Processing of recursive sentence structure Testing predictions from a connectionist model.
小学英语毕业班总复习(PEP)
Difficulty Analysis and Breakthrough
Difficulty Analysis: The book is designed to gradually increase the difficulty level as students progress through the chapters. The early chapters focus on basic language skills, while later chapters introduce more challenging vocabulary, sentence structures, and grammar rules.
Model Test
Model Test 1
01
02
基础知识点考查
主要测试学生对英语基础知识的掌握程度 ，包括词汇、语法和l Test 2
阅读理解能力
05
06
通过多篇阅读材料，评估学生的阅读速度 、理解能力和逻辑分析能力。
Simulated Test Question
培养阅读技巧
阅读理解能力是英语学习中不可或缺的一部分。为了提高阅读理解能力，学生需要掌握各种阅读技巧，如快速阅读、寻找主 题句、推断作者意图等。此外，学生还应该注重阅读材料的多样性和深度，以培养阅读兴趣和拓宽知识面。
Developing writing skills
多写多练
写作技能是英语学习中不可或缺的一部分。学生需要通过多 写多练来提高写作技能，注重文章的逻辑性和表达的准确性 。此外，学生还应该学习各种写作技巧，如段落组织、句子 结构、修辞手法等，以提升写作水平。
Answer Analysis and Ideas Guidance
Basic Sentence Parts and Sentence
Basic Sentence Parts and Sentence Structures Methods of Shaping Words Into Sentences in EnglishThere are many different ways of organizing words into sentences. (Or we might say, Words can be organized into sentences in many different ways.) For this reason, describing how to put a sentence together isn't as easy as explaining how to bake a cake or assemble a model plane. There are no easy recipes, no step-by-step instructions. But that doesn't mean that crafting an effective sentence depends on magic or good luck.Experienced writers understand that the basic parts of a sentence can be combined and arranged in countless ways. So as we work to improve our writing, it's important to understand what these basic structures are and how to use them effectively.We'll begin by introducing the traditional parts of speech and the most common sentence structures. For practice in shaping these words and structures into strong sentences, follow the links to the practice exercises, examples, and expanded discussions.1) The Parts of SpeechOne way to begin studying basic sentence structures is to consider the traditional parts of speech (also called word classes): nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Except for interjections ("ouch!"), which have a habit of standing by themselves, the parts of speech come in many varieties and may show up just about anywhere in a sentence. To know for sure what part of speech a word is, we have to look not only at the word itself but also at its meaning, position, and use in a sentence. More:∙What Are the Parts of Speech?∙What Is a Noun?∙What Is a Verb?∙What Is a Word Class?2) Subjects, Verbs, and ObjectsThe basic parts of a sentence are the subject, the verb, and (often, but not always) the object. The subject is usually a noun--a word that names a person, place, or thing. The verb (or predicate) usually follows the subject and identifies an action or a state of being. An object receives the action and usually follows the verb.More:∙Subjects, Verbs, and Objects∙What Is the Subject of a Sentence?∙What Is a Predicate?∙What Is a Direct Object?∙What Is a Simple Sentence?∙Exercises in Identifying Subjects and Verbs3) Adjectives and AdverbsA common way of expanding the basic sentence is with modifiers--words that add to the meanings of other words. The simplest modifiers are adjectives and adverbs. Adjectives modify nouns, while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.More:∙What Is an Adjective?∙What Is an Adverb?∙Adding Adjectives and Adverbs to the Basic Sentence Unit∙Sentence Building with Adjectives and Adverbs∙Sentence Combining: Martha's Departure4) Prepositional PhrasesLike adjectives and adverbs, prepositional phrases add meaning to the nouns and verbs in sentences. A prepositional phrase has two basic parts: a preposition plus a noun or a pronoun that serves as the object of the preposition.More:∙What Is a Preposition?∙Adding Prepositional Phrases to the Basic Sentence Unit∙Arranging Prepositional Phrases∙Identifying Prepositional Phrases∙Sentence Building with Prepositional Phrases5) CoordinationA common way to connect related words, phrases, and even entire clauses is to coordinate them--that is, connect them with a basic coordinating conjunction such as "and" or "but." More:∙What Is a Conjunction?∙Coordinating Words, Phrases, and Clauses∙Sentence Combining with Coordination∙What Is a Compound Sentence?6) Adjective ClausesTo show that one idea in a sentence is more important than another, we rely on subordination--that is, treating one word group as secondary (or subordinate) to another. One common form of subordination is the adjective clause--a word group that modifies a noun. The most common adjective clauses begin with one of these relative pronouns: who, which, and that.More:∙Subordination with Adjective Clauses∙Building Sentences with Adjective Clauses∙What Is a Relative Pronoun?∙What Is a Subordinate Clause?∙What Is a Complex Sentence?∙Sentence Combining with Adjective Clauses7) AppositivesAn appositive is a word or group of words that identifies or renames another word in a sentence--most often a noun that immediately precedes it. Appositive constructions offer concise ways of describing or defining a person, place, or thing.More:∙What Is an Appositive?∙Building Sentences with Appositives∙Practice in Using Appositives8) Adverb ClausesLike an adjective clause, an adverb clause is always dependent on (or subordinate to) an independent clause. Like an ordinary adverb, an adverb clause usually modifies a verb, though it can also modify an adjective, an adverb, or even the rest of the sentence in which it appears. An adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction--an adverb that connects the subordinate clause to the main clause.More:∙Building Sentences with Adverb Clauses (part one)∙Building Sentences with Adverb Clauses (part two)∙Building Sentences with Adverb Clauses (part three)∙What Is a Subordinating Conjunction?9) Participial PhrasesA participle is a verb form used as an adjective to modify nouns and pronouns. All present participles end in -ing. The past participles of all regular verbs end in -ed. Irregular verbs, however, have various past participle endings. Participles and participial phrases can add vigor to our writing as they add information to our sentences.More:∙What Is a Participle?∙What Is a Present Participle?∙Creating and Arranging Participial Phrases∙Identifying Verbals∙Building Sentences with Participial Phrases10) Absolute PhrasesAmong the various kinds of modifiers, the absolute phrase may be the least common but one of the most useful. An absolute phrase, which consists of a noun plus at least one other word, adds details to an entire sentence--details that often describe one aspect of someone or something mentioned elsewhere in the sentence.More:∙What Is an Absolute?∙Building Sentences with Absolute Phrases∙Revising Sentences with Absolute PhrasesGrammar Basics∙What Is Grammar?∙The Basic Parts of Speech∙The Writing ProcessSentence Structures∙Simple Sentence∙Compound Sentence∙Complex Sentence。
Sentence processing
Sentence processingRoger P.G. van GompelDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of DundeeDundee DD1 4HNScotland, United KingdomE-mail: r.p.g.vangompel@In K. Brown et al. (Eds.) (2006), Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2nd edition). Oxford: Elsevier.AbstractSentence processing research investigates how people process the syntactic structure of sentences, with a particular interest in syntactic ambiguity. Two largely incompatible classes of theories dominate research on syntactic ambiguity resolution. According to two-stage theories, the sentence processor initially adopts a single analysis using only a restricted range of information. In contrast, constraint-based theories claim that multiple analyses of a syntactic ambiguity are activated in parallel and that the processor immediately uses all sources of information. This article reviews experimental studies that provide evidence for and against both theories. It also outlines current controversies in the field and describes new directions that sentence research has taken.An essential part of understanding a sentence is to construct the appropriate syntactic structure. Research investigating how language users do this is usually referred to as sentence processing research. Most sentence processing research has focused on syntactic ambiguities. Although language users are often unaware of syntactic ambiguities, they are in fact very common, so an important goal of this research is to develop theories that explain how language users process them. Furthermore, syntactic ambiguities present a precious opportunity to gain insight into the architecture and mechanisms of the sentence processor. People often experience difficulty in adopting the intended analysis of syntactically ambiguous sentences and by examining when processing difficulty occurs, psycholinguists can study the workings of the sentence processor.Sentence processing theories: Two-stage versus constraint-based theoriesThe literature on syntactic ambiguity resolution is dominated by two largely incompatible classes of theories, two-stage and constraint-based theories. Two-stage theories claim that the processor initially draws upon a restricted range of information to construct a single analysis of an ambiguous structure. According to the most influential two-stage account, the garden-path theory, the syntactic processor is modular (e.g., Frazier, 1979, 1987; Rayner, Carlson, & Frazier, 1983). It claims that the processor initially adopts the analysis that is simplest in terms of syntactic tree structure (e.g., the fewest nodes), whereas other potentially useful information for resolving syntactic ambiguities is delayed until the second stage of processing. Other two-stage theories assume that the processor uses thematic role information during its initial stage (e.g., Pritchett, 1992). However, all two-stage theories claim that reanalysis occurs when the initial analysis is inconsistent with information that is used during the second stage of processing. Discovery of the misanalysis and subsequent reanalysis result in processing difficulty.In contrast, constraint-based theories claim that all sources of information, including non-syntactic constraints, immediately affect syntactic ambiguity resolution (e.g., MacDonald, Seidenberg, & Pearlmutter, 1994; Trueswell, Tanenhaus, & Garnsey, 1994; Trueswell, Tanenhaus, & Kello, 1993). They claim that the processor activates multiple analyses of a syntactic ambiguity in parallel. All sources of information have an immediate effect on their activation and the activation of an analysis is determined by the number and strength of the constraints supporting it. When the activation of one analysis is much higher than that of the alternative analyses, processing the ambiguity is easy. But when two analyses are approximately equally activated, they compete, and processing difficulty occurs.The use of non-syntactic informationA large body of research has tested the two opposing classes of theories by investigating whether the use of non-syntactic information is delayed relative to syntactic information. Ferreira and Clifton (1986) investigated sentences such as (1-4) in a reading experiment.1. The defendant examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable.2. The defendant that was examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable.3. The evidence examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable.4. The evidence that was examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable.Sentence (1) contains a reduced relative clause (examined by the lawyer) that results in a temporary ambiguity, because the initial words also permit a main clause analysis (as in the defendant examined the lawyer). According to the garden-path theory, the processor initially adopts the main clause analysis, because it is structurally simplest. This correctly accounts forFerreira and Clifton's (1986) finding that the disambiguating phrase (by the lawyer) in (1) is harder to read than in an unambiguous sentence like (2).More interestingly, Ferreira and Clifton (1986) observed that readers experienced difficulty with reduced relatives even in (3), where the main clause analysis is ruled out by plausibility (evidence does not normally examine anything). This suggests that the processor bases its initial analysis on syntactic information and that the use of plausibility information is delayed, as claimed by the garden-path theory. However, Trueswell et al. (1994) argued that the plausibility manipulation in Ferreira and Clifton's study was too weak. With stronger materials, they showed that no difficulty occurred in (3) relative to (4). They argued that this supports constraint-based theories.Other studies have investigated the use of contextual information. Constraint-based theories incorporate ideas from referential theory (Altmann & Steedman, 1988; Crain and Steedman, 1985), which claims that the processor favors the analysis with the fewest unsupported discourse presuppositions. In (5), the temporarily ambiguous PP with the new lock modifies the NP the safe.5. The burglar blew open the safe with the new lock.This interpretation presupposes that there is more than one safe in the discourse, but only one has a new lock. However, in the absence of a context mentioning more than one safe, this presupposition is unsupported. Hence, (5) should be harder to process than the verb modifier interpretation in (6), which does not contain this presupposition.6. The burglar blew open the safe with the dynamite.However, in a context mentioning more than one safe, as in (7), the NP modifier interpretation should be preferred.7. The burglar saw a safe with a new lock and a safe with an old lock.He blew open the safe with the new lock.The presupposition associated with the NP modifier is now supported, because the PP singles out one of the safes. In contrast, the verb modifier interpretation is infelicitous because it presupposes that the discourse contains only a single safe.Several reading studies have shown that referential context affects syntactic ambiguity resolution (e.g., Altmann & Steedman, 1988), however, the effects are less strong than claimed by referential theory: In syntactic ambiguities with a strong bias for one analysis (in the absence of a context), discourse context does not appear to override structural preferences (e.g., Britt, 1994). This fits well with constraint-based theories. They claim that discourse information has a strong effect when other constraints do not strongly favor a single analysis. But when other constraints strongly favor one analysis, these constraints may override context effects.Another important non-syntactic constraint is the frequency with which structures occur in a language. Trueswell et al. (1993) investigated temporarily ambiguous sentences such as (8-9).8. The student forgot the solution was in the book.9. The student hoped the solution was in the book.Verbs such as forget occur more frequently with a direct object (as in The student forgot the solution) than with a sentence complement (as in (8)), whereas verbs such as hope show theopposite pattern. Trueswell et al. showed that the disambiguating region in (8) (was in the) took longer to read than in unambiguous sentences containing that following the critical verb. However, no difference was observed between (9) and its unambiguous control, suggesting that frequency information had an immediate effect on syntactic ambiguity resolution. They concluded that this supports constraint-based theories.On-going controversiesThe garden-path model may be able to account for early effects of non-syntactic information by stipulating that such information is used so rapidly that its delay is undetectable (Clifton & Ferreira, 1986), but this makes its predictions rather unclear. As a result, constraint-based theories have become the dominant approach in the sentence processing literature. However, not all studies support the constraint-based view. Binder, Duffy, and Rayner (2001) investigated whether non-syntactic information (plausibility and context) could make the main clause analysis in reduced relative/main clause ambiguities the preferred analysis, as predicted by constraint-based theories, but it did not. Clifton, Traxler, Mohamed, Williams, Morris, and Rayner (2003) investigated the use of plausibility information in reduce relative structures, but used a larger set of materials than Trueswell et al. (1994). They observed that plausibility information facilitated the reduced relative analysis, but it did not completely eliminate difficulty. Finally, some studies show that verb frequency information does not always eliminate processing difficulty (e.g., Pickering, Traxler, & Crocker, 2000).Constraint-based theorists argue that such results do not provide evidence against constraint-based theories. Syntactic preferences may be particularly strong and therefore, non-syntactic information cannot always override them. Unfortunately, such claims make it difficult to derive exact and testable predictions as to how linguistic factors interact. In order to makeconstraint-based models more explicit and testable, researchers have started to build computational models (e.g., McRae, Spivey-Knowlton, & Tanenhaus, 1998; Tabor & Tanenhaus, 1999). Furthermore, constraint-based theorists have argued that people's completions of sentence fragments provide a good estimate of usage frequencies, and therefore, they can be used to predict parsing preferences (e.g., McRae et al, 1998; Garnsey et al., 1997). However, it is unclear whether parsing preferences are the result of usage frequencies, or whether the same underlying factors influence both parsing preferences and usage frequencies. Hence, a promising alternative approach is to explain both parsing and production preferences as the result of the same semantic factors (e.g., McKoon & Ratcliff, 2003).New directionsRecent studies have started to address new issues. An important line of research explores the interactions between visual context and sentence processing by measuring people’s eye movements to visual scenes while they listen to sentences. Tanenhaus, Spivey-Knowlton, Eberhard, and Sedivy (1995; Spivey, Tanenhaus, Eberhard, & Sedivy, 2002) asked people to follow auditory instructions such as (10-11).10. Put the apple on the towel in the box.11. Put the apple that's on the towel in the box.They were presented with either a one-referent scene containing a single apple on a towel, or a two-referent scene containing two apples, one of which was on a towel. Both scenes also contained an empty towel without an apple, and a box. When people heard (10) while looking at the one-referent scene, they looked more often at the empty towel than when hearing (11).This indicates that they initially misinterpreted on the towel in the temporarily ambiguous sentence (10) as modifying the verb put and took it as the destination for the apple. However, for the two-referent scene, no such difference was observed, suggesting that the visual context immediately affected syntactic ambiguity resolution. Recent research has also used this visual-world method to investigate how children process syntactic ambiguities. Trueswell, Sekerina, Hill, and Logrip (1999) showed that, in contrast to adults, children do not use the visual context. However, both adults and children appear to use verb frequency information (Snedeker & Trueswell, 2004).Using a similar method, Altmann and Kamide (1999; Kamide, Altmann, & Haywood, 2003) showed that listeners looked at edible objects when hearing sentences such as (12), even before they heard cake.12. The boy will eat the cake.Kamide et al. (2003) argued that the processor anticipates properties of upcoming phrases, using both semantic and syntactic information up to that point. What properties it anticipates is less clear, in particular whether it anticipates syntactic structures. Furthermore, it is likely that the anticipations are at least partly triggered by the visual context. During normal language comprehension, such a context is usually absent, and people may therefore not make the same type of anticipations. Nevertheless, what these studies show is that visual context has a very rapid effect on sentence comprehension.Other recent research has continued to use reading methods, but has addressed new questions. Van Gompel, Pickering, Pearson, and Liversedge (in press) investigated whether processing difficulty is the result of competition between analyses. Most constraint-based theories claim that competition should occur in globally ambiguous sentences with no strongbias for either analysis, because constraints support two analyses to an equal extent. Hence, such sentences should be harder to process than disambiguated sentences, where only a single analysis is supported. However, Van Gompel et al. observed exactly the opposite pattern of results, suggesting that competition is not the mechanism causing processing difficulty. They argued that processing difficulty is due to reanalysis: Globally ambiguous sentences are easy to process, because the initial analysis remains possible throughout the sentence, regardless of which analysis is adopted. In contrast, when a sentence is disambiguated, the initial analysis may be incorrect, and the processor has to reanalyze.Christianson, Hollingworth, Halliwell, and Ferreira (2001) showed that readers often fail to adopt the intended analysis in temporarily ambiguous sentences. In line with this, Ferreira (2003) argued that readers often construct shallow representations of the sentence, even for completely unambiguous sentences such as passives. Finally, researchers have started to show a renewed interest in how working memory constraints affect the processing of both ambiguous and unambiguous sentences (e.g., Caplan & Waters, 1999; Gibson, 1998; Gordon, Hendrick, & Johnson, 2004). Future research will probably continue to explore these and other new issues.BibliographyAltmann, G., & Steedman, M. (1988). Interaction with context during human sentence processing. Cognition, 30, 191-238.Altmann, G.T.M., & Kamide, Y. (1999). Incremental interpretation at verbs: Restricting the domain of subsequent reference. Cognition, 73, 247-264.Binder, K.S., Duffy, S.A., & Rayner, K. (2001). The effects of thematic fit and discourse context on syntactic ambiguity resolution. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 297-324. Britt, M.A. (1994). The interaction of referential ambiguity and argument structure in the parsing of prepositional phrases. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 251-283. Caplan, D., & Waters, G.S. (1999). Verbal working memory and sentence comprehension.Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 77-126.Christianson, K., Hollingworth, A., Halliwell, J.F., & Ferreira, F. (2001). Thematic roles assigned along the garden path linger. Cognitive Psychology, 42, 368-407.Clifton, C.J., & Ferreira, F. (1989). Ambiguity in context. Language and Cognitive Processes, 4, SI 77-103.Clifton, C., Traxler, M.J., Mohamed, M.T., Williams, R.S., Morris, R.K., & Rayner, K. (2003).The use of thematic role information in parsing: Syntactic processing autonomy revisited.Journal of Memory and Language, 49, 317-334.Crain, S., & Steedman, M. (1985). On not being led up the garden path: The use of context by the psychological syntax processor. In D.R. Dowty, L. Karttunen, & A.M. Zwicky (Eds.), Natural Language Parsing: Psychological, Computational and Theoretical perspectives (pp. 320-358). Cambridge, England: CUP.Ferreira, F., & Clifton, C.J. (1986). The independence of syntactic processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 25, 348-368.Ferreira, F. (2003). The misinterpretation of noncanonical sentences. Cognitive Psychology, 47, 164-203.Frazier, L. (1979). On comprehending sentences: Syntactic parsing strategies. Ph.D.Dissertation. Indiana University Linguistics Club. University of Connecticut.Frazier, L. (1987). Sentence processing: A tutorial review. In M. Coltheart (Ed.), Attention and performance XII: The psychology of reading (pp. 559-586). Hillsdale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum Associates.Gibson, E. (1998). Linguistic complexity: locality of syntactic dependencies. Cognition, 68, 1-76.Gordon, P.C., Hendrick, R., & Johnson, M. (2004). Effects of noun phrase type on sentence complexity. Journal of Memory and Language, 51, 97-114.Kamide, Y., Altmann, G.T.M., & Haywood, S.L. (2003). The time-course of prediction in incremental sentence processing: Evidence from anticipatory eye movements. Journal of Memory and Language, 49, 133-156.MacDonald, M.C., Pearlmutter, N.J., & Seidenberg, M.S. (1994). The lexical nature of syntactic ambiguity resolution. Psychological Review, 101, 676-703.McKoon, G., & Ratcliff, R. (2003). Meaning through syntax: Language comprehension and the reduced relative clause construction. Psychological Review, 110, 490-525.McRae, K., Spivey-Knowlton, M.J., & Tanenhaus, M.K. (1998). Modeling the influence of thematic fit (and other constraints) in on-line sentence comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language, 38, 283-312.Pickering, M.J., Traxler, M.J., & Crocker, M.W. (2000). Ambiguity resolution in sentence processing: Evidence against frequency-based accounts. Journal of Memory and Language, 43, 447-475.Pritchett, B.L. (1992). Grammatical competence and parsing performance. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Rayner, K., Carlson, M., & Frazier, L. (1983). The interaction of syntax and semantics during sentence processing: Eye movements in the analysis of semantically biased sentences.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 358-374.Snedeker, J., & Trueswell, J.C. (2004). The developing constraints on parsing decisions: The role of lexical-biases and referential scenes in child and adult sentence processing.Cognitive Psychology, 49, 238-299.Spivey, M.J., Tanenhaus, M.K., Eberhard, K.M., & Sedivy, J.C. (2002). Eye movements and spoken language comprehension: Effects of visual context on syntactic ambiguityresolution. Cognitive Psychology, 45, 447-481.Tabor, W., & Tanenhaus, M.K. (1999). Dynamical models of sentence processing. Cognitive Science, 23, 491-515.Tanenhaus, M.K., Spivey Knowlton, M.J., Eberhard, K.M., & Sedivy, J.C. (1995). Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension. Science, 268, 1632-1634.Trueswell, J.C., Tanenhaus, M.K., & Kello, C. (1993). Verb-specific constraints in sentence processing: Separating effects of lexical preference from garden-paths. Journal ofExperimental Psychology Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 528-553.Trueswell, J.C., Tanenhaus, M.K., & Garnsey, S.M. (1994). Semantic influences on parsing: Use of thematic role information in syntactic ambiguity resolution. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 285-318.Trueswell, J.C., Sekerina, I., Hill, N.M., & Logrip, M.L. (1999). The kindergarten-path effect: Studying on-line sentence processing in young children. Cognition, 73, 89-134.Van Gompel, R.P.G., Pickering, M.J., Pearson, J., & Liversedge, S.P. (in press). Evidence against competition during syntactic ambiguity resolution. Journal of Memory and Language.。
语言学第五版第六单元术语
语言学第五版第六单元术语1. Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. As an interdisciplinary academic field basied on psychology and linguistics, psycholinguistics investigates the six following subjects: language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, language disorders,language and thought, and cognitive architecture of language, the most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production.2. Language acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Acquiring a first language is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons. Four phrases are identified and acknowledged in the process of language acquisition: holophrastic stage, two word stage, three word utterances, and, fluent grammatical conversation stage.3. holophrastic stage is the first phase of language acquisition. The main linguistic accomplishments during this stage are control of the speech musculature and sensitivity tothe phonetic distinctions used in the parents’language. Shortly before their first birthday, babies begin to unstand words, and around that birthday, they start to produce them.4. two word stage is the second phase of language acquisition. Around 18 months, the child begins to learn words at the rate of one every two walking hours, and keeps learning that rate or faster through adolescence.5. Three word utterances stage is the third phase of language acquisition. Three word utterances look like samples drawn from longer potential sentences expressing a complete and more complated idea.6. connectionism: With respection to the respect to language comprehension, connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words and to access the pronunciations of familiar words, or words that are exceptions to these patterns. In this view, similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel iterms being processed based on their similarity to known ones.7. Cohort model is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognitionpostulation postulated by Marslen Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate is a clear winner.8. Interactive model holds that in recognizing the spoken words higher processing levels have direct, “top down”influence on lower levels. Lexical knowedge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the formal of lexical effects on the perception of sublexical units. In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonems; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.9. Race model suggests in spoken word recognition there are two routes that race each other a pre lexical route, which computers phonological information from the acoustic signal, and a lexical route in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itselfis accessed When word level information appears to affect a lower level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race.10. Serial model proposes that the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows the constraints of a language grammar with remarkable speed. serial model describes how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation ,primarily grammatical information .Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant.11. Parallel model emphasizes that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information .including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker writer and of the world in general. parallel model describes how the processor users all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence .it is generally acknowledged that listener and readers integrate and situational knowledge in understandinga sentence.12. Resonance model is a model about text comprehension,in this model , information in long term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it .semantic details, including factors such as negation that drastically change the truth of propositions , do not seem to affect the resonance process. It emphasized a more active and intelligent search for meaning as the basis by which a reader discovers the conceptual structure of a discourse. In reading a narrative text, reader attempts to build a representation of the causal structure of the text. analyzing events in terms of goals ,actions, and reactions .A resonance process serves as first stage in processing a text, and , reading objectives and details of text structure determine whatever a reader goes further searches for a coherent structure for the text.13. Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation inalternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure ground segregation etc.14. Construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguisticexpressions.15. Figure ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relation configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving object. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground.16. Trajector means a moving or dynamic figure.17. Landmark means the ground provided for a moving figure.18. Basic level category is the most economical level at which you can find the most relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this level. It is at this level that we conjure up the gestalt of the category.19. Subordinate level is the level at which we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.20. Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure toour experience.21. Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the others. It’s oftendescribed in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.22. Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another.23. Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances.24. Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.25. Generic space maps onto each of the inputs. It reflects some common, usually more abstuct, structure and organization shared by the inputs. It defines the core cross space mapping between them.26. Blend space is the fourth space onto which is partially projected by inputs I1 and I2。
语言学名词解释《最新文档》
Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context. (03).6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking. (05)7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. (06F)8. performatives:Performatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, a nd are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act:The act of expressing the speaker’s intention and performed in saying something. (06F)11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.1. historical linguistics:A subfield of linguistics that study language change.2. coinage: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose. (03)3. blending:A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.5. borrowing:When different culture come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called load words.6. back formation: New words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affix mistakenly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formation.7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.Chapter 8: Language And Society2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms. (05)3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.7. idiolect :A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. (04)10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist ina speech community, each having a definite role to play.Chapter 9: Language And Culture1. culture : The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community.5. linguistic relativity : A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language-----又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)7. denotative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a dictionary.8. connotative meaning: The association of a word, apart from its primary meaning.9. iconic meaning: The image of a word invoked to people.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acquisition:It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language. (03)4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.(05)6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.12. interlingual error: errors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.13. intralingual error: Errors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples are overgeneralization and cross-association.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms andself-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly awareof their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation:motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc. (06C)27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes. (06F)29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.30. learning strategies:learning strategies are learners’ co nscious goal-oriented andproblem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.31. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what has been learned. (07C/ 06F)32. metacognitive strategies: the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.33. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.。
如何理解句子答题技巧
如何理解句子答题技巧英文回答：Understanding sentence techniques can be a crucialskill for effective reading and writing. By breaking down sentences into their constituent parts and examining their structure and function, we can gain a deeper comprehension of their meaning and purpose.One key aspect of sentence comprehension is identifying the sentence's main parts, which include the subject, verb, and object. The subject typically refers to the "doer" of the action or the entity being described, while the verb expresses the action, event, or state of being. The object, in turn, receives the action or is affected by it.Another important element to consider is sentence structure. Sentences can be classified into simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. Simple sentences consist of a single independent clause, whilecompound sentences are made up of two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. Complex sentences contain one independent clause and at least one dependent clause, which is introduced by a subordinating conjunction. Compound-complex sentences combine elements of both compound and complex sentences, featuring multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.Understanding sentence types can help us determine the relationships between clauses and identify the main ideas and supporting details. For instance, independent clauses express complete thoughts and can stand alone as individual sentences, while dependent clauses are dependent on an independent clause for their meaning.In addition to sentence structure, sentence mood and voice can also affect its meaning. Mood refers to the attitude or stance conveyed by the sentence, which can be indicative (stating a fact), imperative (expressing a command or request), subjunctive (expressing a hypothetical or conditional state), or interrogative (asking a question). Voice, on the other hand, indicates whether the subject ofthe sentence performs or receives the action, with active voice highlighting the subject's active role and passive voice emphasizing the subject's passive role.By understanding these sentence techniques, we can unlock the full potential of language and engage with texts more effectively. We can better grasp the intended meaningof sentences, analyze their structure and function, and appreciate the nuances of language and communication.中文回答：如何理解句子答题技巧。
新时代核心英语教程写作1教学课件(U3)
Subject-verb order
In English sentences, except the interrogative sentences, the subject usually comes before the verb. But sometimes writers reverse the order for stylistic effects.
Key Terms
Types of sentences句子类型 complex sentence 复合句
compound-complex sentence 并列复合句
compound sentence 并列句 declarative sentence 陈述句 exclamatory sentence 感叹句
oreurriculum新时代核心英语教程写作1sentencefundamentalssentencefundamentals33unitsentenceelements句子成分adverbial状语attributive定语complement补语keytermsobject宾语predicate谓语predicative表语subject主语typesofsentences句子类型complexsentence复合句compoundcomplexsentence并列复合句compoundsentence并列句declarativesentence陈述句exclamatorysentence感叹句keytermsimperativesentence祈使句interrogativesentence疑问句loosesentence松散句periodicsentence圆周句simplesentence简单句maincontentstheelementsofasentencefivebasicsentencepatternssentencefundamentals2
高中英语提升学生句子成分能力的方法
高中英语提升学生句子成分能力的方法Developing strong sentence structure competency is a crucial aspect of mastering the English language, particularly for high school students who are preparing for advanced academic and professional pursuits. Effective sentence structure not only enhances clarity and coherence in written communication but also reflects a deeper understanding of grammatical principles and the ability to manipulate language effectively. In the context of high school English education, there are several methods that can be employed to help students improve their sentence structure capabilities.One of the primary approaches is to focus on expanding students' understanding of the fundamental elements of a sentence. This includes a thorough exploration of the different parts of speech, their functions, and how they can be combined to create well-structured sentences. By delving into the roles of nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and other parts of speech, students can gain a stronger grasp of how these components work together to convey meaning. Additionally, introducing concepts such as subject-verb agreement, pronoun-antecedent agreement, and sentence patternscan help students recognize the underlying structure of sentences and apply these principles in their own writing.Another effective method is to engage students in extensive reading and analysis of diverse literary and informational texts. By closely examining the sentence structures used by accomplished writers, students can develop a keen eye for identifying effective techniques and strategies. This exposure to a wide range of sentence structures, from simple to complex, can inspire students to experiment with their own writing and incorporate new syntactical elements. Furthermore, the process of deconstructing and analyzing the sentence structures in these texts can foster a deeper understanding of how language works and how various structures can be employed to achieve specific rhetorical effects.In addition to reading and analysis, providing students with ample opportunities to practice writing and receive targeted feedback is crucial for improving sentence structure competency. This can involve a range of activities, such as sentence-level exercises, where students are tasked with manipulating sentence elements to create more sophisticated or varied structures. Exercises that focus on transforming simple sentences into compound or complex sentences, or vice versa, can help students develop a greater flexibility in their sentence construction. Furthermore, regular writing assignments, such as essays, research papers, or creative pieces, allow students toapply their understanding of sentence structure in a more holistic and contextual manner, with the guidance and feedback of their teachers.Another important aspect of enhancing sentence structure competency is the incorporation of explicit instruction and targeted feedback. This can involve lessons that delve into the nuances of sentence structure, covering topics such as parallel structure, subordination, coordination, and the use of transitional words and phrases. By providing students with the necessary theoretical knowledge and practical examples, teachers can equip them with the tools to recognize and correct common sentence structure errors, as well as to intentionally craft sentences that are both grammatically correct and stylistically effective.Furthermore, the integration of technology-based resources and tools can greatly support the development of sentence structure skills. Online platforms, interactive exercises, and specialized software can offer students personalized feedback, targeted practice, and opportunities to experiment with different sentence structures. These resources can also provide students with opportunities to receive immediate feedback on their writing, allowing them to identify and address weaknesses in their sentence construction more efficiently.Finally, it is crucial to foster an environment that encouragesstudents to take risks and experiment with their language use. By creating a supportive and non-judgmental classroom atmosphere, teachers can empower students to step outside their comfort zones, try new sentence structures, and receive constructive feedback without fear of failure. This nurturing approach can help students develop a growth mindset, where they see challenges in sentence structure as opportunities for learning and improvement, rather than as obstacles to be avoided.In conclusion, the development of strong sentence structure competency is a vital component of high school English education. By employing a multifaceted approach that includes explicit instruction, extensive reading and analysis, targeted practice, and the integration of technology-based resources, educators can help students strengthen their understanding of sentence structure and apply these skills effectively in their written communication. By fostering an environment that encourages risk-taking and a growth mindset, high school English programs can empower students to become confident and versatile users of the English language, well-equipped to navigate the academic and professional challenges that lie ahead.。
英语写作增分口诀(句法)
01
The use of simple sentences
Definition of simple sentences
01
Simple
sentences
are
grammatically
complete,
stand-alone sentences with a
subject and predicate.
03
The use of compound sentences
Definition of compound sentences
Compound sentences are made up of two or more independent clauses combined with a coordinating conjunction.
Double-check your sentence structure to ensure that the meaning is clear and that there are no grammatical errors or inconsistencies.
04
The use of special sentence patterns
They are used to provide additional information or to develop a single idea.
They are grammatically complete sentences that can stand alone.
Classification of compound sentences
02
They are the building blocks of effective writing and convey a clear message.
高中英语选修六Ahealthylife作文句式变化课件
Based on the questioning of different components in the declarative sentence, choose different interrogative words to guide the special interrogative sentence. For example, "He lives in New York." can be converted to "Where does he live?".
Background and purpose of the courseware
Adapting to the needs of high school English teaching: The high school English elective course six Ahealthlife essay sentence structure change courseware is designed according to the high school English curriculum standards and textbook requirements, aiming to help students master rich sentence structure change skills and improve their English essay expression ability.
The Conversion of Positive and Negative Sentences
Positive sentence to negative sentence
Adding a negative word "not" or "never" before the predicate verb of the affirmative sentence, such as "She likes playing tennis." can be converted to "She does not like playing tennis.".
Training English Essays (Selected)
Employing a range of sentence structures, lengths, and rhythms can improve the flow and readability of an essay.
Grammar rules and application
Training English Essays (Selected)
汇报人：
2023-12-22
• Basic knowledge of English composition
• Common Writing Techniques for Themes
• Appreciation and Analysis of Excellent Model Prose
Organized Structure
Expository essays are typically organized in a logical structure, such as cause and effect, compare and contrast, or problem and solution.
Fan Wensan's prose centers on the theme of growth, discussing the challenges and joys of growing up and the importance of perseverance and courage in the face of difficulties.
Expository essays aim to inform the reader about a topic, idea, or concept.
英语作文分析句子结构方式
英语作文分析句子结构方式Sentence Structure Analysis in English Writing。
Sentence structure is an essential element of English writing. It refers to the way in which words are arranged to form a grammatically correct sentence. Understanding sentence structure is crucial for effective communicationin English. In this essay, we will explore the different types of sentence structures in English writing and how they contribute to the overall meaning of a sentence.The most basic sentence structure in English is the simple sentence, which consists of a subject and a predicate. The subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the action, while the predicate is the verb that describes the action. For example, "John runs" is a simple sentence. It consists of the subject "John" and the predicate "runs." Simple sentences are easy to understand and are often used in everyday communication.Another type of sentence structure is the compound sentence, which consists of two or more simple sentences joined together by a conjunction. Conjunctions are wordslike "and," "but," and "or" that connect two ideas. For example, "John runs, and Mary swims" is a compound sentence. It consists of two simple sentences joined together by the conjunction "and." Compound sentences are useful for expressing complex ideas and creating a sense of balanceand symmetry in writing.The complex sentence is another type of sentence structure in English. It consists of a main clause and oneor more subordinate clauses. The main clause is a complete sentence that can stand alone, while the subordinate clause provides additional information that is dependent on the main clause. For example, "Although John runs every day, he is not very fast" is a complex sentence. The main clause is "he is not very fast," while the subordinate clause is "Although John runs every day." Complex sentences areuseful for expressing cause and effect relationships and adding depth and complexity to writing.Finally, the compound-complex sentence is the most complex sentence structure in English. It consists of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. For example, "Although John runs every day, he is not very fast, but he enjoys it nonetheless" is a compound-complex sentence. It consists of two independent clauses "he is not very fast" and "he enjoys it nonetheless," and one dependent clause "Although John runs every day." Compound-complex sentences are useful for expressing complex ideas and relationships in writing.In conclusion, understanding sentence structure is crucial for effective communication in English writing. Simple sentences are easy to understand and are often used in everyday communication. Compound sentences are useful for expressing complex ideas and creating a sense of balance and symmetry in writing. Complex sentences are useful for expressing cause and effect relationships and adding depth and complexity to writing. Compound-complex sentences are useful for expressing complex ideas and relationships in writing. By mastering these different types of sentence structures, writers can create clear,concise, and effective writing that communicates their ideas effectively.。
英语翻译专业论文题目借鉴
providing additional explanations or background information in the form of footnotes or endnotes to aid comprehension
The embodiment of cultural differences in English translation
02
A Study on Language Structure in English Translation
The Differences in Language Structures between English and Chinese
Word order
English tens to use subject verb object order, while Chinese often uses subject verb order
It requires the translator to have a good understanding of both languages and their corresponding cultural backgrounds, as well as excellent language skills and translation techniques
Literary works
cultural differences are particularly evident in the translation of literary works, where the original cultural context and style are often lost in translation
努力才会成功英语作文
Success is often the result of hard work and dedication.Here are some key points to consider when writing an essay on the topic of hard work leading to success:1.Introduction:Begin by defining what success means to you.It could be achieving a goal,excelling in a career,or overcoming a personal challenge.2.Importance of Hard Work:Explain why hard work is essential for success.Discuss how it builds character,discipline,and resilience.3.Examples of Success Through Hard Work:Provide reallife examples of individuals who have achieved success through their dedication and effort.This could include famous figures like Thomas Edison,who famously said,Genius is one percent inspiration and ninetynine percent perspiration.4.The Role of Perseverance:Discuss how perseverance is a key component of hard work. Its not just about putting in the hours,but also about continuing to strive for improvement even when faced with setbacks.5.Balancing Hard Work with Rest:Its important to mention that hard work should be balanced with rest and selfcare.Overworking can lead to burnout,which is counterproductive to achieving longterm success.6.Setting Goals:Explain how setting clear,achievable goals can help direct hard work towards success.Goals provide a roadmap for where the hard work should be focused.7.Developing Skills:Discuss the importance of skill development in the pursuit of success.Hard work often involves learning new skills or improving existing ones.8.Overcoming Obstacles:Success rarely comes without obstacles.Describe how hard work can help individuals push through challenges and setbacks.9.The Power of Mindset:A positive mindset can greatly influence the outcome of hard work.Discuss how believing in ones ability to succeed can motivate continued effort.10.Conclusion:Summarize the main points and reiterate the importance of hard work in achieving success.Encourage readers to embrace the value of hard work in their own lives.Remember to use a variety of sentence structures and vocabulary to make your essayengaging and persuasive.Provide evidence or anecdotes to support your points and make your essay more compelling.。
英语作文续写高级
英语作文续写高级In the realm of English composition the ability to write at an advanced level is a skill that can significantly enhance ones academic and professional endeavors. To achieve this one must not only have a solid grasp of the language but also the ability to express complex ideas in a coherent and engaging manner. Here are some strategies to elevate your English essay writing to a higher level1. Vocabulary Enhancement A rich vocabulary allows for more precise expression of thoughts. Learn new words regularly and use them in context to understand their nuances.2. Complex Sentence Structures Use a variety of sentence structures including compound complex and compoundcomplex sentences. This will add variety and sophistication to your writing.3. Cohesive and Coherent Writing Ensure that your essay has a clear structure with a strong introduction body paragraphs that develop the main idea and a conclusion that summarizes the points made.4. Use of Transitions Smooth transitions between paragraphs and sentences help maintain the flow of your writing. Words and phrases such as furthermore however and consequently can be used to connect ideas.5. Elaboration of Ideas Provide detailed explanations and examples to support your arguments. This not only strengthens your points but also demonstrates a deep understanding of the topic.6. Critical Thinking An advanced essay requires more than just stating facts it involves analyzing evaluating and synthesizing information. Show your ability to think critically about the subject matter.7. Originality and Creativity Bring a fresh perspective to your writing by offering unique insights or creative solutions to problems. This can be achieved by drawing from personal experiences or by presenting a novel interpretation of the topic.8. Citation and Referencing Properly cite and reference the works of others to avoid plagiarism and to lend credibility to your arguments. Familiarize yourself with citation styles such as APA MLA or Chicago.9. Grammar and Punctuation Ensure that your writing is free from grammatical errors and that punctuation is used correctly. This not only reflects your language proficiency but also contributes to the clarity of your writing.10. Revising and Editing The final step in writing an advanced essay is to revise and edit your work. Look for areas where you can improve clarity remove redundancy and enhance the overall quality of your writing.11. Feedback and Improvement Seek feedback from teachers peers or online resources. Use this feedback to identify areas of weakness and work on improving them.12. Practice Regularly Like any skill writing at an advanced level requires practice. Write regularly on a variety of topics to hone your skills and become more comfortable with complex ideas and language use.By incorporating these strategies into your writing process you can significantly improve the quality of your English compositions and achieve a level of sophistication that will impress readers and evaluators alike. Remember the key to advanced writing is not just about using complex language but also about conveying your thoughts in a clear compelling and thoughtful manner.。
句子的成分结构英语作文
句子的成分结构英语作文Title: Understanding Sentence Structure in English Writing。
Understanding the components of sentence structure is fundamental to proficient English writing. In this essay,we will delve into the various elements that comprise sentences in English and explore how they contribute to effective communication.1. Subject: The subject of a sentence is the noun or pronoun that performs the action or is described in the sentence. It is the main focus of the sentence. For example, in the sentence "The cat chased the mouse," "cat" is the subject.2. Predicate: The predicate is the part of the sentence that contains the verb and provides information about the subject. It includes the verb and all the words that modify or complete its meaning. In the sentence "The cat chasedthe mouse," "chased the mouse" is the predicate.3. Object: The object is the noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb. In a sentence with a transitive verb, the verb typically transfers action to a direct or indirect object. In the sentence "The cat chased the mouse," "mouse" is the object.4. Complement: A complement is a word or group of words that completes the meaning of the predicate. There are two types of complements: subject complements and object complements. Subject complements follow linking verbs and provide additional information about the subject. Object complements follow direct objects and provide additional information about the object.5. Modifier: Modifiers are words or phrases that provide additional information about other elements in the sentence. They can modify nouns (adjectives), verbs (adverbs), or other modifiers. Modifiers help to add detail and specificity to sentences.6. Phrase: A phrase is a group of words that functions as a single unit within a sentence. It does not contain both a subject and a predicate. Phrases can serve various functions within a sentence, such as functioning as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions.7. Clause: A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. There are two main types of clauses: independent clauses and dependent clauses. Independent clauses can stand alone as complete sentences, while dependent clauses rely on an independent clause to form a complete thought.Understanding how these components work together is crucial for constructing clear and coherent sentences. By mastering sentence structure, writers can convey their ideas effectively and engage their readers more successfully. Practice and familiarity with these concepts will ultimately lead to improved writing skills and greater confidence in expressing oneself in English.。
英语句子成分讲解
英语句子成分讲解English Sentence Components Explanation。
In English grammar, a sentence is composed of different elements that work together to convey a complete thought. Understanding the different components of a sentence is crucial for constructing clear and effective communication. In this document, we will explain the various components of English sentences to help you grasp the fundamentals of sentence structure.Subject。
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about. It is typically a noun or a pronoun and performs the action described by the verb. For example, in the sentence "Mary is reading a book," "Mary" is the subject.Verb。
The verb is the action or state of being in the sentence. It expresses what the subject is doing or the condition it is in. In the sentence "The dog barks loudly," "barks" is the verb.Object。
4.syntax
Deep structure and surface structure
Linguists who adopt this approach are interested in relating the various kinds of linguistic structures and patterns to the functions that language serves and to the social settings in which it is used.
种普遍的语言功能（P11）
（1）Ideational function (概念功能) （2）Interpersonal function (人际功能) （3）Textual function (语篇功能)
The boy kicked the ball. The ball was kicked by the boy.
This approach originated in the late 1950s with the American linguist Noam Chomsky, who gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar. From its birth to the present day, TG Grammar has seen several stages of development.
the generative 1. word-level categories approach 2. phrase categories (生成学派) 3. sentences
The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow noun,verb, verb,subject, subject, sense, e.g. noun, predicate, noun noun phrase, phrase, verb verb predicate, syntax categories phrase, etc. etc.. More specifically, phrase, (句法范畴) (P43) it refers to the defining properties of these general unit： the categories of the nouns, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc..
英语作文两种句式结构
In English composition, two fundamental sentence structures are essential for constructing clear and effective sentences. These are the simple sentence and the compoundcomplex sentence.1. Simple Sentence: A simple sentence is the most basic form of a sentence and contains one independent clause. It consists of a subject and a predicate verb phrase. Here are some examples:She reads books.The cat slept on the couch.He enjoys playing soccer.2. Compound Sentence: A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses joined together by a coordinating conjunction for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. This structure allows for more complex ideas to be expressed in a single sentence. Examples include: She finished her homework, and then she went to the library.The weather was terrible, but they still went hiking.We tried calling him, but he didnt answer his phone.3. Complex Sentence: A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Dependent clauses cannot stand alone as a complete thought and are often introduced by subordinating conjunctions because, although, since, etc.. Here are some examples:Although it was raining, they decided to go for a walk.She will call you when she arrives.He was reading a book because he was waiting for his appointment.4. CompoundComplex Sentence: This is a combination of both compound and complex sentences. It has multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. This structure is useful for expressing multiple related ideas in a single sentence. Examples include:She finished her homework, and then she went to the library, but it was closed due to a power outage.The cat slept on the couch, which was covered in sunlight, making it a perfect spot for a nap.He enjoys playing soccer, and his team won the championship this year, much to his delight.Understanding and using these sentence structures effectively can greatly enhance the readability and sophistication of your English writing.。
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Output (42 units)
copy-back Hidden (150 units)
Figure 1: The basic architecture of the SRN used in Christiansen (1994). Arrows with solid lines denote trainable weights, whereas the arrow with the dashed line denotes the copy-back connections. The SRN, as illustrated in Figure 1, is essentially a standard feedforward network equipped with an extra layer of so-called context units. The hidden unit activations from the previous time step are copied back to these context units and paired with the current input. This means that the current state of the hidden units can in uence the processing of subsequent inputs, providing the SRN with an ability to deal with integrated sequences of input presented successively. The SRNs were trained via a word-by-word prediction task on 50,000 sentences (mean length: 6 words; range: 3-15 words) generated by the context-free grammar in Figure 2 (using a 38 word vocabulary). This grammar involved left recursion in the form of prenominal genitives, right recursion in the form of subject relative clauses, sentential complements, prepositional modi cations of NPs, and NP conjunctions, as well as complex recursion in the form of object relative clauses. The grammar also incorporated subject noun/verb agreement and three additional verb argument structures (transitive, optionally transitive, and intransitive). The generation of sentences was further restricted by probabilistic constraints on the complexity and depth of recursion.
Processing of Recursive Sentence Structure: Testing Predictions from a Connectionist Model
Morten H. Christiansen and Maryellen C. MacDonald
Program in Neural, Informational and Behavioral Sciences University of Southern California Los Angeles, CA 90089-2520
Figure 2: The small context-free grammar from used to generate the training corpus.
2.1 Deriving Predictions from the SRN Model
When evaluating how well the SRN has learned regularities of the grammar, it is important from a linguistic perspective not only to determine whether the words that were activated given prior context are grammatical, but also which items were not activated despite being sanctioned by the grammar. The GPE provides an activation-based measure of how well a network is obeying the training grammar in making its predictions, taking hits, false positives, correct rejections as well as false negatives into account. The GPE for predicting a particular word was calculated using: 2
One way to evaluate computational models of psycholinguistic phenomena is to assess how well they match behavioral data and whether they make predictions beyond existing data. Many models only match data at a fairly gross level of performance, and few make predictions that inspire new experiments. This is true of both connectionist and symbolic computational models of language{especially within the area of sentence processing. We introduce a performance measure, Grammatical Prediction Error (GPE), which allows for the modeling of grammaticality ratings. We use this measure to derive novel empirical predictions from an existing connectionist model of the processing of recursive sentence structure (Christiansen, 1994; Christiansen & Chater, 1994). The predictions suggest that increasing depths of recursion not only decrease the acceptability for center-embedded constructions, but also for the simpler left- and rightbranching constructions. These predictions are at odds with many symbolic models of sentence processing. Results from three behavioral experiments are presented, con rming the model's predictions.
S NP VP rel PP gen
Input (42Байду номын сангаасunits)
Context (150 units)
- NP VP \." - PropN j N j N rel j N PP j gen N j N and NP - V(i) j V(t) NP j V(o) (NP) j V(c) that S - who NP V(tjo) j who VP - prep locN (PP) - (gen) N +\s"
morten@ mcm@
Abstract
We present results from three psycholinguistic experiments which tested predictions from a connectionist model of recursive sentence processing. The model was originally developed to capture generalization using non-local information (Christiansen, 1994; Christiansen & Chater, 1994). From this model it was possible to derive novel empirical predictions concerning the processing of di erent kinds of recursive structure. We present behavioral results con rming network predictions about the acceptability of sentences involving multiple right-branching PPs (Experiment 1), multiple left-branching prenominal genitives (Experiment 2), and doubly center-embedded object relative clauses (Experiment 3). Importantly, these predictions derive from the intrinsic architectural constraints of the model (Christiansen & Chater, in submission), rather than arbitrary, externally speci ed memory limitations. We conclude that the SRN is well-suited for the modeling of human performance on recursive sentence structure.