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Physical and chemical characterization of Pescabivona ,a Sicilian white ﬂesh peach cultivar [Prunus persica (L.)Batsch]Giuseppe Montevecchi a ,⁎,Giuseppe Vasile Simone b ,Francesca Masino a ,b ,Cristina Bignami a ,b ,Andrea Antonelli a ,baCentro di Ricerca Interdipartimentale per il Miglioramento e la Valorizzazione delle Risorse Biologiche Agro-Alimentari BIOGEST-SITEIA,Universitàdegli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia,c/o Via G.Amendola 2(Padiglione Besta),42122Reggio Emilia,Italy bDipartimento di Scienze Agrarie e degli Alimenti,Universitàdegli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia,Via G.Amendola 2,42122Reggio Emilia,Italya b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 11July 2011Accepted 12October 2011Keywords:PescabivonaWhite ﬂesh peach Peach composition Organic acids SugarsLactone compoundsPescabivona is an autochthonous white ﬂesh peach cultivar population from Sicily.The composition of four Pescabivona peach landraces (Murtiddara,Bianca,Agostina,and Settembrina)at three different growing altitudes was studied.Color,color distance,weight,pulp ﬁrmness,pH,soluble solid content (SSC),titratable acidity (TA),SSC/TA ratio,organic acids,sugars,phenolics,antioxidant capacity,and lactone compounds were determined.In general for the analyzed parameters,univariate statistical analysis highlighted only a few signi ﬁcant differences among the landraces and the altitudes,thus demonstrating a general homogeneity of this local cultivar population.Principal component analysis,as well,did not show a clear separation among the different landraces,in particular for Bianca,Agostina,and Settembrina.The physico-chemical analysis showed high pulp ﬁrmness,high lactone content,and a balanced SSC/TA ratio.Moreover,even if the pulp ﬁrmness values were quite high for Agostina and Settembrina,sugar and acid content were typical of fresh-market quality peaches.©2011Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionIn Sicily,peach cultivation was practiced since the Middle Ages and in the course of the centuries an interesting germplasm of Prunus persica (L.)Batsch was originated by environmental and human selection (Caruso,Di Lorenzo,&Barone,1992;Marchese et al.,2006).Pescabi-vona ,also called “Pesca di Bivona ”(Caruso,1982),is an autochthonous cultivar population (cv.)(Marchese,Tobutt,&Caruso,2005)solely grown in its original area,the countryside near Bivona,located in theMiddle-West of Sicily.Nowadays,Pescabivona includes four landraces called:Murtiddara (also called Primizia Bianca),Bianca,Agostina,and Settembrina (Cusumano,2009).They are characterized by different rip-ening times that cover all the summer season from the end of June (Murtiddara)until the end of September (Settembrina).Nevertheless,despite the attention of the researchers toward the production of pea-ches growing in the South of Italy,there are just a few studies about Pes-cabivona that describe its high-quality features.In particular,it is widely appreciated for its sensory characteristics combined with the non-melting ﬂesh (Caruso,1982;Caruso et al.,2006).In the last few years,the trend in peach breeding was aimed to com-bine the ﬂesh ﬁrmness of nonmelting-ﬂesh fruits,commonly used for processing,with the fresh-market quality attributes typical of melting-ﬂesh peaches (Brovelli,Brecht,Sherman,&Sims,1998).For these reasons,Pescabivona is worthy to be studied in detail to show its quality and offer an alternative among consumers disappointed for peaches currently available on the market (Castellari,2002;Infante,Martínez-Gómez,&Predieri,2008).Lack of ﬂavor and ﬁrmness due to early harvesting (Bruhn et al.,1991),along with the presence of off-ﬂavors and ﬂesh browning (Von Mollendorff,Jacobs,&de Villiers,1992)as a consequence of long conservation are,in fact,the main consumer complaints.Physico-chemical and sensory analysis characterize peach quality,giving objective data on the peculiar,structural,and functional charac-teristics of the fruit.This information is required for the achievement of EU Protected Designation of Origin (PDO),Protected GeographicalFood Research International 45(2012)123–131Abbreviations:A,Agostina (landrace);Al,Altitudes;a.s.l.,above sea level;ABTS,2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid);ANOVA,Analysis Of Variance;B,Bianca (landrace);C 18,Octadecyl Carbon chain;CIE,International Commission on Illumi-nation;CH 3CN,acetonitrile;cv.(cvs.),cultivated variety (cultivar);EI,Electronic Ioniza-tion;EU,European Union;eV,electron Volt;FID,Flame Ionization Detector;GC/MS,Gas Chromatography coupled with Mass Spectrometer detector;H 2SO 4,sulfuric acid;HPLC,High Pressure Liquid Chromatography;i.d.,internal diameter;Ld,Landraces;M,Murtid-dara (landrace);m/z,mass-to-charge ratio;N 2,nitrogen gas;NaOH,sodium hydroxide;OAV,Odor Activity Value;p,p-value;PC,Principal Component;PCA,Principal Component Analysis;PDO,Protected Designation of Origin;PGI,Protected Geographical Indication;r,coef ﬁcient of correlation;R 2,coef ﬁcient of determination;rpm,revolutions per minute;RSD,Relative Standard Deviation;S,Settembrina (landrace);SAX,Strong Anion-Exchange;SD,Standard Deviation;SPE,Solid Phase Extraction;SSC,Soluble Solid Content;SSC/TA,Soluble Solid Content/Titratable Acidity ratio;TA,Titratable Acidity;TEAC,Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity;UV,Ultraviolet;VCEAC,Vitamin C Equivalent Antioxi-dant Capacity;Vis,Visible;vs.,versus.⁎Corresponding author.Tel.:+390522522061;fax:+390522522027.E-mail address:giuseppe.montevecchi@unimore.it (G.Montevecchi).0963-9969/$–see front matter ©2011Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2011.10.019Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirectFood Research Internationalj o u rn a l ho m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /f o o d re sIndication(PGI)certiﬁcation and for the deﬁnition of the quality scheme guaranteeing the standard of the product and the speciﬁcations of the production system.This research was aimed at characterizing and evaluating the quality of Pescabivona in order to:i)acquire information on Pescabivona quality characteristics not examined so far by research,and that play a determi-nant role in the consumer judgment;ii)provide information for exploi-tation and marketing of this local product on a wider geographical scale, outside the area where Pescabivona is already well known and appreci-ated;iii)give support to growing activities based on local germplasm as a source of valuable quality features;iv)support the achievement of PGI according to the EU rules.Finally,it is theﬁrst detailed study on compo-sition of these peaches on the international and domestic literature.2.Materials and methods2.1.SamplingSamples of the four Pescabivona peach landraces(Murtiddara, Bianca,Agostina,and Settembrina)were collected inside the growing area around Bivona(Sicily,Italy,lat.37.619,long.13.438)during all the harvest season.Commercial orchards representative of the prevailing environmen-tal,agronomic,and management conditions were individuated.The orchards were grown on hilly-mountainous areas and exposed to the South.The soil was of a medium clay texture,with subalkaline reaction and normal quantities of macro and micronutrients.The plants were grafted on GF677or MRS2/5rootstocks,trained to vase and spaced 4m×4m apart.Pruning,soil management,pest,and disease control were carried out according to the local traditional systems.Localized irrigation was supplied in the summer(Cusumano,2009).Sampling was carried out according to the following design.Since peach cultivation spans in Bivona from250to750m of altitude,the area was divided into three levels(250,500,and750m a.s.l.),and a gross sample of18peaches was collected for each level and landrace by different trees.Each gross sample was portioned in three lots(6pea-ches each)to have enough samples to carry out the analysis in triplicate (4landraces×3altitudes×3replications=36samples).The peaches were collected at“ready-to-eat”ripening stage evaluat-ed by means of change in ground color from green to yellow and fruit size corresponding to AA caliber(diameter from73to80mm,and circumference from23to25cm).Since peach quality shows variability within tree(Génard&Bruchou,1992),fruit sampling was standardized under the following condition:middle vigor trees,rootstock GF677, south exposure,external part of the tree.2.2.Reagents and standardsOrganic acids(citric,malic,quinic,and succinic acid),fructose,glu-cose,sucrose,(+)-catechin,chlorogenic acid,vitamin C,2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)(ABTS),potassium persulfate,lac-tones(γ-decalactone,δ-decalactone,γ-dodecalactone,δ-dodecalactone), 2-octanol,n-undecane,and silica gel100C18(particle size:0.040–0.063mm,not endcapped),were purchased from Fluka Sigma-Aldrich®(Milan,Italy).High purity solvents(acetonitrile,dichloromethane,eth-anol,and methanol)were supplied by VWR International S.r.l.(Milan, Italy),while sulfuric and hydrochloric acids,and sodium hydroxide were purchased from Carlo Erba Reagents S.p.A.(Rodano,Milan,Italy).Deionized water was obtained by a Milli-Q puriﬁcation system (Millipore,Milan,Italy).2.3.Physico-chemical determinations2.3.1.ColorSamples were analyzed for peel and pulp color.Peel and pulp color were determined with a reﬂectance chromameter(CR-400;Konica Minolta Sensing Inc.,Osaka,Japan).CIE coordinates(L*,a*,and b*) (CIE,1976)were calculated for each fruit.Illuminant D65was used. Three measurements were carried out on the peel as ground color and over color,and on the pulp,while the red percentage of the peel was visually evaluated.Color distance was calculated as reported in literature(Billmeyer &Saltzman,1981).2.3.2.Weight,ﬁrmness,soluble solids content,pH,titratable acidityThe intact fruits were weighed on an electronic balance(Europe 1700;Gibertini,Novate,MI,Italy).Measure ofﬂeshﬁrmness(expressed in kg/0.5cm2)was carried out on opposite sides of the fruit by Fruit Pressure Tester(Effegi FT327;TR S. n.c.,Forlì,Italy),with an8-mm diameter probe.Soluble solid content(SSC),expressed as°Brix,was determined on a few drops of juice with a manual refractometer(53015C;TR S.n.c., Vicenza,Italy).pH was measured with a pH-meter(Micro pH2002;Crison Strumenti S.p.A.,Modena,Italy).Titratable acidity(TA),expressed as percentage of malic acid,was measured by0.1mol/L sodium hydroxide solution(phenolphthalein as indicator)on theﬂesh prior to liquidizing andﬁltering.Triplicate analyses were carried out on all the samples.2.4.Chemical determinations2.4.1.Fruit extractionThe ethanolic extraction was carried out as reported in literature (Perez,Olias,Espada,Olias,&Sanz,1997)and stored at−18°C under N2to prevent oxidation.Brieﬂy,peeledﬂesh slices of each6-peach lot and ethanol were liquidized with a mixer(Power Mix MCM5300; Bosch,Germany).The mixed sample was made up to250mL.The peels were extracted with the same procedure,but using meth-anol as extraction solvent and making up to100mL.Peel extracts were used only for phenolic and antioxidant capacity determinations.2.4.2.HPLC analysis2.4.2.1.Fractionation for HPLC analysis.An aliquot of ethanolic extract (5mL)was basiﬁed to pH9–10by NaOH1mol/L and it was evaporat-ed(1mL)by rotational vacuum concentrator(Eppendorf concentra-tor5301;Eppendorf,Hamburg,Germany).Then the concentrated extract was loaded onto a0.5g-SAX cartridge(Isolute®SAX;Biotage, Uppsala,Sweden)conditioned with3mL methanol followed by3mL H2O.Total sugars were eluted with3mL deionized H2O,and total or-ganic acids were obtained by eluting the column with0.1N hydro-chloric acid(3mL).These were made up toﬁnal volume of5mL,ﬁltered through0.45μm nylonﬁlters before HPLC analysis.2.4.2.2.HPLC quantiﬁcation of organic acids and anic acids and sugars were determined by an HPLC method reported by Chinnici, Spinabelli,Riponi,&Amati(2005)with minor adjustments of the chromatographic conditions.A Perkin Elmer HPLC Series200apparatus with an isocratic pump (Perkin Elmer series200LCP;Perkin Elmer Inc.,Norwalk,U.S.A.) equipped with an UV/Vis detector(Perkin Elmer UV/Vis detector LC295)and an injection valve(Rheodyne Inc.,Cotati,U.S.A.)ﬁtted with a5-μL loop was used for acid quantiﬁcations,while a refractive index detector(Perkin Elmer Series200)and an injection valveﬁtted with a20-μL loop was used for sugars.The samples were separated isocratically using an Aminex HPX-87H (Bio-Rad,Richmond,U.S.A.)hydrogen-form cation exchange resin-based column(300×7.8-mm i.d.),protected by a pre-column (30×4.6mm).The mobile phase was a solvent system of H2SO4 (0.0015mol/L;pH2.7)and10%CH3CN for organic acids,while H2SO4 (0.0015mol/L;pH2.7)for sugars.Theﬂow rate was set at0.4mL/min.124G.Montevecchi et al./Food Research International45(2012)123–131Chromatograms were acquired at210nm and processed by Total-Chrom Workstation version6.2.1chromatography system software (Perkin Elmer,Inc.).Peaks were identiﬁed by comparing retention times of pure standards,while the quantiﬁcation was performed through an external standard calibration curve.Linearity range was studied with solutions derived by sequentially diluting a standard stock solution.The same calibration runs were used for the limits of detection,considered as the concentration three times higher than the noise.Repeatability of the method was carried out byﬁve injections of the same sample,and by calculating the relative standard deviation (RSD)of each analyte concentration.Recovery of sugars and organic acids were calculated by measuring the analyte concentration before and after SPE separation.2.4.3.Phenolic and antioxidant capacity measurement2.4.3.1.Phenolic determination.Flavan-3-ols and hydroxycinnamic acids were measured on diluted(1:20)andﬁltered extracts of pulp and peel.Spectrophotometric measures were carried out at280and 320nm,respectively.Each sample was read in triplicate in quartz cells by a V-550UV/Vis spectrophotometer(Jasco,Tokyo,Japan).The mea-sures were converted into concentrations through external standard calibration curves,by using catechin forﬂavan-3-ols and chlorogenic acid for hydroxycinnamic acids.Linearity range was studied with solu-tions derived by sequentially diluting standard stock solutions.2.4.3.2.ABTS assay.Antioxidant capacity of the pulp and peel extracts was measured using a protocol based on the ABTS assay(Re et al., 1999).The ABTS was dissolved in distilled water at14mM concentra-tion.ABTS radical cation(ABTS+)was produced by the reaction of ABTS stock solution with4.9mM potassium persulfate at the ratio of1:1and leaving the mixture to stand in the dark at4°C for 12–16h before use.The resulting blue–green ABTS+solution was di-luted in ethanol to an absorbance of0.792±0.015at734nm.An ali-quot(20μL)of each ethanolic extract was added to3.00mL of the resulting blue–green ABTS+.The mixture,protected from the light, was incubated in the Jasco V-550UV/Vis spectrophotometer at 37°C for10min;the decrease in absorbance at734nm was mea-sured at the endpoint of10min.Vitamin C standard calibration curve that correlates the concentration of vitamin C and the amount of absorbance reduction(ABTS scavenging assay),caused by vitamin C,was obtained.The results were measured as mg vitamin C equiva-lent antioxidant capacity(VCEAC)per kg of fresh peach.ctones2.4.4.1.Isolation and concentration of lactones.In order to eliminate eth-anol,ethanolic extract(150mL)was concentrated with a rotary evap-orator(Heidolph VV2000;Heidolph,Kelheim,Germany)at25°C.The residue,about50mL,was diluted10times with water and transferred in a1-L conicalﬂask.Then,silica gel100C18(1.0g)activated with methanol was added and the suspension was stirred for30min at 25°C.The suspension was transferred into a1cm-glass column equipped with a frit,and the C18bed was eluted with10mL dichloro-methane.The organic phase was centrifuged at5000rpm for5min at 25°C,the residual water was removed with a Pasteur pipette,and ﬁnally the volume was reduced to500μL under a stream of pure N2.2.4.4.2.GC analysis of lactones.Concentrated extracts(1μL)were ana-lyzed with a GC9000Series gas chromatograph(Fisons Instruments S.p.A.,Rodano,Milan,Italy)equipped with a Megawax column (15m×0.18mm i.d.,0.3μmﬁlm thickness),a split/splitless injector working in split mode(1:48split ratio;250°C),and a FID(250°C).The column temperature was kept at60°C for2min and then it rose up to230°C(5°C/min)and held for25min.The carrier gas(hydrogen)ﬂowed at1mL/min.Chromatograms were acquired and processed with Chrom-Card 1.15Software(Fisons Instruments S.p.A.,Rodano,Milan,Italy).GC/MS analyses were carried out with a Hewlett–Packard instrument 6890series(Hewlett–Packard Waldbronn,Germany)equipped with a mass spectrometer detector(HP5973Mass Selective Detector),under the same conditions.The molecule fragmentation was carried out by electron ionization(EI).The data were collected in the full scan mode and mass-to-charge ratio(m/z)recorded from33to700at70eV. Chromatograms were acquired and processed with Enhanced Chem Station software(G1701AA Version A.03.00—Hewlett Packard©).Peaks were identiﬁed by comparing retention times and mass spec-tra of pure standards.The quantiﬁcation was made by FID detection using the internal standard method.2.4.4.3.Recovery evaluation.Reference standard solutions and internal standard solution(2-octanol)were prepared by dissolving each substance in absolute ethanol(10,000mg/L,stock solutions).An aliquot of each standard together with the internal standard solution were used to prepare a100mg/L standard mixture.This standard mixture was subjected to isolation and concentration.Before the concentration step,the organic solution of n-undecane was added.Finally,it was injected in the same conditions of sample.2.5.Statistical analysisAnalysis of variance(two-way ANOVA),linear regression analysis, and principal component analysis(PCA)were performed using Statis-tica version8.0software(Stat180Soft Inc.,Tulsa,USA).3.Results and discussion3.1.Physico-chemical determinations3.1.1.ColorThe differences concerning the color measurements among land-races and altitudes were not statistically signiﬁcant,except pulp ground color L*that showed signiﬁcant differences among landraces(p≤0.05).Considering the peel ground color distances(Fig.1A),the most re-markable differences were found between Bianca and Agostina,while the comparisons between Murtiddara-Settembrina and Bianca-Settembrina showed the lowest distances.The peel over color (Fig.1A)clearly placed Murtiddara apart from all the other landraces, which were closer to each other.The data concerning the pulp ground color(Fig.1A)showed as Settembrina had the highest color distances from the other landraces that were quite homogenous,particularly Murtiddara and Agostina.Peel ground color and even more peel over color of the fruits grown at the highest altitudes(500and750m a.s.l.)were more ho-mogenous if compared with fruits grown at250m(Fig.1B).Pulp ground color did not show analogous differences(Fig.1B).The peel ground color was yellow–cream.The percentage of red of the peel was quite high(>50%)for Murtiddara(500and750m a.s.l.), followed by Agostina,and Settembrina(b40%).A higher percentage of red in Murtiddara was already described by Caruso(Caruso et al., 2006).Settembrina showed a peculiar red strip along the suture line, probably due to mutation concerning the epidermis layer(Marchese et al.,2006).3.1.2.Weight,ﬁrmness,soluble solids content,pH,titratable acidityThe results and statistical analysis concerning the physical and chemical analysis were reported in Table1.The good homogeneity among the weights of the fruits supported the correctness of the sam-pling operation and was planned to assure a representative sampling.125G.Montevecchi et al./Food Research International45(2012)123–131According to the literature (Caruso et al.,2006),pulp ﬁrmness of ripe peaches tended to be higher for the late landraces.The lowest values were recorded for Murtiddara (June),while Agostina (August)and Settembrina (September)showed the highest ones (p ≤0.01).More-over,the fruits produced at 750m a.s.l.had higher pulp ﬁrmness values,except for Bianca.The effect of different microclimate conditions seems to be very important.In apple,the higher ﬂesh ﬁrmness of fruits produced at 800m in comparison to 500m has been reported and it has been related to the temperature effect (Diamantidis et al.,2002).Although fruits were considered “ready to eat ”,the pulp ﬁrmness parameters were quite high (2.54–4.74).These values are usually associated to middle mature up to unripe fruits (Crisosto,2002;Crisosto,Crisosto,Echeverria,&Puy,2006;Testoni et al.,2008),so that Pescabivona was not classi ﬁable according to the most common ripening index.In fact,the pulp ﬁrmness values in Pescabivona were not linked to unripe fruit features (Bruhn et al.,1991;Castellari,2002;Crisosto et al.,2006).Soluble solids content,expressed by °Brix,(Table 1)did not give rise to statistically signi ﬁcant differences among the landraces and among the al-titudes.°Brix measure is mainly affected by sugars content.However,fruit sweetness is not strictly related to sugar content but it is widely controlled by acidity (Castellari,2002)that acts as an antagonist,and also by ﬂavor (Crisosto et al.,2006).Moreover,°Brix itself is an index in ﬂuenced by all the soluble constituents.The correlation between °Brix and sucrose or total sugar content gave acceptable results (y=0.001x+8.712,r=0.56and y=473.054x+1991.420,r=0.64,respectively),although the deter-mination coef ﬁcients were not particularly high.As the sweetening power is strictly related to the nature of the sub-stances involved in the taste perceptions,it could be interesting to study the comparison between the sweetness and the total sugar content cor-rected with the relative sweetness for each carbohydrate (Coultate,2002):1.52for fructose,0.76for glucose,and 1.00for sucrose.Considering pH (Table 1),the fruits of the four Pescabivona land-races can be classi ﬁed as acid (pH b 4)(Dirlewanger et al.,1999).In fact,pH values ranged between 3.5and 4.0,while the TA showed values around 0.6–0.7g/100g malic acid and a little lower for Agostina (0.45–0.49g/100g malic acid)only.However,it was not possible to ﬁnd statistically signi ﬁcant differences among landraces and altitudes.The ratio between soluble solid content and titratable acidity (SSC/TA)is the expression of taste equilibrium (Castellari,2002).Fruits with low SSC/TA values are perceived as sour,while too high values are equally unpleasant.This index ranged from 19.65to 26.79for all altitudes and landraces,except for Murtiddara 750m a.s.l.This last issue was proba-bly due to the early ripening season for the fruits harvested at the high-est altitude.3.2.Chemical determinations3.2.1.HPLC quanti ﬁcation of organic acids and sugarsEthanolic extracts were subjected to a preliminary separation by SPE cartridges to avoid coelution of fructose and quinic acid.SAX cartridges were successfully used to separate neutral substances from acidones,B-AABPeel ground colourPeel over colour Pulp ground colourFig.1.Color distance related to peel ground color,peel over color,and pulp ground color among landraces [A]and among altitudes [B].Murtiddara (M),Bianca (B),Agostina (A),Settembrina (S).Table 1Physico-chemical parameters of the four landraces harvested at three different altitudes expressed as the mean values of three replicates (±SD).Results of two way ANOVA are reported as F value **p ≤0.01;*p ≤0.05;n.s.=not signi ﬁcant.MurtiddaraBiancaAgostina Settembrina 2-way ANOVA Meters a.s.l.250500750250500750250500750250500750Ld a Al b Weight (g)Mean 194.71182.22164.60199.22198.76197.07207.64197.00194.98220.16224.31178.96n.s.n.s.±SD 19.8021.8214.5212.4720.7117.8618.9817.1916.0124.8719.9817.40Pulp ﬁrmness (kg/0.5cm 2)Mean 2.54 2.88 3.70 3.84 3.24 3.76 3.48 3.13 4.37 4.41 4.49 4.74**n.s.±SD 0.51 1.030.980.96 1.000.700.530.510.490.640.750.47Pulp pH Mean 3.61 3.76 3.50 3.74 3.76 3.55 3.89 3.82 3.84 3.70 3.71 3.71n.s.n.s.±SD 0.150.100.090.100.390.070.170.160.360.370.080.36Soluble solid content (°Brix)Mean 13.6213.6811.6814.7114.6613.9313.1411.7711.8612.0815.0212.69n.s.n.s.±SD 1.29 1.100.87 1.29 1.39 1.24 1.11 1.090.980.970.730.36TA c (g/100g malic acid)Mean 0.570.650.770.690.750.620.490.460.450.540.760.61n.s.n.s.±SD 0.030.050.080.160.010.070.010.020.010.070.110.07SSC/TA dMean23.9421.0315.3521.3219.6522.5226.7925.8326.3522.7820.1121.05n.s.n.s.a Landraces.b Altitudes.c Titratable acidity.dSoluble solid content/titratable acidity.126G.Montevecchi et al./Food Research International 45(2012)123–131although their use entailed two injections for each sample.Excellent re-covery for all the organic acids and sugars were found out.Filtration through a nylon membrane,a fundamental step before HPLC sample injection,suppressed the matrix-effect due to UV absorb-ing substances,as a consequence of the ability of nylon to adsorb phenolics.A method of literature (Chinnici et al.,2005)was subjected to minor adjustments to improve separation of malic and quinic acid in isocratic mode,as required for refractive index detector stability.H 2SO 4solutions (pH 1.3and 2.7)and three CH 3CN concentrations (0,5,and 10%)were tested to cover all the working range of the column.Retention times of organic acids decreased when pH increased,as a consequence of the enhancing of the ion exclusion effect.With pH=2.7,malic acid eluted before quinic acid apart from CH 3CN percentage.The best combi-nation of the two parameters was reached with 10%CH 3CN at pH 2.7.Sugar separation was easily achieved with no organic modi ﬁer.Calibration was performed with external standard method,with a very good signi ﬁcance (R 2>0.990)for all the substances.Repeatability showed RSDs lower than 10%for all substances except quinic acid (about 15%).The organic acid concentrations (Table 2)were according to the data of literature (Dirlewanger et al.,1999;Esti et al.,1997;Perez et al.,1997).The same consideration can be applied for sugars (Cantín,Gogorcena,&Moreno,2009),except for fructose.Its concentration,in fact,was very high if compared to literature (Perez et al.,1997).On the other hand,other works reported higher content for glucose and fructose (Robertson,Meredith,Horvat,&Senter,1990).Although sugar and organic acid concentrations were proper of “ready-to-eat ”peaches,pulp ﬁrmness was quite high as strongly sug-gested to satisfy consumer expectation (Brovelli et al.,1998).Citric and malic acids were the most abundant organic acids with a prevalence of the latter.In particular,citric acid showed signi ﬁcant dif-ferences among the landraces,while malic acid among the altitudes,and samples collected at 500m a.s.l.had the greatest content.The low amount of citric acid of Agostina was very interesting.For this reason,Agostina showed the highest SSC/TA,although the sugar content was not the highest.Succinic and quinic acids were present in comparable amount,but the former showed signi ﬁcant differences among landraces (p ≤0.05),while quinic acid,with a concentration quite variable,showed great dif-ferences among landraces (p ≤0.01)and altitudes (p ≤0.05).Sucrose was the most abundant sugar (Table 2),ranging from 55g/kg (Murtiddara,750m a.s.l.)to 86g/kg (Settembrina,at 500m a.s.l.).Su-crose low content and low malic acid/citric acid ratio con ﬁrmed the greenness of 750-m Murtiddara.Considering the microclimate differ-ences among various growing locations,the four landraces had sucroseTable 2Organic acid (mg/100g),sugar (mg/100g),ﬂavan-3-ol (as catechin,mg/kg),hydroxycinnamic acid (as chlorogenic acid,mg/kg)concentrations,and antioxidant activity (mg vi-tamin C equivalent/kg fresh peach)of the four landraces at three different altitudes expressed as the mean values of three replicates (±SD).The values are also showed as μmol Trolox equivalent/g fresh peach.Results of two way ANOVA are reported as F value **p ≤0.01;*p ≤0.05;n.s.=not signi ﬁcant.MurtiddaraBianca Agostina Settembrina 2-way ANOVA Meters a.s.l.250500750250500750250500750250500750Ld a Al b Organic acids Citric acid Mean 188.2207.2340.8192.0220.8169.092.277.193.5157.9180.2174.2*n.s.±SD 26.320.638.612.929.628.413.612.312.013.422.521.6Malic acid Mean 313.5424.3359.7461.8489.4413.2356.5446.1391.5427.6646.5388.7n.s.*±SD 19.345.922.473.624.147.921.927.424.026.339.723.9Quinic acid Mean 5.4 4.7 4.414.512.743.049.137.156.818.412.140.5***±SD 3.4 3.2 4.67.0 3.824.6 5.5 6.9 5.6 3.9 1.5 5.8Succinic acidMean 14.322.217.415.412.922.428.533.033.220.116.327.8*n.s.±SD6.69.94.34.55.212.45.26.25.75.93.32.4Sugars Fructose Mean 788.8801.21107764.110311041936.5822.5811.2761.5510.41040n.s.n.s.±SD 67.0166.329.4137.648.9107.867.565.853.545.350.365.8Glucose Mean 455.1513.7682.5742.5910.3863.5714.0655.6593.9644.0693.2705.4*n.s.±SD 17.7131.29.1133.938.156.815.834.644.535.847.587.4SucroseMean 804972985499589071516124570167355364673086306235n.s.*±SD 537.6813.4295.81148.0229.6445.7324.6567.8435.6643.5954.6456.8Phenolics Flavan-3-ols eMean 170912231169159521901702167311601587184021471888n.s.n.s.±SD 443.4207.2168.2298.6314.2142.0112.6290.319.848.0212.2148.5Hydroxycinnamic acids e Mean 202.7178.5196.1227.4303.5226.0131.8103.4128.7145.6174.9206.9*n.s.±SD 55.134.026.438.749.115.515.278.2613.016.832.326.5Flavan-3-ols fMean 289527202581329045783577202813421886219222912402**n.s.±SD 206.5337.3402.2648.2438.3393.8113.6142.571.051.1197.7126.2Hydroxycinnamic acids fMean 345.3411.0412.8490.4681.7543.0261.4193.1262.8328.2319.6393.1**n.s.±SD 17.954.273.192.613.446.636.820.419.116.536.714.0Antioxidant capacitymg VCEAC c /kg fresh peach e Mean 112990680012291518124590355180079910281112*n.s.±SD 96.4190.7144.9183.0168.1126.5146.8105.255.068.0166.0116.0μmol TEAC d /g fresh peach e 5.4 4.3 3.8 5.97.2 5.9 4.3 2.6 3.8 3.8 4.9 5.3mg VCEAC c /kg fresh peach f Mean 18321825170321382918224212947861071132015151696**n.s.±SD117.8323.8283.2232.2287.5242.9219.273.314.460.4178.664.6μmol TEAC d /g fresh peach f8.78.78.110.213.910.7 6.2 3.8 5.1 6.37.28.1a Landraces.b Altitudes.c Vitamin C equivalent antioxidant capacity.d Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (Calculated from VCEAC value.See Section 3.2.2.2.for details).e In pulp.fIn peel.127G.Montevecchi et al./Food Research International 45(2012)123–131。

多环芳烃进入人体途径英语作文

文章标题：Pathways of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Entering the Human BodyPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of organic compounds widely present in the environment, often resulting from incomplete combustion of organic matter such as coal, oil, and wood. These compounds are known to pose potential health risks to humans due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. Understanding the various pathways through which PAHs enter the human body is crucial for assessing their potential health impacts and devising effective prevention strategies.One of the primary routes of PAH exposure is inhalation. PAHs can be released into the atmosphere through industrial processes, vehicular emissions, and domestic heating. Oncein the air, these compounds can be inhaled directly intothe lungs, where they can deposit and potentially cause damage. Long-term exposure to PAH-contaminated air has been linked to respiratory problems and increased risk of lung cancer.Ingestion is another significant route of PAH exposure. PAHs can contaminate food and water sources through various mechanisms, including industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and atmospheric deposition. Consuming contaminated food or water can lead to the ingestion of PAHs, which are then absorbed into the gastrointestinal tract. PAHs can also adhere to dust particles and be ingested when individuals inadvertently swallow dust while eating or drinking.Dermal absorption is another pathway for PAHs to enter the human body. PAHs can be present on the skin's surface through contact with contaminated soil, water, or airborne particles. Through direct contact or indirectly through handling contaminated objects, PAHs can penetrate the skin and enter the bloodstream. While dermal absorption is generally considered a less significant route of exposure compared to inhalation and ingestion, it can still contribute to the overall PAH burden in the body.In addition to these primary exposure routes, PAHs can also enter the human body through other indirect pathways. For instance, PAHs can accumulate in the fat tissues ofanimals, particularly those living in PAH-contaminated environments. When humans consume these animals as a source of food, they may indirectly ingest PAHs stored in the animal's tissues. Similarly, PAHs can be transferred from mother to child through breastfeeding, posing potential health risks to infants.To mitigate the risks associated with PAH exposure, it is essential to reduce their sources and limit their release into the environment. This includes improving industrial processes to reduce emissions, promoting the use of clean energy sources, and properly disposing of waste to prevent PAH contamination of soil and water resources. Additionally, individuals can take measures to reduce their exposure, such as avoiding smoking, limiting exposure to outdoor air pollution, and thoroughly washing hands and food before consumption.In conclusion, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons enter the human body through multiple pathways, including inhalation, ingestion, dermal absorption, and indirect exposure through food and breastfeeding. Understanding these exposure routes is crucial for assessing thepotential health impacts of PAHs and developing effective prevention strategies to protect human health.**多环芳烃进入人体途径**多环芳烃（PAHs）是一类广泛存在于环境中的有机化合物，通常来源于煤、油、木材等有机物质的不完全燃烧。

急腹症

C H A P T E R431219Box 43-1.Causes of HemoperitoneumCLINICAL DIAGNOSISHistory and Present IllnessPain is the focal issue in the evaluation of the patient sus-pected of having an acute abdomen.8,9,14The history should therefore characterize and document the pain as precisely as possible. The duration of the pain is impor-tant, but the location, mode of onset, and character of the pain help in making a diagnosis. Abdominal pain that per-sists for 6 hours or more with severe intensity increases the likelihood that surgical operation will be required. If the pain ebbs after a few hours, however, the probability of surgical disease decreases, but not to zero. Visceral pain caused by distention, inﬂammation, or ischemia usually feels dull and poorly localized in the midabdomen. Depending on the organ involved, the pain may be felt in the epigastrium, the periumbilical area, or the lower abdomen (Fig. 43-2). Diseases of the kidneys or ureters produce pain in the ﬂanks. Parietal pain, however, is sharper and better localized. Localized parietal peritonitis can produce pain conﬁned to one of the four quadrants of the abdomen.In an evaluation of the location of the pain, the concept of referred pain becomes important. Subdiaphragmatic disorders can produce pain referred to the shoulder. Blood or pus beneath the left diaphragm can cause left shoulder pain. Biliary disease can cause referred pain in the right shoulder or the back. Diseases above the diaphragm such as basal pneumonia can cause pain referred to the neck or shoulder in the C4 distribution. Upper abdominal pain suggests peptic ulcer, acute chole-cystitis, or pancreatitis. Conversely, ovarian cysts, diver-ticulitis, and ruptured tubo-ovarian abscesses produce lower abdominal pain. Small bowel obstruction usually causes midabdominal pain sometimes referred to the back (Fig. 43-3).Migratory pain shifting from one place to another can give insight into the diagnosis. For example, pain that moves from the epigastrium to the periumbilical area to the right lower quadrant suggests acute appendicitis. Distention and inﬂammation of the appendix produce visceral pain perceived in the periumbilical area. When the inﬂammation spreads and produces parietal peritonitis, the pain localizes in the right lower quad-rant of the abdomen. Another example of moving or migratory pain occurs with perforated duodenal ulcer. The leakage of duodenal contents from a perforated ulcer causes intense and localized epigastric pain. However, if the leaked duodenal content gravitates down the right paracolic gutter into the right lower quadrant, the patient may also experience right lower quadrant pain. Although the location of abdominal pain may be helpful, particularly early in the course of the disease, it may not be typical in all patients. Late in many cases, the pain may become generalized because of diffuse peritonitis.Box 43-2.Abdominal Pain Secondary to Inﬂammatory Lesions of the Gastrointestinal Subsystem Box 43-3.Abdominal Pain Secondary to Obstructing Lesions of the Gastrointestinal TractBox 43-4.Abdominal Pain Secondary to Lesions of the Gynecologic SubsystemA BA B CFIGURE 43-6.Acute cholecystitis. Ultrasound evaluation shows two small stones (curved arrow)present in the neck of the gallbladder. The wall of the gallbladder in the fundus (straight arrow)FIGURE 43-7.Thrombus in portal vein evident on pulsed Doppler ultrasonography. An echogenic thrombus (arrow)is withinFIGURE 43-8.Acute appendicitis. On ultrasonography, a radiographically nonopaque appendicolith (arrow)is evident within a thick-walled, distended appendix (longitudinal view).A BIntramural hematoma of small bowel. Uniform, concentric, high-density thickening of the wall of jejunal loops is A BFIGURE 43-12.Acute pyelophlebitis resulting from diverticulitis with abscess. A,Minute quantities of gas (arrows)within peripheral branches of the portal venous system were not visible on a plain radiograph. B,A gas-containing thrombus (arrow)is visible in the inferior mesenteric vein at its junction with the splenic vein. C,A chain of abscesses (arrow)extended along the course of the thrombosed inferior mesenteric vein. D,The septic thrombus led directly to a pericolonic abscess (arrow)caused by diverticulitis of the sigmoid colon.FIGURE 43-13.Hemorrhage and false aneurysm complicating pancreatitis. A,Intraparenchymal hemorrhage enlarges the body and tail of the pancreas. The lumen of the false aneurysm (arrow)is shown as an area of increased density resulting from the enhancement of the FIGURE 43-14.Peritonitis. CT scan shows inﬂammatoryFIGURE 43-15.Pyopneumoperitoneum secondary to a perforated descending colon. A,Pyopneumoperitoneum interface (large arrow) and inﬂammatory thickening of visceral peritoneum (small arrows) are shown. Seven liters of grossly infected ascitic ﬂuid (A) were drained FIGURE 43-16.Acute small bowel intussusception. The patient had a sudden onset of severe mid-abdominal pain with nonspeciﬁc plain ﬁlm ﬁndings. Cross-sectional (A) and longitudinal (B) CT scans showed a small bowel intussusception (arrows). Mesenteric fat (f) accompaniesBox 43-5.Nonsurgical Causes of Abdominal Pain。

黄芪根腐病病原菌的分离鉴定及对其抑制作用分析

山西农业科学 2023，51（6）：690-695Journal of Shanxi Agricultural Sciences黄芪根腐病病原菌的分离鉴定及对其抑制作用分析牛景萍 1，燕翔 1，石志勇 1，宋诗娟 1，刘娇娇 1，杜杰 1，原艳欣 1，史将 1，梁建萍1，2（1.山西农业大学生命科学学院，山西太谷030801；2.山西农业大学中兽医药现代化山西省重点试验室，山西太谷030801）摘要：黄芪（Astragalus membranaceus ）是膜荚黄芪和蒙古黄芪的干燥根，根部受病原菌侵染会导致根腐病发生，根腐病会严重影响黄芪的药用价值及其产业的发展。

黄酮和皂苷类物质属于黄芪的次级代谢物，也是黄芪的主要药用成分。

为了明确黄芪根腐病致病菌类型以及黄芪黄酮和皂苷对病原菌的抑制作用，为防治该致病菌引起的根腐病以及研究黄芪次级代谢物参与黄芪抗病奠定基础，从山西省浑源县取回黄芪病株进行病原菌的分离鉴定，并研究黄芪根部总黄酮和总皂苷对病原菌生长的抑制作用；通过形态学观察、ITS 序列分析和致病性鉴定，明确黄芪根腐病病原菌为腐皮镰刀菌HYFS -1。

结果表明，30%的无水乙醇对腐皮镰刀菌菌落生长无影响，可作为总黄酮和总皂苷的稀释液；当总黄酮质量浓度为0.3 mg/mL 时，对菌落生长具有显著抑制作用，平均抑制率为16.42%；当总皂苷质量浓度为0.5 mg/mL 时，对菌落生长具有显著抑制作用，平均抑制率高达85.42%。

关键词：黄芪根腐病；腐皮镰刀菌；总黄酮；总皂苷；抑制作用中图分类号：S435.67 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1002‒2481（2023）06‒0690‒06Isolation and Identification of Pathogens Causing Astragalus membranaceusRoot Rot and Analysis of Its Inhibition EffectsNIU Jingping 1，YAN Xiang 1，SHI Zhiyong 1，SONG Shijuan 1，LIU Jiaojiao 1，DU Jie 1，YUAN Yanxin 1，SHI Jiang 1，LIANG Jianping 1，2（1.College of Life Sciences ，Shanxi Agricultural University ，Taigu 030801，China ；2.Shanxi Key Lab. for Modernization of TCVM ，Shanxi Agricultural University ，Taigu 030801，China ）Abstract ：Astragalus membranaceus is the dried root of Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge. and Astragalus membranaceus Bunge var. Mongholicus (Bge.) Hsiao. Infection of Astragalus membranaceus roots by pathogen can lead to the occurrence of root rot which seriously affects the medicinal value of Astragalus membranaceus and the development of its industry. Flavonoids and saponins belong to the secondary metabolites and are also the main medicinal components of Astragalus membranaceus . In order to clarify the types of the pathogen of root rot and the inhibition effects of flavonoids and saponins on the pathogen, and lay a foundation for prevention and control of root rot caused by the pathogen and study on the involvement of secondary metabolites in Astragalus membranaceus disease resistance, in this study, the pathogenic bacteria were isolated and identified from the diseased plant from Hunyuan, Shanxi province, and the inhibition effects of total flavonoids and astragalosides on the growth of pathogenic bacteria were studied. Through morphological observation, ITS sequence analysis, and pathogenicity identification, the pathogen was identified as Fusarium solani HYFS -1. The results showed that 30% of anhydrous ethanol had no effect on the growth of Fusarium solani and could be used as diluent of total flavonoids and astragalosides. When the mass concentration of total flavonoids was 0.3 mg/mL, the colony growth was significantly inhibited and the average inhibition rate was 16.42%. When the mass concentration of astragalosides was 0.5 mg/mL, the colony growth was significantly inhibited and the average inhibition rate was up to 85.42%.Key words ：Astragalus membranaceus root rot; Fusarium solani ; total flavonoids; total astragalosides; inhibition effects黄芪是豆科多年生草本药用植物，黄芪根腐病的发生会严重影响其药用价值。

The Psychoactive Ergot Alkaloids and their occurrence in the

drunk (Ott, 1993).
The Psychoactive Ergot Alkaloids
This group contains five compounds known to be psychoactive in
humans, these are ergine, isoergine, ergonovine, elymoclavine and
eaten, but rather the alkaloid containing material, plant or
fungus, is ground to a powder which is soaked in water, which is
then filtered. The solid residue is discarded and the water is
seems likely that agroclavine, triseclavine, penniclavine,
lysergine and lysergene and lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide will
be psychoactive in humans. Even ergot alkaloids such as
sedative effects and `a feeling of mental emptiness and of the
unreality and complete meaningless of the outside world'
(Hoffman, 1971).
Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. (Rye Ergot)
Claviceps purpurea var. sasae Tanda (Bamboo Ergot)

低钠血症(Hyponatremia)PPT课件

最新课件
6
Epidemiology
低钠血症引起血液低渗状态，此种情况在临床上极为常见，特别在老年人中。因为老年人，年龄每增加10岁，血钠平均值比年轻人降低1mmol/L。因慢性病住院的患者中22.5% 病人有低钠血症。
最新课件
7
Classification
缺钠性低钠血症：即低渗性失水。体内的总钠量和细胞内钠减少，血清钠浓度降低。
最新课件
9
Clinical manifestation
严重程度取决于血[Na ]和血钠下降的速率。血[Na ]在125mmol/L以上时，极少引起症状；[Na ]在125～130mmol/L之间时，也只有胃肠道症状。此时主要症状为软弱乏力、恶心呕吐、头痛思睡、肌肉痛性痉挛、神经精神症状和可逆性共济失调等。在低钠血症的早期，脑细胞对细胞内外渗透压不平衡有适应性调节。在1～3h内，脑中的细胞外液移入脑液，而后回到体循环；如低钠血症持续存在，脑细胞的适应调节是将细胞内的有机渗透溶质包括磷酸、肌酸、肌醇和氨基酸（如丙氨酸，氨基乙磺酸）丢掉以减轻细胞水肿。如果脑细胞这种适应调节衰竭，脑细胞水肿则随之而至。临床表现有抽搐、木僵、昏迷和颅内压升高症状，严重可出现脑幕（tentorium）疝。如果低钠血症在48h内发生，则有很大危险，可导致永久性神经系统受损的后果。慢性低钠血症者，则有发生渗透性脱髓鞘的危险，特别在纠正低钠血症过分或过快时易于发生。
最新课件
16
Diagnosis
在诊断本病时应注意：
血尿酸水平在SIADH通常偏低，如果偏高，则应除外有效细胞外液量不足引起；
血钾通常正常。伴有低钾者常是其他原因引致的低钠血症，特别是呕吐以及高醛固酮症导致的；高钾者则应注意有低醛固酮血症情况存在；

tpo54三篇阅读原文译文题目答案译文背景知识

托福阅读tpo54全套解析阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (4)题目 (5)答案 (9)背景知识 (10)阅读-2 (10)原文 (10)译文 (12)题目 (13)答案 (18)背景知识 (20)阅读-3 (25)原文 (26)译文 (27)题目 (28)答案 (33)背景知识 (35)阅读-1原文The Commercialization of Lumber①In nineteenth-century America, practically everything that was built involved wood.Pine was especially attractive for building purposes.It is durable and strong, yet soft enough to be easily worked with even the simplest of hand tools.It also floats nicely on water, which allowed it to be transported to distant markets across the nation.The central and northern reaches of the Great Lakes states—Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota—all contained extensive pine forests as well as many large rivers for floating logs into the Great Lakes, from where they were transported nationwide.②By 1860, the settlement of the American West along with timber shortages in the East converged with ever-widening impact on the pine forests of the Great Lakes states. Over the next 30 years, lumbering became a full-fledged enterprise in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Newly formed lumbering corporations bought up huge tracts of pineland and set about systematically cutting the trees. Both the colonists and the later industrialists saw timber as a commodity, but the latter group adopted a far more thorough and calculating approach to removing trees. In this sense, what happened between 1860 and 1890 represented a significant break with the past. No longer were farmers in search of extra income the main source for shingles, firewood, and other wood products. By the 1870s, farmers and city dwellers alike purchased forest products from large manufacturingcompanies located in the Great Lakes states rather than chopping wood themselves or buying it locally.③The commercialization of lumbering was in part the product of technological change. The early, thick saw blades tended to waste a large quantity of wood, with perhaps as much as a third of the log left behind on the floor as sawdust or scrap. In the 1870s, however, the British-invented band saw, with its thinner blade, became standard issue in the Great Lakes states' lumber factories.Meanwhile, the rise of steam-powered mills streamlined production by allowing for the more efficient, centralized, and continuous cutting of lumber. Steam helped to automate a variety of tasks, from cutting to the carrying away of waste. Mills also employed steam to heat log ponds, preventing them from freezing and making possible year-round lumber production.④For industrial lumbering to succeed, a way had to be found to neutralize the effects of the seasons on production. Traditionally, cutting took place in the winter, when snow and ice made it easier to drag logs on sleds or sleighs to the banks of streams. Once the streams and lakes thawed, workers rafted the logs to mills, where they were cut into lumber in the summer. If nature did not cooperate—if the winter proved dry and warm, if the spring thaw was delayed—production would suffer. To counter the effects of climate on lumber production, loggers experimented with a variety of techniques for transporting trees out of the woods. In the 1870s, loggers in the Great Lakes states began sprinkling water on sleigh roads, giving them an artificial ice coating to facilitate travel. The ice reduced the friction and allowed workers to move larger and heavier loads.⑤But all the sprinkling in the world would not save a logger from the threat of a warm winter. Without snow the sleigh roads turned to mud. In the 1870s, a set of snowless winters left lumber companies to ponder ways of liberating themselves from the seasons. Railroads were one possibility.At first, the remoteness of the pine forests discouraged common carriers from laying track.But increasing lumber prices in the late 1870s combined with periodic warm, dry winters compelled loggers to turn to iron rails. By 1887, 89 logging railroads crisscrossed Michigan, transforming logging from a winter activity into a year-round one.⑥Once the logs arrived at a river, the trip downstream to a mill could be a long and tortuous one.Logjams (buildups of logs that prevent logs from moving downstream) were common—at times stretching for 10 miles—and became even more frequent as pressure on the northern Midwest pinelands increased in the 1860s. To help keep the logs moving efficiently, barriers called booms (essentially a chain of floating logs) were constructed to control the direction of the timber. By the 1870s, lumber companies existed in all the major logging areas of the northern Midwest.译文木材的商业化①在19世纪的美国，几乎所有建筑材料都含有木材。

高二英语哲学观点探讨单选题30题

高二英语哲学观点探讨单选题30题1. Which of the following statements best represents the idea of Plato's Theory of Forms?A. The physical world is the ultimate reality.B. Ideas are mere copies of the real world.C. Forms exist independently of the material world.D. Sensory experiences are the source of true knowledge.答案：C。

解析：柏拉图的理念论认为形式是独立于物质世界存在的，A 选项认为物质世界是终极现实，与柏拉图理念论不符；B 选项说理念是现实世界的副本不准确；D 选项认为感官经验是真正知识的来源，这不是柏拉图的观点。

2. According to Aristotle, what is the source of knowledge?A. IntuitionB. ExperienceC. Reason aloneD. Divine inspiration答案：B。

解析：亚里士多德认为知识的来源是经验，A 选项直觉不是亚里士多德强调的知识来源；C 选项仅靠理性不符合亚里士多德的观点；D 选项神的启示也不是亚里士多德的主张。

3. Which philosopher believed that "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am)?A. DescartesB. KantC. HegelD. Nietzsche答案：A。

解析：“我思故我在”是笛卡尔的观点，康德、黑格尔和尼采都没有提出这一观点。

4. What is the main idea of Hume's philosophy regarding cause and effect?A. There is a necessary connection between cause and effect.B. Cause and effect are based on human understanding.C. Cause and effect are determined by divine intervention.D. We can never truly know the cause of an event.答案：B。

艾斯纳名词解释-概述说明以及解释

艾斯纳名词解释-概述说明以及解释1.引言1.1 概述艾斯纳是一种特定的名词，它受到了广泛的关注和研究。

作为一种专业术语，艾斯纳具有独特的含义和用途。

在本文中，我们将对艾斯纳进行详细解释和阐述。

艾斯纳一词源于拉丁语“Aesna”，最早是由古希腊哲学家阿里斯托泰利斯(Aristoteles)提出的。

在古代，艾斯纳主要用于描述一种特定的概念或现象。

随着时间的推移，艾斯纳的意义逐渐丰富和发展，成为不同学科领域中的关键概念之一。

在现代学术研究中，艾斯纳常常用于指代一种复杂的概念或现象，它包含了多个维度和层面的信息。

艾斯纳通常有着独特的定义和解释，因此在各个学科中都有不同的使用方式和涵义。

艾斯纳的研究广泛应用于多个领域。

在自然科学领域，艾斯纳被用于描述复杂的生物物种间相互作用网络。

在社会科学领域，艾斯纳则被用于研究复杂的社会系统和人际关系网络。

在工程技术领域，艾斯纳更是被用于建模复杂的系统和优化问题。

对于艾斯纳的研究和理解，不仅有助于深化我们对复杂世界的认识，还可以为各个学科领域提供重要的理论和方法支持。

通过研究艾斯纳，我们可以更好地理解和应对复杂性带来的挑战，为解决复杂问题提供创新的思路和方法。

在接下来的篇章中，我们将详细介绍艾斯纳的定义和起源，探讨艾斯纳在不同领域的使用领域和影响力，并展望对艾斯纳的未来发展可能带来的重要影响。

通过对艾斯纳的全面解释和分析，我们希望能够为读者提供更深入的学术视角和思考框架，促进学术研究的进一步发展。

1.2 文章结构本文将按照以下结构进行叙述和探讨艾斯纳的定义、起源、使用领域和影响，以及对艾斯纳的重要性和未来发展的展望：第一部分：引言引言部分将对本文的主题进行概述、介绍文章的结构和目的。

首先，我们将简要概述什么是艾斯纳，它的起源和定义。

接着，我们将介绍本文的结构，即分析艾斯纳的定义和起源的部分，以及讨论艾斯纳的使用领域和影响的部分。

最后，我们将明确本文的目的，即探究艾斯纳的重要性和对未来发展的展望。

广东西番莲茎基腐病病原的分离及鉴定

·1007·0引言【研究意义】西番莲（Passiflora Linn.）又称百香果、鸡蛋果，果实具有较髙的食用和药用价值（Anto-gnoni et al.，2007；Zeraik and Yariwake ，2010），目前商业栽培的品种主要有紫果西番莲（P .edulis Sims ）和黄果西番莲（P .edulis var.flavicarpa Degener ），在收稿日期：2018-12-04基金项目：广东省现代农业产业技术体系建设专项（2018LM1077）；广东省主体科研机构创新能力建设专项（粤科规财字〔2014〕208号）作者简介：*为通讯作者，彭埃天（1962-），研究员，主要从事果树病害防控技术研究工作，E-mail ：pengait@ 。

宋晓兵（1980-），主要从事果树病害综合防治研究工作，E-mail ：xbsong@广东西番莲茎基腐病病原的分离及鉴定宋晓兵，崔一平，彭埃天*，凌金锋，程保平，陈霞（广东省农业科学院植物保护研究所/广东省植物保护新技术重点实验室，广州510640）摘要：【目的】明确引起广东西番莲茎基腐病的病原菌，为有效防治该病害提供理论依据。

【方法】采用组织分离法对广东番莲茎基腐病的病原进行分离，利用柯赫氏法则测定病原菌的致病性，光学显微镜观察病原菌分生孢子的形态学特征，测序分析病原菌的rDNA ITS 序列。

【结果】基于柯赫氏法则的致病性测定，证实从发病西番莲茎基部主干分离获得的病原菌对西番莲具有致病性。

BLAST 在线比对分析结果显示，病原菌rDNA ITS 序列与多个腐皮镰孢菌菌株的相似性在99%以上。

结合病原菌形态学特征、致病性测定及rDNA ITS 序列分析结果，可确定引起广东西番莲茎基腐病的病原菌为腐皮镰孢菌［Fusarium solani （Mart ）Sacc ）］。

【结论】近年来引起广东西番莲茎基腐病的病原菌为腐皮镰孢菌。

anthropological词根

在撰写以anthropological为主题的文章前，首先需要对这个词根进行全面的评估和深入的理解。

Anthropological一词源自希腊语anthropo-（代表“人”）和-logical（代表“关于…的学科或知识”）组合而成，因此可以理解为“关于人类的学科”。

在对anthropological进行更深入的探讨前，我们需要了解它在不同领域和学科中的意义。

古人类学家利用这个词根来描述对古代人类社会和文化的研究，与此现代学者则将其广泛应用于多个领域，如社会学、人类学、考古学、生物学和文化研究等。

从社会学和人类学的角度来看，anthropological承载着对不同社会和文化中人类行为和价值观的研究。

在这一领域，研究人员可能会关注如何人类社会的演变、文化交流和差异性如何影响人类社会的发展，以及人类行为如何受到社会结构和文化观念的塑造等。

考古学家也利用anthropological一词进行古人类和古代文明的研究。

他们关注如何从古代遗迹、工具、墓葬等古物中获取关于人类演化、生活方式和思想观念的信息，并且将所获得的知识应用于对古代社会和文化的理解。

在生物学领域，anthropological 常被用于描述人类的生物学特征和进化历程。

生物学家可以利用这一词根来研究人类的进化历史、人种多样性和基因结构等。

在文化研究中，anthropological 则被用来探讨不同文化中的价值观、习俗和宗教信仰等。

研究人员可以利用anthropological一词来了解不同文化间的交流和互动，以及这些交流和互动对全球化进程的影响。

总结而言，anthropological 是一个极具广度和深度的词根，它涉及了人类社会、文化、生物和思想的方方面面。

在不同领域和学科中，anthropological扮演着重要的角色，帮助研究人员更全面地理解人类的本质和演变过程。

从个人的观点来看，我认为anthropological 是一个引人深思的词根，它提醒我们人类作为社会、文化和生物体的本质，以及我们在这个多样世界中的地位和影响。

100句7000词

1Typical of the grassland dwellers of the continent is the American antelope, or pronghorn.美洲羚羊或称叉角羚是该动物典型的草原动物。

2Of the millions who saw Haley’s comet in 1986, how many people will live long enough to see it return in the twenty-first century.1986年看见哈雷彗星的千百万人当中有多少人能够长寿到足以目睹它在二十一世纪的回归呢？3Anthropologists have discovered that fear, happiness, sadness and surprise are universally reflected in facial expressions.人类学家们已经发现恐惧、快乐、悲伤和惊奇都会形之于色这在全人类是共通的。

4Because of its irritating effect on humans, the use of phenol as a general antiseptic has been largely discontinued.由于苯酚对人体带有刺激性作用它基本上已不再被当作常用的防腐剂。

5In group to remain in existence, a profit-making organization must, in the long run, produce something consumers consider useful or desirable.任何盈利组织若要生存最终都必须生产处消费者可用或需要的产品。

6The greater the population there is in a locality, the greater the need there is for water, transportation, and disposal of refuse.一个地方的人口越多其对水、交通和垃圾处理的需求就会越大。

《对多系分化应激耐受(Muse)细胞的RNA测序和ATAC测序分析》

《对多系分化应激耐受（Muse）细胞的RNA测序和ATAC测序分析》一、引言随着生物技术的飞速发展，基因组学和表观遗传学研究逐渐成为生命科学领域的前沿。

其中，多系分化应激耐受（Muse）细胞因其在特定环境下具有显著适应能力和耐受力，其背后的分子机制尤为引人关注。

为了深入了解Muse细胞内部的基因表达及表观遗传变化，本研究采用RNA测序和ATAC测序技术，对其基因组学及表观遗传学特性进行了系统分析。

二、材料与方法1. 实验材料本实验所使用的Muse细胞由本实验室成功分离并培养。

实验所需试剂、耗材等均采购自正规渠道，符合实验要求。

2. RNA测序和ATAC测序技术RNA测序（RNA-seq）技术：通过对Muse细胞内RNA进行深度测序，获得其转录本序列及表达水平信息。

ATAC测序（Assay for Transposase-Accessible Chromatin with high-throughput sequencing）技术：用于研究Muse细胞中转座酶可及的染色质区域，以揭示其表观遗传调控机制。

3. 实验方法（1）RNA提取及质量检测；（2）cDNA合成及测序文库构建；（3）ATAC测序文库制备；（4）高通量测序；（5）数据分析与处理。

三、实验结果1. RNA测序结果分析通过对Muse细胞的RNA测序数据进行分析，我们获得了大量基因表达信息。

与正常细胞相比，Muse细胞在多个关键基因的表达上存在显著差异，这些基因主要涉及应激反应、代谢调控、细胞周期等方面。

此外，我们还发现Muse细胞在特定信号通路中存在明显的基因表达变化，这可能与其在应激环境下的适应能力有关。

2. ATAC测序结果分析ATAC测序结果显示，Muse细胞中存在大量转座酶可及的染色质区域，这些区域主要分布在基因的启动子、外显子和内含子等区域。

与正常细胞相比，Muse细胞的染色质结构在特定区域存在明显差异，这可能与Muse细胞的表观遗传调控机制有关。

英文

Pathogenesis and treatment of non vasculitis anterior ischemic opticneuropathy•Abstract: anterior ischemic optic neuropathy is a common acute ophthalmopathy of bed type. Because of its complicated etiology, various treatment methods and different treatment time reports, the diagnosis, etiology, pathogenesis and treatment of the disease are related to the current development and research progress.We do this by using a combination of Chinese medicine and western medicine about the non vasculities anterior ischemic opticneuropathy.By using the observed data in the experiment and finding relevant results in the literature for analysis, we came to the following conclusion that we can combined therapy can improve retinal circulation and visual function of ischemic optic neuropathy.Key words: pathogenesis of non vasculitis anterior ischemic optic neuropathy comprehensive treatment of ischemic optic neuropathy，Treatment，Traditional Chinese medicine, Integrated Chinese and Western medicinesText:1.Pathogenesis of non vasculitis anterior ischemic optic neuropathy •Non vasculitis anterior ischemic optic neuropathy is a disease that seriously endangers the eyesight of the elderly.At present, the medical community has not reached a perfect explanation of its pathogenesis and mechanism of action.Considering this aspect, it is a dilemma to judge it accurately in practice and propose appropriate treatment solutions.So at present, our research on this disease is still in the initial stage, but with the enrichment of clinical experience, we have a relatively clear understanding and understanding of its symptoms.•The main mechanism of non vasculitis anterior ischemic optic neuropathy is that the posterior arterial vessels feeding the optic nerve produce the symptoms of an acute circulatory disorder.Thus the optic nerve appears a series of chain reactions such as ischemia and hypoxia.It can be divided into two pieces that one is anterior non vasculitis anterior ischemic optic neuropathy,the other is posterior non vasculitis anterior ischemic optic neuropathy according to the position of the involved vessels.The main audience group in the front is the elderly, mostly seen in the elderly, whose visual system will be severely damaged, The latter part is not very prominent and obvious in clinical response, and there is no very accurate confirmation index like the front part, so it is not very easy to judge. Therefore, the method we usually use is to exclude the clinical manifestations of the front part, to conduct screening and diagnosis.With the gradual aging of our social structure and the changing diet, the proportion of the elderly with this disease is increasing, which has become an important part of the eye diseases of the elderly.The main occurrence of this disease in the elderly, the main clinical manifestationis in the eyes of one of the onset, the other eye is normal, can also be made ready to the left eye lesions followed by lesions in the right eye, or the right eye lesions followed by lesions in the left eye.The time interval varies from months to years, depending on the patient's constitution.Its etiology and pathogenesis are not very clear, in clinical work we will find from time to time some systemic related diseases in the pathogenesis of this disease will have a very important role that cannot be ignored.Among the possible important risk factors are hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypotension, snoring, etc.•（1）High Blood Pressure•In the medical community, clinical eye doctors have identified high blood pressure as a very important cause of the disease, and based on actual observations, some researchers believe that high blood pressure is behind the disease.Under the stimulus very long-term high blood pressure, blood vessels inside the membrane can appear the phenomenon of damage, at the same time when the blood through the blood vessel through the eye area, short at the back of the eye artery time is long, can't live for long time high blood pressure, resulting in the phenomenon of damage, it can stimulate the body to produce vascular active substances, it is lead to a long time of ischemia hypoxia of important chemicals.The end result of chronic hypertension is a denaturation of the tiny capillaries that cannot withstand the high blood pressure.Symptoms of ischemic neuropathy are very common in the presence of sudden changes in blood.•（2）Diabetes MellitusAt the same time, in clinical observation, it is undeniable that the presence of diabetes is also the main factor leading to ischemic optic neuropathy.About a quarter of patients will have diabetes, a rate that makes it impossible to ignore the presence of diabetes, a disease of aging that accounts for a significant proportion of the elderly population.As long-term sugar metabolic abnormalities in diabetic patients, the blood sugar content is higher, with normal osmotic pressure appear larger gap, optic nerve cells, internal circulation problems of oxygen transport will there is a big problem, can't get enough oxygen, symptoms of pathological changes of the end.（2）Low Blood PressureNormal blood in the day and night is a big difference, blood pressure during the day than at night activity is much higher proportion.Some scholars believe that because of the relatively low blood pressure existing in the evening will greatly damage itself to appear damage relief function, in the eye of section after the insufficient blood infusion and ischemia, hypoxia narrative hypertension is an importantdisease appear above factors, if patients with high blood pressure in a nighttime routine treatment of lower blood pressure, itself on the patients of optic nerve damage is very serious impact.Therefore, we can think that the lower blood pressure at night is also a non-negligible factor leading to ischemic optic neuropathy.2.Ischemic optic neuropathyThe first two main symptoms of non ischemic optic neuropathy are arteritis: The former is mainly the elderly suffering from macrophage inflammation to this blood pressure is greater, greater damage to the capillaries often accompanied by larger temporal arteritis, Most of them have bilateral effects. At the same time, for the health of the patients themselves and the health of the optic nerve, the normal use of visual function produces incalculable and large losses.;The number of patients with non-arterial inflammation is less than half that of patients with arterial inflammation, which is a very clear fact, and we don't need to deny it, because the number of patients with arterial inflammation is really high. The presence of drugs in hypertension has an important effect on the presence of substances in the blood, which leads to a very important effect on how we work with diabetes.That's about a quarter of our total.However, due to the emergence of acute hemorrhagic shock, the blood drug in our body will suddenly be at a lower level than normal. This is an emergency that the capillaries behind our optic nerve cannot cope with, which is also an important factor for the occurrence of ischemic optic neuropathy.Lead to the lack of blood flow, blood and blood throughout the body in the cycle of large-scale resources consume obstacle, the human body blood system does not guarantee a larger human body damage, it is the necessary condition to maintain the human body blood circulation requirements, we through the study of the capillaries within the body to produce the large-scale human body local hypoxia, in clinical mainly reflects this is mainly embodied in the infarction and the hardening of the arteries, lead to major problems such as fibrillation artery systemic vascular disease. We can find that there is a lack of blood flow on a whole body scale, This will waste the energy and nutrients taken by the human body from the outside in the process of blood circulation, and the human body cannot get enough nutrition from the inside, which is a very large-scale damage to the human blood circulation system. We must learn to have enough nutrients to meet the needs of the human body in the blood circulation conditions. We have studied the existence of various nutrients in the human body In the case of capillary flow disorder, it leads to large-scale local tissue hypoxia in human body. In our clinical observation, it mainly reflects myocardial infarction and atherosclerosis of blood vessels, leading to major systemic vascular diseases such as arterial fibrillation. Because of the blood drugs in the blood circulation of the whole body, if there is a sudden decrease of blood, it will lead to asudden severe anemia. The management system in our blood is mainly driven by the heart. When there is a disorder in our blood, our final result is that the blood production function in the body is irreparable Obstacle, in this case, leukaemia appears. During the analysis of the patient, we found that the internal capillaries of the patient's own visual system, because the blood supply is insufficient. The internal problems are relatively large, resulting in the internal pressure and poor blood flow data. Low intraocular pressure can also occur together.From the analysis of clinical anatomy, we can see that the optic disc surface of the eye is supplied by the return branch of the central retinal artery, and the anterior area of the ethmoidal plate, including the ethmoidal plate area, is mainly supplied by the branch of the posterior ciliary artery. Because compared with the paraoptic nerve branch of the posterior short ciliary artery, we can clearly find that the blood choroid around the optic disc is relatively less for the blood supply of the anterior optic nerve, so this place is prone to ischemia.Among them, blood type diseases include polycythemia vera, sickle cell disease, acute hypotension and g-6-p-d deficiency. In addition, due to the existence of blood diseases in the blood circulation of the whole body, and in our anatomical analysis of the eyes, we also found local inflammatory diseases, which are the main problems leading to ischemic optic neuropathy.But we haven't been able to deal with this problem well in the actual clinical experiments. Our country's medicine still needs great development. At the same time, we don't have many experts and professors on ischemic neuropathy, and students don't learn very frequently by organizing such cases In this way, the medical research in our country appears a fault, and our country has gradually stepped into the aging society, because the proportion of our elderly population is also high, which leads to more patients, so we need to conduct more in-depth research and discussion.So we can achieve two very important aspects of development, one is the development of visual nerve, the other is the development of blood diseases. Pathological parts are caused by different kinds of competition. In this way, we can help us to find another system solution by studying one part, the similar score of eyes and blood vessels Analysis is also very suitable for the research of such diseases. Of course, it is undeniable that our research on human body secrets is still in a very weak and shallow part, which plays an important role in promoting our exploration of human body secrets.According to the recent research of the student's own company, the risk mechanism is that the ischemic lesions of the small blood supply optic disc seriously carry out the business of information system security management personnel, resulting in that the local tissue blood supply optic disc of Chinese enterprises is not enough to produce and cause myocardial infarction in the development process.. according to the results ofpathological fluorescence angiography of anatomy and operation, you can decide the front screenThe area of disc cilia in the front and back of the area mainly relies on small ships to provide support services.If you find that there are some problems among the students themselves as different branches in one or more countries and there are serious ischemic diseases, the optic nerve fiber branch will provide technology with a series of very important pathological changes, such as the lack of analysis on the blood supply management ability that causes the infarction, Because the eyeball can receive 90% of the external information, which is required to be transmitted to the visual center of the brain by using the optic nerve fibers in the optic disc. A large amount of information exchange needs to consume a lot of energy and blood, oxygen nutrition supply, but this anatomical feature here can reflect that it can not promote blood supply very well, so the two formed a contradictory situation. Under normal circumstances, the blood vessel itself has a certain regulatory effect. In the case of a sudden occurrence, this regulatory function may become very low, resulting in the reduction of blood tolerance here. Once the inducing factor of blood disease occurs, resulting in short-term pressure shortage or exceeding the automatic regulatory ability, axonal swelling may occur Dilation, compression of small capillaries, and thus began to appear in the above-mentioned bad regional circulation process.3.Non vasculitis anterior ischemic optic neuropathyThe anterior ischemic visual neuropathy is mainly caused by ischemia and hypoxia caused by the acute obstruction of arterioles in the supply ventricular disc and human cribriform plate area. This will mainly cause damage to the internal visual nerve of the human body. We can analyze the treatment mechanism into two categories: arteritis and non arteritis. The former is not very common in China, while the latter is relatively common in China, because there is a large aging population in China. In recent years, with the increase of systemic vascular diseases we encounter, this kind of The incidence rate of diseases is also increasing obviously. It is more obvious to the eye and the vision of the human body, and it is not obvious in clinical experiments. There is no effective treatment method at present. It is one of the common and more difficult diseases.We can find that the pathogenesis of ischaemic optic neuropathy is diverse. The lack of local blood perfusion leads to the shape of optic disc and optic nerve. The sudden compression of manipulator may lead to the ischaemia of optic disc. These factors are related to systemic diseases, hypertension, diabetes, vascular function, blood viscosity and other important factors However, it is one of the important preconditions for the ischemic optic neuropathy to be caused by the low perfusion state and the inducing factors of systemic diseases.After we understand the pathogenesis of ischaemic optic neuropathy, we have a preliminary understanding of its treatment plan. Next, I will solvethe problem of ischaemic optic neuropathy through the combination of traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine.4.Treatment of non vasculitis anterior ischemic optic neuropathyObjective: To summarize the clinical experience of comprehensive treatment of ischemic optic neuropathy and explore more effective treatment.4.1 Methods: Acupuncture and moxibustion treatment can adjust the meridian and rising function of the whole eye part of the patient, make the whole human breath become unobstructed, the blood become harmonious, the whole human energy is very abundant, the blood circulation system is warm, it can improve the ischemic and anoxic state of the optic nerve of the patient, promote the recovery of the visual function, shorten the course of disease, and reduce the amount of hormone, with the advantages of no side effects.34 patients (39 eyes) with ischaemic optic neuropathy were enrolled according to the diagnostic criteria of anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy in fundus diseases edited by Professor Zhang Chengfen in 1998 and posterior ischaemic optic neuropathy edited by Professor Hayreh in 2004.According to the needs of patients, we can improve the condition and course of students in different ways or treat different times and societies in combination. Our teachers can also use the research information of traditional Chinese medicine economic and cultural methods.Hormone contraindications or longer course, optic nerve edema is not serious in patients with non vasculitis may be in a Chinese culture and traditional social medicine for comprehensive treatment of research progress requirements are as follows: (1).Dialectical treatment: the treatment of blood circulation type of blood stasis and Qi deficiency is from Xiaoyao Powder side; the treatment of qi deficiency and blood stasis is from Yangwu Decoction plus Jianfang side; (2) low molecular weight + TMP dextran injection into the vein; (3) the influence of basic compound zhangliu on the injection point at the temporal side of the eye; (5) acupuncture.There is no hormone contraindication, and the duration is short. These serious environmental problems or vasculitis of patients with optic nerve edema appear. With the need of life style, the continuous improvement of learning in China is not only as a teacher's teaching, but also through their enterprises to understand that the products are mainly used for the practice of modern activities of Integrated Chinese and Western medicine students in a new eraOn the one hand, there is no data for safety education and scientific knowledge to effectively treat: the development of information service of market economy system on the basis of glucocorticoids in early capitalist countries of social process and clinical drugs in China, drug treatment group, reducing intraocular pressure, group B vitamins, hyperbaric oxygen therapy;Non vasculitis provides some courses, and the training methods of the later stage management accounting system control system and the research and development of the treatment function design of the knowledge-basedtreatment group based on Chinese traditional ideology and culture, the patients' vasoinflammatory hormone level in the later stage also began to gradually reduce.(6) The therapeutic effect of drugs and the theoretical analysis and research of wind applied in ophthalmology and clinical practice, as well as the characteristics of ischemic optic neuropathy, clinical teaching effect and blood excretion mechanism.Treatment and vision, fundus, analysis of field of vision, before and after these data, we changed to improve the impact of patient characteristic treatment; treatment group in different integrated management research integrated Chinese and Western medicine enterprise development of Chinese medicine comprehensive treatment; after different patients treatment time difference attack treatment effect.4.2 Result:(1) Thirty four patients (39 eyes) with ischaemic optic neuropathy were treated synthetically. The clinical cure rate was 28.21%, the effective rate was 25.64%, the effective rate was 30.77%, the total effective rate was 84.62%, and the ineffective rate was 15.38%.(2) The difference of vision before and after treatment was statistically significant: the visual acuity after treatment was significantly higher than that before treatment (x2 = 78, P < 0.01).(3) After treatment, the visual field was improved in 31 eyes (79.49%), but not in 8 eyes (20.51%).Mean visual field defect (x ± s, DB): 21.71 ±3.25 before treatment, 12.68 ± 1.54 after treatment. Paired t-test was carried out. The difference before and after treatment was statistically significant (t = 5.20, P < 0.01).(4) After treatment, the fundus of 16 eyes was normal, the edema of 15 eyes subsided, and optic nerve atrophy was found in different degrees.(5) 14 cases (15 eyes) in the comprehensive treatment group of traditional Chinese medicine: 5 eyes was clinically cured (33.33%), 5 eyes were obviously effective (33.33%), 3 eyes was effective (20.0%), the total effective rate was 86.67%, and 2 eyes was ineffective (13.33%); 20 cases (24 eyes) in the comprehensive treatment group of traditional Chinese and Western medicine: 6 eyes were clinically cured (25.0%), 5 eyes were obviously effective (20.83%), 9 eyes were effective (37.50%), the total effective rate was 83.33%, and 4 eyes were ineffective (16.67%). There was no statistical difference between the twoAcademic significance (x2 = 0.79, P > 0.01).4.3 Conclusion:(1) The combination of traditional Chinese medicine systems and Western medicine system for the treatment of eye diseases that is helpful to improve the posterior ciliary artery retinal circulation of ischaemic optic neuropathy and the continuous recovery of the power in the center of the city, which provides us with an ideal and feasible solution to this and this kind of difficult and complicated disease It is one of the only waysfor us to overcome this disease in the future. Both the fundamental treatment of traditional Chinese medicine and the treatment standard of Western medicine can help us find the right solution to the problem by promoting each other.(2) For socialism with Chinese characteristics and students' cultural needs, it is impossible to accept hormone therapy or hormone therapy. The problem of sustainable development of market economy of network security technology and the problem that teachers with long duration of ischaemic optic nerve cannot analyze therapy according to their own focus of comprehensive practical activities of financial risk control managers in Chinese pharmaceutical enterprisesIt is a good design of treatment research;(3) We need to go to the hospital early to diagnose the symptoms of ischaemic optic neuropathy, and help the doctor to formulate a treatment plan for ischaemic optic neuropathy, we can't wait for the injury which is hard to recover to deal with. This is also one of the effective ways for us to solve and overcome this problem. Early diagnosis and postoperative prevention is a relatively ideal solution that we can quickly find out that it does not affect the visual design function on a large scale, and a relatively ideal rehabilitation after treatment.(4) With the occurrence of diseases, people's visual nervous system is also under great threat. We can treat this disease through the combination of traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine, and for the later prevention and recovery, we can improve the patient's own central vision and average blood pressure, and improve people's sensitivity to Chinese herbal medicine. The continuous solution of this problem will It makes us take a big step forward in the progress of Ophthalmology and vascular medicine, which depends on the cooperative vision defect Minimization Technology in different fields, the shorter arm retinal circulation time, so as to improve the visual function of patients, including better visual recovery, and achieve more significant clinical effect.Through the development of medical colleges and universities, it is very important to improve the medical students' understanding of this disease. It's difficult to create better conditions for the attack of this disease without a more clear understanding. All kinds of people in the society can register, create, learn and deal with it through the hospital's comprehensive information management system. Young people have strong innovative thinking and analysis ability, and can put forward their own ideas, and put forward their own good suggestions for new problems , and find a better way out of the treatment.(5) In recent years, we have used traditional Chinese medicine to treat ischemic optic neuropathy, and the results are very obvious. We can see that the Chinese traditional medicine has some advantages over the western medicine in the treatment of Qici disease, which can prevent and apply in different stages of disease occurrence, early stage, middle stageand late stage, and the effect is very obvious. It is worth us to use it in the future clinical practice and gradually promote it to the practice all over the world, which will make great progress and development of traditional Chinese medicine.(6) But we have inevitably seen the advantages of western traditional solution drugs, such as high speed, good effect and low cost. In daily life, people use more ingredients of Western medicine to solve the physical diseases in daily production and life, and they believe less in traditional Chinese medicine, so people begin to recognize the existence of Western medicine.The composition of beverage products, acupuncture, liver clearing and eyesight clearing can improve students' learning more effectively than the traditional western treatment of ischemic optic neuropathy, and the clinical effect is significant.In the process of research on the continuous development of corporate social economy, there is no adverse behavior in the process of response processing(7) With the occurrence of diseases, people's visual nervous system is also under great threat. We can treat this disease through the combination of traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine, and for the later prevention and recovery, we can improve the patient's own central vision and average blood pressure, and improve people's sensitivity to Chinese herbal medicine. The continuous solution of this problem will It makes us take a big step forward in the progress of Ophthalmology and vascular medicine, which depends on the cooperative vision defect Minimization Technology in different fields, the shorter arm retinal circulation time, so as to improve the visual function of patients, including better visual recovery, and achieve more significant clinical effect.ReferenceShiana, lanxuda, et al. Early visual disc filling in two types of ischemic neuropathy with fluorescein angiography [J]. International Journal of Ophthalmology, 001 (1): p.27-29Feng Qifang, Chen Zhenqian, Guo Luping. Fundus fluorescence angiography of acute anterior ischemic optic neuropathy [J]. 2004 Fang tingbing. Observation on the effect of comprehensive treatment of ischemic optic neuropathy [D]. Hubei University of traditional Chinese medicine, 2010Hu he she. Etiological analysis of haemorrhagic changes of fundus [J]. Chinese community physician (Medical Major), 2012, 14 (12): 51-51 Zhang Junhong. Clinical observation on 40 cases of retinal vein occlusion treated by combination of Chinese and Western Medicine [J]. Chinese Medical Journal of Minkang, 2009, 021 (019): 2433-2434 Shangjun, Cheng Xiaoli. Clinical analysis of common diseases of perioptic disc hemorrhage (with 64 cases) [J]. Journal of Shanxi Medical University, 2009 (02): 88-90Shangjun, Cheng Xiaoli. Clinical analysis of common diseases of perioptic disc hemorrhage (with 64 cases) [J]. Journal of Shanxi Medical University, 2009 (02): 88-90Song Honglu. Clinical analysis of non arteritis anterior ischemic optic neuropathy [D]. Fourth Military Medical University, 2010 Valmaggia C , Speiser P , Bischoff P , et al. INDOCYANINE GREEN VERSUS FLUORESCEIN ANGIOGRAPHY IN THE DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS OF ARTERITIC AND NONARTERITIC ANTERIOR ISCHEMIC OPTIC NEUROPATHY[J]. Retina, 1999, 19(2):131-134.Worrall B B , Moazami G , Odel J G , et al. Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy and activated protein C resistance. A case report and review of the literature.[J]. Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology, 1997, 17(3):162-165.Flammer J , Pache M , Thérèse Resink. Vasospasm, its Role in the Pathogenesis of Diseases with Particular Reference to the Eye[J]. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research, 2001, 20(3):319-349.Guo Yao, Chen Lei, Liu Limin, et al. Changes of c-fos gene during apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells in ischemic optic neuropathy [J]. International Journal of Ophthalmology, 2009 (12): 52-53Purvin V, Kawasaki a, F. - x B, et al. Optic neuropathy caused by amiodarone [J]. World Journal of core medicine Abstract: Ophthalmology, 2006 (10): 12-12Antonio P , Giuliana S , Carlo M , et al. Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD) Deficiency in Nonarteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy in a Sardinian Population, Italy[J]. Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science, 2008, 49(4):1328-.Argyropoulou M I , Zikou A K , Tzovara I , et al. Non-arteritic anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy: evaluation of the brain and optic pathway by conventional MRI and magnetisation transfer imaging[J]. European Radiology, 2007, 17(7):1669-1674.Hayreh s s s, Zimmerman B, Chen Lijun. Visual field abnormalities in non arteritis anterior ischemic optic neuropathy: visual field manifestations and prevalence at initial diagnosis [J]. World Journal of core medicine Abstract (ophthalmology volume), 2006 (3)变的视野异常:初诊的视野表现及患病率[J]. 世界核心医学期刊文摘(眼科学分册), 2006(3).。

再论西方医学史视野下的藏医学--关于对玛莉安娜·温德尔《藏医学及其体液元素概论》的文献研究

第30卷第4期内蒙古民族大学学报（自然科学版）Vol.30No.4 2015年7月Journal of Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities Jul.2015再论西方医学史视野下的藏医学——关于对玛莉安娜·温德尔《藏医学及其体液元素概论》的文献研究图门吉日嘎勒（内蒙古民族大学，内蒙古通辽028000）〔摘要〕由于地理、宗教、哲学、文化、历史等原因的影响，藏医学首先继承了印度阿育吠陀医学的体液理论和元素概念，衍生发展成为了具有藏区特点和佛教特色的心身医学体系.由此，也广泛影响了蒙医学理论方法论体系的形成与发展.玛莉安娜·温德尔在对印度医学、藏医学与西方医学进行比较研究的基础之上，概述了体液理论、体质学说、元素定义、寒热概念、疾病概念及用药学说等在不同医学体系中的应用；并对藏医学的起源、藏医学的佛教特征、《四部医典》的成书、草药疗法的评价等目前尚存争议的学术问题提出了自己的观点.〔关键词〕西方医学；阿育吠陀；藏医学；体液；元素〔中图分类号〕R291.4〔文献标识码〕A〔文章编号〕1671-0185（2015）04-0340-06Further Discussion on Tibetan Medicine from the View of WesternMedical History-The Literature StudyⅡon Marianne Winder’Introduction to Tibetan Medicine and Its Fluid ElementsTumenjirgal（Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities,Tongliao028000,China）Abstract:The Tibetan medicine which has the characteristics of Boddhism and psychosomastic medicine is surelyoriginated and developed from Indian Ayurvedic medicine because of the influences from the geographical,religious,philosophical,cultural,historical reasons.Ms.Marianne Winder studied and compared this two systems from theview of the western scholar and especially described the differences of the fundamental concepts about the humourtheory,the definitions of the physical elements,the classification of the diseases,the herbal therapies between the twosystems.Her academic opinions also have the greater value to further research Tibetan medicine at the present day.Key words:Western medicine history,Ayurveda,Tibetan medicine,Humours,Element由于历史的、宗教的和政治的缘故，西方学者对印藏医学进行了大量的研究，认为印藏医学是补充医学的最成功范例〔1〕，也认为藏医学是基于理性阐释、内涵相关、预测可试且能够满足当代“科学”之定义的分析模式和方法〔2〕.由此推动藏医学走向了世界，使其成为了最具潜力的全球保健医学体系的重要成员.伦敦大学维尔康医学史研究所玛莉安娜·温德尔〔3〕博士长期致力于印度医学史和西藏医学史研究，她的论著《藏医学及其体液元素概论》〔4〕对藏医学当代研究具有较高学术价值，对蒙医学学术研究也具有重要启迪意义.藏医学与蒙医学是承载着本土医学特色的两个相近学科体系，经典著作《四部医典》是连接藏医学与蒙医学的最坚固的纽带.因此，研究蒙医学必然要研究藏医学.作者简介：图门吉日嘎勒，内蒙古民族大学教授.第4期图门吉日嘎勒：再论西方医学史视野下的藏医学341 1藏医学地理分布藏医学遍及整个西藏、整个蒙古和藏民居住的喜马拉雅地区国家，包括难民营区、达赖喇嘛驻地——达兰萨拉（Dharansala）、锡金、不丹和尼泊尔.中国政府管辖西藏后，藏医与中医并存.由于西医疗效更快，所以它在其他国家得到了普遍应用.一般而言，急性病常可用西医疗法治愈，诸如使用青霉素、施行外科手术；而对慢性病的治疗，藏医疗效更佳〔4〕.2藏医学起源人们总想通过探索研究，了解藏医学究竟受到哪种医学的影响较大，是印度医学还是中医学？从历史的角度讲，对藏医学的影响最先来自于印度.这种影响与一个传说有关.据说在公元7世纪前，有两位印度医生（其中一位是女医生）来访西藏，他（她）们传授简易保健知识和一般生活常识（general living rules）.在当时，据称来自西伯利亚部落（Siberian tribes）和伊朗巴赫蒂亚里人（Bakhtiaris）的习俗盛行，即当老人患病时不予治疗，任其等死.在公元8世纪的西藏著名医生宇妥（Yuthok）传记中，描写了在他时代之前的传奇医学史.此传记详细记述道：两位印度医生曾碰巧发现一位女子正在将其生病母亲置于户外等死.于是，他俩将病人抬进其住所直至治愈，并对其女儿进行了道德准则和行为规范教育.在公元7世纪，藏王松赞堪布（Srongtsangampo）娶两位公主为妻，一位来自尼泊尔，一位来自中国.中国公主随身带来了许多佛教和医学书籍，这些书籍是否和何时被译成藏文，尚不确定.公元8世纪，西藏著名医生宇妥曾三次前往印度拜师学医，而且他的后裔——公元11世纪的小宇妥，也曾六次前往印度拜师学医.老宇妥似乎出生于公元8世纪末，但在此之前的8世纪中叶，西藏最伟大的医学著作——《四部医典》（The Four Treatises），也称《居悉》（rGyud-bzi），据说就已经在西藏出现，并被藏匿于名为Samye的佛教寺庙（The First Buddhist monastery），直到后来人们发现了它.虽然《四部医典》在西藏流行和通用，但它不大可能是从梵文（Sanskrit）直接翻译过来的.因为，它没有被列入西藏佛教圣典总目（Tibetan Buddhist Can⁃on）中.在此圣典总目中，其它梵文医学译著被一一列出.说明此圣典总目仅仅囊括了从梵文直接翻译过来的著作.例如，在一些汉文医著中，那些梵译汉著作是清晰的，但现已遗失.然而，也有研究发现，《四部医典》的数个章节（内容）与印度医学巨著Astangahrdaya（由Vagbhata编写）的有关章节（内容）相似.或许，早在那两位印度医生访问西藏之前，某些口头传播的印度医学知识早已到达西藏，并在西藏由不知名的作者撰写了《四部医典》.3印度Ayurveda“体液”概念与藏医学“病”之概念Ayurveda医学的起源可以追溯至公元前200~400年间，它有三体液（three humours or three dosha）理论，但它与佛教“三毒”——贪、瞋、痴（佛教术语：被英译为aversion，厌恶；aggression，攻击；anger，愤怒）没有联系.“潮湿（humidity）”概念始于印度Ayurveda医学的“dosha”，由此衍生出了藏医学体液（humours）概念——藏文称“nyes pa or nus pa”〔5〕.梵语词“dosha”具有英语词“humour（体液）”和“fault（病）”的含义，与早期佛教经文语言——Pali相一致.藏文nyes pa对应于梵文dosha，但其含义只是“病”，而非“潮湿”.因此，这个术语存在误导，因为“风、胆、痰”是人体必需的（而非作为“病”存在于人体内）；只有当一种或另一种体液过多或过少时，人体会失去平衡，它们（风、胆、痰）才会变成“病”.Humour这个词的使用不够准确，因为风不是液体.而fault这个词的使用也不够恰当，因为发生“病”的仅仅是不平衡.就像布朗（Burang）和其他学者曾经指出的那样，三体液——风、胆、痰这些字眼不能总是跟生理本质相关，而是与风、胆、痰相关的某些身心病症有关.“风”的正效应是个体在受到鼓励后，通过长时间的冥想（meditation）、禁食（fasting）、禁欲（ascetic）行为而使精神升华所获得的“结果”.然而，对这种“结果”过度自满或者过度掩饰，或者误用这种“结果”纵欲于肉体（欲望）极点（material ends），就会出现有害的负效应.“胆”的正效应是个体能量和进取心的“产物”.然而，误用这种“产物”，就会出现负效应，表现为过度好战（combativeness ），引发（或注入）负面情绪，诸如敌意（hatred ）、愤恨（anger ）、野心（ambition ）、猜忌和妒忌（jealousy and envy ），并且用酒精与毒品过分纵容（overindulgence ）自我.“痰”的正效应是个体安静的性格（peaceful disposition ），而痰的过量出现归因于依恋物质（食物）享受（creature comforts ）和过度强调肉体康乐（material well-being ）.然而，这种肉体康乐却与缺少洞察生存的真正意义以及为此目标奋斗的精神本质相联系.4藏医学三体液组合疾病的分类是依据三体液中的一种过多或不足而划分的.三种体液过多或不足都会引发疾病.只有一种体液在数量上占优势或不足，或者只有两种体液在数量上占优势或不足都会引发疾病.这种概念是指所有的体液应保持平衡，而不应有任何体液过多或过少.当印度人称“体液”（humours ）是“病（fault ）”时，它并非是一个令人愉悦的名称.因为，此时人体需要的是一定量的风、胆、痰，重要的是平衡风、胆、痰，并把三体液平衡与佛教“三毒”联系起来.事实上，只有佛（Buddha ）才会完全无贪、瞋、痴欲望而活着.5印藏医学的“元素”概念关于元素，我想说的是每种体液象征性地与一种元素相联系，胆与火，痰与水，风与气分别对应.在西方，元素的传统数字是4个：水、火、土、气.有时还加进来第五个元素：太空（aether ），例如，亚里斯多德（Ar ⁃istotle ）就曾提及过“空”.印度医学和藏医学有五元素：水、火、土、气和第五种元素空（space ），梵语的akasarh 及藏语的nam.mkha （“sky”，天空）毫无疑问地对应“space”（太空）.中医学和中国的占星学也有五种元素：金（对应气）、木（对应西方、印度和西藏的“空”）、水、火、土.在西藏的文字记载中，中国的五元素主要见于占星学文献（astrological literature ）.西藏人有两个占星术体系，而印度和中国却只有一个.6印度医学中的数字“3”与欧洲医学中的数字“4”数字“4”在欧洲医学里占有重要位置——四种体质和四种体液，但在印度医学里数字“3”却更为重要.所有现存印度哲学被划分为三种类型，或者梵语的gunas ：sattva ——“being,and usually good being （存在，通常是完满存在）”；rajas ——“energy （能量）”；和tamas ——“darkness （黑暗），inertia （无知，惰性）”.之后，Ayurveda 把这三种哲学类型转换成为人体内的三种物质：风对应心（mind ），胆对应能量，痰对应惰性物质（inert matter ）.佛教宣称，生命由三种品质组成，即苦难（suffering ），无常（impermanence ）和无我（not-self ）.而藏医学与佛教“三毒”相联系，即贪、瞋、痴与风、胆、痰相联系.三种元素象征西方物理学已知的三种物质状态：土为固态，水为液态，气为气态.第四种元素——火引起不同状态之间的相互转化；金属熔化变成液体，液体变成气体.相反，水变成冰.第五种元素——空（aether or akasha ）代表尚未被西方科学承认的微妙状态（subtle state ）.在藏医学里，微细通道（subtle chan-nels ）和时轮（wheels ）——生物钟，发挥着重要作用.它们代表能量通道和能量周期.梵语所谓的能量通道和能量周期已被藏医生解释为cakras 和nadis ，它们通过微观生物体（subtle body ）的称作psi 的微妙力量被激活，而中医针灸使用的子午圈（meridians ）是由属于宏观生物体（gross body ）的力量——气（chi ）激活的.根据四元素理论（有时是五元素理论），随后渐渐提出了更多的关于元素的概念，以致于在20世纪的头25年内发现了92种元素，而且每种元素只含一种类型的数个原子.这些元素根据其每个分子所含的原子数的多少进行分类.然后，当科学家成功分裂原子时，发现了更多的元素.在佛教哲学体系当中，元素Abhidharma （梵语dhatu ，藏语khams ）进一步划分为：（1）自然界的元素（physical elements ），对应西方假定的四种元素，即土或固体，水或液体，火或热，气或运动元素.但（2）另外还有部分身体的、部分心理的18种元素构成了心理程序（mental processes ）的必需条件，即五个感觉器官内蒙古民族大学学报2015年342第4期图门吉日嘎勒：再论西方医学史视野下的藏医学343——眼、耳、鼻、舌、身体和五种感觉——视、听、嗅、味、触觉.这五个感觉器官和五种感觉是属于生理的，它们得到八种心理元素的补充：眼意识、耳意识、鼻意识、舌意识、身体意识，加上第六种感觉——心理（大脑）意识，进而有了心理元素、思维元素以及心理意识元素.此处的心理元素是我们用来思考的器官，它与眼、耳有关，等等.思维与诸如视觉、听觉等活动关联.当大脑对其思维对象有意识时，心理意识元素就会出现，眼意识元素也是如此.除非这种意识能够理解它们所传达的东西.否则，五种生理感觉就不能够完成它们各自的功能，这一事实是显而易见的.7藏医学寒热概念在西方资源中，元素的特点是由所有物质的四种质量决定的：“寒、热、湿、燥”.空（aether）只是出现在亚里斯多德的部分著作中，与四种宏观自然元素（gross physical elements）的排列顺序也不一样.土属寒、燥，水属寒、湿，火属热、燥，气属热、湿.这种四重划分法融入了藏医学方法体系，或许一位在7世纪期间在皇室专司御医的医生——波斯人盖仑（Galenos）把希腊医学带入了藏医学知识体系.然后，藏医学把全部疾病划分为寒热两类疾病.在Ayurveda医学中没有发现这一特点，而藏医学的其它特征由此衍生出来.但是，元素的四重划分法也应运于缅甸医学和泰国医学.在17世纪，“寒、热、湿、燥”的概念也许是通过西班牙传教士传入（缅甸和泰国）的.8藏医学体系树喻藏医学理论体系借用了三个树根的明喻法：树根（A）明喻身体，树根（B）明喻诊断，树根（C）明喻治疗.从树根（A）明喻身体——长出了两个树干：健康机体（healthy organism）与疾病机体（diseased organ-ism），前者大体上可与西方的解剖学与生理学联系在一起，后者与病理学联系在一起.树根（B）明喻诊断——长出了三个树干：望诊（observation）、触诊（palpation）和问诊（questioning）.从树根（C）明喻治疗——长出了四个树干：饮食、行为、“扎萨拉”与药物.然后，每个树干又生出了许多分支，分支又长出了树叶，这些树叶就是疾病.即便是对健康人体，也用这种树喻法来形容.例如，就像污秽（不道德）也会成为疾病的病因.藏医学用这种令人回忆（reminiscent）起西方中世纪时代的学术分类方法（scholastic method of subdivid-ing），列举（enumeration）和联想（suggestions）了404种疾病.9藏医学疾病概念在古代西方，正直由中世纪进入文艺复兴时期（the Renaissance），由于体液或体质（complexions）理论的缘故，病人的体质构成是一件重要的事情.病人的所有疾病和健康状况将取决于他（或她）自身体质：病人是否倾向于某几种或其它几种体液占据数量优势.根据扬·巴普蒂斯塔·范·海尔蒙特（Jan Baptista Van Helmont）提出的关于个体疾病的观点，疾病并非由病人体质决定，而是由病人所处的不同环境和发生接触传染的烟雾弥漫的空气（miasma）决定.疾病是从病人身体之外侵入的东西.18世纪，意大利的莫尔加尼（Giovanni Morgagni）所著关于“人体疾病焦点”的书中指出：每种疾病都有其自身独特的特点.人体细胞的发现是发生在即将进入19世纪中叶时的事情，细菌的发现也在19世纪，病毒的发现是在进入20世纪之后.在1892年，事实已经证明，感染烟草植物（tobacco plants）导致马赛克病（Mosaic disease）的病毒是可以穿过过滤器抑制普通细菌生长的.所有这些新生事物将人们的注意力带离了病人体质学说，并将其集中于个体疾病.通过在传统医学领域的兴趣，我们在绕了一大圈之后，正在开始接受关于身心医学（holistic medi-cine）的概念，它治疗整个的人，而非仅仅治疗个体的疾病.然而，我们恰恰不能抛弃我们已经学到手的贯穿了数个世纪的东西.我们有关个体疾病病因的特别（现代）知识应该对于补充从藏医学那里学到的东西会有益处.事实上，《四部医典》列举了众多的疾病症状.对此，根据其所提及的症状和变化，人们应该能够给出西方名称.现代的西方疾病术语也是非常近代的术语.如果你去查阅19世纪的医学著作，你就会发现像“脑热（brain fever ）”、“肺炎（lung inflammation ）”、“胃寒（stomach chill ）”等等.所以，就像在发动机汽车、飞机、电灯、收音机、电视机的世界里，不会谈及计算机、核能的使用，这是因为计算机和核能是20世纪的发明.疾病的精细而科学的系统命名法（nomenclature ）也是20世纪的事件（phenomenon ）.面对传统医学，正确系统命名的术语的获取是那么珍贵以至于不能放弃.在藏医学著作翻译时，应当使用系统命名法.但是，可以通过判断疾病病因中的心身因素所占的比重，增加一个描述的维度.这个维度是描述病人精神康复的过程，它将会帮助病人康复并且减少疾病复发.当对藏医学的主要著作进行翻译时，翻译者应该尝试根据著作中的疾病的症状和病程来判断如何用现代术语来描述.10藏医学疾病分类首先，所有的疾病是依据所占优势（preponderant ）的一个或数个体液划分的；其次，是根据寒热划分的.例如，你可以患热性胆病或寒性胆病.一般来讲，热病通常伴随着体温升高或者发烧，而寒病既有体内的寒流流动（streaming cold ），又会在触觉身体受累器官时有寒冷感觉.但是，恰恰就像体液可能更具有象征意义那样，对“热”和“寒”也不能总是根据其字面意思去理解.所有的疾病照此分类，这也可以从404种类型的疾病存在的事实看得清楚.就像疾病被分类成热病和寒病一样，用于治疗这些疾病的植物药（plant remedies ）也以不同的方式加以分类.这些植物药依据其六味（甜、酸、苦、涩、辣、咸）分类.11藏医心身医学尽管树根（A ）只提及了健康机体与疾病机体，但是，由于藏医学的心身医学（holistic medicine ）本质决定，精神疾病自然而然地也要被涵盖进来.在佛教哲学，心理是第六感觉，它与其它感觉一样，能够承受疾病，但也能提供治疗.训练有素的佛教徒或喇嘛医生通常对于心理、精神与疾病的联系总是十分清楚.多数精神疾病，特别是儿童的精神疾病，被说成是由魔鬼（demons ）导致的.从病人的行为去追溯魔鬼的类型.例如，大声喊叫和具有攻击行为（aggressive nonsense ）的病人，其疾病被认为是由asura 或者anti-god 引起的，这种魔鬼是性情暴躁的魔鬼（an irascible demon ）.它的类型与躁狂症（mania ）的临床描述一致.与此相类似，由其它魔鬼导致的心理状态的描述，与各种类型的精神分裂症（schizophrenia ）一致.但在西方，我们用精神病名称替换魔鬼名称，在治疗上，与寻求抚慰各种魔鬼的疗法截然不同.有些魔鬼需要温和、友好地陪护，而另一些魔鬼需要强行驱逐.探究有些精神疾病的病因，发现与代谢和营养缺陷以及系统中毒相关，其治疗在于改变饮食.12藏医学治疗和草药疗法治疗包括瀑布下的水疗法，借助热涂擦剂（embrocation ）的头部疗法，借助祈祷、冥想、精神劝告的心理疗法，并且多数的治疗是草药疗法（materia medica ）.矿物药（mineral remedies ）包括了磨成粉的宝石（precious stone ）加入药中，动物药物（animal remedies ）包括熊胆和蛇肉.数量最多的药物是植物药，它们被制成多味药（polypharmacy ）处方，即多数处方中含有数种成分.处方中总有一种药是主要成分，而其它每种药物均服务于共同的治疗目标.（在处方中的）一种药物用于掩饰主要成分的令人不愉快味道，另一种药物用于防范副作用，还有一种药物用于帮助药物软硬度或黏度的一致性.在不同情况下，表述了植物的入药部位：茎、根、花等等.所提及的给药形式有：汤（decoction ）、丸、散等等.假如是以悬浮液的形式给药，其媒介物也会涉及到，例如，水或蜂蜜等.用橄榄树干果的七种成分橄榄油（olive ）、茄属植物（Solanum jaquinia ）、榄仁树属毗黎勒（terminalia belerica ）、苦参（Sophor flave ⁃scens ）、土木香（Inula helenium ）、（姜花属）草果药（hedychium spicatum ）组成了橄榄药（F.i.a myrobalan medi ⁃cine ），用它熬制的汤药用于治疗高血压、发烧、感冒和流感.有人注定要问的一个问题是，药的用法说明之内蒙古民族大学学报2015年344第4期图门吉日嘎勒：再论西方医学史视野下的藏医学345学说（Doctrine of signatures）是否出现在西藏植物知识里呢？是的，的确是.例如，一种缓解血液病的药方含有红檀香木（red sandalwood）、茜草（madder）、紫胶（red lac or shellac）.顺势疗法（Homeopathy）本身不被使用，相反，凉的和止泻的植物（cooling and astringent plants）用于治疗有热病症状的疾病（feverish com⁃plaints）.13藏医学现代应用一个具有不间断传统的中世纪医学体系是如何与现代世界融为一体的呢？所有的藏医生学习了这个古老的著作，从他们当中培养出了后来的藏医生.但是现任达赖喇嘛颁布了一条规定，要求只有在现代仍然具有治疗作用的传统药品才可以被应用到实际的治疗中去.然而现代的药品，如奎宁和青霉素，药效已经超过了应该被使用的传统药品.因此，假如能够用正确的方法加以理解，证明大多数的古老理论是站得住脚的.例如，当西方人已经抛弃体液病理学的时候，如果以象征性方式理解体液的话，这种象征方式或许还意味着体液病理学是先于希波克拉底传统书写下来的，体液病理学对疾病分类的方法和解释仍然是有效的.希波克拉底本人排列在由众多医生及其后代、学生组成的漫长口授传统世系的末端.希波克拉底誓言是这一世系的最后幸存部分（remnant）.在多数心身疾病（psychosomatic conditions）和慢性疾病（chronic cases）方面，已经发现藏医学比西方医学更加有效.而且，作为一个心身治疗的方法，藏医学更加擅长于诊断疾病的心身病因（psychosomatic causes）.就像人们清楚知道的那样，草药的副作用要远比现代合成药的不良反应少得多.参考文献〔1〕Joseph J.Traditional Alternatives as Complementary Science〔J〕.The Case of Indo-Tibetan Medicine,1998，4（3）：316.〔2〕Joseph J.Tibetan Medicine,A Complementary Science of Optimal Health,Longivity,Regeneration,and Optimal Health〔J〕.Anu.N.Y.Acod.Sci，2009,（218）：1172.〔3〕Nigel Allen.Marianne Winder1918~2001〔J〕.Medical History,2001，4（4）：533-535.〔4〕Marianne Winder,Tibetan medicine,Its humors and Elements,1994,Digital Himalaya Journals〔E/O〕〔5〕马莉安娜·温德尔（著），刘铁程（译）.藏医学与古代及中世纪西方医学的比较〔J〕.西北民族大学学报（哲学社会科学版），2011，（3）：9.〔责任编辑赵贤芳〕再论西方医学史视野下的藏医学--关于对玛莉安娜·温德尔《藏医学及其体液元素概论》的文献研究作者：图门吉日嘎勒， Tumenjirgal作者单位：内蒙古民族大学,内蒙古通辽,028000刊名：内蒙古民族大学学报（自然科学版）英文刊名：Journal of Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities (Natural Sciences)年，卷(期)：2015(4)引用本文格式：图门吉日嘎勒.Tumenjirgal再论西方医学史视野下的藏医学--关于对玛莉安娜·温德尔《藏医学及其体液元素概论》的文献研究[期刊论文]-内蒙古民族大学学报（自然科学版） 2015(4)。

铂族元素在地壳中的富集_以布什维尔德杂岩为例_英文_

第15卷第5期2008年9月地学前缘(中国地质大学(北京);北京大学)Earth Science Frontiers (Chin a University of Geosciences,Beijing;Peking University)Vol.15No.5S ep.2008收稿日期:2007-12-06;修回日期:2008-03-12作者简介:T ony Naldr ett,男,南非威特沃特斯兰德大学地球科学学院教授。

E -m ail:ajn2306@THE CONCENTRATION OF PGE IN THE EARTH p S CRUST WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BUSHVELD COM -PLEX铂族元素在地壳中的富集:以布什维尔德杂岩为例Tony Naldrett 1, Judith Kinnaird 1, Allan Wilson 1, Go rdo n Chunnett 211S ch ool of G eosc ienc es,Univ ersity of the W itw ater srand ,J ohannesburg ,South A f r ica21A ng lo P latinum,J ohanne sbur g,S outh A f r icaNaldrett T,Kinnaird J,Wilson A,et al.The concentration of PGE in the Earth p s crust with special ref erence to the Bushveld C omplex.Earth Science Frontiers ,2008,15(5):264-297Abstract:T he Earth p s mantle is the pr incipa l reser voir fr om w hich plat inum -g ro up element (P GE)co ncentra -tions in the cr ust ar e der ived.T he tr ansfer of the PG E is accom plished by tw o main methods,fir st the deve-lopment of mantle par tial melts and their intrusion into the cr ust,and seco nd the emplacement o f mantle slabsin the subductio n/collisio n zones.T he fir st mechanism is far mor e impo rtant than the seco nd.O nce in thecrust,a number of mechanisms serv e to concent rate the PG E sufficiently and they can be ex ploited eco no mica-lly as the pr incipal pr oduct,r ather than as a by -pro duct.T hese include (i)the dev elo pment of an N-i Cu sulfideliquid in a mafic intrusion,the concent ratio n of this liquid,follow ed by coo ling and fr act ional cry st allizationthat results in a residual sulfide liquid highly enriched in Cu,P t,and Pd;(ii)the for mation o f lay ers o f ver yhigh -P GE tenor sulfides at specif ic ho rizons within a layered intrusion,either with o r w ithout asso ciated chro -mitite;(iii)t he emplacement of magma carr ying P GE -rich sulfide along the mar gins of lay ered intr usio ns;(iv)the delayed separation of immiscible sulfides until the late stag es of the differentiatio n of a la yered intr usio n;(v )chrom ite cry sta llizat ion w ithout the development o f sulf ide imm iscibilit y;(vi)hydro ther mal r edistr ibutionand concentr atio n o f PGE fr om zones o f low g rade disseminated sulfide;(vii)secondar y concentr ation of P GEalo ng w ith chrom ite dur ing recry st allizat ion o f U ra-l A laskan intrusions and the subsequent development ofplacer depo sits dur ing the w eather ing of these bo dies;and (v iii)the concentr atio n of Pt dur ing the for mation ofblack shale deposits.T he Bushveld Ig neo us Co mplex of South Afr ica ho sts 75%o f t he wo rld p s r eso urces of Pt ,54%of Pd resour ces,and 82%o f Rh resources,and contains examples of miner alizatio n fo rmed by pr ocesses(ii),(iii),(iv),(v),and (vi)listed a little ea rlier in the art icle.O f these,process (ii)acco unts for 90%ofthe cur rent eco no mic reserv es and r eso urces,and t ype (iii)for 9%.T he M erensky Reef (32%of to tal r e -so ur ces)is a PG E -enr iched hor izo n t hat co ntains 1-3thin seams o f chr omit e,and an av erag e of 1-3w t%su-lfide,across the mining w idth.T he sulfides are thought to have been the principal collecto rs fo r P GE.T heReef results fr om tw o o r more influx es of hot,sulfide -bearing ,mafic mag ma that g ive rise to the ho rizon.T hethickness o f the ultramafic cumulates (ma inly o rthopyr ox enite,althoug h includes per idotite in some ar eas)as aresult o f these influx es and var ies f rom 50cm to sev eral meter s,altho ug h mining is usually focused on a zonethat is rar ely gr eater t han 1m in thickness.T he g enesis of the Reef is still debated,some arg uing that thePG E have been co ncentrated fro m below by ascending hydro ther mal f luids,and o thers arg uing t hat they havebeen car ried fro m abov e by sulfides settling from the mag ma,g iving r ise t o the M erensky py ro xenites.What isclear is t hat t he pyr ox enite,nor ite,and ano rthosit e o ver ly ing the Reef are composed of minerals der ived fr om two magma t ypes,one r ich in M g O(~12wt%)and Cr and poo r in A l2O3(~12wt%)and the other w ith the composition of a t ypical tholeiite.T he U G-2chr omit ite accounts fo r58%of the economic r eso ur ces,and com-pr ises of a chromitite seam60cm-1m thick(sometimes div ided by an inter nal par ting of pyro xenite)and1-3o-verlying thinner seams of chr omite.T he sulfide co ntent of U G-2is significantly lo wer that that in the M er en-sky Reef,r ang ing fr om0.5to1.5wt%,althoug h the sulfides are tho ug ht t o hav e play ed a role in the concen-tration of at least some o f the P GE.T here ar e up to13chrom itite ho rizons belo w that o f the U G-2,and all contain PG E,altho ug h the to tal PG E contents and the(Pt+P d)/(Ru+Ir+O s)ratio s are much low er t han those of U G-2.High87Sr/86Sr ratio s fo und w ithin the py ro xenite/part ings0w ithin U G-2sug gest that m ix ing with melted roo f ro cks may hav e played a role in causing bo th chr omitite and sulfide to fo rm.T he P latr eef is the main ex ample o f t ype(iii)m iner alization and cur rently accounts fo r9%of t he total r eso urces,although ac-tive ex plor atio n is o ccur ring along this zo ne and this propor tio n will pro bably rise in the future.T he R eef is much thicker than the M er ensky R eef and U G-2,and is curr ent ly mined open and cast ov er a thickness of a-bo ut50m.T he Platreef is zoned,ranging from an upper,ort ho py ro xene cumulate to a low er zone of pyro x e-nit e,feldspathic py rox enite,and nor ite that is int eracted stro ng ly with shale,iro n fo rmatio n,and do lo mite sediments for ming the immediate foot wall.In t his art icle,it is sug gested that the Platreef is the co nsequence of sev eral sur ges of mag ma t hat w ere responsible for differ ent units,including the U G-2and M erensky Reef, within the main chamber of the Bushveld.T hese mag mas w ere displaced and ex ited up the walls of the cham-ber in respo nse to new influxes of mag ma enter ing the main chamber.Cylindrical,zo ned pipes o f ult ramafic ro ck containing ver y high P t g rades cut cumulates in the lo wer part of the Bushveld complex,and w ere thought to be the co nsequence o f hydrother mal r emo bilization.N one are cur rently in pr oduction,and they constitute a histor ic PG E resource that nev er contr ibuted significantly to the o vera ll resources of the complex.Key words:PG E depo sits;Bushveld Complex;chr omiteC LC number:P618153Document code:A Article ID:1005-2321(2008)050264-34摘要:地幔是地壳铂族元素富集的主要源库。

中医学英文版课件：03 藏象学说

six fu-organs can be full of foodstuff instead of storing essence-qi
The characteristics of viscera manifestation:
The overall view of the five zang-organs as the center
五脏，即心、肺、肝、脾、肾的合称。五脏的共同生理功能是化生和贮藏精气，并主宰、参与人的精神活动。
Five zang-organs 五脏
Five zang-organs carry out their duties, contact with the related figures, orifices, emotions, liquids, and form five major systems. Five systems cooperate in function with each other, constitute an organic whole.
藏象学说的特点：以五脏为中心的整体观。
六腑
奇恒之腑
五脏
官窍
形体
经络精、气、血、津液
Viscera 脏腑
Five zang-organs 五脏
Include heart, lung, liver, spleen, kidney.Their common function is to produce and store the essence-qi, dominate and participate in people's spiritual activities
Overview
The theory of visceral manifestation: a theory expounding the physiological functions and pathological changes of the internal organs of the body and the relationships among the organs through inspection of physiological and pathological signs outside.

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Journal of US-China Medical Science 16 (2019) 140-143doi: 10.17265/1548-6648/2019.03.004Pathological Characteristics of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma in Hue Central HospitalPham Nguyen Cuong, Nguyen Thanh Xuan, Pham Nguyen Tuong, Tran Thi Ngoc Phuong and Nguyen Thi Hoai AnHue Central Hospital ,The Pathology Department of Hue Central Hospital, Hue city, Zip code: 530000, Vietnam.Abstract: Materials and Methods: This was a retrospective review of all patients seen at Pathology Department, Hue Central Hospital with the diagnosis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma between January 1, 2017 and June 30, 2018. The patient’s clinical data and histopathological findings are presented. The histopathological diagnosis was in accordance with the World Health Organization (WHO) 1991 classification table. Results: A total of 73 patients with histologically confirmed nasopharyngeal carcinoma were recorded at Hue Central Hospital. There were 53 males and 20 females. Histologically, undifferentiated carcinoma was the commonest (71.2%) followed by well-differentiated keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma (20.6%) and other carcinoma (8.2%). Immunohistochemistry with CKAE1/3 was positive to 32/32 of well-differentiated keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma, and negative to 30/32 of undifferentiated carcinoma.Key words: Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma, Pathological Characteristics.1. BackgroundNasopharyngeal cancer is a type of cancer that comes from the epithelial mucosa in the nasopharynx area. Nasopharyngeal cancer is the most common cancer among head and neck cancer and is one of the ten most common cancers in Vietnam [1]. In Hue Central Hospital, the rate of nasopharyngeal cancer is increasing and the cancer age of this type is getting younger. The specific study of pathological characteristics and immunohistological characteristics of this type of cancer in Hue Central Hospital has not been much. We carried out the topic: “Pathological Characteristics of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma in HueCorresponding author: Pham Nguyen Cuong, Ph.D., M.D., academic title if any, research fields: Research field: Lung cancer, Nasopharyngeal cancer, Immunohisstochemistry markers in Viet nam. Central Hospital” to learn more about this problem, for diagnosis and treatment better.2. Patients and MethodThe study of 73 patients recorded at Pathology Department, Hue Central Hospital with the diagnosisof nasopharyngeal carcinoma, picked up between January 1, 2017 and June 30, 2018. The patient’s clinical data, histopathological and immunohistochemistry results are presented. The histopathological diagnosis was in accordance with the World Health Organization (WHO) 1991 classification.Data were processed using SPSS 16.0 for Microsoft Excel 2003.3. Results3.1 Patients CharacteristicsPathological Characteristics of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma in Hue Central Hospital 1413.1.1 GenderTable 1 Gender.Gender Number % Male 50 68.5% Female 23 31.5% Total 73 100% Men are common for about 2 times than women.3.1.2 Age GroupsTable 2 Age groups.Age groups Number %< 30 8 11%30-55 40 54.8% ≥ 55 25 34.2%Total 73 100% The age group from 30 to 55 years old accounts for the highest percentage. Youngest: 27 years old, the oldest: 89 years old.3.2 The Histopathological Diagnosis was according to the WHO 1991 ClassificationTable 3 The Histopathological Diagnosis was according to the WHO 1991 Classification.WHO 1991 Number %Undifferentiated carcinoma 52 71.2%Well differentiated carcinoma 15 20.6%Other carcinoma 6 8.2%Total 73 100% 3.3 Immunohistological CharacteristicsTable 4 Immunohistological Characteristics.Histopathology type CKAE1/3 positive %Undifferentiated carcinoma 2 6.25%Well differentiated carcinoma 32 100%Other carcinoma 0 0%4. DiscussionOur research found that in nasopharyngeal carcinoma, men has a higher rate than women. This rate is consistent with other studies in the country as well as abroad, the rate of nasopharyngeal carcinoma in men is higher than that of women [1, 4, 5].In this study, the youngest was 28 years, the highest was 89 years. The age group from 30 to under 55 years old has the highest proportion (54.8%). This result is also similar to the research of Nghiem Duc Thuan [5]. According to Nguyen Thi Bich Ha, 1993, the highest age between 40 and 60 years old is 58.33% [6]. According to Shan R., Bake’s average age of nasopharyngeal carcinoma is 48.4 years [7]. According to Dickson R. I., patients over 40 years old accounted for 69%, under 10 years old is only 1% [8].The diagnosis according to the WHO 1991, the nasopharyngeal carcinoma, the undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinoma accounts for the highest rate (71.2%), the well-differentiated carcinoma accounts for 20.6%, the another type of cancer is 8.2%. NghiemPathological Characteristics of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma in Hue Central Hospital 142Duc Thuan’s research showed that the undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinoma accounted for the highest rate of 88.89%, also applied according to WHO 1991’s histological classification table, showed that the rate of undifferentiated cancers in cancer is highest.About immunohistochemistry: we use the CKAE1/3 marker in the nasopharyngeal carcinoma to study the reveal of immunohistochemistry markers in each typeof histology of this cancer. Accordingly, the well-differentiated nasopharyngeal carcinoma is positive for CKAE1/3 marker is 100%, while the nasopharyngeal carcinoma and other types of cancer are low. This is the same to the literature because the CKAE1/3 marker is a marker of epithelial cell specificity. The negative of un differentiated and another type of cancer for CKAE1/3 marker in this caseis explainable and therefore, staining immunohistochemistry with CKAE1/3 marker in this case is for the differential diagnosis from the well-differentiated squamous carcinoma and the remaining types of nasopharyngeal carcinoma, because some cases are very difficult to diagnose with traditional Hematoxylin-Eosin (HE) staining.5. ConclusionThe proportion of men suffering from nasopharyngeal carcinoma is nearly two times higher than that of women. The type of undifferentiated carcinoma is commonin nasopharyngeal carcinoma.100% case of nasopharyngeal carcinoma is positiveCKAE1/3 marker in well-differentiated squamouscarcinoma, and negative almost in undifferentiatedcarcinoma. The use of immunohistochemistry iseffective when it is necessary to diagnose the origin ofthe type of cancer cell in metastatic lymph nodes, or toconfirm the type of cancer of the nasopharyngealcarcinoma in the case of difficult diagnosis with the HEstaining.6. RequestingMost cancerous tissue pieces are from a biopsy. It isrecommended that the specimen should get the rightand enough area of injury, avoid taking the necrosisarea and taking the edge of the lesion. The clinicaldoctors, of the Otolaryngology Department and theOncology Department should have a consult fordeterminating the location and general characteristicsof the lesion for diagnosis and prognosis.Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is a very dangerousdisease and difficult to detect, so the only way to detectsigns of cancer in general and nasopharyngealcarcinoma in particular is screeening for lesion. Everysix months or when there are signs of sore throat, thepatient should be checked by the experts to have theright diagnosis and treatment.Fig. 1 Well-differentiated carcinoma. H.E ×400.Pathological Characteristics of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma in Hue Central Hospital143Fig. 2 Undifferentiated carcinoma, H.E ×400.Reference[1]Nguyen, C. H. 2001. “Tobacco and Cancer.” Ho Chi MinhCity’s Medicine, a Sub-Topic on Oncology 5 (4): 1-5. [2]Thinh, D. H. Q. 2005. “Results of Treatment of CervicalCancer by Combining New Supportive Chemotherapy andExternal Radiation Therapy.” Specialist thesis of Level II-Oncology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Medicineand Pharmacy.[3]Nguyen, S. T. 1992. The Upper Gastrointestinal TractTumor, edited by Nguyen Sao Trung, Nguyen Chan Hung,Basic Oncology Pathology, Center for Training and Retraining Medical Staff, HCMC, 29-44. [4] Young LS1, Dawson CW, Clark D, Rupani H, BussonP, Tursz T, Johnson A, Rickinson AB, 2003 “Study of Epstein Bar Virut Gene Activity in Nasopharyngeal TumorBiopsy”. Practical Medicine Journal, Oncology topic, 7 (4):29.[5]Nguyen, T. B. H. 1993. “The Situation of Relapse ofThroat Cancer after Radiotherapy Treatment at 108”Hospital of Medicine, Vietnam Medicine, 9/1994, 184, p.27-36.[6]Baker, S. R. 2006. “Prognostic Factors of NasopharyngealMalignancy.” Version of Record Online, June 28, 2006. [7]Dickson, R. I. 1986. “Cancer of the Nasopharynx inBritish Columbia.” Am J Clin Oncol. 9 (4): 281-91.。