linguistic
1 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics
1 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics1.1Linguistics 语言学What is linguistics?(1)What is language?(2)What does a native speaker know about his language?(3)What are the essential defining characteristics of natural languages?(4)Do languages all share certain universal properties?What do linguists study?(1) Theory of language structure(2) Theory of language acquisition(3) Theory of language useHow do linguists study language？(1)collect a set of data relevant to a particular phenomenon,(2)formulate a hypothesis, test the hypothesis against further data,(3)modify the hypothesis and test it against yet more data，(4)build up a set of principles concerning language structure, language acquisition,and language use.Subfields of LinguisticsPhonetics语音学（发音学）Phonology音系学（语音体系）Syntax句法学Semantics语义学, Pragmatics语用学, Functions of Language语言功能diachronic linguistics历时语言学synchronic linguistics共时语言学Descriptive linguistics描写语言学prescriptive linguistics规定语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学Computational linguistics计算语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Philosophical Linguistics哲学语言学General linguistics普通语言学Cognitive linguistics认知语言学Beginnings of Modern LinguisticsSaussure’s distinction: langue and parole语言与言语（Swiss linguist）Chomsky’s distinction: linguistic competence and linguistic performance 言语能力与言语行为Hierarchical structure 层次结构structuralism and transformationalism 结构主义与转换论Cognitive linguistics and transformational linguistics认知语言学与转换语言学Cognition and linguistic competence认知与言语能力Cognitive linguistics认知语言学the experiential view 语言经验观the prominence view 语言突显观the attentional view 语言注意观(1) The bus crashed into the house.(2) The house was hit by the bus.1.2Applied Linguistics应用语言学The problem of the definitionCorder (1973):The application of linguistic knowledge to some object – or applied linguistics, as its name implies –is an activity. It is not a theoretical study. The applied linguist is a consumer, or user, not a producer of theories.(Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics) the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems such as lexicography词典编纂, translation, speech pathology言语病理学. Applied linguistics uses information from sociology社会学, psychology心理学, anthropology人类学and information theory as well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such as syllabus design大纲设计, speech therapy语言障碍矫正, language planning, stylistics文体学.Applied Linguistics as Problem-solvingApplied linguists try to offer solutions to “real-world problems in which language is a central issue” (Brumfit 1991).The responsibility of linguistics, as an academic discipline, is to study language as a system of human communication, build theories of language and offer models, descriptions and explanations of language. The responsibility of applied linguistics is not simply to apply linguistics but to work towards “relevant models” of language description (Widdowson 1980).Applied Linguistics and Foreign Language TeachingThe problem of finding solutions to the problems of language teaching and learningResearchqualitative and quantitative定性研究与定量研究1.3Corpora in Applied Linguistics数据库与应用语言学Corpus(1)For language teaching, corpora can provide information about how a languageworks.(2)Learners can explore corpora for themselves to observe shades of meaning and tomake comparisons between languages.(3)Translators can use comparable corpora to compare translation equivalents in twolanguages.(4)General corpora can be used to establish norms of frequency and usage againstwhich to measure individual texts.(5)Corpora can also be used to investigate cultural attitudes reflected in texts andliterary works as a resource for discourse studies.Types of CorporaSpecialised corpus 特殊数据库General corpus 普通数据库Comparable corpora 比较数据库Parallel corpora 平行数据库Learner corpus 学习者数据库Pedagogic corpus 教学数据库Historical or diachronic corpus 历时数据库Monitor corpus 监察数据库Technical TerminologyType类型Token记号Hapax只用过一次的字句Lemma词目word-form字语形成tag标记符parse解析annotate注释Design and PurposeSizeContentRepresentativenessPermanenceMethods in Processing Corpus InformationProducing concordance linesApplications of Corpora in Applied Linguistics(1)Corpora can be used in writing dictionaries and grammar books for languagelearners.(2)There is a growing concern in Applied Linguistics for the relation betweenlanguage and culture. Language transmits beliefs, attitudes, customs, behaviour, social habits, etc. of the members of a particular society.(3)Translation is an important application of corpora.Corpora and Language TeachingBy studying corpus data, he can answer questions about language himself and discover facts about the language he is learning from authentic examples.Corpus and Syllabus DesignThe syllabus designer collects pieces of authentic language that contain instances of the most frequent patterns of the most frequent words, then the materials writer devises ways of getting the learner involved in exploring the patterning of language in the corpus.Corpora and Learner LanguageA corpus can provide a rich resource for investigating learner language. Corporacomposed of the speech or writing of learners can give information about the difference between learners and between learners and native speakers.。
linguistics
1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成
2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.
3.辅音的发音方式爆破音 complete obstruction鼻音 nasals破裂音 plosives部分阻塞辅音 partial obstruction擦音 fricatives破擦音 affricates等
3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).
5.互补性分布；如果两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中，那么它们之间就是互补性分布的关系，如送气p绝不会出现在s之后，不送气的p绝不会出现在词首
6.音节syllable，分为节首onset，节峰peak，节尾coda
7.辅音群:一般作为音节节首的辅音群不能超过三个福音，节尾不能超过4个
4. The Scope of Linguistics General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provid
英语语言学部分名词解释(英文版)
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say).5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04)7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range are speech sounds)2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.QR It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.20. phoneme : An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)或者The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in different phonetic enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds form patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isola tion, they’re collectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.。
现代语言学复习要点
1 什么是语言学what is linguistics?定义definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学的研究范畴the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguist ics. 把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the e stablishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics. 语音学phoneticsHow speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communi cation.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonolo gy 音位学/ 音系学phonology交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study calledmorphology. 形态学morphologyhow morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
Linguistics课后习题必背与答案
Linguistics课后习题必背与答案Chapter One Introduction4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。
除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?Speech is prior to writing;The writing system is invented when needed;Today there are languages which can only be spoken but not written;Speech plays a greater role than writing in daily communication; Each human being first acquires speech and then learns writing; Modern linguistics tends to pay more attention to authentic speech.9.what are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.The descriptive function.It is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied,and in some cases even verified,e.g.”The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.”The expressive function,supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences,prejudices.and values,e.g.”I will never go camping with the Simpsons again.”The social function,serves to establish and maintain socialrelations between people,e.g.”How can I help you, sir?Chapter Two Phonology1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?Speech and writing are two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards speech as the primary one for some reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system is to record speech. Even today, there are some tribes without writing system. From the view of children’s development, children acquire his mother tongue before they learn to write.5.what criteria are used to classify the English vowels?The criteria used to classify English vowels are:The height of the tongue raising: high, mid, and lowThe position of the highest part of the tongue: front, central, and back The degree of lip rounding: rounded, un-rounded The degree of tenseness/the length of sound: tense (long) or lax (short) The change of sound quality: pure(monophthong), gliding(diphthong)7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? . Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to the phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech soundswe hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.。
Linguistic名词解释
一、名词解释1. Standard dialect refers to a particular language variety that has no connection with a particular region but widely accepted and normally used in official documents, newspapers and newscast and taught at schools to non-native speaker.2. Idiolect refers to personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines element, regarding, region, social, gender and age.3. First language acquisition refers to child acquisition of his mother tongue that is how the child comes to understand and speak the language of its community.4. Second language acquisition refers to how the people acquire the language other than their mother tongue inside or outside of the classroom.5. Illocutionary act is an act perform in saying something that in saying X of I was doing Y(the intention the speaker Y of speaking )6. Conversational Implicature as a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conversational meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.7 .Performatives: These sentences do not describe things, the uttering of these sentences is, or isa part of, doing of an action. So they are called performatives.8.Conceptual Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It’s often described in terms of a target domain and source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.9. Image Schemas derive from sensory and perceptual experience as we interact with and move about in the world.10. Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of languages; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.二、相似词组1. Pragmatics is the study of intended meaning of a speaker taking context into consideration. Semantics is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence without taking context into consideration2. Performatives: These sentences do not describe things, the uttering of these sentences is, or isa part of, doing of an action. So they are called performatives.Constatives: It is description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. Sentences of this type are known as constatives.3. Speech community is refers to the social groups that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study. A group of people who are speak the same language.Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech, used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. A Pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or bands languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as treading.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community and it’s acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is set to have become the Creole.5. Bilingualism: In some speech communities ,two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes, these constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.Diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism, but instead of two different languages in diglossia situation, two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community with each having a definite role to play.6. Learning refers to a conscious process of a accumulating knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of language.Acquisition refers to gradual development of ability of language by using it naturally in communicative situations.7. Error reflects gaps in a learner’s knowledge, they occur because the learner doesn’t know what is correct.Mistake reflects occasional lapses in performance, the occur because in a particular instance, the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows.8. The Interlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference, at different levels such as phonological lexical, grammatical and so on.The Intralingual errors mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.9. Ontological Metaphor is a metaphor in which an abstraction such as an activity, emotion or idea, is represented as something concrete such as an object, substance, container or person. Structural metaphor is a metaphor in which one concept is understood and expressed in terms of another structured sharply defined concept.10. Positive Transfer:A first language pattern is identical with or similar to a target language, then first language facilitates the target language, this is positive transfer.Negative transfer: A first language pattern is different from the target language, and then first language interferes or hinders the target language learning, this is negative or interference.。
linguistics
Use of linguistics
1. Sociolinguistics: the study of relationship between
language and society
2. Psycholinguistics: the study of the relationship
Noam Chomsky • Birth: 1928.12.7 • Main interests： Linguistics Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind • Notable ideas： Generative grammar, universal grammar
In the late 1960s-1970s, semantics became a separate discipline.
Trend of modern linguistic development
2. Linguistics studies not only language system, but also speech activities & speech mechanism Structural linguistics: language system is the only object of linguistic study Speech activities: speaking & writing (constructing utterances) and listening and reading (understanding utterances) Speech mechanism: how people construct and understand utterances
linguistic的常识
Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences
Phonology, the study of sounds (or signs) as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning
Morphology, the study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified
The first is the study of language structure, or grammar. This focuses on the system of rules followed by the speakers (or hearers) of a language. It encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from these words), and phonology (sound systems). Phonetics is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds and nonspeech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived.
NLP三个字母代表的意思
NLP三个字母代表的意思NLP为Neuro-Linguistic Programming的缩写，三个单词分别代表以下的意思：Neuro(脑神经)，意为“身心”，指的是·我们的头脑和身体经由我们的脑神经系统联结在一起。
·我们的脑神经系统控制我们的感觉器官去维持与世界的联系。
Linguistic (语法)，指的是·我们运用语言与别人作出相互影响，经由姿势、手势、习惯等无声语言显示我们的思考模式、信念及内心种种状态。
·我们的头脑与身体之间的联系机制所用的语言模式。
Programming(程序)，指的是·借用计算机科学语言指出我们的意念、感觉和行为只不过是习惯性的程序，可以经由提升我们"思想”．的软件而行以改善。
·凭借改善我们思想和行为的重复程序，我信便能在行动中取得更满意的效果。
故此，我认为NLP也可以解释为研究我们的大脑如何工作的学问。
知道大脑如何工作后，我们可以配合和提升它，从而使人生更成功快乐。
也因此，我把NLP译为“身心语法程序学”。
3．美国科罗拉多州给NLP的定义关于人类行为与沟通程序的一套详细可行的模式。
虽然它本身并非一套心理治疗法，NLP 的重要法则可以被运用于了解人类经验和行为，和使之有所改变。
NLP曾被运用于治疗方面，结果是一套效果强大、快速和含蓄的技巧，能够在人类的行为和能力方面做成广泛和长久的改变。
NLP专注于修正和重似熊的设计思想模式，以求更大的灵活和能力。
4. NLP历史简介NLP的创立归功于两位美国人：理查德德德·班德勒和约翰…格林德。
美国加洲圣他·告鲁仕市的加州大学校园是NLP的发源地。
在20世纪70年代初期，理查德德德在那里读大学，在一次偶然的机会里他认识了家庭治疗大师弗占尼亚-萨特尔。
稍后，理查德德德受雇帮忙把弗吉尼亚刚在加拿大举行的为期一个月的工作访的内容制成录音带和文字记录。
Linguistics总复习
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• 2)Interpersonal function
a.By far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. b.Functional grammar: this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser‘s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.
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7) Metalingual function元语言功能 a. Language can be used to talk about itself. b.It makes the language infinitely selfreflexive: we human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.
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Addressee---conative function ( to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties) Contact –phatic function ( to establish communication with others) Code－metalingual function (to clear up intentions, words and meanings)
linguistics语言学
What is linguistics? the science of language the scientific study of language more design features cultural transmission mutual interchangeability
Second, there are other facts that are puzzling if language is not innate. Children learn their mother tongue in very different environments. But they follow more or less the same stages in acquisition: the babbling stage, nonsense word stage, holophrastic stage, two-word utterance, developing grammar, nearadult grammar, and full competence.
Displacement
Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Displacement gives human the power to handle generalizations and abstraction. Displacement make it possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms. e.g. Non-things: beauty and truth
linguistic
1.Linguistics1.1 Definition1.2 Major branches of linguistics1.3 Macrolinguistics1.4 Important distinctions in linguistics1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language.It tries to answer the following questions:What is language?How does language work?Explanation:“ Scientific” means that it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.“ Study” means investigation.“ Language” means languagesgeneral,in that is, linguistics studies not any particular language,but languages in general.1.2 Major branches of linguistics1.2.1 PhoneticsPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produdced, transmitted, and perceived. It includesthree parts:Articulatory phoneticsAcoustic phoneticsAuditory phonetics1.2.2 PhonologyPhonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.Phoneme is the departing point of the phonological study. It is the smallest linguistic unit ofsound that can signal a difference in meaning. For example,pin, bin, tin, din -- /p, b, t, d/ are phonemes which can distinguish meanings of these words.Then what is the relation between phonetics and phonology? Think about this question and wewill discuss it in Chapter 2.1.2.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in a language.1.2.4 SyntaxSyntax is the study of the rules governing the ways words are combined into sentences in alanguage.Words are organized into structures more than just word order, e.g.,A. The children watched [the firework from the hill].B. The children watched [the firework] [from the hill].1.2.5 SemanticsSemantics is the study of meaning.It studies the meanings of linguistic units without concerning the influence of the context ofsituation, i.e., it studies the de-contextualized meaning.1.2.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context. (Then what is the difference between semanticsand pragmatics?)Pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than withthe way language is internally structured.1.3 Macrolinguistics –an interdisciplinary natureIt concerns with the relation between language and other disciplines which are alsopreoccupied with language, for example, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropologicallinguistics, computational linguistics, neurolinguistics, applied linguistics, etc.1.4 Important distinctions in linguistics1.4.1 Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveExamples:1.a) It is I.b)It is me.2.a) Who did you speak to?b)Whom did you speak to?3.a) I haven’ t done anything.b)I haven ’ t done nothing.Descriptive –The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actuallyuse.” behavior Prescriptive –the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “ correct and standard in usinglanguage, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.Descriptive explanations of the three examples:1) The Latin rule is not universal. In English, “ me”is informal and “ I ”is felt to be veryformal.2)“ Whom”is used in formal speech and in writing, and“ who”is more acceptable in informal speech.3)Language dose not have to follow logical reasoning. Here two negatives in 3b) only make amore emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it isillogical but because language changes and rejects this usage now.To sum up:Prescriptive: Do/Don’ t say X.Descriptive: People do/don’ t say X.If a descriptive grammar of a non-prestige variety of English were written, it might show, forexample, that speakers of this variety said:I seen’ im.for I saw him.’ im’ n me done forit.He and I did it.1.4.2 Synchronic vs. DiachronicSwiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (Course in General Linguistics, 1916): “ SYNCHRONIC” , inwhich languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time,and “ DIACHRONIC”in, which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time aretreated historically (Robins, 1967: 200).Language exists in time and changes through time.The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study(Shakespeare ’ s English)The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (a historicalstudy –the historical development of language over a period of time).description of changes diachronicbetween the two systems study1.4.3 Langue & ParoleSaussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole.Langue is not complete in any individual speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity.In separating langue from parole we are at the same time separating1)what is social from what is individual; and2)what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.Which one should linguists study? Langue or Parole?Langue –1) the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by; 2)abstract, not the language people actually use; 3) relatively stable, does not change frequently.Parole –1) the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; 2) concrete, thenaturally occurring language events; 3) varies from person to person, and from situation tosituation.1.4.4 Competence vs. performanceAmerican linguist Noam Chomsky ( Aspects of the Theory of Syntax,1965)Competence –the ideal user’ s underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his languagePerformance –the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situationChomsky points out that the task of a linguist is to determine from the data ofperformance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.Chomsky’ s distinction of competence and performance is related to the langue-paroledistinction of Saussure, but there are some differences between them, what are they?What is the difference between Saussure and Chomsky?Saussure –a sociological view of language (Langue is a matter of social conventions.)Chomsky –a psychological view (Competence is a property of the mind of each individual.)Which one should be studied?Langue or Parole? Competence or Performance?Arguments:There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normallanguage users. Some of them are ethnic background, socioeconomic status, and regions of thecountry; some are the factors as physical state changes within the individual, intoxication,fatigue, distraction, and illness. So there have been some arguments on Chomsky’ s thinking that“ Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completelyhomogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly”.Dell Hymes studies language from a socio-cultural viewpoint and proposed “ communicativecompetence ”– speakers vary their performance not at random but in a regular way (the pragmaticability of language use).。
自整英语语言学
一.名词解释Chapter 1 Introduction引言1.linguistic语言Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学一般被定义为语言的科学研究。
2.general linguistics一般语言学The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.作为整体而言的语言研究经常被成为一般语言学。
3.phonetics语音学The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.语言交际中语音的研究导致了语音学的建立。
4.morphology形态学The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.对这些符号的排列方式和组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的分支形态学。
5.syntax句法The study of the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is called syntax.句子的组合形式的研究称之为句法。
6.semantics语义学The study of meaning is known as semantics.意义的研究被称为语义学。
7.pragmatics语用学When the study of meaning is conducted，not in isolation，but in the context of language use，it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.当意义的研究是进展的，不是孤立的，而是在语言运用的语境中，它就称为语言学的另一个分支，语用学。
linguistics
第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1. 任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2. 层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning）3. 多产性productive：语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4. 移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5. 文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic（1）语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。
linguistics .ppt
The Connectionist Model
• A sentence to be spoken would be represented by spreading activation扩展 through a network of nodes节点 representing phonologocal语音,lexical and morphological词态 levels.
to form sentences)句法 • --detailed phonetic and articulatory
planning详细发音 • --phonological encoding(words into sound) • 语音编译
Identifying the Meaning 标识意义
Language Production
语言生成
Outline
• 1 The complexity of language production • 2 The definition of language production • 3 Two models
Hale Waihona Puke The complexity of language production
The fromkin`s six-stage model of speech production(1971)
• ---identification of meaning确定意义 • ---selection of a syntactic structure选择语法结构 • ---generation of intonation contour形成语调轮廓 • ---insertion of content words插入实义词 • ---formation of affixes and function words用词缀
语言学linguistic
Part 1 命题演讲--4 What is linguistics?
Some basic distinctionsin My Heart in linguistics Olympic Games
Major branches of general linguistics
Use of linguistics
1.What is the definition of language? 2.What does "design features" mean? 3.What design feature makes it possible for language to have unlimited sources of expression? 4.What is "duality"? 5. What design feature makes it possible for speakers to talk about a wide range of things? 6. How does language differs from animal call systems in terms of transmission? 7. How do you call such words as "putong", "bang", etc? Does their existence deny "arbitrariness"?
1. What is linguistics?
principles to be followed exhaustiveness consistency economy objectivity
2. Some basic distinctions
linguistic用法
linguistic用法"Linguistic" 是一个形容词，用于描述与语言或语言学相关的事物。
它可以用于多个领域和语境中，包括语言学、翻译、文学研究等。
以下是关于 "linguistic" 的一些常见用法：1. 语言学领域：在语言学中，"linguistic" 通常用来描述与语言本身、语言结构、语言规则等相关的事物。
例如：Linguistic analysis (语言分析): 对语言的结构、语法和语义进行分析。
Linguistic diversity (语言多样性): 描述世界上不同语言的多样性和变化。
Linguistic features (语言特征): 描述语言中的特定语法、词汇或语音特征。
2. 语言研究：在研究语言的学科中，"linguistic" 可用于描述语言学家或研究者的方法和方法论。
例如：Linguistic research (语言研究): 研究语言的结构、历史、变化和使用。
Linguistic theory (语言理论): 描述和解释语言的原则和规则的理论框架。
3. 文化和社会科学：在文化和社会科学领域，"linguistic" 可用于描述语言在社会和文化中的作用和影响。
例如：Linguistic anthropology (语言人类学): 研究语言在不同文化背景下的社会和文化作用。
Linguistic identity (语言身份): 描述个人或群体基于语言使用和归属感的身份认同。
4. 翻译和语言服务：在翻译和语言服务领域，"linguistic" 可用于描述与语言转换和语言处理相关的事物。
例如：Linguistic skills (语言技能): 描述翻译或语言专业人员的语言能力和专业技能。
Linguistic analysis tools (语言分析工具): 用于分析和处理语言数据的软件或工具。
lingui词根
lingui词根lingui词根 1.词根：-lingu-【词根含义】：语言,舌【词根来源】：来源于拉丁语名词lingua, linguae, n(语言,舌)。
【同源单词】：bilingual, language, lingual, linguist, linguistic2.词根：lingu = language , 表示“语言”, 原意为“舌头”linguist n. 语言学家(lingu+ist)linguistics n. 语言学(linguist+ics)bilingual a. 两种语言的(bi+lingu+al)unilingual a. 一种语言的(nui+lingu+al)collingual a. 同一种语言的(col共同+lingu+al)multilingual a. 懂多种语言的(multi多+lingu+al)sublingual a. 舌下的(sub在…下+lingu+al舌头的)lingui词根词缀词根词缀：linguo-, lingu-, lingua-, -linguist, -linguistic, -linguistical, -linguistically 【来源及含义】latin: literally tongue; and by extension, speech, language【相关描述】from old latin dingua which is a cognate (kindred) with old english tunge, the change of d (in oldlatin dingua) to l (in latin lingua) was probably due to dialectal influence (the so-called "sabine l"). it was facilitated by a folk-etymological association with lingere, "to lick", the tongue having been conceived as "the licking organ".【相关词根词缀】cross references of word families related directly, or indirectly, to: "talk, speak, speech; words, language; tongue, etc.":cit-;clam-;dic-;fa-;-farious;glosso-;glotto-;lalo-;locu-;logo-;loqu-;mythico-;-ology;ora-;-phasia;-phemia;phon-;phras-;quotes: language,part 1;quotes: language, part 2;quotes: language, part 3;serm-;tongue;voc-.【同源单词】acutilingual, alveololingual, ambilingualism, anthropological linguistics, apex linguae, audiolinguallingui词根同源词lingu =language语言linguist [lingu语言，-ist表示人] 语言学家linguistie [见上，-ic形容词后缀，…的] 语言学的，语言的linguistics [见上，-ics名词后缀，…学] 语言学bilingual [bi-两，lingu语言，-al形容词后缀，…的] 两种语言的bilingualist [见上，-ist表示人] 通晓两种语言者bilingualism [见上，-ism表示行为或状况] 通晓两种语言，用两种语言trilingual [tri-三，lingu语言，-al形容词后缀，…的] 三种语言的multilingual [multi-多，lingu语言，-al形容词后缀，…的] 多种语言的，懂(或用)多种语言的collingual [col-同，ligua语言，al形容词后缀，…的] (用)同一种语言的linguaphone [lingu语言，-a-，phone声音] 灵格风(一种运用唱片进行的口语训练)。
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• Vocabulary: hal—mother, Winter—winter,Wasser— water,grün—green,hören—hear.
• In turn, numerous English words have flooded into modern German(Computer,Baby,Smartphone,etc.).
Basic Similarities between English and German
• Alphabet: the 26 Latin letters are present in both languages. (Besides,German also has ö,ü,ä,β)
• English and German are both official languages of European Union. German is the language with the largest number of native speakers in the European Union, and is the second-most spoken language in Europe, just behind English and ahead of French.
Syntactic Differences between German and English
Syntaktischen Unterschiede zwischen Deutsch und Englisch
德语与英语的句法区别
Why are we comparing them, anyway?
Syntactic Differences Between English and German (Word order)
德语陈述句中，谓语动词必须放在句子的第二位，其他成分 可以变动。
e.g. 1. Ich bin am 22, 2, 1991 in Berlin geboren.
(I was born on Feb.22, 1991 in Berlin) = Am 22, 2, 1991bin ich in Berlin geboren. =In Berlin bin ich am 22,2,1991 geboren. 2. Sie lernt Englisch in der Schule. (She learns English at
Syntactic Differences Among Chinese, English and German 汉语，英语和德语
之间的句法差异
组员：
Syntactic Differences between German and English
Syntactic Differences between Chinese and English
school.) =In der Schule lernt sie Englisch. =Englisch lernt sie in der Schule.
Syntactic Differences Between
English and German(Sentence
Structure)
• 英语的“顺下去”结构和德语的“框形结构” Example 1. 带助动词（情态动词）的句子，助动词与实义 动词构成“框型” I will come tomorrow. 主语+助动词+实义动词+状语 Ich werde morgen kommen. 主语+助动词+状语+实义动词 Example 2. 否定句中，动词与否定词nicht构成“框型” He speaks English→He doesn’t speak English. 英语中构 成否定时，英语需要加上助动词,然后not紧跟助动词。 Er spricht Englisch→Er spricht Englisch nicht. 德语要否定 一个句子时，只需要在句子末尾加nicht(not)就可以了。
• Both(along with Dutch) belong to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family,hence their similarities.
• German contributed considerably to the forming of the English language as we now speak.
Thank you very much! Danke schön!
Syntactic Differences between Chinese and English 英文和中文的句法区别
• Example 3. 英语中的“phrasal verb”(短语动词） 和德语中的“可分动词”
• Ich fahre um 7:20 an.
• I set off at 7:20. (我七点二十出发）
an/fahre大致等于英语中的短语动词set off. 但是 遵守德语中的框形结构，所以在句子中an放在 句子末尾。
• Grammar: verbs of both languages have cases, tense, gender etc.. (The concept of case and gender has weakened over time.) They are also very similar syntactically. e.g. S+V+O: I have no time = Ich habe keine Zeit . imperitives: Open the door= Öffne die Tür.