小宝新东方作文笔记

作文讲义一．Argument的写作特点：attack logic.(C-conclusion A-assumption E-evidence)二．Argument整体结构：第一段：开头段归纳论点论据（原题）--改写或提炼：指明逻辑漏洞个数（待攻击的个数）第二段第三段第四段：正文—分类攻击各个逻辑错误.（独立与组合）第五段：结尾段—总结归纳.三．如何写开头段：发起攻击C-conclusion E-evidence F-flaw四．开头段的小宝式写法：Merely based on the unfounded assumption and dubious(suspicious) evidence, the statement draws the conclusion that _____. To substantiate(support) this conclusion, the arguer points out the evidence that _____. In addition, he indicates that _____.Furthermore, he cites the result of a recent survey in support of the recommendation.//At first glance, this argument appears to somewhat convincing, but reflection, reveals that it omits some substantial concerns that should be addressed. From the logical perspective, the argument suffers from N logical flaws.五．如何写正文段：1.顺序式攻击法（1-2-3）2.主次式攻击法（主要-次要）3.让步式攻击法（逻辑排列）：A-不成立——即便A成立，B也不成立——即便AB成立，C也不成立六．写正文段首句：主次式排列的引言句.1.The threshold problem with this argument is that _____.2.Another problem that weakness OF the logical of this argument isthat _____.3.Before I come to my conclusion, it is necessary to point out that____ .七．如何写结尾段：总结陈词（C-conclusion S-suggestion）八．结尾段的具体写法：To sum up, this arguer fail to substantiate his claim that C .Because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains.//To make the evidence more convincing, the author would have to provide more information with regard to S1 .Additionally, he would have to demonstrate that S2 . Therefore, if the argument had include the given factors discussed above, it would have been more thorough and logically acceptable.九．各个逻辑错误的原理，逻辑，语言1.Survey/Study: (调查类错误)----2Q: quality quantity（1）Procedure (调查过程错误)A．Selective sample (选择性样本)B．Quantity of the sample (样本数量)①攻击样本数量和取样不随机性②取样片面③攻击样本数量少C. Are the respondents being forthright ?D. Loaded questions?标志词：survey, study, sample, respondent, response, answer, taste, 1500, 96%, many, most.攻击体系：Unless the surveyor sampled a sufficient number of _____ and did so randomly across the entire spectrum,the survey results are not reliable to gauge _____generally. The number of respondents/samples, in itself,does not ensure representativeness. For example, if thesample include only _____, then the results would nodoubt suggest _____. Or if the grosses are considerable,(1200) would account for only a little percentage, whichwould render the results of the survey meaningless. （2）Result of the survey (调查结果类错误)A. Do the statistics make any meaningfulness? (数据是否有意义)B. Are the statistics misleadingly vague? (数据是否含糊)攻击体系：A threshold problem is that editorial neglects to indicate how recently the survey was actually conducted. Whensamples are used to make general claims about aparticular group, the samples should be closed enoughto the generalization. All we know in this editorial is thatthe survey was recently published. The less recent thesurvey itself, the less reliable the results to indicatecurrent interest levels.词汇归纳：n –survey, questionnaire, statistical, study, sample,specimen, sampling, accidental sampling, classsampling (整体抽样)，randomness, randomly(随机性)，quantity, quality, statistic, poll, absolutevalue, percentage, proportion, validity, statisticalvalidity, range, scope, spectrumv – select, choose, sample, indagate, investigate, examine,scrutinize, comprisea –valid, authentic, random, quantitive, statistical,representative, characteristic, typical, far-ranging,comprehensive, extensive, generally, universally,rarely.2.Sufficient Evidence and the Necessary Condition (充分必要条件类错误)(1)Sufficient Evidence （充分条件类错误）充分条件类错误标志词：once, will (预测-将来时)(2) Necessary Condition （必要条件类错误）必要条件类错误标志词：without, necessary, only.攻击体系：The editor’s recommendation depends on theassumption that no factors other than A caused B .However, common sense informs me that this assumption isa poor one. A myriad of other factors, including C orD orE , might be the cause of B . To be specific, -____. Without ruling out (排除) these and other possiblecauses, the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only Acan B .充分必要条件类词汇归纳：v -- constitute, established, suffice, resultin, induce, render, exclude.a –sufficient, necessary, perforce =necessarily, required.3. Cause and Effect Fallacies (因果关系类错误)(1) 无因果类错误标志词: for, cause, reason, since, link, correlation, connection, therefore.(2) 时序性因果错误标志词：because, after this (before - ), since then, therefore,consequence, consequently.攻击体系：Based on the fact that A accrued after B . Theauthor inferred that B shouldresponsible for A . However, thesequence of these events, in itself,does not suffice to prove that earlierdevelopment caused the later one. Itmight have resulted from some otherevents instead: C D E ---- to just afew possibilities. Without rulting outscenarios such as these, the editorcannot established a cause-and-effectrelationship between A and Bupon which the editor’srecommendation depends.(3)同时性因果类错误标志词：meanwhile, also, with, during, under, over, parallel.(4) 忽略其它可能原因(5) 混淆因果因果类词汇归纳：n –relation, causation, relevancy, conjunction,connection, nexus, association, linkage.v –associate, link, connect, relate to, ignore,neglect, bose, sight of,.a –relational, relevant, causal, related, sequent,traceable.4. Changing Scope Fallacies (范围变化类错误)(1) 偷换概念(2) 个体推整体–放大类错误(3) 整体推个体–缩小类错误(4) 平均值错误标志词：论据核心词---- 结论核心词（核心名词）nationwide, statewide, throughout, overall, across,average.词汇归纳：n – scope, localization, diversity, variety, individual, writ,wholev –extend, expend, broaden, enlarge, spread, shrink,differentiate, distinguish.a –overall, generally, extensive, entire, diverse,dissimilar, multiplex (多元的)poly— = multi—5.考虑问题不全面(profit问题，利润)(1)没有考虑事物正负得失(2)没有考虑可行性标志词：profit, profitable, profitability.攻击体系：The author’s conclusion that _____ is unwarranted. Profit is a factor relating to not only revenue, but also cost. // It’sentirely possible that the cost of A , or other costsassociated with B,C will offset, even out weigh therevenue. Besides, a myriad of other unexpectedoccurrences, such as unfavorable economic depression,might prevent _____ from being as profitable as argumentpredicts.6.时间外推类错误标志词：实践性表达--- two years ago, trend, tendency, continue,remain, stay.攻击体系：The author claims that 将来，because 过去/现在. Thisassumption is unwarranted because thingsrarely remain the same over extendedperiod of time. There are likely all kinds ofdifference between 过去and 将来. Forexample, 将来. However, 过去. Any ofthese scenarios, if true, would serve toundermine the claim that ______ .词汇归纳：n – trend, tendency, direction, fixedness, diversification, shift from.V –forecast, anticipate, continue, remain, alter, inflect, shift, transferA –by past, fore past, current, present, intending,continued, changeless, unaltered, variable(变化的) 7. 论据含糊类错误（1）主观类词汇（promise, guess）·词类归纳：vague, invalid, void(无效的), in defined, indistinct,unclear（2）关联性FA –主观错不代表可观发生.8. 错误类比标志词：similar, same, nearby(高频), neighboring(高频), 两个行业/公司名字，两个城市/洲/国家名字FA 错误攻击体系：The author’s recommendation relies on what mightbe a poor analogy between A and B . theanalogy falsely depends on the assumption that ____in both A and B are similar. However, it isentirely possible that A与B的差异. In shot, withoutaccounting for such possible difference between Aand B , the arguer cannot prove that B willkeep the similar benefit from the proposed method.词汇归纳：n – analogy, comparison, similarity, comparability, parallelism.V – resemble, differ, vary, distinguish, discriminate, secern.A –analogically, homologous, analogous, distinct, dissimilar,disparate.9. 非此即彼类错误标志词：either … or…, mutually, exclusively, alternatively攻击体系：1. Even assuming A is not the reason for C , theauthor falsely assumes that C must beattributable to B . This “either…or…”agument isfallacious in that it ignores other possible causes of C,Perhaps D , or perhaps E .2.The editorial seems to make two irreconcilable (不可调和的) claims. One is A; the other is B. However, thisassumption presents a false dilemma, since A,B arenot necessarily mutually exclusive alternatives.10 无理假设类错误11. 绝对化词汇错误（结尾一段话）标志词：all, best, any, anything, everybody...。