4.syntax
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(1928-)
The traditional approach (传统学派)
❖ The traditional approach views a sentence as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation thus involves the study of … of words.
exocentric constructions 离心结构 on the shelf
The generative approach (生成学派)
❖ This approach originated in the late 1950s with the American linguist Noam Chomsky, who gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar. From its birth to the present day, TG Grammar has seen several stages of development.
词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修 饰语).
(主要/次要词汇范畴)
2. What are major/minor lexical categories?
① Major lexical categories are often assumed 3.toWbehtahte ahreeadtsh(e中心cr语it/e中r心ia成t分o )daertoeurnmdinwehiach
branch that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. To put it simple, it is the study of the formation of sentences.
➢ 1. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation
横组合/纵聚合关系
➢ 2. Immediate constituent (直接成分) analysis ➢ 3. Endocentric/exocentric constructions
向心/离心结构
Syntagmatic (横组合) relation is a relation between elements that occur in a sentence.
➢ 1. number (数), gender (性), case (格) ➢ 2. tense (时态), aspect (体), voice (语态) ➢ 3. concord (一致性) and government (支配关系)
The structure approach (结构主义学派)
❖ Since sentence is regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the centre of grammatical study.
❖ Different linguistics theories first differ in their treatment of sentence structure. 1. the traditional approach (传统学派)； 2. the structure approach (结构主义学派)； 3. the generative approach (生成学派)； 4. the functional approach (功能学派).
1 What is syntax句法学? 2 Categories 3 Phrase structure rule 4 Phrase elements 5 Sentences (The S rule) 6 Transformations
❖ The word Syntax, derived from Greek, is
❖ This approach was started by the Swiss linguist Saussure, the father of modern linguistics, in the beginning of the 20th century. All the linguistic theories after Saussure are structural in that they all regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (or system), not as isolated bits.
pphhrraassee,, eettcc... More specifically, it refers to the defining
syntax categories (句法范畴) (P43)
properties of these general unit：
the categories of the nouns, for
(traditionally, parts of speech)
1. How many word classes do you know about? ① traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep.,
conj., aux., pronoun…. ② non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定
➢ 1. Prague Linguistic Circle (布拉格语言学会): theme (主位) and rheme (述位)
➢ 2. Systemic-Functional Grammar (系统功能语法)
对句子进行功能分析： theme (主位): 已知的信息或至少在给定环
境中是明确的，说话者从它开始谈话。
The boy chased the dog. woman soldier tiger ……
现场成分与不在现场成 分之间的关系；词只受 句法的限制。
Immediate constituent analysis: A sentence is not only linearly arranged, but also hierarchically (层级) structured. Bloomfield proposed it in 1933.
➢ Deep structure and surface structure
The functional approach (功能学派)
❖ Linguists who adopt this approach are interested in relating the various kinds of linguistic structures and patterns to the functions that language serves and to the social settings in which it is used.
pwhorradse’ss acraetbeugiolrt:iens.,?v., adj. and prep.. ①N②o((tmMDQe:eeuiaaTnta限nohwli修ren定ogrm饰l词ed;o语x’②)ss,it)ccdiraaaenentlgfledrilcgaeeaocsbeotrtliweyeoogoncnisror;.idri③(ttPiseser4(ddsiD3oiisi)snenttgrcor程ilbfiubu度ddutee词itto:eino)dr,.nmeq.teui(nrPaiml4ni4fgiin)eerr
linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
the generative 1. word-level categories approach 2. phrase categories (生成学派) 3. sentences
rheme (述位)：说话者陈述的有关，或者涉
及，话语起点的内容。
Father wrote this letter. This letter was wrote by father.
从已知到未知是自然的，叫做客观顺序；在感情叙 述中可把述位放在主位前面，叫做主观顺序。
Systemic-Functional Grammar (系统功能语法)
❖ The term category in some
approaches refers to classes
and functions in its narrow
sense, e.g. nnoouunn,,vveerrbb,,ssuubbjjeecctt,,
pprreeddiiccaattee,, nnooun phrase, verb
made up of 2 morphemes: {syn} and {tax}. The former means “_t_o_g_e_t_h_e_r_”, and the latter “_t_o__a_rr_a_n_g_e__”.
❖ In linguistics语言学, Syntax (句法学) is a
The boy kicked the ball. The ball kicked the boy. The boy the ball kicked .
现场所有成分之间的关 系；词必须满足一些句 法和语义条件。
Paradigmatic (纵聚合) relation is a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place of a structure.
example, include number,
gender, case and countability;
and of the verb, for example,
tense, aspect, voice, etc..
❖ The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories.
Halliday尽力将语言功能和结构联系起来，认为有三
种普遍的语言功能（P11）
（1）Ideational function (概念功能) （2）Interpersonal function (人际功能) （3）Textual function (语篇功能)
The boy kicked the ball.
The ball was kicked by the boy.
传统意义上的主语，承担了不同的功能。 (1) 动作者，“逻辑主语”，指行动的施动者； (2) 情态主语，“语法主语”，是谓语表述的对象； (3) 主位，“心理主语”，指信息的关注点；
4.2 Categories (范畴)
❖ Category (P42) refers to a group of
The boy kicked the ball. 可用括号分析层级：词—词组—更大词组—句子；
也可以用tree structure分层级。
more expensive clothes
endocentric constructions向心结构 the books on the shelf head/center
The traditional approach (传统学派)
❖ The traditional approach views a sentence as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation thus involves the study of … of words.
exocentric constructions 离心结构 on the shelf
The generative approach (生成学派)
❖ This approach originated in the late 1950s with the American linguist Noam Chomsky, who gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar. From its birth to the present day, TG Grammar has seen several stages of development.
词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修 饰语).
(主要/次要词汇范畴)
2. What are major/minor lexical categories?
① Major lexical categories are often assumed 3.toWbehtahte ahreeadtsh(e中心cr语it/e中r心ia成t分o )daertoeurnmdinwehiach
branch that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. To put it simple, it is the study of the formation of sentences.
➢ 1. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation
横组合/纵聚合关系
➢ 2. Immediate constituent (直接成分) analysis ➢ 3. Endocentric/exocentric constructions
向心/离心结构
Syntagmatic (横组合) relation is a relation between elements that occur in a sentence.
➢ 1. number (数), gender (性), case (格) ➢ 2. tense (时态), aspect (体), voice (语态) ➢ 3. concord (一致性) and government (支配关系)
The structure approach (结构主义学派)
❖ Since sentence is regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the centre of grammatical study.
❖ Different linguistics theories first differ in their treatment of sentence structure. 1. the traditional approach (传统学派)； 2. the structure approach (结构主义学派)； 3. the generative approach (生成学派)； 4. the functional approach (功能学派).
1 What is syntax句法学? 2 Categories 3 Phrase structure rule 4 Phrase elements 5 Sentences (The S rule) 6 Transformations
❖ The word Syntax, derived from Greek, is
❖ This approach was started by the Swiss linguist Saussure, the father of modern linguistics, in the beginning of the 20th century. All the linguistic theories after Saussure are structural in that they all regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (or system), not as isolated bits.
pphhrraassee,, eettcc... More specifically, it refers to the defining
syntax categories (句法范畴) (P43)
properties of these general unit：
the categories of the nouns, for
(traditionally, parts of speech)
1. How many word classes do you know about? ① traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep.,
conj., aux., pronoun…. ② non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定
➢ 1. Prague Linguistic Circle (布拉格语言学会): theme (主位) and rheme (述位)
➢ 2. Systemic-Functional Grammar (系统功能语法)
对句子进行功能分析： theme (主位): 已知的信息或至少在给定环
境中是明确的，说话者从它开始谈话。
The boy chased the dog. woman soldier tiger ……
现场成分与不在现场成 分之间的关系；词只受 句法的限制。
Immediate constituent analysis: A sentence is not only linearly arranged, but also hierarchically (层级) structured. Bloomfield proposed it in 1933.
➢ Deep structure and surface structure
The functional approach (功能学派)
❖ Linguists who adopt this approach are interested in relating the various kinds of linguistic structures and patterns to the functions that language serves and to the social settings in which it is used.
pwhorradse’ss acraetbeugiolrt:iens.,?v., adj. and prep.. ①N②o((tmMDQe:eeuiaaTnta限nohwli修ren定ogrm饰l词ed;o语x’②)ss,it)ccdiraaaenentlgfledrilcgaeeaocsbeotrtliweyeoogoncnisror;.idri③(ttPiseser4(ddsiD3oiisi)snenttgrcor程ilbfiubu度ddutee词itto:eino)dr,.nmeq.teui(nrPaiml4ni4fgiin)eerr
linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
the generative 1. word-level categories approach 2. phrase categories (生成学派) 3. sentences
rheme (述位)：说话者陈述的有关，或者涉
及，话语起点的内容。
Father wrote this letter. This letter was wrote by father.
从已知到未知是自然的，叫做客观顺序；在感情叙 述中可把述位放在主位前面，叫做主观顺序。
Systemic-Functional Grammar (系统功能语法)
❖ The term category in some
approaches refers to classes
and functions in its narrow
sense, e.g. nnoouunn,,vveerrbb,,ssuubbjjeecctt,,
pprreeddiiccaattee,, nnooun phrase, verb
made up of 2 morphemes: {syn} and {tax}. The former means “_t_o_g_e_t_h_e_r_”, and the latter “_t_o__a_rr_a_n_g_e__”.
❖ In linguistics语言学, Syntax (句法学) is a
The boy kicked the ball. The ball kicked the boy. The boy the ball kicked .
现场所有成分之间的关 系；词必须满足一些句 法和语义条件。
Paradigmatic (纵聚合) relation is a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place of a structure.
example, include number,
gender, case and countability;
and of the verb, for example,
tense, aspect, voice, etc..
❖ The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories.
Halliday尽力将语言功能和结构联系起来，认为有三
种普遍的语言功能（P11）
（1）Ideational function (概念功能) （2）Interpersonal function (人际功能) （3）Textual function (语篇功能)
The boy kicked the ball.
The ball was kicked by the boy.
传统意义上的主语，承担了不同的功能。 (1) 动作者，“逻辑主语”，指行动的施动者； (2) 情态主语，“语法主语”，是谓语表述的对象； (3) 主位，“心理主语”，指信息的关注点；
4.2 Categories (范畴)
❖ Category (P42) refers to a group of
The boy kicked the ball. 可用括号分析层级：词—词组—更大词组—句子；
也可以用tree structure分层级。
more expensive clothes
endocentric constructions向心结构 the books on the shelf head/center