Lecture 9：Syntax
Lecture 9
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Lecture 9
Word Meaning and Context
This is called extra-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.
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Lecture 9
Word Meaning and Context
In ①, Adam is compared-favorably with his father. Quick can be interpreted as meaning quick in developing. It is used in contrast to backward. In ②, ‘Adam’ is compared unfavorably with the group of other students. Therefore, quick must be interpreted as meaning ‘quick to understand the joke’. In this case, quick is used ironically to mean the opposite ‘s一个词在
词群、从句和句群出现的环境。这叫语言语境。语言语境可 以包换一段、一章，甚至整个一本书。广义地讲，语境还包 括物理环境。这叫非语言语境。非语言语境包括人物、时间、 地点，甚至整个文化背景。
8
Lecture 9
Word Meaning and Context
As most words have more than one meaning, it is often impossible to tell the meaning of a word before it is used in context. Context is very important for the understanding of word-meaning because the meaning is influenced immediately by the linguistic context, and in many cases by the whole speech situation as well.
syntax
dictionary
• In a dictionary, the lemma "go" represents the inflected forms "go", "goes", "going", "went", and "gone".
citation form
• The form that is chosen to be the lemma is usually the least marked form, though there are occasional exceptions. • In English, the citation form of a noun is the singular: e.g., mouse rather than mice. • In many languages, the citation form of a verb is the infinitive.
lexis
• In linguistics, a lexis (from the Greek: "word") is the total word-stock or lexicon having items of lexical rather than grammatical, meaning.
a lemma
Another definition is that a sentence is a group of words expressing a topic (old information) and some comment (new information) about that topic: John left. (Notice how intonation--which is a part of phonology--interacts closely with syntax in delimiting topic from comment--another example of the grammatical interconnectedness of all the so called levels of language.) The problem with the topic-comment definition is that many sentences have no clear topic and comment structure: It's raining.
Syntax ppt
5.2 SYNTACTIC PROPERTIES
Syntactic Properties is used for determining the expressions behavior. It can answer the question, why are some combinations of expression syntactically wellformed, but others are not?
a. Veungsri ate an apple. Veungsri devoured an apple. b. Veungsri ate. *Veungsri devoured.
Although these two verbs are very similar in meaning, their syntactic properties are different.
WHAT ARE WE GOING TO STUDY?
5.1
Basic Ideas of syntax 5.2 Syntactic Properties 5.3 Syntactic Constituency 5.4 Syntactic Categories 5.5 Constructing a Grammar
Different kinds of expressions require different kinds of arguments.
a. Jingreed devoured bananas. b. *Jingreed wondered bananas. c. Jingreed wondered about the teacher.
句法学(Syntax)课件
The XP rule
The X stands for the head of N,A,V and P.
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The X bar theory（X杠理论）
13
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The coordinate rule
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3.Sentence （句子）
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3.1 The sentence rule
• Normally a sentence consists of at least a
subject and its predicate
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Infl → Tense and agreement
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3.2 Types of sentences句子类型
Structural Approach
• The simple sentence简单句 • The coordinate sentence 并列句 • The complex sentence 复合句
(e.g. The boy goes to school. The boys go to school.)
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2.2.2 Government (支配关系)
• The idea of government is the way in which
certain prepositions and verbs determine the case of nouns.
unit obtained through segmentation.
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IC Analysis refers to divide the sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.
初三英语专题讲座
初三英语专题讲座The world of education is constantly evolving, and as students progress through their academic journeys, the demands and challenges they face also change. For middle school students, the transition from elementary to secondary education can be both exciting and daunting. One of the crucial subjects that plays a significant role in this transition is English. To help these young learners navigate the complexities of the English language and better prepare them for the years ahead, a middle school English lecture series can be an invaluable resource.The primary objective of this lecture series is to provide a comprehensive and engaging exploration of various aspects of the English language, catering to the unique needs and interests of middle school students. Through a series of interactive presentations, workshops, and discussions, the lecturers aim to equip these students with the necessary skills and confidence to excel in their English studies.One of the key components of the lecture series is a deep dive intothe fundamentals of the English language. This includes a thorough examination of grammar, syntax, and sentence structure. By breaking down the building blocks of the language, students will gain a better understanding of how to construct clear, concise, and well-structured sentences. This knowledge will not only improve their written expression but also enhance their ability to comprehend and analyze complex texts.In addition to the foundational elements of the language, the lecture series will also delve into the rich tapestry of English literature. From classic novels and short stories to contemporary works, students will be exposed to a diverse range of literary genres and styles. Through guided discussions and analysis, they will learn to appreciate the nuances of literary devices, character development, and thematic exploration. This exposure to a wide array of literary works will not only broaden their cultural horizons but also foster a love for reading and a deeper understanding of the written word.Another crucial aspect of the lecture series is the development of essential communication skills. In today's fast-paced, globalized world, the ability to effectively express oneself, both in written and oral form, is paramount. The lecturers will dedicate sessions to honing students' public speaking skills, teaching them techniques for delivering compelling presentations, engaging in thoughtful discussions, and crafting persuasive arguments. These skills will notonly benefit them in their academic pursuits but also prepare them for the demands of the modern workplace.Furthermore, the lecture series will address the importance of critical thinking and analysis in the study of English. Students will be challenged to delve deeper into texts, to question assumptions, and to formulate their own informed perspectives. By developing these critical thinking skills, they will be better equipped to navigate the complexities of the English language, to think creatively, and to become independent, lifelong learners.Throughout the lecture series, the presenters will also emphasize the significance of effective research and study skills. They will guide students on how to efficiently locate and evaluate reliable sources, how to organize and synthesize information, and how to present their findings in a clear and compelling manner. These skills will not only aid them in their English studies but will also have a far-reaching impact on their academic journey as a whole.In addition to the core content of the lectures, the series will also include sessions dedicated to the exploration of various career paths and opportunities related to the English language. Students will be introduced to diverse fields, such as journalism, publishing, marketing, law, and education, where proficiency in English is highly valued. This exposure will help students envision the multitude ofpossibilities that await them and inspire them to consider how their passion for the English language can translate into meaningful career aspirations.Throughout the lecture series, the presenters will strive to create a dynamic and engaging learning environment. They will utilize a variety of teaching methods, including interactive presentations, small-group discussions, and hands-on activities, to cater to the diverse learning styles of the students. By fostering an atmosphere of collaboration and open dialogue, the lecturers will encourage students to actively participate, ask questions, and share their own perspectives, further enhancing the learning experience.The middle school English lecture series is not merely an academic exercise but a transformative opportunity for students to develop a deeper appreciation and mastery of the English language. By equipping them with the necessary skills, knowledge, and confidence, this program will empower these young learners to navigate the challenges of secondary education with greater ease and to embrace the endless possibilities that lie ahead. As they embark on this journey, the students will not only strengthen their command of the English language but also cultivate the critical thinking abilities and communication skills that will serve them well throughout their academic and professional endeavors.。
Syntax PPT
provided (syntactic labels) Constituent structure tree
Phrase Structure Tree
the child found the puppy S
ill formed
Those that violate the syntactic rules are therefore …
ill formed UNGRAMMATICAL
Those that violate the syntactic rules are therefore …
well formed GRAMMATICAL
Ex.
Sentence Structure
The TREE DIAGRAM Root (entire sentence) Leaves (individual words) Hierarchical structure (groupings) Constituent structures
the child NP
the Det child N
found the puppy VP
found V the puppy NP the Det puppy N
Sentence Structure
The TREE DIAGRAM Root (entire sentence) Leaves (individual words) Hierarchical structure (groupings) Constituent structures
What Grammaticality is Not Based On
Syntax
Evidence for syntactic categories
Morphological - the internal structure of a word Syntactic - the external distribution of a word e.g. Nouns ---- Nouns are a class of words that all behave similarly with respect to morphology and with respect to their position in clauses.
phrase
phrase sentence
phrase
word phrase John word
word
word
word
loves
动宾
Mary
deeply.
偏正 主谓
层次分析法
Organization principles: Linear order & Hierarchical structure
luck
y
boy
s
Functional
lexical
lexical
derivational
inflectional
In a limited way---Grammar
﹡boys the lucky ﹡ lucky boys the ASK: With these words, how many grammatical sentences can we construct? e.g. the, the, student, hates, film, new, disgusting. the people, frightened, in the room, the boy
4 syntax 语言学导论课件
each part is a constituent.
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Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units.
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1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence 同现
It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
CONSTITUENT is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:
Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world: SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.
语言学导论-第4章Syntax
Meaning：
N.: to denote entities and objects e.g., John, Mary, pen, book V.: to designate action, sensation and states e.g., run, hate, exist Adj.: to modify property of nouns e.g., pretty lady
NP
NVPVFra bibliotekAPA
PP
P
--
--
phrase level
word level
Phrase categories
The structure:
a picture on the wall
specifier + head + complement
标志语 中心词 补语
Head: the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier: the words on the left side of the heads Complement: the words on the right side of the heads
语言学导论第4章syntax语言学导论认知语言学导论算法导论第三版答案算法导论第二版答案算法导论第三版pdf算法导论第二版第二语言习得导论软件工程导论第5版算法导论第三版
Sentence Structure: Syntax
Syntax 句法学
A branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2020年高中英语词法专题讲座九 时态及语态素材
英语词法专题讲座九：时态及语态一．被动语态的时态：1. 一般现在时的被动语态：am /is/ are +动词的过去分词2. 一般过去时的被动语态：was /were +动词的过去分词3. 一般将来时的被动语态：will be +动词的过去分词4. 现在进行时的被动语态：am /is /are +being +动词的过去分词5. 现在完成时的被动语态：have /has +been +动词的过去分词6. 情态动词的被动语态：情态动词 + be +动词的过去分词二．主动语态变被动语态的变法：口诀：宾变主，主变宾，谓变be done , 时不变，数格必须随被变。
备注：1. 主动、被动的时态要一致。
2. 主动、被动的句式要一致。
3. 变成的被动语态的主语与谓语在单复数上保持一致。
三．特殊情况的被动语态：1. 带双宾语的被动语态：动词+ sb(间宾) +sth(直宾)口诀：如遇双宾语，一般变间宾，若把直宾变，to /for 间宾连。
1). give/pass /show 与介词to 搭配。
give sb sth —— sb +be given sth 或 sth +be given +to sb .2). buy/make/cook 与介词for 搭配。
buy sb sth —— sb +be bought + sth 或 sth +be bought +for sbHe gave me a bookI ______ ______ a book by him.A book ____ ____ _____ me by him .My mother made me a cake .I ____ _____ a cake by my motherA cake ____ ____ ____ me by my mother .2. 带省to 的不定式作宾补的被动语态：动词+ sb + do sth .口诀：感使动词真叫怪，to来to去记心怀，主动语态to离去，被动语态to回来。
syntax
syntaxSyntaxIntroduction:Syntax refers to the set of rules that govern the structure and arrangement of words and phrases to form meaningful sentences in a language. It plays a crucial role in communication and helps us understand and convey information accurately. This document aims to provide an overview of syntax and its importance across various languages.1. Basic Syntax Rules:1.1 Word Order:Word order refers to the arrangement of words in a sentence. Different languages have different word orders, such as subject-verb-object (SVO) in English or subject-object-verb (SOV) in Japanese. Understanding the correct word order is essential for conveying the intended meaning in a sentence.1.2 Sentence Structure:A sentence typically consists of a subject and a predicate. The subject refers to the noun or pronoun that performs the action, and the predicate includes the verb and other elements that provide information about the subject. The structure and arrangement of these elements may vary depending on the language.1.3 Parts of Speech:Words in a sentence can be classified into different parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Each part of speech functions differently and has its own syntactic characteristics.2. Syntax in Different Languages:2.1 English Syntax:English syntax follows a subject-verb-object (SVO) word order. However, there are exceptions and variations to this rule, such as questions (where subject and verb order is inverted) or imperatives (where the subject is often omitted).2.2 Chinese Syntax:Chinese syntax follows a subject-predicate-object (SPO) or subject-object-verb (SOV) word order. The use of particles,measure words, and the absence of tense markers are some unique syntactic features of the Chinese language.2.3 German Syntax:German syntax follows a subject-verb-object (SVO) word order like English. However, the position of the verb in a sentence can change depending on various factors such as tense, mood, and sentence structure.3. Importance of Syntax:3.1 Clarity and Understanding:Syntax ensures that sentences are structured in a way that allows for clear and unambiguous communication. By following the syntax rules of a language, we can effectively convey our thoughts and ideas.3.2 Grammatical Correctness:Syntax helps us maintain grammatical correctness in our language usage. Adhering to the correct word order and sentence structure ensures that our communication is not only clear but also grammatically accurate.3.3 Stylistic Considerations:Different sentence structures and word arrangements can give a certain flow and rhythm to our writing or speech. Following the syntax rules allows us to create stylistically pleasing and impactful sentences.4. Common Syntax Errors:4.1 Incorrect Word Order:In languages with fixed word orders, placing words in the wrong position can change the meaning of a sentence or render it grammatically incorrect.4.2 Sentence Fragments:A sentence fragment occurs when a group of words is punctuated as a sentence but lacks a subject or a verb. This error can be fixed by revising the sentence to include all necessary components.4.3 Run-on Sentences:A run-on sentence occurs when two independent clauses are joined together without proper punctuation. This error can be corrected by using appropriate punctuation or breaking the sentence into multiple shorter sentences.5. Conclusion:Syntax is an essential aspect of language that helps us understand and communicate effectively. By following the rules of syntax, we can ensure clarity, grammatical correctness, and stylistic excellence in our writing and speech. Understanding the syntax of different languages allows us to appreciate the diversity and richness of human communication.。
1 Syntax_II
Wang Xiang
1
Noam Chomsky
Chomsky, born in 1928, published a book in 1957 called Syntactic Structures in which he first outlined his ideas about “generative grammar”. This foundation stone brought about a whole new way of thinking in linguistics last century. His ideas shifted radically from those of structuralism and behaviorism. Transformational-generative grammar(TG grammar) is now the most influential linguistic theory.
Focus Methodology Languagelearning
Morphemes Inductive Em(行为主义)
Sentences Deductive(generate infinite sentences from the finite rules) Rationalism(理性主义 ), 3 mentalism(心灵主义)
Language is somewhat innate. Human babies are somehow predisposed to acquire a language.
There are aspects of linguistic organization that are basic to human brain and that it makes it possible for human infants to acquire linguistic competence in all its complexity with little or no instruction from others. 8
语言学 Syntax
Chapter 5: SyntaxLearning Objectives⏹I. Syntax the field⏹II. The Traditional Approach⏹III. The Structuralist Approach⏹IV. The Generative Approach⏹V. The Systemic Functional Approach⏹VI. The Textual ApproachI. Defining Syntax⏹The word comes from Ancient Greek - syn-, "together", and táxis, "arrangement")⏹The definition:❑The study of the internal structure ofsentences and the rules that govern theformation of sentences.⏹What is grammar?❑morphology + syntax = grammar Autonomy of syntax⏹Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.⏹This is a very interesting sentence,because it shows that syntax can beseparated from semantics—that form canbe separated from meaning. The sentencedoesn’t seem to mean anything coherent,but it sounds like an English sentence.——Howard Lasnik,The Human LanguageClassification of sentences⏹ E.g.1 Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.⏹ E.g.2 *Furiously sleep ideas green colorless.⏹ E.g.3 He walked quickly.Criteria:⏹ 1. Conforms to the grammatical rules of a specific language or not;(Grammaticality/well-formedness)⏹ 2. Conforms to the worldly common sense knowledge.Sentence classificationII. The Traditional Approach⏹ A Syntactic Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same orsimilar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or averb.⏹When words are grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, they arecalled syntactic categories.1. Lexical Categories⏹In grammar, a lexical category (also word class, lexical class, or in traditionalgrammar part of speech) is a linguistic category of words, or more precisely lexicalitems.⏹Major lexical categories❑Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition⏹Minor lexical categories❑Determiner, Auxiliary, Conjunction, Infinitive, Negative2. Phrasal Categories⏹Word level categories can be extended to phrasal categories with heads :3. Syntactic Functions⏹Subject: in nominative case, doer of the action.❑ E.g. She slapped him.❑ E.g. He was slapped by her.⏹Grammatical subject vs. logical subject⏹Object: accusative case, receiver or goal of an action.⏹ E.g. He was slapped by her.⏹ E.g. I gave my sister a doll.Ind. Obj. Dir. Obj.⏹ E.g. I gave a doll to my sister.Dir. Obj. Ind. Obj.Sentence division⏹Binary analysis:❑Predicate + Subject = Sentence⏹ E.g. The man is eating dinner.⏹ E.g. John broke the door.⏹ E.g. Alice must be out of her mind.⏹Predicator: verb included in a predicate4. Syntactic Features5．Sentence types:traditional approachsimpleSentence complexnon-simplecompoundBasic sentence types by Bolinger⏹ 1. Mother fell.⏹ 2. Mother is young.⏹ 3. Mother loves Dad.⏹ 4. Mother fed Dad breakfast.⏹ 5. There is time.⏹Question: What are the abstract grammatical representations?Bolinger’s idea⏹Mother fell. (Nominal + intransitive verbal)⏹Mother is young. (Nominal + copula + complement)⏹Mother loves Dad. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal)⏹Mother fed Dad breakfast. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)⏹There is time. (There + existential + nominal)Basic sentence types: Quirk⏹Seven sentence types:❑SVC❑SV A❑SV❑SVO❑SVOC❑SVOA❑SVOOQuirk’s idea⏹SVC Mary is kind. / a nurse.⏹SV A Mary is here. / in the house.⏹SV The child is laughing.⏹SVO Somebody caught the ball.⏹SVOC We have proved him wrong. / a fool.⏹SVOA I put the plate on the table.⏹SVOO She gives me expensive presents.III. The Structuralist Approach1. Syntactic Relations⏹Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:❑relations of position❑relations of substitutability❑relations of co-occurrenceRelations of Position⏹All languages have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases thatcan occur in a clause.⏹The boy kicked the ballNP1 NP2Subject Object⏹Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, r efers to the sequential arrangement of wordsin a language.⏹Question: If word order is not followed, what would happen?❑ungrammatical or nonsensical❑semantic change⏹The boy kicked the ball❑*Boy the ball kicked the❑*The ball kicked the boy⏹The teacher saw the students.⏹The students saw the teacher.⏹Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relationsobserved by F. de Saussure.⏹They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.⏹Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and arealclassifications) to classify languages in the world:❑SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.❑English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.Relation of Substitutability⏹The ________ smiled.menboysgirlsmonkeys⏹The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable foreach other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.⏹It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man❑The tallest boy smiles.pretty girlyesterday.❑He went there last week.the day before.⏹This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure,and Paradigmatic Relations byHjemslev.❑To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.Relation of Co-occurrence⏹Words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a wordof another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.⏹What are the co-occurred word sets for nominal phrases?❑preceded by a determiner and adjective(s)❑followed by a verbal phrase.⏹Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly toparadigmatic relations.2. Constituents and Phrase Structure⏹Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form aconstruction:❑the girl (NP)❑ate the apple (VP)❑the girl ate the apple (S)Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis) by BloomfieldPhrase StructureTree diagramBracketing⏹Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representingthe constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))Comparing IC analysis and PS analysis⏹beautiful girl’s dress“They can fish” is ambiguous⏹IC analysis⏹What are the possible phrase structure trees?3. Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions⏹Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to thatof one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.⏹Which constructions are endocentric?❑noun phrases❑Intransitive verb phrases❑adjective phrases⏹Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where noneof the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head”.⏹Which constructions are exocentric?❑basic sentence❑prepositional phrase❑predicate (verb + object) construction❑connective (be + complement) construction⏹The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as awhole.)⏹He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)⏹He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)⏹John seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)4. Coordination and Subordination⏹Constructions can also be categorized into two main types, depending on the relationbetween constituents: Coordination and SubordinationCoordination⏹Coordination:❑grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or.❑Coordinated constituents have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally⏹Coordination of NPs:❑[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]⏹Coordination of VPs:❑[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]⏹Coordination of PPs:❑[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]⏹Coordination of APs:❑[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]⏹Coordination of Ss:❑[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination⏹Subordination：refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.❑The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head.Consequently, they can be called modifiers.⏹two dogsHead⏹(My brother) can drink (wine).Head⏹Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head⏹(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.HeadSubordinate clauses⏹Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types ofsubordinate clauses:❑complement clauses❑adjunct (or adverbial) clauses❑relative clauses⏹ 1. John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].(complementclause)⏹ 2. Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner]. (adverbial clause)⏹ 3. The woman [that I love] is moving to the south. (relative clause)IV. The Generative Approach⏹Phrase Structure Rules (PS Rules)❑smile❑the smile❑the beautiful smile❑the beautiful smile to meWhat about the possible VP structure?⏹laugh⏹play in the garden⏹often play in the garden⏹often happily play in the garden (happily)The AP structure?⏹polite⏹very polite⏹very polite to youThe PP structure?⏹about⏹mainly about⏹mainly about the storySentence structure?⏹The wind blows.⏹The cat ate the fish.⏹The man came with a stick.Exercises: Please draw the phrase structure tress of the following sentences⏹ 1. The jet landed.⏹ 2. A journalist wrote the article.⏹ 3. Jerome is tired of his job.⏹ 4. He gave the Red Cross some blood.⏹ 5. The customer asked for a cold beer.⏹ 6. John will play the trumpet and the drums in the orchestra.1.2.4.5.“The man came with a stick”Structural Ambiguity“The man killed the boy with a knife”“The man killed the boy with a knife”More examples of ambiguity⏹ 1. Flying planes can be dangerous.❑ Flying planes is dangerous. ❑ Flying planes are dangerous.⏹ 2. Visiting scholars can be interesting.❑ Visiting scholars is interesting. ❑ Visiting scholars are interesting.Modifier: specify optionally expressible properties of headsWhat are the possible PStrees?⏹The data:❑The dog ate the bone happily.❑The dog happily ate the bone.❑Probably the dog ate the bone.⏹How to represent them with tree diagrams?“The dog ate the bone happily.”“The dog happily ate the bone.”“Probably the dog ate the bone.”Transformational Rules⏹The boy is sleeping. Is the boy sleeping?⏹The boy has slept. Has the boy slept?⏹The boy will sleep. Will the boy sleep?⏹The boy can sleep. Can the boy sleep?⏹The Rule:❑Move Aux❑Move the Aux to adjoin to SExercise⏹What is your comment on the rule “move the Aux to adjoin to S”?❑ E.g. You know those women.❑ E.g. Sara should be going to Chicago.❑ E.g. Anyone that can lift 500 pounds is eligible for our club.“The boy can sleep.”“Can the boy sleep?”“The boy picked up the book.”“The boy picked the book up.”“Some people who were wearing boots came in.”“Some people came in who were wearing boots.”Chomsky’s Generative GrammarLanguageFacultyUniversal Grammar⏹ Plato ’s Problem⏹ Poverty of the Stimulus--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------⏹ Features of First Language Acquisition❑ Uniformity❑ Rapidity⏹ Chomsky ’s Innateness Hypothesis:❑ The course of language acquisition is determined by a biologically endowedinnate Language Faculty within the brain, which makes it possible for children to acquire a language on the basis of their linguistic experience .⏹ Language Faculty must incorporate a theory of Universal Grammar / UG whichenables the child to develop a grammar of any natural language on the basis of suitable linguistic experience.⏹ UG is composed of Principles and Parameters .⏹ Children ’s Task?❑ Parameter setting ❑ Lexical learning⏹ Principles and Parameters Theory:❑ Government & Binding Theory ❑ The Minimalist ProgramV . The Systemic Functional Approach⏹ Systemic Functional Grammar has its roots in the work of the British linguist J. R.Firth . The mastermind behind the systemic-functional perspective is M. A. K. Halliday .⏹ SF Linguists are interested in relating the various kinds of linguistic structures andpatterns to the functions that language serves and to the social settings in which it is used.Language functionsTheoretically speakingEmpirically speaking Grammar of L Experience of L⏹ Three metafunctions:❑ Ideational function ❑ Interpersonal function ❑ Textual functionIdeational function⏹ The function in which we conceptualize theworld for our own benefit and that of others is called ideational function.⏹ Conceptualization of the world:❑ representation of the world❑ The bringing of the world into being linguisticallyData⏹ A. The man kicked the dog.⏹ B. The woman hated the old clothes. ⏹ C. David is homeless. ⏹ D. The girl laughed.⏹ E. The visitor said “Hello ”. ⏹ F. There is a cat over there.1. The man kicked the dog.⏹ KICK is a material process . Material processes are characterized by “doing ” verbs,such as running , dressing , climbing , etc.⏹ Halliday describes the man as the actor (the person responsible for the action), andthe dog as the goal (the thing which is acted upon).2. The woman hated the old clothes.⏹ The predicator has something to do with feeling and thinking, which is internalrather than external, thus the name mental process .⏹ Verbs such as hate , love , know , think and understand belong to this category. ⏹ Halliday: sensor + phenomenon3. David is homeless.⏹ It is relational in that its main purpose is to relate the two participants together. ⏹ Relational verbs are be , become , appear , etc. ⏹ Halliday: carrier + attribute4. The girl laughed.⏹ The predicator falls into a category of verbs such as cough , yawn , and smile whichHalliday calls them as behavioral .⏹ The behavioral processes are similar to material processes in that they describephysical actions of some kind but they are different in that the action isnotperformed on anything. ⏹ Halliday: behaver.5. The visitor said “Hello ”.⏹ Halliday calls this category as the verbal process .⏹ Verbal processes include words like say , report , claim , question , and explain . ⏹ Halliday: sayer + target6. There is a cat over there.⏹ Existential process . ⏹ Hailliday: the existentInterpersonal function⏹ Language serves to set up and maintain social and personal relations , and to expressthe language user ’s own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance. This function is called interpersonal function. ⏹ The study of mood and modality.⏹ A. Pass the salt.⏹ B. Please pass the salt. ⏹ C. Can you pass the salt?⏹ D. Could you possibly pass the salt?⏹ E. You couldn ’t possibly pass the salt, could you? ⏹ A general rule:❑ The more indirect the demand, the more polite it is felt to be.Textual function⏹ If you find a bird outside the classroom window, which sentence would you use?❑ A. There is a bird on the tree. ❑ B. A bird is on the tree.⏹ Information structure:Transitivi ⏹ Material process(The man kicked the dog.) ⏹ Mental process (The woman hated the old clothes.) ⏹ Verbal process (The visitor said “Hello ”) ⏹ Behavioural process (The girl laughed) ⏹ Relational process (David is homeless.) ⏹ Existential process (There is a cat over there.)❑old information + new information⏹According to Halliday:❑theme + rheme⏹Theme: the first constituent, and it denotes the starting point of the clause—what itis going to be about.⏹Rheme: the rest of the clause; the information that is new.⏹1A. Gas explosion killed thousands.⏹1B. Thousands were killed by gas explosion.⏹2A. The rain came down.⏹2B. Down came the rain.⏹The propositional meaning is the same, but the thematic difference exists.❑1A. Theme: gas explosion—what the sentence is about❑1B. Theme: thousands—what the sentence is aboutVI. The Textual Approach⏹The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntaxbeyond the traditional sentence boundary.⏹Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraphor chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence o f text linguistics and discourse analysis.Sentential Connection⏹Hypotactic (cf. subordinate clauses):❑You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.❑We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.⏹Paratactic (cf. coordinate clauses):❑In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.❑He dictated the letter. She wrote it.❑The door was open. He walked in.Cohesion and cohesiveness⏹Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refersto relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.⏹Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:❑conjunction❑ellipsis❑lexical collocation❑lexical repetition❑reference❑substitution, etc.Some examples⏹“Did she get there at six?”“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”(Ellipsis)⏹“Shall we invite Bill?”“No. I can’t stand the man.”(Lexical collocation)⏹He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight. (Reference)⏹“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”“I don't have one.”(Substitution)⏹I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late. (Logical connection)Exercise-IProduce the surface structures from the following deep structures.❖ 1. Neg she past work last week❖ 2. policemen past be-en beat John❖ 3. Q the professor pres be angry SOME REASON❖ 4. Q he past do SOMETHING❖ 5. Imp you pres will wash you❖ 6. the girl [the girl pre be beautiful] pre be from ChinaReference Answer⏹ 1. She didn’t work last night.⏹ 2. The policemen were beaten by John.⏹ 3. Why is the professor angry?⏹ 4. What did he do?⏹ 5. Wash yourself.⏹ 6. The girl who is beautiful is from China.Exercise-IIComment on the following pair of sentences.❖ a. John is easy to please.❖ b. John is eager to please.Reference answer⏹The two sentences have similar surface structure, but the grammar of the two isdifferent. John has a different logical relationship to please in the two sentences.⏹The two sentences have different deep structures:❑ a. (Someone pleases John) is easy.❑ b. John is eager (John pleases someone).Exercise-IIIPlease draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.❖ 1. Maria never ate a brownie.❖ 2. That shelf will fall.❖ 3. The student lost the debate.❖ 4. The manager may offer a raise.❖ 5. A psychic will speak to this group.❖ 6. Mary could become quite fond of Larry.Exercise-IVThe following data are from Korean. You may ignore the nominative and accusative markers for the purposes of this question.❖ 1. Terry-ka ku yeca-lul coahanta.❖Terry-Nom that girl-Ac likes❖‘Terry likes that girl.’❖ 2. I noin-I hakkyo ey kassta.❖this man-Nom school to went❖‘This man went to school.’❖ 3. Sue-ka chinkwu eykey chayk-ul ilkessta.❖Sue-Nom friend to book-Ac read❖‘Sue read the book to a friend.’❖I. Based on this data, what is the XP rule for Korean?❖II. Draw the tree structure for each of the sentence.。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》Syntax教学课件
Lexical categories 词汇范畴
The name given to classes into which lexical items are grouped. --There are traditionally 8 classes: Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective…. --Modern linguistic theories have more, ranging from 12-140+! -- They are also known as parts of speech and word classes
--Semantic criteria, structural ambiguity “Flying planes can be dangerous”
·if you live under the flight path. · if you haven’t got a pilot’s license.
--Notional criteria
The definition of syntax
A subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Specifically, it studies the combination
of words to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2. It clearly demonstrates that sentences are not mere left-to-right linear sequences of elements. Instead, elements come into relationships of great complexity and varying kinds.
Lecture 7 Syntax
A). Number, gender and case
Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun, e.g. a book, some books; I, we; he, they.
Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. e.g. actor, actress; hero, heroine; prince, princess; lion, lioness
The country has not undergone any war since 1815. She was shopping in town.
Running a hotel isn’t as easy as it might look. Ted wouldn't’t have married her.. It’s pouring down outside.
There should be another one like this.
11
Object
It refers to the receiver of goal of an action and it is further classified into direct object and indirect object. It can be checked by a passive transformation. Object is optional in a sentence.
2). Syntactic function
Subject Predicate object
9
典范英语9第三本英文读后感
典范英语9第三本英文读后感Here is an essay with the title "Reflections on Exemplary English 9 Volume 3" that is over 1000 words in length, written entirely in English without any extraneous punctuation:Reflections on Exemplary English 9 Volume 3As an avid reader and student of the English language I was eager to dive into Exemplary English 9 Volume 3 and expand my understanding of the nuances and richness of this global tongue I have come to cherish The third installment in this acclaimed series did not disappoint and provided me with a treasure trove of insights that have deepened my appreciation for the power and versatility of EnglishOne aspect that struck me immediately was the diversity of the reading selections included in this volume Ranging from classic literature to contemporary non-fiction the texts assembled here represent the breadth of genres and styles that make English such a compelling medium of expression Whether delving into the masterful prose of a renowned novelist or unpacking the arguments of a leading thinker the opportunity to engage with such a widearray of written works was truly enrichingWhat I found particularly compelling however were the ways in which the authors leveraged the English language to convey their unique perspectives and experiences Many of the pieces included an intimate and almost conversational tone that invited the reader into the mindset of the writer This served to make even complex or challenging subject matter remarkably accessible as I felt I was being guided through the material by a trusted companion rather than lectured at by a distant expert The rich vocabulary choices the skillful syntax the evocative imagery all combined to create a sense of genuine connection between myself as the reader and the author as the storytellerAt the same time the collection also featured selections that demonstrated the incredible flexibility and dynamism of the English language Certain works employed more formal or academic registers to tackle weighty philosophical questions or present rigorous analytical frameworks While others played with unconventional structures experimental techniques or stylistic flourishes that pushed the boundaries of conventional composition In these instances I was struck by the sheer artistry involved in wielding English as a medium for creative expression rather than merely as a tool for communicationWhat tied all of these disparate elements together however was an undercurrent of authenticity Throughout the volume I was consistently impressed by the thoughtfulness and sincerity with which the authors approached their subjects Whether delving into the realms of history science politics or the human experience each piece felt grounded in a genuine passion for the topic at hand and a commitment to engaging the reader in a meaningful exploration of its complexities This sense of authenticity was often amplified by the inclusion of personal anecdotes reflective interludes and unbridled emotional resonance that gave the writing a palpable vitalityIndeed one of the most powerful takeaways for me from Exemplary English 9 Volume 3 was a heightened appreciation for the ways in which language can be leveraged not merely as a vehicle for conveying information but as a conduit for forging deep interpersonal connections The authors demonstrated an acute awareness of their role as communicators and their responsibility to their audience crafting their words with care precision and an almost palpable intention to foster genuine rapportThroughout my reading I was struck by the authors profound respect for their readers demonstrated in their unwavering commitment to clarity accessibility and intellectual honesty Even when grappling with complex or challenging subject matter they refused to succumb to obfuscation or pretension recognizing that true mastery of alanguage lies not in the ostentatious deployment of arcane vocabulary but in the ability to render the esoteric comprehensibleIn this way the Exemplary English 9 Volume 3 collection served not merely as a showcase for virtuosic linguistic command but as a testament to the power of the written word to enlighten inform and inspire I found myself consistently moved by the passion the nuance and the sheer brilliance of expression that permeated the pages compelled to ponder the ideas presented and eager to seek out additional works by these talented wordsmithsUltimately what I took away most profoundly from this volume was a heightened sense of wonder at the incredible potential of the English language as a medium for human connection and understanding In an era increasingly dominated by brief soundbites and relentless digital stimulation the immersive experience of long-form literature served as a welcome respite reminding me of the unparalleled capacity of the written word to transport us to new realms of thought and feeling to challenge our assumptions to amplify our empathy and to bind us together across the divides that too often separate usIt is my fervent hope that Exemplary English 9 Volume 3 will inspire many others as it has inspired me to cultivate a deeper appreciation for the magic of language to seek out opportunities to expand thehorizons of their linguistic repertoire and to wield the power of the written word in service of a more informed enlightened and connected world For in the final analysis it is through our mastery of language that we most fully realize our capacity as human beings to understand one another to give voice to our deepest truths and to leave an indelible mark upon the world。
04 Syntax
The two sentences have both word meaning and structure meaning. But a sequence of meaningful words that has no structure meaning is ill-formed, so it is ungrammatical. Ungrammatical sentences like example (3) on p.70 are indicated by the asterisk “*” in the linguistic literature. 2. Word classes Traditionally, word classes are called parts of speech. Word classes are nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions. Their definitions are available on pp.71-2.
In IC analysis a sentence is cut into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are. What remain of the first cut are called "immediate constituents", and what are left at the final cut are called "ultimate constituents".
语言学 4 Syntax
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG)
• Avram Noam Chomsky, (the most influential linguist in 20th century, born on December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, political activist, author, and lecturer. • Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics. Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a political dissident, an anarchist, and a libertarian socialist intellectual. • In the 1950s, Chomsky began developing his theory of generative grammar, which has undergone numerous revisions and has had a profound influence on linguistics. His approach to the study of language emphasizes "an innate set of linguistic principles shared by all humans" known as universal grammar.
【K12英语基础教育】syntax_39407
Synthetic buffolo hides. Synthetic buffolo hides .
The following sentences have more than one meaning due to structural ambiguity: ➢ The children drew five squares and triangles. ➢ The boy saw the man with the telescope.
art
The
Ngirl
NP
Art
N
the girl
This type of hierarchical organization can be illustrated in a tree diagram for a whole sentence,beginnig at the top with S.
STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITY
Let’s say we have two distinct deep structures.
Annie bumped into a man with an umbrella.One expresses the idea that “Annie had an umbrella and she bumped into a man with it. “the other expresses the idea that “Annie bumped into a man and the man happened to be carrying an umbrella. “there are two different underlying structures with the same surface structure.
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The cognitive grammar: a sentence is a
reflection of the physical /experiential reality in mental world, concerning the syntactic iconicity, etc.
2. What is syntax?
3.Goal of linguistics: to show how syntactic rules account for knowledge with theory 4. Grammaticality: a sentence is considered grammatical when it confronts to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.
The structural grammar: a sentence is
regarded as a linguistic unit as interrelated with each other in a structure (or system), not as isolated bits, concerning the syntactic relations;
(2) After I left. (3) When you meet her. Before her mother got home, Lily had finished her homework.
5.2.2 The coordinate/compound sentence
A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and,” “but,” “or,”.
Syntax, (Greek , syntaxis), which literal
means “arrangement” or “setting out together”. Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words , with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence.
(4) Dick loves Lily and Lily loves Dick.
1. Syntactic rules: finite in number by which endless number of sentences can be produced and understood 2. Syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.
Syntax is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the internal structure of sentences and the rules by which sentences are formed. That is, how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
4. Grammaticality
E.g. (1) Jack found the book. (2) Jack put the book. (3) Jack wandered with the man. (4) Jack wandered the man. (5) Jack looked after the man. (6) Jack wanted the man to be his servant. (7) Jack promised the man to go there. (8) Jack persuaded the man to go there. (9) Jack suggested the man to go there.
Different linguistic theories differ first in their treatment of sentence structure, such as The traditional grammar : a sentence is seen as a sequence of words , involving the study of the word categories and concerning the syntactic formation.
Native speakers of a language know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and what are ungrammatical. Grammatical judgment is based on shared knowledge of sentence structure, that is, rules or regularities which govern the formation of sentences. The main task of syntactic studies is to describe the shared knowledge of native speakers of sentence structure.
5. Sentence structure
5.1 The basic components of a sentence
Subject: All language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person, a place, a thing, an idea or an event. This referring expression is grammatically called subject.
(16) Jack calls the man Zack. (17) Jack regards the man Zack. (18) Jack takes the man for Zack. (19) Jack considers the man for Zack. (20) Jack named the man after Zack.
3. Syntax as a system of rules
There is two girls on that room. The girl love me very good.
As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allows words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.
Predicate: the part of a sentence which consists of a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject (1) Mary likes dancing.
The generative grammar: a sentence is a
system of innate rules, concerning the syntactic generation;
The functional grammar: a sentence is an
instrument used to perform various functions in social interactions, concerning the syntactic functions.
Sentence
Subject
predicate
Mary
likes dancing
5.2 Type of sentences
5.2.1 The simple sentence
A simple sentence consists of a single/finite clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
1. Introduction
Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the centre of grammatical study. Knowledge of sentence structure is the object of study of all schools of grammar. One school of grammar is comparatively more successful in dealing with certain aspects of syntax than another.