. 语法关系语法关系是指词汇之间在句子中的语义或句法关联关系，包括主谓关系、动宾关系、定状补关系等。
英语语言学导论
Chapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics●What is language?As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication●Features of human language⏹Creativity◆Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have neverbeen sent before and for understanding novel messages.◆The grammatical rules and the words of a language are finite, but thesentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.⏹Duality◆Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings.◆Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.◆Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences ofspeech sounds.⏹Arbitrariness◆The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.◆There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.⏹Displacement◆There is no limit in time or space for language.◆Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present orfuture.⏹Cultural transmission◆Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.◆Language is a way of transmitting culture.⏹Interchangeability◆All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.⏹Reflexivity◆Human languages can be used to describe themselves.◆The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.●Functions of language – three meta-functions⏹The ideational function◆To identify things, to think, or to record information.⏹The interpersonal function◆To get along in a community.⏹The textual function◆To form a text.●What is linguistics?⏹Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language.⏹Branches of linguistics◆Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions●Phonetics●Phonology●Morphology●Syntax●Semantics◆External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions●Pragmatics●Psycholinguistics●Sociolinguistics●Applied linguistics●Computational linguistics●Neurolinguistics⏹Modern linguistics began in the early 20th century. It founder is the Swissscholar, Ferdinand de Saussure.(索绪尔)Chapter 2 Phonetics●What is phonetics?Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds. (It studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.)●Description of speech sounds⏹Description of English consonants◆General feature: obstruction◆Criteria of consonant description●Places of articulation●Manners of articulation●V oicing of articulation◆Places of articulation●This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified toproduce a sound.⏹Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]⏹Labiodental: [f] [v]⏹Interdental: [ ] [❆]⏹Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]⏹Palatal: [☞] [✞] [t☞] [d✞] [j]⏹Velar: [k] [g] [☠]⏹Glottal: [h]◆Manners of articulation●This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it iscompletely blocked or partially obstructed.⏹Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]⏹Fricatives: [s] [z] [☞] [✞] [f] [v] [ ] [❆] [h]⏹Affricates: [t☞] [d✞]⏹Liquids: [l] [r]⏹Glides: [w] [j]⏹Nasals: [m] [n] [☠]◆V oicing of articulation●This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds areproduced.⏹V oiced sounds⏹V oiceless soundsChapter 3 Phonology●What is phonology?Phonology is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of language.●Discovering phonemes⏹Contrastive distribution – phonemes◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be incontrastive distribution.◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs andminimal sets.● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one soundin the same position.●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by onesegment in the same position.◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented bythe English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features.Therefore, they are separate phonemes.⏹Complementary distribution – allophones◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be incomplementary distribution.◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number offeatures, they are allophones of the same phoneme.●Syllable structure⏹ A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.⏹Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.⏹The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset andfollowed by one or more consonants called the coda.Chapter 4 Morphology●What is morphology?Morphology is defined as t he study of the internal structure and the formation of words.●Morphemes and allomorphs⏹The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.⏹The different morphs of the same morpheme are called allomorphs.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes: can be used independently as a word◆Bound morphemes: are the morphemes which cannot be used as a word,they must be attached to the other morphemes.●Formation of new words⏹Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create aderived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes tothe word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness,unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.◆Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a differentlanguage origin.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.⏹Compounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is thecombination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words fromthe three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the threeclasses.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech ofthe word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of thecomponents.⏹Conversion◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class intoanother class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.⏹Clipping◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one ormore syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informaloccasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even informal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian),gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax (facsimile)are rarelyused in their complete form.⏹Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog(smoke +frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfastand lunch), motel(motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word inthe textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind ofmachine that is like both a plane and a bike).⏹Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a realor supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed fromtelevision. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefixtele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix–sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in theword television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.⏹Acronyms and abbreviations◆Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initialletters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer thanabbreviations, which are read letter by letter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations andscientific terminology.⏹Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals orplaces. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originatingfrom the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slicesof bread so that he could eat while gambling.⏹Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existingmorphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases whereindustry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak andCoca-cola.Chapter 5 Syntax●What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of sentence formation.⏹Immediate constituent (IC) analysis◆Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.◆ A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of thesentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Eachsection is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cutinto constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituentanalysis.◆Examples:●Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women●The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.◆In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but alsovertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity andthe hierarchy of sentence structure.●I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology|||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.◆Two advantages of IC analysis:●It can analyze some ambiguities.●It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.●Transformational-generative (TG) grammar⏹Background and the goal of TG grammar◆Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.⏹Syntactic categories◆Noun Phrase (NP)◆Verb Phrase (VP)◆Sentence (S)◆Determiner (Det)◆Adjective (Adj)◆Pronoun (Pro)◆Verb (V)◆Auxiliary Verb (Aux)◆Prepositional Phrase (PP)◆Adverb (Adv)⏹Phrase structure (PS) rules◆S →NP VP(Det) (Adj) N◆NP →{Pro◆VP →(Aux) V (NP) (PP)◆PP →P NPChapter 6 Semantics●What is semantics?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.●Lexical sense relations⏹Synonymy◆Synonyms are words which have different forms but similar meanings.●Dialectal synonyms –lift/elevator, flat/apartment●Synonyms of different styles –gentleman/guy●Synonyms of different registers –salt/sodium chloride●Synonyms differing in affective meaning –attract/seduce●Synonyms differing in collocation –beautiful/handsome,able/capable◆Synonyms are frequently used in speaking and writing as a cohesivedevice. In order to avoid repetition the writer/speaker needs to use asynonym to replace a word in the previous co-text when he/she wants tocontinue to address that idea. The synonyms together function to createcohesion of the text.⏹Antonymy◆Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning.●Gradable antonyms – pairs of words opposite to each other, but thepositive of one word does not necessarily imply the negative of theother. For example, the words hot and cold are a pair of antonyms,but not hot does not necessarily mean cold, maybe warm, mild orcool. Therefore, this pair of antonyms is a pair of gradableantonyms.●Complementary antonyms –words opposite to each other and thepositive of one implies the negative of the other: alive/dead●Reversal (relational) antonyms – words that denote the same relationor process from one or the other direction: push/pull, up/down,teacher/student◆Antonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resource in language use.Oxymoron and antithesis based on antonymy. Gradable antonyms maygive rise to fuzziness.⏹Homonymy◆Homonyms are words which have the same form, but differentmeanings.●Homographs – words which are identical in spelling, but different inmeaning and pronunciation: tear [♦☪☜] (v.)/tear [♦♓☜] (n.)●Homophones –words which are identical in pronunciation, butdifferent in spelling and meaning: see/sea●Full homonyms –words which are identical in spelling andpronunciation, but different in meaning: bear (v. to give birth to ababy/to stand)/bear (n. a kind of animal)◆Rhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.⏹Polysemy◆ A polyseme is a word which has several related senses.◆Polysemy is based on the intuition of native speakers as well as theetymology or history of words.⏹Hyponymy◆Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion.◆Tiger, lion, elephant and dog are hyponyms of the word animal. Wordslike animal are called superordinates.◆This kind of vertical semantic relation links words in a hierarchicalwork.●Sentencial sense relations – semantic relations of sentences⏹Sentences may be related in sense. I will illustrate sense relations within andbetween sentences.◆Tautology: The bachelor is unmarried.◆Contradiction: The bachelor is married.◆Inconsistency: John is single./John is married.◆Synonymousness: John broke the glass./The glass was broken by John.◆Entailment: The meeting was chaired by a spinster./The meeting waschaired by a woman.◆Presupposition: Sam has returned the book./Sam borrowed the book.⏹These semantic relations are found within or between meaningful sentences.There are sentences which sound grammatical but meaningless. Thesesentences are said to be semantically anomalous. For example:◆Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.◆The pregnant bachelor killed some phonemes.Chapter 7 Pragmatics●What is pragmatics?Pragmatics can be defined as the analysis of meaning in context.●Speech acts⏹In linguistic communication, people do not merely exchange information.They actually do something through talking or writing in variouscircumstances. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts.⏹Types of speech acts◆Locutionary speech act – the action of making the sentence◆Illocutionary speech act – the intentions◆Perlocutionary speech act – the effects◆Of these dimensions, the most important is the illocutionary act.●Cooperation and implicature⏹Conversational Implicature◆In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation aregenerally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people aretalking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly andsuccessfully. In accepting speakers’ pres uppositions, listeners have toassume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense ofcooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are notnormally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevantinformation from one another.◆However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often notthe literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied inthe words is called conversational implicature. For example:[1]A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.◆In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is notanswering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accuratetime, but through saying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving arough time. The answer B gives is related to the literal meaning of thewords, but is not merely that. That is often the case in communication.The theory of conversational implicature is for the purpose of explaininghow listeners infer the speakers’ intention through the words.◆The study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), theAmerican philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people areobserving a set of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as tocommunicate effectively through conversation. He calls this set of rulesthe cooperative principle (CP) elaborated in four sub-principles(maxims), that is the cooperative principle.⏹The Cooperative Principle◆Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage atwhich it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talkexchange in which you are engaged. The maxims are:●Quantity⏹Make your contribution as informative as is required (for thecurrent purposes of the exchange).⏹Do not make your contribution more informative than isrequired.●Quality – Try to make your contribution one that is true.⏹Do not say what you believe to be false.⏹Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.●Relation – Be relevant.●Manner – Be perspicuous.⏹Avoid obscurity of expression.⏹Avoid ambiguity.⏹Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).⏹Be orderly.◆We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriateamount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. Thecooperative principle given by Grice is an idealized case ofcommunication.Chapter 11 Second Language Acquisition (SLA)●What is SLA?The term language acquisition refers to t he natural process of children’s language development.To summarize, second language acquisition(SLA) may be defined as the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or ina classroom.◆Contrastive analysis●Compare the target language with the mother tongue.◆Error analysis●Describing errors⏹Omission-He came into _ classroom with a book in _ hand.⏹Addition/wordy-My child goes to his school.⏹Selection-I hope/wish…⏹Disordering-I yesterday went to … (I, yesterday, went to …/I went to …yesterday)Chapter 12 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching (FLT)⏹Syllabus design and material development。
语言学概论第一章要点英语
语言学概论第一章要点(2011-08-26 10:30:48)第一章Introduction1.Linguistics定义It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Nowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.The scope of linguistics语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？1.General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study①Phonetics,which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication②Phonology,which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication③Morphology,which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words④Syntax,which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences⑤Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.⑥Pragmatics,which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use⑦Sociolinguistics,which is the study of language with reference to society⑧Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.⑨Applied linguistics,which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.3.现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.4.Some important distinction in linguistics语言学五对基本概念1、descriptive(描述性) :A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.2、prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.1、synchronic(共时语言学): It refers to the study of variation in language in different places and among different groups at a given point in time.2、diachronic(历时语言学): Studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.什么叫共时研究Synchronic study;？什么叫历时研究diachronic study？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes alanguage as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.1、speech and writing are the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1、langue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.2、parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.1、competence(语言能力):As the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language2、performance(语言应用):the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.5、What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary .because the fact that different languages have different words for the some object.Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.Language is symbols.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6、人类语言的甄别性特征design features是什么？（五个）Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness:任意性there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds .A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language, but it is not entirely arbitrary.Productivity:创造性language make possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it users. Productivity is unique to human language.Duality(二重性):Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.Displacement:移位性Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in past, present or future. or in far-away place. In other words, language can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of speakers.Cultural transmission(文化传递性)While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.5. Chomsky的语言能力和语言使用各指什么？American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.7、Saussure是如何区分语言和言语的？The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract;It is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
1.2 Design ຫໍສະໝຸດ eatures of LgDesign features or the defining properties(定义特征 定义特征): 定义特征 能产性,创造性 1 Productivity or Creativity(能产性 创造性 能产性 创造性): the ability that people have in making and understanding indefinitely large number of sentences, including new, recursiveness(梯归性 梯归性) 梯归性 2, Discreteness: Each sound is meaningfully distinct and specific,
Functions of language
Lg is a tool of human communication; tool of learning about the world, tool of creating art (Wang Gang) The seven functions for children by M.A.K. Halliday: 1 Instrumental: get things done: pass me the salt, I name this ship Liberty Bell, I pronounce you husband and wife; 我宣布 奥运会开幕
Vocal(声音的 speech/writing: Lg is 声音的): 声音的 primarily speech, secondarily writing: speech is use more earlier, often and learned earlier by children Symbol: words are symbols fixed by convention, Lg is conventional; “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet” by Shakespeare.
6. Duality or double articulation(双重结 双重结 表达): 构,表达 sound level and meaningful 表达 level, each has its own rules of combination and organization. (colourless green ideas sleep furiously). 7. Interchangeability(互换性 each 互换性): 互换性 speaker can be both the producer and receiver of messages; listener and speaker.
Human: Lg is unique to human while animal communication is quite limited, can not talk about sth remote in place and time. Communication: the main function of Lg. Lg : system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human commnication.
Separated: put/but; fit/hit; book/boot 3 displacement(位移性): Lg can be used to talk about things that is remote in place and time. 4, Arbitrariness: no motivated(理据 理据) 理据 iconic(象似性 logic, natural relation 象似性), 象似性 between form and meaning.Even onomatopoeic words is Lg specific: bang, quackquack, cuckoo
English Linguistics:An Introduction
英语语言学概论 (王永强 支永碧)
Introduction
1. This course does not teach language but what language is. 2 It helps you understand the nature and function of language,helps use how to use language; write thesis…. 3. There are a lot of terms(术语 and 术语) 术语 new words. 4. The book is hard and requires lots of efforts from learners.(cha1-cha4)
In sum: instrumental,
regulatory,representational,interact ional, personal, heuristic, imaginative
According to Halliday: the main functions are: ideational function(概念功能） 概念功能） 概念功能 Interpersonal function(人际功能） 人际功能） 人际功能 texual function(语篇功能 语篇功能） 语篇功能
5 Cultural transmission(文化传递 文化传递): 文化传递 Lg is passed on from one generation to another by teaching and learning, rather than inheritance(遗传 LAD(Language 遗传). 遗传 Acquisition Device)(语言习得机制 语言习得机制): 语言习得机制 the ability that enables children to learn any Lg exposed to them.
Chapter One language
1 What is language? 2 What are the features of language? 3 What are the functions of language?
The definition of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System: sound,words, rules,meanings Arbitrary(任意的 任意的):no logical or intrinsic 任意的 connection; homophone(同形意义词 同形意义词 see/sea, to /too), synonym(同义词 同义词, 同义词 beautiful, pretty)
Summary: productivity; discreteness; displacement; arbitrariness; cultural transmission; duality or double articulation and interchangeability. Note: productivity; discreteness; displacement; arbitrariness; duality or double articulation
5 personal(个人）： 个人）： 个人）：express individual’s feelings, emotions and personality. 6, heuristic(启发 Lg is used for 启发): 启发 acquire(获得）knowledge and 获得） 获得 understanding of the world.学习一种语 言就是学习一种文化，世界观.外语/历史中 文；日语/法语 想象): 7， imaginative(想象 create imaginary ， 想象 world or system, daydream….
2，regulatory(调节功能）：regulate the 调节功能）： 调节功能）： behaviours and encounters among people. 3, representational(表征）： 表征）： 表征）：represent knowledge about the world. 4, Interactional(互动）： 互动）： 互动）：establish and maintain social contacts and relations; phatic communion(寒暄仪式，客套话）： how do you do, 吃过了吗？