SDM Méthodes de conception

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国内外医患共同决策研究及应用进展之比较

国内外医患共同决策研究及应用进展之比较

国内外医患共同决策研究及应用进展之比较赵羚谷;王涛;王颖;许卫卫;刘俊荣【摘要】医患共同决策(shared decision-making,SDM)历经四十多年的研究和众多学科的临床实践,其在欧美等国的发展已相当成熟,不仅建立了较为完善的理论体系,设计出数百种患者决策辅助工具,同时也发展出国际患者决策援助标准,逐步建立起相关法律或政策支持,并开发出应用于不同场景的SDM评估工具.而SDM在国内还是较为新兴的理念,对SDM的应用实践缺乏整体性研究和系统设计.对国内外SDM的研究发展进行一个完整和系统的梳理回顾,希望为SDM在我国医疗界的研究提供可借鉴的思路,推动SDM在临床实践中的进一步应用.【期刊名称】《医学与哲学》【年(卷),期】2018(039)019【总页数】5页(P6-9,57)【关键词】医患共同决策;决策辅助工具;决策援助标准【作者】赵羚谷;王涛;王颖;许卫卫;刘俊荣【作者单位】北京大学深圳医院党办广东深圳 518035;北京大学深圳医院广东深圳 518035;清华大学医院管理研究院广东深圳 518035;北京大学深圳医院党办广东深圳 518035;广州医科大学卫生管理学院广东广州 511436【正文语种】中文【中图分类】R-02随着社会和医学的发展,人们的健康意识和维权意识不断提高,对疾病诊疗过程中的参与意识和知情权的重视不断增强。

现代循证医学的发展,在临床诊疗和决策中,越来越强调对病人的自主权、知情权、话语权、参与权的重视与尊重。

医患共同决策(shared decision-making,SDM)的概念应运而生。

历经四十多年的研究和临床实践,其在欧美等发达国家的发展已相当成熟,不仅建立了较为完善的理论体系,设计出应用于临床决策的辅助模型和规范流程,同时也逐步建立起保障SDM实施的配套法律和政策。

尽管我国和欧美国家的国情以及医疗环境不尽相同,但以“患者为中心”的理念是共通的。

因此,对国外SDM的研究发展进行一个完整和系统的梳理回顾,将为我国医疗界对于SDM的研究、实施和应用提供非常有益的借鉴。

【2017年公需课】【大众创业与转型机遇】(包过)

【2017年公需课】【大众创业与转型机遇】(包过)

【2021年公需课】群众创业与转型机遇(一)全面认识群众创(否)第1题:莎拉在13岁时,由于她的突出研究成果,获得了2美元。

(是)第2题:莎拉17岁时,经过大量实验,发现了烯禾定这种通常用在除草剂中的物质,竟然杀死了低效的藻类植物,而高效的生长者反而茁壮成长。

从而她培育出拥有高含油量细胞的藻类(否)第3题:美国是创业教育的先驱者,这种成功的教育实践来源于其理想主义教育传统。

(是)第4题:李克强指出,互联网是群众创业、万众创新的新工具。

(否)第5题:哈佛大学的创业教育开始于1949年。

(是)第6题:高校开设创业课程,目的是帮助学生像企业家一样思考。

(是)第7题:2021年8月教育部将创业根底课程纳入高校学生必修课。

(否)第8题:2021年3月,微创业是以提案的形式被两位两会代表陈天桥、马云提出来的。

(是)第9题:1947年,哈佛商学院迈尔斯·梅斯(Myles·Mace)教授为MBA学生开设了一门新课程——新创企业管理。

(是)第10题:“工业4.0〞那么是德国政府在2021年汉诺威工业博览会上提出的主张。

【2021年公需课】群众创业与转型机遇(二)科技创新与创业的有效对接第1题:中国经济在金字塔型的国际分工结构中,主要分工是:第2题:由重视GDP到重视HDl(人类开展指数),人们更多追求的是:第3题:李嘉诚认为,他商业成功的最关键秘诀是:第4题:哈佛大学教授格莱泽的观点,城市复兴的关键是:第5题:广东决心转型,暂时“稍慢〞是为了将来“更好〞和“更快〞,调低GDP增速就是为了给经济转型升级留出时间和空间:第6题:当代科技创新在内容和方法方面都经历了深刻变化,物联网、大数据和人工智能等技术开展属于:第7题:按照维基百科的定义,“创客〞是这样的一群人:第8题:70年代亚洲四小龙起飞的主要原因:第9题:1845年,广州长洲岛“黄埔船坞〞是中国境内第一家“外资企业〞,它是后来哪个华人富豪旗下跨国公司的前身?:第10题:“珠玑巷〞移民在广东开发的区域是:【2021年公需课】群众创业与转型机遇(三)如何创立一家新创企业第1题:以()为中心的企业,才可能是成功的。

达特茅斯会议

达特茅斯会议

达特茅斯会议1953年夏天,麦卡锡和明斯基都在贝尔实验室为香农打工。

香农那时的兴趣是图灵机以及是否可用图灵机作为智能活动的理论基础。

麦卡锡向香农建议编一本文集,请当时做智能研究的各位大佬贡献文章,这本文集直到1956年才以《自动机研究》(Automata Studies )为名出版,这个书名最后是香农起的,他不想花里胡哨,但麦卡锡认为这没有反映他们的初衷。

文集的作者有两类人,一类是逻辑学家(后来都变成计算理论家了),如丘奇的两位杰出学生戴维斯和克里尼,后者的名著《元数学导论》在国内有逻辑学家莫绍揆先生的译本。

明斯基、麦卡锡也都有论文录入,香农本人贡献了一篇讲只有两个内部状态的通用图灵机的文章,文集录入的一篇冯诺伊曼的论文后来开创了容错计算。

文集的另一类作者几乎都是维纳的信徒,如阿什比(Ross Ashby)等,以控制论为基础。

麦卡锡素不喜控制论和维纳,既不想把维纳当老大,也不愿和他见面争执,其中原因不详,或许和维纳与麦卡洛克吵翻了有关。

麦卡洛克和皮茨这两位为维纳《控制论》思想贡献多多的人物,在维纳的自传里压根没被提及。

麦卡锡同时又觉得香农太理论,当时他想自立门户,只对用计算机实现智能感兴趣,于是他筹划再搞一次活动。

从香农后来接受的采访来看,他对维纳也没有多少尊重,他觉得自己创立的信息论和维纳一点关系也没有。

但维纳却认为香农受到他的影响,香农认为维纳的这种错觉来源于维纳根本不了解信息论。

1955年夏天,麦卡锡到IBM打工(美国教授都是9个月工资,如果没有研究经费,夏天要自己觅食),他的老板是罗切斯特(Nathaniel Rochester),罗切斯特是IBM第一代通用机701的主设计师,对神经网络素有兴趣。

他们两人倒是挺对脾气,决定第二年夏天在达特茅斯搞一次活动,遂说动了香农和当时在哈佛做初级研究员(Junior Fellow2 )的明斯基一起给洛克菲勒基金会写了个项目建议书,希望得到资助。

美国富豪还是有文化传统的,至少知道要资助好东西,值得中国土豪的后代学习。

卡尔马克思的自然科学札记———1990-2016德国MEGA研究综述

卡尔马克思的自然科学札记———1990-2016德国MEGA研究综述

卡尔-马克思的自然科学札记———1990-2016德国MEGA2研究综述[土耳其]康加恩/著 韩许高/译【摘要】许多学者认为马克思提出的是纯粹的社会批判理论,他们忽略了马克思对自然哲学的深厚兴趣。

因此,在马克思和恩格斯的学术合作中,恩格斯一直被视为是主导自然科学研究的一方,他的自然辩证法被指责为歪曲了马克思原初的辩证法思想。

但近二十年来,随着《马克思恩格斯全集》历史考证版(简称MEGA2)新文献的出版,马克思在生态学、矿物学、植物学、化学、地质学、物理学等自然科学方面的摘录和笔记得到披露。

学界研究的重点开始从对恩格斯自然辩证法的争论,逐渐转移到马克思与自然科学之间的关系。

本文旨在介绍当代德国依据MEGA2在马克思关注自然科学问题上开展的最新研究。

【关键词】批判理论;马克思主义;生态学;自然科学;马克思恩格斯研究中图分类号:B27 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1000-7660(2018)03-0005-10作者简介:康加恩(KaanKangal),土耳其人,慕尼黑大学哲学博士,(南京210023)南京大学哲学系暨马克思主义社会理论研究中心副教授。

译者简介:韩许高,河南许昌人,哲学博士,(南京210023)南京中医药大学人文与政治教育学院讲师。

几十年来,辩证法是否适用于自然的问题是马克思学界热烈争论的一个主题。

一些作者宣称马克思主义自然观和自然科学观是由恩格斯构建起来的。

根据这个观点,马克思不像恩格斯那样关心控制宇宙的超历史规律,而是关心社会的特殊规律。

可以说,这个反恩格斯阵营主要倾向于在马克思和恩格斯之间划清界限,指责恩格斯通过一些可能最终导向过时的唯心主义的还原主义、科学主义和实证主义来歪曲马克思关于辩证法的原始思想。

令人瞩目的是,在德国20世纪90年代的MEGA研究中,这个争论开始从一个纯粹的马克思-恩格斯问题转变为马克思和恩格斯的科学研究问题。

德国的新趋势可以按如下论证来阐述:如果可以表明马克思在进行一个包罗万象的、包括各种各样的自然与社会学科的跨学科研究时,在把握自然与社会作为一个整体的相互关系时,与恩格斯把辩证法定义为“普遍的相互联系的科学”是完全一致的①,那么我们就可以说那个马克思恩格斯在自然辩证法这个方面的老问题算是解决了②。

【美梦网】美国留学麻省大学达特茅斯简章

【美梦网】美国留学麻省大学达特茅斯简章

美国留学麻省大学达特茅斯简章
学校介绍:
本校创于1895年,原名为东南麻州大学(Southeas-tern Massachusetts Univ.),在1991年时并入UMASS系统。

本校位于麻州东南方的北达特茅斯(N. Dartmouth)介于New Bedford和Fall River两城之间距离Boston市中心约60 miles(约100公里,开车约一小时在右),主要校园有710英亩,大多数科系教室皆位于此,另在New Bedford downtown也有一校区,但属于行政办公室及艺术系所专用。

学校的MBA课程是经过AACSB认证的学校。

课程优势:
申请时无需提供GMAT成绩,无工作经验要求。

PMP衔接课程:物理,工程,MBA。

MBA PMP 课程简介:
MBA分支
1. 会计
2. 环境政策
3. 金融
4. 健康系统管理
5. 国际商务
6. 市场营销
7. 组织领导力
8. 公共管理
9. 供应链管理和信息系统
10. 可持续发展
在桥梁课程期间学生如果GPA达到3.0以上,并且GMAT有400分以上,本科为非商科背景的可以修3个学分,本科为商科背景的可修6个学分。

工程专业:土木和环境工程,计算机工程,计算机和信息科学,电子工程,机械工程。

费用:
PMP课程学费:$10,210
MBA学费:$22,000/年(2个学期,每个学期12个学分)
食宿费用:$5,000/学期
【更多美国大学相关信息请访问:
/】
/。

经济学、政治学推荐书目

经济学、政治学推荐书目

经济学书籍推荐一、初级阶段阅读书目1.米尔顿.弗里德曼:《资本主义与自由》,张瑞玉译,商务印书馆正确熟悉什么是自由!什么是真正的自由主义!2.弗里德曼夫妇:《自由选择》,胡骑等译,朱泱校,商务印书馆。

3.亚当.斯密《国富论》又名《国民财富的性质和原因的研究》亚当斯密是公认的“经济学之父”。

《国富论》系统阐述了古典学派的理论观点和政策主张。

4.亚当.斯密《道德情操论》5.大卫李嘉图《政治经济学及赋税原理》,古典经济学集大成者。

6.艾尔弗雷德马歇尔的《经济学原理》本书是新古典学派理论的代表作品。

马歇尔以供求论为框架,以均衡价格为核心,对前人和同时代人的理论进行了综合,其作品是西方经济思想史上的里程碑式的教科书。

7.凯恩斯《货币、利息和就业通论》本书是凯恩斯学派的开山之作,从理论、政策和方法等方面实现了“凯恩斯革命”。

书中倡导政府应通过扩大投资刺激经济需求以克服失业和萧条,奠定了现代西方宏观经济学的理论基础。

8.米尔顿?弗里德曼,《价格理论》,商务印书馆强烈推荐,学习微观经济学的必读经典。

9.施蒂格勒,《价格理论》,商务印书馆10.萨缪尔森《经济学》,新古典综合派11.格利高里.曼昆《经济学原理》,新凯恩斯学派思想贯穿其中12.范里安著,《微观经济学:现代观点》费方域翻译,最好的微观经济学教材!!!13.张五常《卖橘者言》、《经济解释》,强烈推荐阅读。

14.哈耶克《通往奴役之路》北京:中国社会科学出版社。

他一生经历坎坷,声誉大起大落。

爱他的人,视他为指路明灯;恨他的人,视他为恶魔怪兽。

丘吉尔多次引用哈耶克的话,反对对手工党的国有化计划;撒切尔夫人大学时期就读过《通往奴役之路》,到执政初期,她曾拿了本哈耶克的书,往政策研究员面前一放,说道:“我们信这套”;而布什总统则给哈耶克颁授总统自由勋章,表彰他的学术贡献。

《致命的自负——社会主义的谬误》冯克利等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社社会主义观念一度既崇高又简单……实际上我们可以说,它是人类精神最具雄心的产物……它如此壮丽,如此大胆,理所当然激起了最伟大的憧憬。

用于获得无标记转基因植物的方法和组合物[发明专利]

用于获得无标记转基因植物的方法和组合物[发明专利]

专利名称:用于获得无标记转基因植物的方法和组合物
专利类型:发明专利
发明人:X·叶,M·W·彼得森,S·黄,P·S·肖梅特,D·沃特斯,S·约翰森,L·吉尔伯森
申请号:CN200780025983.2
申请日:20070511
公开号:CN101490264A
公开日:
20090722
专利内容由知识产权出版社提供
摘要:本发明提供了用于鉴定转基因种子的方法和组合物,所述转基因种子包含目的转基因但缺乏标记基因。

导致可检测表型的鉴定序列的使用增加筛选种子和植物的效率,在所述种子和植物中不与目的基因连接的转基因序列已与编码目的基因的序列分离。

申请人:孟山都技术有限公司
地址:美国密苏里州
国籍:US
代理机构:中国专利代理(香港)有限公司
更多信息请下载全文后查看。

追寻印第安生态智慧的雨山之路

追寻印第安生态智慧的雨山之路

追寻印第安生态智慧的雨山之路N.斯科特.莫马迪(N. Scott Momaday )是当代最有成就的美国印第安族作家之一。

1969年出版的《通向雨山之路》是一部将印第安历史、部落习俗、传奇故事以及作者个人成长之路结合而成的作品。

本文将用深层生态学的盖亚假说、生物中心主义和生物区域主义理论去分析作品中所体现的印第安生态智慧。

古远的印第安生态智慧在去除人类中心主义、解决生态危机、实现生态自我方面将有很大的帮助。

一、引言N.斯科特.莫马迪(N. Scott Momaday )1934年出生于俄克拉荷马州西南部的劳顿城。

父亲是北美印第安民族基奥瓦部落的后代,母亲有部分印第安民族的血统。

劳顿城是基奥瓦部落的居住地。

莫马迪从小就和美国印第安人有很多接触。

他在新墨西哥州立大学毕业后又获斯坦福大学博士学位。

先后在加州大学伯克利分校、斯坦福大学及亚利桑那州立大学图克森分校任教。

莫马迪是诗人、小说家、剧作家、画家,被公认是当代最有成就的美国印第安族作家之一。

1969年,他的作品《黎明之屋》(House Made of Dawn )获普利策奖,成为第一个获此殊荣的美国印第安作家。

此外,他还获得过美国印第安文学奖,意大利最高文学奖等。

主要作品有《通向雨山之路》(1969年);诗集《鹅之枝》(1973年);《跳葫芦舞者》(1974年);回忆录《姓名》(1976年);小说《古老的小孩》(1989年)及1992年出版的诗歌和故事混合集《在太阳旁》。

作为印第安人后裔的莫马迪有意识地书写美国印第安人的历史、文化、传奇,他的作品无论绘画、诗歌还是小说都植根于印第安民族久远的文化传统,为长期失语的美国印第安人走进大家的视线,推进印第安文学复兴做出了很大的贡献。

1969年出版的《通向雨山之路》是一部将印第安历史、部落习俗、莫马迪个人成长之路和印第安人传奇结合而成的作品。

作品讲述了基奥瓦部落自十七世纪末期从蒙大拿州山地逐步往东南迁徙,在平原生活的上百年达到鼎盛时期,遭遇美国骑兵時奋勇抵抗,最终投降被迫落户雨山的历史。

sdme记忆法

sdme记忆法

sdme记忆法
SDME记忆法是指教师在教学中使用的一种记忆法,它包括以下四个步骤:
1. S(Survey):浏览整个学习材料,获取大致的内容和结构。

可以快速阅读标题、副标题和粗体字,同时关注图表、图片、引言等与内容相关的部分。

2. D(Decide):决定自己在学习过程中需要关注的内容和重点。

可以根据自己的学习目标和需求,选择性地深入阅读和学习特定的章节或内容。

3. M(Merge):合并所学内容,将分散的知识点整理和归类,建立知识的框架和联系。

可以用思维导图、总结归纳等方式将知识点连接在一起,形成一个完整的学习结构。

4. E(Evolve):评估和演化自己的学习成果,再次阅读学习
材料,查缺补漏并进行复习。

可以通过做练习题、解答问题、讨论等方式巩固所学知识,确保记忆的深度和长久性。

通过SDME记忆法,学生能够更高效地学习和记忆知识,同
时也能够提高对学习内容的理解和应用能力。

麦特逻辑动力

麦特逻辑动力

麦特逻辑动力麦特逻辑动力是一种重要的思维模型,它强调认知思考的逻辑正常与合理。

该模型主要由美国心理学家M.P.麦特所创造,其核心思想在于让人们明确地思考问题,从而可以在适当的时候做出正确决策。

麦特逻辑动力的理论基础主要包含三个方面:假设题,证据题和结论题。

在假设题中,我们需要列出可能的假设,以便我们可以理清思路并确定问题的方向。

在证据题中,我们需要寻找证据来证明或反驳这些假设,以确定哪些假设是可信的。

在结论题中,我们需要根据证据的质量和数量,对于各个假设,做出最终的结论。

通过这一过程,我们能够得出结论并做出决策。

M.P.麦特强调,麦特逻辑动力应该通过具体的问题解决过程来实现,同时需要遵循一些关键原则。

以下是几个重要的关键原则:1. 遵循先验知识的规律先验知识是指人之前已经了解的一些众所周知的信息。

在使用麦特逻辑动力的过程中,我们需要用这些先验知识去推断解决问题。

应该利用已经知道的信息去制定假设,然后通过证据来进行验证和反驳。

这一过程需要不断地迭代和改进,直到我们找到最佳的解决方案。

2. 注意事实和证据事实和证据是麦特逻辑动力的关键部分。

在列出假设之后,我们需要寻找证据来证明或反驳这些假设。

这些证据可以来自不同的来源,比如说经验、实验和研究等。

我们需要注意证据的质量和可靠性,尽可能去寻找最好的证据。

如果证据不足,那么我们就需要继续寻找证据直到得出最终结论。

3. 归纳和演绎思维的结合麦特逻辑动力结合了归纳和演绎思维。

根据不同的情况,我们可以采用不同的思维方式,从而找到最佳解决方案。

对于归纳思维,我们需要从特殊事例总结出普遍规律。

对于演绎思维,我们需要从普遍规律推导出特殊结论。

麦特逻辑动力的优点在于它强调思维的逻辑性,所以我们可以得到很好的结果。

设计思维,低调高效,期待可以为人们思考解决问题提供有力的工具,并推动大家走向最优解决方案。

用空间条码化寡核苷酸阵列对生物分析物进行概况分析[发明专利]

用空间条码化寡核苷酸阵列对生物分析物进行概况分析[发明专利]

专利名称:用空间条码化寡核苷酸阵列对生物分析物进行概况分析
专利类型:发明专利
发明人:E·P·拉马察朱安伊也,T·S·米克尔森,A·M·滕托利,R·巴得瓦,M·斯多克尤斯,J·M·彻尔,C·尤汀考
申请号:CN202080032149.1
申请日:20200227
公开号:CN114174531A
公开日:
20220311
专利内容由知识产权出版社提供
摘要:本公开涉及对生物样品中存在的分析物进行空间概况分析的方法。

还提供了使用空间条码化的基材来检测细胞培养物、生物体和类器官中生物分析物的方法。

还提供了使用空间条码化的基材来检测生物分析物的时间概况的方法。

申请人:10x基因组学有限公司
地址:美国加利福尼亚州
国籍:US
代理机构:上海专利商标事务所有限公司
更多信息请下载全文后查看。

活动理论视角下教师职业倦怠的成因分析与优化路径

活动理论视角下教师职业倦怠的成因分析与优化路径
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《大针茅(Stipagrandis)草原群落枯落物特征及分解动态研究》范文

《大针茅(Stipagrandis)草原群落枯落物特征及分解动态研究》范文

《大针茅(Stipa grandis)草原群落枯落物特征及分解动态研究》篇一摘要本研究以大针茅草原群落为研究对象,针对其枯落物特征及分解动态进行深入研究。

通过对枯落物的形态、组成及数量等特征的详细观察和记录,并结合不同季节下的分解动态,对大针茅草原枯落物的相关研究提供了更丰富的理论基础和实际应用价值。

本文采用的研究方法及所得到的研究成果将有助于理解大针茅草原生态系统的功能及其在气候变化下的响应机制。

一、引言大针茅(Stipa grandis)草原作为我国北方典型的草原生态系统,其枯落物的特征及其分解动态对于维持生态系统的平衡和稳定具有重要作用。

枯落物作为生态系统中的有机物质循环的重要环节,其组成、结构和分解过程直接影响着土壤养分循环、气候调节和生物多样性等多个方面。

因此,研究大针茅草原群落枯落物的特征及分解动态,对于揭示草原生态系统的功能和机制具有重要意义。

二、研究区域与方法2.1 研究区域概况本研究选取了具有代表性的大针茅草原作为研究区域,该区域气候类型为典型的温带大陆性气候,降水量适中且分布不均。

同时,该地区地势平坦、土壤类型独特,为大针茅等植物的生长提供了良好的环境。

2.2 研究方法本研究采用实地调查与实验室分析相结合的方法。

首先,在研究区域内设置样方,对枯落物的形态、组成及数量等特征进行详细观察和记录;其次,收集不同季节的枯落物样品,进行分解动态的实验室分析;最后,结合相关文献资料和数据分析软件,对研究结果进行综合分析。

三、大针茅草原群落枯落物特征3.1 形态特征大针茅草原群落的枯落物主要包括凋落叶片、枝条和根系等。

这些枯落物在形态上呈现出多样性,大小、形状和颜色等特征因季节和枯落物类型而异。

一般来说,夏季的枯落物较为丰富,颜色较为鲜艳;而冬季的枯落物则相对较少,颜色较为暗淡。

3.2 组成与数量特征大针茅草原群落的枯落物主要由草本植物、灌木和少量乔木的凋落物组成。

其中,草本植物的凋落物占比较大,主要因为大针茅等草本植物在草原生态系统中占据主导地位。

The Consequences of Radical Reform

The Consequences of Radical Reform

The Consequences of Radical Reform:The FrenchRevolutionDaron Acemoglu y Davide Cantoni z Simon Johnson xJames A.Robinson{March2009.AbstractThe French Revolution of1789had a momentous impact on neighboring countries.The French Revolutionary armies during the1790s and later under Napoleon invaded and controlled large parts of Europe.Together with invasion came various radical institutional changes. French invasion removed the legal and economic barriers that had protected the nobility,clergy, guilds,and urban oligarchies and established the principle of equality before the law.The evidence suggests that areas that were occupied by the French and that underwent radical institutional reform experienced more rapid urbanization and economic growth,especially after 1850.There is no evidence of a negative e¤ect of French invasion.Our interpretation is that the Revolution destroyed(the institutional underpinnings of)the power of oligarchies and elites opposed to economic change;combined with the arrival of new economic and industrial opportunities in the second half of the19th century,this helped pave the way for future economic growth.The evidence does not provide any support for several other views,most notably,that evolved institutions are inherently superior to those‘designed’;that institutions must be‘appropriate’and cannot be‘transplanted’;and that the civil code and other French institutions have adverse economic e¤ects.Keywords:institutions,civil code,guilds,democracy,oligarchy,political economy.We thank Jared Diamond,Robert Dixon,Niall Ferguson,Tim Guinnane,Peter Hall,Philip Ho¤man,Joel Mokyr,Sheilagh Ogilvie,Winifred Rothemberg,Jesus Villaverde,John Wallis,Peter Wilson and participants in the American Economic Association Annual Meeting for their comments,and Camilo García,Tarek Hassan, Jutta Hoppe and Michael Kapps for excellent research assistance.y Massachussetts Institute of Technology,Department of Economics,E52-380,50Memorial Drive,Cambridge MA02142,USA.e-mail:daron@.z Harvard University,Department of Economics,Littauer Center,Cambridge MA02138,email:can-toni@.x MIT,Sloan School of Management,50Memorial Drive,Cambridge MA02142,USA.e-mail:sjohn-son@.{Harvard University,Department of Government and IQSS,1737Cambridge Street N309,Cambridge MA 01238,USA;e-mail:jrobinson@.1IntroductionThe recent literature on comparative development has emphasized that underdevelopment is caused by institutions that do not create the right incentives for economic growth.But there is disagreement about which specific institutions are important.Some scholars emphasize property rights(North and Thomas,1973,Acemoglu,Johnson and Robinson,2001,Acemoglu and Johnson,2005),some legal institutions(La Porta,Lopez-de-Silanes,Shleifer,and Vishny, 1998)and others barriers to entry or oligarchies(Olson,1982,Acemoglu,2008).Another unresolved issue is whether institutions can be designed,and relatedly whether they can be reformed externally.Hayek(1960)argued that institutions cannot be designed and have to evolve organically(and that this was the major reason for the inferiority of the civil code),and a recent literature has claimed that institutions have to be‘appropriate’to the specific circumstances of countries(Berkowitz,Pistor and Richard,2003a,b,Rodrik,2007).1 These problems are amplified when such reforms are implemented‘Big Bang’style.Propo-nents of these views argue that enforced institutional change is likely to reduce prosperity,a claim that receives some support from the apparent failures of institutional reforms in Latin America,Africa,the former Soviet Union in the1980s and1990s,and the recent experiences in Afghanistan and Iraq.Not all external reform are failures,however,as evidenced,for example, by the successful US-imposed reforms in postwar Germany and Japan.In this paper we exploit the variation in institutional reform created in Europe by the French Revolution to investigate the consequences of radical,externally-imposed reform on subsequent economic growth.After1792French armies invaded and reformed the institutions of many European countries.The lessons from this episode are central to some of the current debates on institutions.First,the package of reforms the French imposed on areas they conquered included the civil code,the abolition of guilds and the remnants of feudalism,and the introduction of equality before the law and the undermining of aristocratic privilege.These reforms thus clearly relate to the above-mentioned debates.If oligarchies were the main barrier to economic growth in Europe at the turn of the19th century,then we would expect the Revolutionary reforms to unleash more rapid economic growth in affected areas.If,on the other hand,externally-imposed radical reform is generally costly or if the civil code creates major distortions,the1Relatedly,a dominant paradigm in economics maintains that institutions efficiently—albeit slowly—adapt to the underlying characteristics of society(e.g.,Demsetz,1967,Djankov,Glaeser,La Porta,Lopez-de-Silanes and Shleifer,2003).reforms should have negative effects.2We investigate the economic consequences of the French Revolution,and particularly,the reforms that it imposed on the rest of Europe,by using two sources of historical data.Thefirst is cross-national.French armies invaded and reformed some parts of Europe but not others, so we can take those invaded as the‘treatment group’and compare their relative economic success before and after the revolutionary period.Nevertheless,there is a substantial amount of heterogeneity in this sample.For instance,the French tended to have a greater impact on countries in Western Europe compared to Eastern Europe and even though we show that there is no evidence of pre-trends,this does not rule out potential unobserved differences between the treatment and control groups.In addition to cross-national variation,we also examine variation within Germany.Parts of Germany,primarily the west and northwest,were invaded and reformed,while the south and the east were not.Therefore we can construct more comparable treatment and control groups within Germany.In addition,we collected data to develop several series of institutional reforms across German polities.This enables us both to verify that the French did indeed reform various aspects of institutions and to utilize a two-stage least squares strategy,with French invasion as an instrument for institutional reform.Crucially for our identification strategy,European countries or parts of Germany did not choose the French institutions,but those institutions were imposed on themfirst by the Revo-lution and then by Napoleon.3Moreover,territorial expansion by French armies did not target places with a greater future growth potential.Instead,it had two major objectives.Thefirst was defensive,especially,in response to the threat of Austrian or Prussian(or later British) attempts to topple the Revolutionary regime.The second was expansionary.This was partly because of resource needs of the French Republic,and partly because of the ideology of the French Revolution.In addition,in the early1790s,the French sought to establish France’s ‘natural frontiers.’4Finally,the purpose of the institutional reforms of the French Revolution2These issues are also related to the classic historical debate about the extent to which the institutions of the ancien r´e gime impeded capitalism and economic growth and whether or not the French Revolution played a constructive or destructive role in European political development.The historical debate about the consequences of the French Revolution is also about its impact on political institutions and democracy,which is beyond the scope of the current paper.3In most cases,there were local Jacobin(local radical)forces in the countries invaded by the French armies, but the presence of such forces did not play a major role in determining which countres and cities were invaded by the French.See,for example,Doyle(1989,Chapter9).4For example,the Revolutionary leader George Danton stated:“Les limites de la France sont marqu´e es par la nature,nous les atteindrons des quatre coins de l’horizon,du cˆo t´e du Rhin,du cˆo t´e de l’Oc´e an,duwas not to foster industrialization per se,though they may have achieved this objective as a by-product of its major goal of destroying the grip of the aristocracy,oligarchy,and the clergy on political and economic power.5Therefore,to afirst approximation,we can think of the imposition of the institutions of the French Revolution as an‘exogenous treatment’and investigate the economic implications of the radical French reforms.We distinguish three definitions of‘French treatment:’(1)length of French occupation (in years),(2)a dummy for French control during the Revolutionary period prior to the take-over of Napoleon in9November1799(18Brumaire in the revolutionary calendar),(3) a dummy for French control during the Napoleonic period up ing all three definitions,wefind reduced-form evidence,both across countries and within Germany,that our main proxy for economic prosperity,urbanization rates,increased significantly faster in treated areas during the second half of the19th century.We also supplement our cross-country analysis with Maddison’s GDP data.Maddison reports data for‘Germany’and‘Italy’prior to their unification,rather than the independent polities which subsequently unified.Much of the variation in French treatment,however,is within what became Germany and Italy, so Maddison’s data are much less appropriate than the urbanization data for our purposes. Nevertheless,thefindings with GDP per-capita are similar,though on the whole weaker than those using urbanization rates.Within Germany,we provide supporting evidence using the expansion of railways and the sectoral composition of employment,again suggesting that treated parts of Germany grew more rapidly—in fact,industrialized more rapidly—ing German data,we further show a strong association between our measures of institutional reforms and French invasion or ing this association as afirst stage,we also estimate instrumental-variables models,which indicate large effects of institutional reforms on subsequent growth.Overall, our results show no evidence that the reforms imposed by the French had negative economic consequences.On the contrary,there is fairly consistent evidence from a variety of different cˆo t´e des Alpes.L`a,doiventfinir les bornes de notre r´e publique.”(speech to National Convention,January31, 1793;quoted in Blanning1983,p.2).Grab(2003,p.1)summarizes these motives and arguments as:“The revolutionary governments justified the occupation of foreign lands,using the theory of‘natural frontiers’and declaring their intention or liberating oppressed people from tyrannical regimes.”5It is unlikely that the reforms were made specifically to encourage industrial growth.Most likely,no one at the turn of the19th century could have anticipated the new technologies that were to arrive a few decades later.The exception to this statement is textiles.By1800the British and others had established some new technologies that increased productivity(e.g.,in spinning)by an order of magnitude.Textiles are an important part of the story in the Rhineland,discussed below,but there is no evidence that the French changed institutions in the Rhineland specifically because they foresaw great potential in the manufacture of cloth.empirical strategies that they had positive effects.An important aspect of ourfindings is that the positive effects of institutional reforms are only visible in the second half of the19th century.By1850,treated areas show no differential growth or in some specifications,slight(and insignificant)negative growth.This is not sur-prising.The French reforms were accompanied by the disruptions caused by invasion and war and this often had quite destructive and exploitative aspects(see,for instance,Blanning,1983, 1986).Grab(2003,p.1),for example,writes“the French armies requisitioned provisions and imposed heavy war contributions on occupied regions,thereby alienating their populations.”Thus,the short-term impact of French invasion may have been negative.But this is unin-formative about the impact of Revolution-imposed institutional changes.The most plausible hypothesis—and our starting point—is that the major role of the reforms was in creating an environment conducive to innovation and entrepreneurial activity.This environment mattered most in the dissemination of the industrial revolution,which took place in Continental Europe in the second half of the19th century.6Our evidence of positive effects in the second half of the19th century is consistent with this hypothesis.There are several main conclusions from the evidence presented in this paper.First,the results emphasize the role of institutions and institutional reforms in economic development.7 Second,ourfindings are consistent with the view that the institutions of the ancien r´e gime (guilds,feudal legacy in countryside,absence of equality before the law)impeded growth. However,the fact that French reforms came as a bundle does not allow us to assess the rel-ative importance of,for example,the abolition of guilds compared to the abolition of feudal privileges.Third,they do not support the view that civil code and French institutions have detrimental economic effects.8Fourth,the evidence does not support the thesis that insti-6This argument is similar to that of Engerman and Sokoloff(1997)and Acemoglu,Johnson and Robinson (2002)who argue that the divergence of institutions in colonial societies,which took place between1500and 1800,had little economic impact until the age of industry.7Also noteworthy is that unlike the experience of European colonialism in the wider world,the French did not settle after1815in the parts of Europe they reformed and they did not build schools,so during this episode there were large changes in institutions with culture,human capital and the ethnic composition of the population remaining largely unchanged.8This statement is subject to two obvious caveats,firstly,that the comparison is not to the common law, and secondly,that it could be that the imposition of the civil code did have negative effects,but these were more than compensated for by positive effects emanating from reforms simultaneously implemented with the civil code.These caveats notwithstanding,if the civil code and other aspects of French institutions were highly damaging to growth,particularly if imposed on other countries,we would expect tofind significant negative effects in treated areas.In addition,apart from parts of the world that voluntarily adopted the civil code,such as Latin America,existing evidence on the consequences of the civil code comes from former French colonies which,like the Europe we study,had the civil code imposed simultaneously with other French reforms.tutions are efficiently adapted to the underlying characteristics of a society and that evolved institutions are superior to those that are designed or externally imposed.The French Revolu-tionary armies imposed new and radically different institutions from those existing previously, and did so in extreme‘Big Bang’style.Nevertheless,our evidence suggests that this was an ‘economic success’.Taken together,thesefindings are interesting for those who favor radi-cal institutional reforms.They suggest these may be successful,at least in certain historical contexts.The success of the French reforms raises the question:why did they work when other externally-imposed reforms often fail?Most likely this is because the reforms were much more radical than is typically the case.9The French reformed simultaneously in many dimensions and weakened the powers of local elites,making a return to the status quo ante largely impossi-ble.Even when some pre-revolution elites returned to power after1815,there was a permanent change in the political equilibrium.This scope and radicalism of the French reforms are com-mon with the post-war reform experiences in Germany and Japan and stand in contrast with many other reform experiences.In addition to the literature on the implications and desirability of different types of insti-tutional reforms,discussed above,our paper is related to a large literature on the consequences of the French Revolution.The debate on the French Revolution was started in its modern form by the pamphlet published by the conservative English philosopher Edmund Burke in1790, entitled Reflections on the Revolution in France,which initiated controversies about institu-tional change which continue today.In this pamphlet,Burke condemned the brutality,the interventionist spirit and the radicalism of the French Revolution and argued:“It is with infinite caution that any man should venture upon pulling down an edifice,which has answered in any tolerable degree for ages the common purposes ofsociety,or on building it up again without having models and patterns of approvedutility before his eyes”Burke(1969,p.152).The conclusion Burke drew from these events was that the negative impacts of the French Revolution would be felt not only in France and not only in its immediate aftermath,but would potentially change the world for many more decades or even centuries to come.On the other side,the positive reception of the French Revolution was as enthusiastic as Burke’s condemnation.Thomas Paine,in a book that would subsequently become a classic for 9See Acemoglu and Robinson(2008)for a model in which limited reforms can be counterproductive.the democratization movements of the19th-century Europe,The Rights of Man,responded to Burke in1791.Paine hailed the French Revolution as the harbinger of freedom and equality before the law,a role that it achieved by demolishing the ancien r´e gime.Paine argued:“It was...against the despotic principles of the government,that the nation revolted.These principles had...become too deeply rooted to be removed,andthe Augean stable of parasites and plunderers too abominablyfilthy to be cleansed,by anything short of a complete and universal revolution”Paine(1969,p.69).According to Paine,the French Revolution was exactly the kind of radical institutional reform necessary to break the hold on land and people exercised by the ancien r´e gime,which was not only morally abhorrent,but also the source of significant economic inefficiencies.The Revolution would therefore pave the way for modern freedoms and democratic institutions by removing serfdom,aristocratic privileges,the Church’s domination over politics and land,and inequity before the law.The debate between Burke and Paine has not been resolved by academic research and there is no consensus about the economic consequences of the French Revolution.On the one hand, many economic historians,like Landes(1969,p.142),view the French Revolution as“a po-litical roadblock”to technological adoption for Continental countries,and conclude that as a consequence of the Revolution,“the gap in technique[between the Continent and Britain]had widened,while most of the fundamental educational,economic,and social obstacles to imita-tion remained”(Landes,1969,p.147).Similarly,Buyst and Mokyr(1990,p.64,74)write:“it is our contention...that the Dutch economy in the years of the French and Napoleonic Wars was another example of a small open commercial economy whose prosperity was disrupted by world events...The French period...[was]disastrous for the Dutch economy.”Crouzet’s (2001,p.121)view is similar,noting“the French Revolution and the wars that followed greatly slowed the transfer of technology.”1010Within the history profession the economic impact of the French Revolution has become inexorably inter-twined with the Marxist interpretation of the revolution as marking the‘rise of the bourgoisie’.Most historians now reject a Marxist interpretation of the Revolution,but have not articulated an alternative assessment of its implications.Other economic historians simply ignore the Revolution.In the literature on19th century German industrialization,for example,though it is common to argue that the Stein-Hardenberg Reforms in Prussia after 1807,which were induced by the defeat of Prussia by Napoleon at Jena,helped to modernize agriculture and facilitate the reallocation of labor to industrial areas(e.g.,Tilly,1996),little mention is made of any potential impact of French institutional reforms in Germany.The institutional reform most mentioned is the formation of the Zollverein customs union in1833.On the other hand,many other economic historians also agree with Mokyr’s assessments that“the Revolution’s long-term effect was to clear up the debris of the ancien r´e gime on the Continent,thus assuring Europe’s ability eventually to follow Britain in revolutionizing its productive system”(1990,p.259),and that“the French Revolution and Napoleon installed more forward looking governments in Europe”(1990,p.253).Even Landes,who generally em-phasizes the negative effects of the Revolution,also mentions in passing that such institutional changes as the abolition of guilds were beneficial(1969,pp.144-145).11The rest of the paper is organized as follows.Section2provides an overview of the history of the French Revolution and the subsequent invasion of Europe by the French.Section3discusses our data.Section4provides country-level regression evidence investigating the reduced form effect of treatment on our dependent variables.Section5looks at the differences in the growth experience of treated and untreated German polities.Section6concludes.2The Effect of the French Revolution on EuropeIn this section,we provide a brief sketch of certain aspects of the French Revolution and the situation in various neighboring countries and cities before the Revolution that are relevant to our investigation.We also recount how expansion by the French Revolutionary armies and later by Napoleon affected these areas.12Further historical details are provided in Acemoglu, Cantoni,Johnson and Robinson(2009).The Revolution was precipitated by a long-runningfiscal crisis which led to the convening of the Estates-General in1789for thefirst time since1614.The initial meeting of the Estates-General in Versailles on May5,1789ended with the decision to convene a more powerful body,the National Assembly,which initiated a process of radicalization culminating in the storming of the Bastille on July14,1789.The newly-formed National Constituent Assembly abolished feudalism and all of the special privileges and rights of the First and Second Estates on August4,1789.This was followed by the abolition of the Church’s authority to levy special taxes,and later turning the clergy into employees of the state,thus starting the process of the separation of church and state.It subsequently passed a constitution on September29,1791,11See also Crouzet(2001,p.122),Cameron(1993,pp.211-213)and Rosenthal(1992).Similarly,Rud´e (1964),Kisch(1962),Trebilcock(1981),Doyle(1989),or Grab(2003)also argue that the French reforms were significant improvements relative to the situation at the time.None of these works systematically investigates the economic consequences of the Revolution either in the short or the long run.12This section draws on Doyle(1989),Palmer(1959,1964),Rud´e(1988),Grab(2003),and Blanning(1983, 1986,1996).making France a constitutional monarchy.This constitution also removed the major power of the guilds in the cities.The radicalization of the Revolution led to the Terror which ended with the execution of Robespierre and Saint-Just in July1794.There followed a phase of relative stability,first in the form of collective government under the Directory between1795and1799,and then with more concentrated power in the form of a three person Consulate,consisting of Ducos,Sieyes and Napoleon Bonaparte.Already during the directory,the young general Bonaparte had become famous for his military successes and statesmanship.His influence was only to grow after1799.The Consulate soon became personal rule by Napoleon,who initially engineered his election as First Consul in November1799with the coup of the18th of Brumaire and then declared himself emperor in1804.The years between1799and the end of Napoleon’s reign, 1815,witnessed a series of great victories,including those at Austerlitz,Jena-Auerstedt,and Wagram,bringing continental Europe to its knees.They also allowed Napoleon to impose his will(and his legal code)across a wide swath of territory.2.1Europe Before the RevolutionBefore the age of the French Revolution,much of Europe was dominated by two kinds of oli-garchies,the landed nobility in agriculture and the urban-based oligarchy controlling commerce and various occupations,with explicit or implicit entry barriers.By the end of the eighteenth century,feudalism in its most rigid form had disappeared in many parts of Europe,but a lot of its remnants remained.Serfdom—the system through which peasants are tied to the land and cannot sell their labor in free markets or engage in other occupations without the permission of landowners—still continued in much of Eastern Europe(see Blum,1978),while it had been replaced by various forms of taxes and tributes to landowners in other areas,which could nonetheless be quite onerous.13For example,in the Rhineland,thefirst area in Germany to come under French control,an attenuated form of serfdom(Grundherrschaft)which severely restricted freedom of movement was still practiced (Blanning1983,pp.20-21).Grab(2003,p.86)states:“Their conditions were worse east of the Elbe where serfdom still prevailed.But even in many western regions where serfdom had declined and peasants were freer and better off,they were often still subject to landlords to13Since one could be concerned that including Eastern Europe in the sample leads the control group to be very heterogeneous,in the empirical work we show that all our results hold when we restrict our sample to Europe West of the Elbe.whom they owed seigneurial fees and labor obligations.In addition they had to pay taxes and support their parishes and village communities.”Even when serfdom in its classic form was absent,various rights of the nobility and clergy created a very unequal political and economic situation in rural areas.These groups were frequently exempt from taxation by the state and enjoyed the right of taxation of the peasants under their control.Lenger(2004,p.92),for example,describes this as:“besides the origi-nal obligations to provide services and dues to the lord the agricultural labor force was also burdened with personal servitude”.He continues:“In the small territory of Nassau-Usingen around1800there were no less than230different payments,dues,and services that the peasants living there had to provideto the lords.Dues included...the‘blood tithe’to be paid after an animal wasslaughtered,a‘bee tithe’,a‘wax tithe’...as well as large fees owed to the lordwhenever a piece of property changed hands.”(Lenger,2004,p.96).Moreover,in places where some form of seigneurial privilege remained,it was usual for nobility and clergy to be subject to different laws and courts.The principle of equality before the law was quite alien(or even revolutionary)in most of Europe in1789.The urban oligarchy was perhaps even more pernicious to industrialization.Almost all major occupations were controlled by guilds,significantly limiting entry into those professions by others,and often restricting adoption of new technologies(see White,2001,for examples from French guilds).For example,Cipolla(1970)argues that the guilds stopped innovation in Italy,in particular they forbade the production of exactly the type of lower quality goods that were taking their markets.In Venice(p.206)“for almost the whole of the17th century, the statutes of the guild prevented cloth from being made of the English and Dutch type, which had had so much success on the international markets.Moreover,the guild statutes not only demanded the production of a traditional type of goods,but also prevented the adoption of new methods of making these old products.”Braudel’s(1992,p.136)and Rapp’s(1976) analysis is similar.For the case of Germany,a similar argument is made by Ogilvie(2004, 2007)and Kisch(1989)for the Rhineland.In the major cities of Cologne and Aachen the adoption of new textile(spinning and weaving)machines were significantly delayed because of guild restrictions.In addition,many cities were controlled by a few families for many generations,amassing wealth at the expense of potential new entrants with greater ability or better technologies.。

溯因哲学

溯因哲学

作者: 蒂莫西·威廉姆森[1];刘靖贤[2]
作者机构: [1]牛津大学哲学系;[2]辽宁大学哲学与公共管理学院
出版物刊名: 哲学动态
页码: 101-107页
年卷期: 2017年 第7期
主题词: 溯因推理;最佳说明推理;溯因方法论
摘要:溯因推理是一种非形式化方法,用于非演绎的扩展推理和理论选择,这在自然科学中是熟知的。

虽然这个术语被追溯到皮尔士,但这里的用法并不试图与他对“溯因推理”的各种界定保持一致。

如果“解释”被理解为既包括因果解释又包括非因果解释,那么这个术语大约等价于“最佳说明推理”。

哲学有时已经使用溯因方法论,将来应该会更多地使用。

在使用溯因方法论时,哲学仍然是一门主要的“扶手椅”学科。

废弃的TPP是否有“新”意

废弃的TPP是否有“新”意

作者: 张田园
作者机构: 河南大学哲学与公共管理学院,河南开封.175004
出版物刊名: 淮北职业技术学院学报
页码: 102-105页
年卷期: 2017年 第3期
主题词: 跨太平洋伙伴关系协定 新议题 价值链 贸易规则
摘要:2017年1月23日美国总统特朗普在白宫签署行政命令,宣布美国正式退出跨太平洋伙伴关系协定(TPP)。

但废弃的TPP是否一文不值?纵观TPP文本的三十个章节,有很多从未在经贸规则中露面,这些议题包括合作与能力建设、竞争力和商务便利化、发展中小企业、监管一致性、反腐败。

它们反映了一种国际经贸规则的新动向。

透过新议题其背后隐藏的美式贸易观念、跨国公司改变贸易规则的诉求、中小企业发展的需要、各成员国利益分配的方式,亦令人深思。

因此,研究TPP新议题,发现其新特点,必将对中国经贸规则建设有所裨益。

sdme记忆法

sdme记忆法

sdme记忆法(原创实用版)目录1.SDME 记忆法的概念2.SDME 记忆法的原理3.SDME 记忆法的应用4.SDME 记忆法的优点与不足正文SDME 记忆法是一种高效的记忆方法,其全称为“Segmental Development of Memory through Encoding”,即通过编码进行记忆分段发展。

该方法结合了心理学、生理学和语言学等领域的研究成果,为我们提供了一个科学、系统的记忆体系。

接下来,我们将详细介绍 SDME 记忆法的原理、应用以及优缺点。

首先,我们来了解 SDME 记忆法的原理。

SDME 记忆法认为,人类的记忆可以分为多个阶段,包括瞬时记忆、短时记忆和长时记忆。

要提高记忆效果,关键在于加强这些阶段之间的联系。

SDME 记忆法通过编码的方式,将信息转化为更容易被大脑接受的形式,从而促进记忆的存储和提取。

具体来说,编码过程包括以下几个步骤:1.感知信息:首先,我们需要认真感知要记忆的信息,将其转化为可以被大脑理解的形式。

2.联想:接着,我们通过丰富的联想,将信息与已有的知识、经验联系起来,形成一个有意义的整体。

3.组织:然后,我们对信息进行整理和组织,使其结构更加清晰、逻辑更加严密。

4.存储:最后,我们将编码后的信息存储到相应的记忆阶段,以便在需要时进行提取。

在了解了 SDME 记忆法的原理后,我们可以将其应用到实际的学习和工作中。

例如,在学习一门外语时,我们可以通过 SDME 记忆法来提高词汇记忆效果。

具体操作如下:1.感知信息:首先,我们需要认真学习每个单词的发音、拼写和基本含义。

2.联想:接着,我们可以通过将单词与生活中的实际场景、形象的图片或其他单词联系起来,增强记忆效果。

3.组织:然后,我们可以将单词进行分类,如按照主题、词性等进行整理,以便更好地理解和记忆。

4.存储:最后,我们将编码后的单词存储到相应的记忆阶段,定期进行复习和巩固。

当然,SDME 记忆法并非完美无缺,它也存在一些优缺点。

sdme记忆法

sdme记忆法

SDME记忆法1. 简介SDME记忆法(Sequential Dynamic Memory Encoding)是一种基于序列和动态记忆的记忆方法。

它通过将信息转化为有序的、动态的图像或场景,并结合联想和情感等多个维度,帮助人们更好地记忆和回忆信息。

2. 原理SDME记忆法的原理基于以下几点:2.1 序列记忆人类大脑对于序列信息有着天然的处理优势。

SDME记忆法利用这一优势,将需要记忆的信息按照一定的顺序进行排列,并将其转化为具体的图像或场景。

通过这种方式,可以提高信息在大脑中存储和检索时的连贯性和可靠性。

2.2 动态记忆动态记忆是指通过模拟、再现或创造动态场景来增强记忆效果。

SDME记忆法借鉴了这一思想,在构建图像或场景时加入了一定程度上的动态元素。

这些动态元素可以是物体移动、声音变化、光线变幻等,以增强人脑对于信息的吸引力和印象深度。

2.3 联想记忆联想记忆是指通过将待记忆的信息与已知的信息进行关联,以增强记忆效果。

SDME 记忆法在构建图像或场景时,充分利用了联想的原理。

通过将待记忆的信息与已知的信息进行关联,可以在大脑中形成更为牢固和丰富的连接,提高信息的存储和检索能力。

2.4 情感记忆情感是人类记忆中重要的因素之一。

SDME记忆法通过在构建图像或场景时加入情感元素,如喜怒哀乐、惊喜等,以增强记忆效果。

情感因素可以使得信息更加生动有趣,并且激发人们对于信息的注意力和兴趣,从而提高记忆效果。

3. 步骤使用SDME记忆法进行信息记忆和回忆可以按照以下步骤进行:3.1 分析和整理首先,需要对待记忆的信息进行分析和整理。

将其拆解成多个有序片段,并确定它们之间的逻辑关系。

这样可以帮助构建一个清晰而连贯的故事线。

3.2 构建图像或场景根据分析和整理的结果,开始构建图像或场景。

可以选择一个具体的地点,如家中的客厅、学校的操场等,作为记忆的背景。

然后,将每个片段转化为具体的物体、人物、动作或事件,并将其放置在背景中。

SDM简介

SDM简介

SDM简介目录•1磺胺多辛药典标准o 1.1品名▪ 1.1.1中文名▪ 1.1.2汉语拼音▪ 1.1.3英文名o 1.2结构式o 1.3分子式与分子量o 1.4来源(名称)、含量(效价)o 1.5性状▪ 1.5.1熔点o 1.6鉴别o 1.7检查▪ 1.7.1酸度▪ 1.7.2堿性溶液的澄清度与颜色▪ 1.7.3氯化物▪ 1.7.4有关物质▪ 1.7.5干燥失重▪ 1.7.6炽灼残渣▪ 1.7.7重金属o 1.8含量测定o 1.9类别o 1.10贮藏o 1.11制剂o 1.12版本•2磺胺多辛说明书o 2.1药品名称o 2.2英文名称o 2.3SDM的别名o 2.4分类o 2.5剂型o 2.6磺胺多辛的药理作用o 2.7磺胺多辛的药代动力学o 2.8磺胺多辛的适应证o 2.9磺胺多辛的禁忌证o 2.10注意事项o 2.11磺胺多辛的不良反应o 2.12磺胺多辛的用法用量o 2.13SDM与其它药物的相互作用o 2.14专家点评这是一个重定向条目,共享了磺胺多辛的内容。

为方便阅读,下文中的磺胺多辛已经自动替换为 SDM,可点此恢复原貌,或使用备注方式展现1SDM药典标准1.1品名1.1.1中文名SDM1.1.2汉语拼音Huang'an Duoxin1.1.3英文名Sulfadoxine1.2结构式1.3分子式与分子量C12H14N4O4S 310.331.4来源(名称)、含量(效价)本品为4(对氨基苯磺酰氨基)5,6二甲氧基嘧啶。

按干燥品计算,含C12H14N4O4S不得少于99.0%。

1.5性状本品为白色或类白色结晶性粉末;无臭或几乎无臭,味微苦;遇光渐变色。

本品在丙酮中略溶,在乙醇中微溶,在水中几乎不溶,在稀盐酸或氢氧化钠溶液中易溶。

1.5.1熔点本品的熔点(2010年版药典二部附录Ⅵ C)为195~200℃。

1.6鉴别(1)取本品约0.1g,加水与0.1mol/L氢氧化钠溶液各3ml,振摇使溶解,滤过,取部分滤液,加 ... 铜试液1滴,即生成黄绿色沉淀,放置后变淡蓝色(与磺胺二甲嘧啶的区别)。

vdm 分子结构

vdm 分子结构

vdm 分子结构VDM分子结构VDM(Valuation de Marché)是一种金融衍生品定价模型,用于评估市场上各种金融工具的价值。

它是基于随机微分方程的数学模型,通过对金融市场的动态变化进行建模,可以预测金融工具的价格变动,并为投资者提供决策依据。

VDM模型的核心是分子结构,它描述了金融工具的市场价格如何随时间变化。

分子结构通常由两个部分组成:漂移项和扩散项。

漂移项表示金融工具价格的趋势,它受到市场因素和经济变量的影响。

扩散项表示价格波动的程度,它受到市场波动率的影响。

漂移项可以被看作是市场价格随时间变化的趋势。

它的计算通常基于经济学模型和市场数据。

例如,对于股票价格,漂移项可以基于股票的收益率和市场指数的变化率来计算。

对于利率衍生品,漂移项可以基于利率曲线的变化和市场利率的变动来计算。

扩散项表示市场价格波动的程度。

它的计算通常基于市场波动率的模型。

波动率是衡量金融工具价格波动程度的指标,它反映了市场参与者对未来价格波动的预期。

波动率模型可以基于历史数据或市场期权价格来计算。

VDM模型通过将漂移项和扩散项结合起来,对金融工具的价格进行预测。

它可以用于定价各种金融衍生品,如期权、期货、利率互换等。

通过对市场价格的模拟和分析,VDM模型可以帮助投资者制定交易策略,降低风险,提高收益。

然而,VDM模型也有一些局限性。

首先,它是基于随机微分方程的模型,对市场价格的变动做了一些假设,如价格的连续性和马尔可夫性。

这些假设在实际市场中可能并不成立,导致模型的预测结果存在误差。

VDM模型对市场的预测是基于历史数据和统计模型的,它并不能完全预测未来市场的变化。

市场价格受到各种因素的影响,如经济政策、政治事件和自然灾害等,这些因素难以完全纳入模型中。

VDM模型的应用也需要一定的专业知识和技术支持。

它的建模和计算需要对金融市场和数学模型有深入的理解,并且需要使用一些专业的金融软件和工具。

总的来说,VDM分子结构是金融衍生品定价模型中的重要组成部分。

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Méthodes de conception
L'historique thermo mécanique du matériau a de l'influence sur ses performances
On peut classer les matériaux suivant leur composition, leur microstructure ou leurs propriétés. On trouve 3 classes de matériaux :
- métaux et alliages
- polymères organiques
- céramiques
1)métaux et alliages
Acier au carbone, acier inoxydable, alliage d'aluminium, alliage de cuivre. Les métaux et alliages sont des solides atomiques, bonne usinabilité, déformables plastiquement, faible résistance aux agents chimiques et atmosphériques, faibles propriétés mécaniques à haute températures.
Un alliage métallique est une combinaison d'un métal avec un autre élément métallique ou non.
2) céramiques
Les céramiques sont des combinaisons d'éléments métalliques et non métalliques, réfractaires, peu usinables, fragiles, résistances mécaniques et thermiques élevées, très dures, isolants. Exemples : argiles cuites, porcelaines, faïence, alumine, verres, Pyrex, vitrocéramique, silice, carbures, ciment, ...
Les céramiques sont des matériaux inorganiques, qui résultent de la combinaison d'éléments métalliques Al, Cr, Ti, .. Avec des éléments non métalliques comme O, C, N, ...
À base de carbone ce sont des carbures, a base d'azote de sont des nitrures, et a base d'oxygène ce sont des oxydes. Al2O3, Fe3C, AlN.
3) les polymères organiques
Sont isolants électriques et thermiques, légers, peu rigides, faciles à mettre en forme, température d'utilisation inférieure a 200°C, résistants aux agents chimiques et et atmosphériques, faible résistance mécanique et sous produits du pétrole.
Les polymères sont des matériaux composés de molécules formant en général de longues chaînes d'atomes sur lesquelles sont fixés des éléments tels que l'hydrogène ou le chlore ou les groupements d'atomes tels que le radical méthyle -CH3
Exemples : polychlorure de vinyle PVC, polyéthylène PE, polystyrène PS, polymethacrylaté de méthyle PMMA (Plexiglas), polyamides PA (nylon), polytretrafluorethylene PTFE (Téflon).
Un matériau composite est un mélange entre deux classes de matériaux. Pour avoir une combinaison de propriétés.
Métaux et alliages + céramiques = béton armé par exemple
Métaux et alliages + polymères organiques = pneumatiques par ex.
Céramiques + polymères = fibre de verre
Un matériau composite est constitué d'au moins deux matériaux différents qui combinent leurs propriétés spécifiques. Propriétés mécaniques anisotropes, elles ne sont pas les mêmes dans toutes les directions. Généralement ce sont des matériaux légers.
La matrice est la liaison entre les renforts, protection contre les agents agressifs, répartition de la sollicitation, donne la forme de la pièce.
Renfort : fonction mécanique, fibre dont l'orientation dépend de la sollicitation mécanique.
Exemple de renfort (fibres) : carbone, aramide, bore, carbure de silicium, verre, ... Motrices synthétiques organiques : epoxydes, phénoliques, silicones, ...
Composites :
•polymère plus fibre de verre
•Polymère plus fibre de carbone
•Alliages plus fibre de bore。

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