Agricultural Land Conversion Application

523S.A. Shahid et al. (eds.), Developments in Soil Classifi cation, Land Use Planning and Policy Implications: Innovative Thinking of Soil Inventory for Land Use Planning and Management of Land Resources , DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-5332-7_29,© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013A bstract L and capability classi fic ation has been used for sensible land reallocation and distribution for settlement purposes. A case study has been conducted to assess how much fertile agricultural land is converted to urban use between 1995 and 2003. This conversion has been assessed in terms of total as well as under each land capa-bility class to examine whether competition between land use for agriculture and housing is leading to landlessness. Assessment is made by superimposing the maps on grid transparent papers using 1995 capability map. Land area possession per family is calculated by dividing total cropland area with total number of households in the village. Interviews and discussions with inhabitants witnessed their feelings about land conversion and subsequent impact on farmers’ possession of arable land and livelihood. The assessment demonstrated that 234.9 ha (23.7% of the highly and moderately potential cropland) has been converted to urban use, including 146.5 ha (38.5% of the capability class I land) being reallocated for settlement. Cultivable land area possession per household is reduced (1–0.35 ha) causing land fragmenta-tion and landlessness in the village affecting the livelihood in general and speci fi c ally women-farmers-led families. Based on the present study, it has been concluded that the available land capability classi fi c ation system has not been properly practiced in the reallocation and distribution of land for settlement purpose.K eywords A gricultural land • A rable land • L and capability classi fi c ation • L and reallocation • L and-use planning and urban useT . D . R ustu (*)D epartment of Land Resources and Environment , H amelmalo Agricultural College ,P .O. Box 7807 ,A smara ,E ritreae-mail: t ewolded@C hapter 29Agricultural Land Conversion: Application of Land Capability Classi fi c ation in Land-Use Planning of Embaderho Village in Eritrea T ewoldemedhin D . R ustu524T.D. Rustu 29.1 I ntroductionT he conversion of prime agricultural land into built-up area (agriculture to urbanization) is a historical phenomenon associated with the economic modernization in the past and a sociopolitical issue in the recent years (Leland 2001).Though humans have been modifying land for thousands of years, current rates, extents, and intensities of land change are far greater than ever recorded in the history, driving unprecedented changes in ecosystems and environmental processes at local, regional, and global scales. These changes encompass the greatest environmental concerns of human populations today (Ellis 2007). The land conversion usually results in the loss of agricultural output and the positive externalities associated with farming and wide-open space (Leland 2001).R ecently, land conversion assessments have been made by many researchers. In China, the dynamic changes and optimal allocation of arable land conversion has been studied by Hengzhou et al. (2007). Later, Liu et al. (2009)reported most of the arable land is lost to urbanization and rural settlements development. In a socio-economy study, Xie et al. (2005)identi fie d socioeconomic driving forces responsi-ble for arable land conversion. Whereas, Oli (2001)expressed that city areas will continue to grow on good agricultural land unless intervened by planning process by land-use planners and decision makers.T he competition for land between urbanization and agriculture is becoming acute and complex (FAO 1999). In many densely populated regions, land demand for resi-dential purpose is the major driving force to transform prime agricultural land out of agriculture production (Ellis 2007); therefore, the protection of prime agricul-tural land has become the world focus. Government of Eritrea (2004)has realized the urgent need for wiser use of the scarce rural land resources through land-use planning. In the developing countries, land capability classi fic ation is used to protect prime agricultural lands from urbanization, in the village land reorganization and for new settlements (Dent and Young 1981).Government of Eritrea (1995)has already acknowledged that there is a high land demand for urban expansion, as well as urgent need to protect agricultural land loss in the highlands of Eritrea.T otal population of Eritrea is about 4.0 million. It is estimated that population will grow on an average of about 2.7% per year (World Bank 2002).The land (12,432,000 ha) is the most important natural resource of Eritrea, of which 439,000 ha (3.5% of the total land area) is arable land (FAO 1994).E ritrea is predominantly a rural society, and about 80% of the population lives in rural areas depending on subsistence agriculture for their livelihood (FAO 1994). In general, the demands for both arable land and urban development are increasing every year. The current cropland is under heavy pressure owing to the increasing population densities. According to Ministry of Agriculture (2002)estimates, aver-age rural population density is 7.2 persons per ha of cropland, or 0.14 ha cropland per capita. With population increase, per capita cultivable land will decline. The fig ure may be even less as land becomes alienated from agriculture to urbanization. Moreover, natural and human impact on the land may degrade it, and hence this resource may become marginal for cultivation (Bojo 1995).52529 Agricultural Land Conversion: Application of Land Capability Classification…A ll land in Eritrea is owned by the state. The state allocates land to community or individuals for purposes such as agriculture, housing, and other developments (Castellani 2000; Government of Eritrea 2004). Recently, the government of Eritrea proclaimed that land be reallocated and distributed to the needy population.C ustomarily, villages and towns in Eritrea occur in hilly and mountainous area or on barren and affected land. This is for security reasons and principally to secure potential agricultural land for crop and livestock production. However, recently, it has been observed that fertile agricultural lands have been encroached by the villages and towns. The reason being that reallocation and distribution of land for construction purposes to the needy has long been restrained to meet the land demand of growing population. Besides population growth in small towns, villages and Asmara (capital city) has been critical and intense. The dramatic population growth in Asmara and the subsequent paucity of houses are acutely affecting the periphery villages for the purpose of housing demand. The rate at which these are taking place is not allowing alternatives for the needed urban expansion other than engul fin g arable land. Furthermore, nearly all villages and small towns are located in the vicinity of agricultural land, even though the village boundary is con fin ed to barren land. Naturally, when a village or town grows, it begins to encroach arable land.I n the past, the villagers were extremely careful to consider land capability when deciding where to grow crops and where to construct houses. The local knowledge and the good practices seem to have disappeared in the modern society. Landlessness has never been a problem in Eritrea, but now may become one as hundreds of hect-ares of fertile agricultural land are being converted to construction sites. The loss of land in subsistence agriculture must be equated with the loss of livelihood. Thirteen villages in the periphery of the Asmara city were recently incorporated into the municipal boundary. Therefore, concentrating on areas around Asmara would be the most logical approach when studying conversion of agricultural land to human settlements. One of these villages around Asmara recently incorporated under Asmara city town planning is Embaderho. Its cultivable area is under the shadow of loss due to urbanization.T his chapter provides a case study of the conversion of agricultural land to urban uses between 1995 and 2003 in Embaderho village of Eritrea. The aim of the study is to determine how much fertile land is converted to residential area and whether a system of land capability classi fic ation is employed in the reallocation of land, and whether competition for land use between agriculture and housing is causing land-lessness in the village.29.2 O bjectiveT he objective of the present study is to examine if an appropriate system of land capability classi fic ation is practiced in the process of land reallocation and distribu-tion for housing purpose. Thus, the assessment will be made to see how much total agricultural land has been converted to urban use in the village and principally the526T.D. Rustu conversion in terms of land capability classes. The study also looked into the effect of conversion on individual household’s land possession and whether the conversion, competition for land use between agriculture and housing is causing landlessness in the village.29.3 M aterials and Methods29.3.1 D escription of the Study AreaT he Embaderho village (biggest in the highlands) is located in the Maekel zone and Serejeka subzone, approximately 12 km North East of Asmara (capital city) along the main road to Keren town at latitude of 1,704,753.20 m N and longitude of 488,623.18 m E. Its altitude is about 2,200 m above sea level (asl). Total village area is about 2,687 ha, of which 1,124.63 ha is arable. Primarily the area consists of undulating, gently sloping terrain and plains. The gentle slopes and the plains in between are the arable areas. Steeper hills also occur in the area.T he village has mild to fairly cold climate with a rainy season from June to August, mean annual rainfall of about 500 mm, and mean annual air temperature of 17.5°C.T he dominant soils belong to three soil orders (Lithosols, Cambisols, and Luvisols). Generally, the soils are very shallow; however, in the lower plains where deposition of eroded soil from higher areas has taken place, the soil depth varies between 0.8 and 1.5 m. The soils are poorly managed and therefore present low organic matter content and soil fertility.T he major crops grown are barely wheat and beans in rainfed farmland and potatoes and cabbages in irrigated land. Total area under irrigation is 32.17 ha; rest of the area is rainfed.T he natural vegetation includes R umex nervosa spp., E uphorbia spp., E chinops giganteus,A loe,C ynodon dactylon, and H yparrhenia species. Vegetation cover is very low due to trees clearance for fir ewood. Recently, efforts have been made in planting eucalyptus and acacias in limited area.T otal population of Embaderho village is 6,446 based on the census conducted in early 2004. This includes native people and outlandish people permanently residing in the village. There are about 1,310 households, which give an average size of fiv e persons per household.T he land tenure system in Embaderho village is called “diessa.” In a diessa system, the land is owned communally by the whole village. Every eligible person (native permanent resident) gets an equal share of land for cultivation. Land is redistributed every 5–7 years by elected representatives, normally community elders. In the past, only married men above the age of 18 years were eligible to get land, but very recently, government introduced a new system allowing women to obtain the land. Agricultural land shares of migrated and died persons are reserved for reallocation to newly married couples.527 29 Agricultural Land Conversion: Application of Land Capability Classification…29.3.2 L and Classi fic ationL and is not the same everywhere and there has to be a key to equal and fair division of agricultural land to families. This is addressed in the village through a local land classi fic ation system. In this traditional classi fic ation system, land is classi fie d according to the potential or fertility of the land and distance from the village. Land is then again subdivided into individual farms capable of producing similar amount. Every family has to receive a share of fertile land as well as poor land in different locations. This process of redistribution of land is carried out through the drawing of lots, called “echa.”A nother land classi fic ation system practiced in the Embaderho village is the modi fie d USDA capability classi fic ation (Haile et al. 1998). Based on this system, Ministry of Land, Water, and Environment (MoLWE-Department of Land, Asmara, Eritrea) classi fie d agricultural land into highly and moderately potential cropland comprising capability class I, II, and III land; less potential cropland as capability class IV land; and fallow and grazing land to capability class IV, VI, and VII land. This modern capability classi fic ation is used by the government. Land-use map of Embaderho is shown in Fig. 29.1.29.3.3 D ata Collection and AnalysisL and-use cover change is assessed and mapped between 1995 and 2003, for which maps are available with the MoLWE. The maps are prepared by superimposing the existing maps. Table 29.1illustrates land-use cover changes between the years 1995 and 2003.L and capability classi fic ation system is the most widely used method for eval-uating and identifying best agricultural land (Van Lanen 1991).Land capability map prepared by MoLWE is used to analyze area of land converted from agricul-ture to urban use in each capability class. When analyzing, the land-use cover and the land capability maps are redrawn into transparent paper using colored pens. Each land-use cover map is then separately overlaid with the capability map for area calculation. Change in area (hectares) of the land that falls into the different capability classes in the study area as a result of urban encroachment between 1995 and 2003 is given in Table 29.2. Table 29.3shows distribution of land-use cover change (hectares) against each land capability classes of the study area between 1995 and 2003.A rea of land owned by single family household is calculated by dividing total cropland area by the total number of households in the village. Discussion and interviews are held with the village leading farmers, local government, and agri-culture experts to look into the farmers’ perception on agricultural land conver-sion and its impact on farmers’ arable land possession and on their livelihood.528T.D. Rustu F ig. 29.1 L and-use map of Embaderho (Source: MoLWE)52929 Agricultural Land Conversion: Application of Land Capability Classification…29.4R esults and Discussion 29.4.1 T he Process of Land Reallocation and Distribution The village community fully supports and is the key player in the land reallocation and distribution for residential development. It selects where, within its demesne territory, it wants its housing development to be and sets the criteria a permanent resident of the village has to ful fi l l to be eligible to apply for land for housing. With the approval of the government, it then distributes the land to the eligible person. F our main bodies in fl u ence the process of rural agricultural area conversion to residential land use. These include the village “tiessa” committee, the local government, the village community members, and the Ministry of Land, Water, and Environment. T able 29.1 L and-use cover changes between 1995 and 2003 L and-use coverA rea (ha) 1995 A rea (ha) 2003 C hange a (ha)H ighly and moderately potential cropland980.63 754.80 −225.83 L ess potential cropland144.00 144.00 0F allow and grazing land1,417.08 1,049.10 −367.98 T ree plantation46.94 157.0 +110.06 W et land1.90 1.90 0N ursery2.50 2.50 0D am23.40 14.30 −9.1 S ettlement67.95 560.80 +492.85 C emetery2.60 2.60 0T otal2,687.00 2,687.00 0 a − shows decrease in land-use cover; + shows increase in land-use coverT able 29.2 L and capability classes’ changes depicted between 1995 and 2003L and capability class A rea (ha) 1995 A rea (ha) 2003 C hange a (ha) I380.16 233.68 −146.48 II 88.88 65.21 −23.67 I II511.59 455.91 −55.68 I V1,263.41 968.16 −295.25 V I276.93 204.20 −72.73 V II20.74 20.74 0.00 V III (wet land)1.90 1.90 0.00 T ree plantation46.94 157.00 110.06 N ursery2.50 2.50 0.00 D ams23.40 14.30 −9.10 C emetery2.60 2.60 0.00 S ettlement67.95 560.80 +492.85 T otal 2,687.00 2,687.00 0a − shows decrease in land-use cover; + shows increase in land-use cover530T.D. RustuT able 29.3 L and-use cover change against land capability classes between 1995 and 2003L and-use cover C apability class A rea (ha) 1995 A rea (ha) 2003 C hange a(ha)H ighly and moderatelypotential cropland I380.16 233.68 −146.48 I I 88.88 65.21 −23.67 I II 511.59 455.91 −55.68 T otal 980.63 754.80 −225.83L ess potential cropland I V 144.00 144.00 0F allow and grazing land I V 1,119.41 824.16 −295.25V I 276.93 204.20 −72.73V II 20.74 20.74 0.00T otal 1,417.08 1,049.10 −367.98T ree plantation V I 46.94 157.00 +110.06W et land V III 1.90 1.90 0.00N ursery –2.50 2.50 0.00D am –23.40 14.30 −9.10C emetery –2.60 2.60 0.00S ettlement –67.95 560.80 +492.85G rand total 2,687 2,687 0a− shows decrease in land-use cover; + shows increase in land-use coverAll these activists have different roles. The main promoter is the village “tiessa” committee, a special committee which is selected by the village community with the responsibility of administering the reallocation and distribution of land for housing purpose. In the process of reallocation and distribution, the village “tiessa” commit-tee locates and selects area for residential development. Upon approval by the local government and the village community members, the selection of the area is com-municated to the ministry. The ministry then makes all the necessary preparation: land leveling, roads and parcels cutting, land reserving for infrastructural and poten-tial mining development, and other government interests. Concurrently, the village “tiessa” committee registers applications and selects eligible individuals. The result of the selection is then conversed again with the ministry for approval.29.4.2 P otential Agricultural Land ConversionT he study shows that 492.85 ha (20.19% of the total agricultural area) inclusive of 234.93 ha (23.74% of the highly and moderately potential cropland) is converted to settlement (tiessa expansion) between 1995 and 2003 (Table 29.1). Of this fig ure, 146.48 ha (38.53% of the land capability class I) represents prime farmland, land that is ideal for agriculture, converted to urban settlement (Table 29.3). These fig ures demonstrate that the amount of total agricultural land lost to urbanization in the village is small relative to the total supply of this land. However, the percentage of prime farmland, capability class I land, lost to urbanization is signi fic ant. The results531 29 Agricultural Land Conversion: Application of Land Capability Classification…support the estimation and the concern of land conversion made by the ministry in 2002. Despite the 2002 estimates of the ministry that only a tiny fraction of Eritrea’s arable land is likely to be converted to settlement over the next few decades, there is a concern of potential problems and with special minority groups like women which may be adversely affected by conversion of agricultural land to urbanization.T able 29.3indicates 225.83 ha (23.03% of the highly and moderately potential agricultural land) which comprises capability class I, II, and III land is allocated to urban use. These fig ures suggest that available land capability classi fic ation might not have been used properly if used at all in the land-use planning process, land real-location, and distribution for settlement. According to the 2002 estimates of the ministry, land-use planning is a new practice in Eritrea, and its application through land capability classi fic ation in managing land is stalled by the current land tenure system. Much arable land could be preserved in agricultural production if develop-ment is more wisely managed using capability classi fic ation (Oli 2001).A concern for meeting present needs might have led to short-term objectives and inappropriate land-use practices in the highlands of Eritrea (Zemenfes 2002).A rable land area possession per family was on average 1 ha in the village. The study shows a reduction from 1 to 0.35 ha between 1995 and 2003. This represents a 65% reduction in single household’s land area possession because of land conver-sion to settlement. There is a long-standing tradition of family farming in the village as is true with all rural areas of Eritrea. Conversion of agricultural land to urban uses together with population growth has resulted in fragmentation of the available ara-ble land. Arable land holdings have now become too small to sustain the livelihood of farming families. These families have lost their cultivable land and now have to fin d an alternative means of livelihood. The effect of loss in arable land to urban use on the livelihood of the farmers is clearly re fle cted in the reduction of total and per capita crop production. As obtained from interviews and discussion with farmers, total crop production from the village has reduced by more than 50%.T he village arable land is under further threat of loss due to urbanization. According to discussion with village community members, it is expected that more arable land will be converted to settlement soon. Any permanent resident of the vil-lage above the age of 18 years is entitled to get land for residential development. Reallocation and distribution of land to eligible individuals is not a onetime endeavor and so does the threat from urbanization as there will be many people who will turn on 18 every year and have to get land too.C urrently, conversion of agricultural land to residential settlement is supported by the whole community despite the fact that it has caused a reduction in their arable land and loses of their livelihood. This has been found mainly for the following reasons. First, in the current land tenure system, people have only the right to use the arable land as long as they or their family stayed in the village and not migrated or died and is returned to the village thereafter. The system allows only married male and divorced female above the age of 18 years to get land for cultivation. Thus, all unmarried ones are disadvantaged by the agricultural area deriving their preference for land for housing.532T.D. Rustu S econd, by law, the government owns all lands in Eritrea; therefore, it can engage any size of land wherever it is located and for any purpose. For example, during the study period, about 37 ha of fertile and potential irrigable land is utilized by the Ministry of Defense for a project of growing flo wers and vegetables. This creates a competition for land between the government and the community and pushes the community to prefer land for housing than for agriculture.T hird, even though families fully depend on subsistence agriculture for their livelihood, they do not produce enough. The agricultural land cannot be sold. Thus, the allocation of agricultural land for residential development is perceived as an attractive opportunity for the community to sell the land at a very attractive price. The amount gained is incomparable with the annual income per capita to be derived from agricultural production on the same land. Currently, value or price of land allocated for housing is exaggerated in Eritrea.F ourth, the conversion of agricultural land to residential development has given the farmers an economic opportunity. They can generate more income from house rent than from subsistence agriculture. Of the urban population of Eritrea, about 55% (487,000) live in Asmara with estimated urban growth rate of about 5% per year. The urban primacy and thus the demands for housing are very much marked. For the village included in the municipal boundary of the city, its transportation infrastructure is upgraded to enjoy the Asmara city bus services making it attractive to reside there. This results in in flu x of urban people to look for a rental house in the village. This has increased the value of houses in the village giving selection advan-tage to land for housing over land for agriculture.S ocieties have some concern about potential negative social in flu ences that urbanization entails. Communities perceive in flo w of new residents as a cause for loss of their belongings to the village or erosion of their social cohesion. This has now changed in the village according to discussion and interviews with village community members. The discussion and interviews reveal that village community members would like to see in flo w of residents. The study suggests that urbanization and a shift in the livelihood of the farmers from agriculture have changed the attitude of the community about in flo w of residents to their territory.29.5 C onclusionsT his chapter, through a case study, has examined if available system of land capability classi fic ation is being used in land reallocation and distribution for settlement pur-pose in villages around Asmara city, Eritrea. It has analyzed if the decisions on land use are affecting families’ arable land possession and farmers’ livelihood. The study suggests that reallocation and distribution of land for residential use is causing the transformation of signi fic ant portion of the most fertile agricultural land out of pro-duction. Because of agricultural land conversion, arable land is being fragmented; families are losing their cultivable land, and this is causing a shift in the long-held traditional farming system of livelihood of many farmers.533 29 Agricultural Land Conversion: Application of Land Capability Classification…R eferencesB ojo J (1995) Land degradation in Eritrea. Mimeograph paper. World Bank, Washington, DCC astellani LG (2000) Recent developments in land tenure law in Eritrea, Horn of Africa. Workingpaper no 37. Legal Tenure Center, Institute for Research and Education on Social Structure, Rural Institutions, Resources Use and Development. University of Wisconsin, MadisonD ent D, Young A (1981) Soil survey and land evaluation. 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