托福真题2015-01-10Reading十六世纪欧洲工匠+疾病与历史+地球大气(词句整理)

Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
Words & Phrases
1.In a few industries there appeared technological innovations that cost more to
install and operate than artisans—even associations of artisans—could afford.
technological innovations：技术上的创新
innovation：n. 创新=originality
install: v. 安装;设置 If you install a piece of equipment, you fit it or put it somewhere so that it is ready to be used
2.such specialized equipment as blast furnaces：像鼓风炉这样的专门设备
blast：n./v. 爆炸，喷射(气体或水流)
furnace：n. 锅炉
blast furnace 指能向炉肚吹气的锅炉，使燃烧更充分
3.Thus the need for fixed capital (equipment and buildings used in production)
soared
Fixed capital: 固定的资本
Soar：v. (鸟)高飞；疾飞，猛涨
4.expensive in their own right：从它们自身来看本身就是贵的
in their own right: 从它们自身来看
5.In addition, pig (raw) iron turned out by blast furnaces could not be forged until
refined further in a new intermediate stage.
pig (raw) iron: 作为原材料的生铁
raw material: 原材料=primary material
forge: v. 炼;锻造 If someone forges an object out of metal, they heat the metal and then hammer and bend it into the required shape.
refine：v. 提炼，精炼（此词来自re+fine，意为反复使之更好的意思，所以是提炼精炼）
refinery：n.精炼厂，炼油厂
intermediate：adj. 居间的，中间的
整句话意思为：此外，从鼓风炉中生产出的生铁不能被锻造，直到在一个居间的状态中进一步提炼后才可以被锻造。

6.constituted artisans’ maj or expense：构成工匠的主要花费
expense：n. 花费，支出
at the expense of: 以…为代价= at the cost of
7. a constant preoccupation：一直关心的事情
constant：adj. 一直的，持续的=steady, continuing
preoccupation：关注，关心=concern
8.The loss of nearby sources could therefore be devastating.
Devastating：adj. 毁灭性的;极具破坏力的 If you describe something as devastating, you are emphasizing that it is very harmful or damaging
9.silk cultivation waned
wane: v. 月亏，衰落
反义词：wax: v. 月盈，增长；n. 蜡（植物叶子表面的蜡质，用以阻止水分
蒸发）
10.Credit was necessary for production but created additional vulnerabilities for
artisans.
Vulnerabilities: n.脆弱，易受伤害
Vulnerable: adj. 脆弱的，易受伤害的
Vulnerable to= susceptible to= exposed to=subject to
11.in a similar fashion: 以同样的方式=in a similar way
12.bought yarn from spinners or local brokers: 从纺织者或当地的中间商买进纱
线
13.became subject to London merchants who monopolized both wool supplies and
woolens exports
变得受制于伦敦商人的控制，他们既垄断羊毛的供应也垄断羊毛织品的出口
1.
和谓语(had started to erode)，需要前后连起来读
autonomous handcraft businesses: 独立自主的手工艺行业
capitalism：n. 资本主义
capital：n. 资本= currency(流通中的货币)=money
free-market pricing：自由的市场定价
prosperous：adj. 富足的；成功的；兴旺的；繁荣的 Prosperous people, places, and economies are rich and successfu
prosperous = thriving = flourishing (考过词汇题)
2.Whereas in 1583 an Antwerp silk weaver paid 12 guilders for a loom, every six
weeks he or she had to lay out 24 guilders for the 2 pounds of raw silk required to make a piece of cloth.
Whereas引导比较的两个句子，一方…而另一方…
Whereas = while
silk weaver: 丝绸编织者
loom：n. 织布机
raw silk：原始的生丝
3.In the Dutch Republic, merchants who imported unprocessed salt from France,
Portugal, and Spain gained control of the salt-refining industry once exploitation of local salt marshes was halted for fear that dikes which held back the sea from the low-lying Dutch land would be undermined.
1）看到谓语想主语，主语在远离谓语的前面（因为被修饰语分隔），所以”gained control of”的主语是”merchants”，”would be undermined”的主语是”dikes”；2）once引导句子表示”一旦…”；3）介词for除了表示”为了…”
还可以表示原因”因为…”
Dutch Republic：荷兰共和国(了解即可)
imported unprocessed salt：进口未加工的盐
salt-refining industry：盐加工行业
exploitation：n. 开发利用=utilization(考过词汇题)
salt marshes：盐沼泽
dike：n. 大坝，水坝
held back：阻止
4.
Those代替省略的是前面出现的”prices”
lagged behind: 落后
5.Periodic downturns, when food prices shot up and demand for manufactures fell
artisans who extended them loans.
1）看到谓语想主语，drove的主语是句子开头的periodic downturns，因为被后面插入的when句子分隔，所以和谓语drove分开了；2）介词+which，which指的是介词前面的名词，所以from which中的which指的是前面的bankrupcy
Downturns：n. 经济衰落期
emerge：v. 冒出，（从困境或不好的经历中）摆脱出来，熬出来 If you emerge from a difficult or bad experience, you come to the end of it
exclusively：adv. 只，仅仅=solely (考过词汇题)
extended them loans：给他们延长贷款
6.Frequent enough during periods of growth, such credit crises became deeper
and lasted longer after about 1570, as did war-related disruptions of raw-material supplies and markets.
1）主语出现前，都是对主语的铺垫修饰，所以“Frequent enough during periods of growth”指的是主语“such credit crises”2）as did=so did，这是省略+倒装，补全完整的正常语序应该是：war-related disruptions of raw-material supplies and markets became deeper and lasted longer. 因为和前面句子的谓语部分重复，所以用as did代替了。

7.
northern Belgium) had
mercy of big-city middlemen, who quickly turned them into domestic workers.
1）看到谓语想主语，
所以”left”的主语是” The disappearance of regional markets”；2）left是留下导致的意思。

at the mercy of：处在…的怜悯下，任凭…支配
bought flax and sold linen：买亚麻卖出亚麻布
domestic workers：家庭工人
Abstract →Concrete
1.Artisans’ autonomy was imperiled, too, by restrictions on their access to
markets.
工匠的独立自主性也受“进入市场受限”的威胁，这句话当中对于“restrictions on their access to markets”（进入市场受限制）的具体理解是什么？下文是怎样展开的？
Autonomy: n. 自治，独立自主
Imperil: v. 使陷于危险;危及 Something that imperils you puts you in danger Restriction: n. 限制=constrain=restrain=limitation
Disease and History
Words & Phrases
1.Epidemiology is the study of the causes, distribution, and control of diseases in
populations.
Epidemiology：流行病学
Epidemic：n. 流行病
Endemic：adj. （疾病）地方性的，流行的 If a disease or illness is endemic in a place, it is frequently found among the people who live there.
Distribution: n. 分布
2.general trends：整体的趋势
trend=tendency趋势=inclination倾向性
3.Anthropologist George Armelogos has outlined these trends and refers to them
as three “epidemiological transitions.”
Refer to…as…：把…称之为…
transition: n. 过渡，转变
4.widely dispersed, nomadic groups：广泛散播的游牧群体
dispersed=scattered：adj. 散播的，分散开的
nomadic：adj. 游牧的，游荡的——反义词：sedentary: 定居的
5.Animal domestication may have brought people into contact with new diseases
previously limited to other species.
动物的驯化也许使人们接触到新的疾病，这些新的疾病先前局限于感染其他物种(而不是人类)。

Domestication：n. 驯养，驯化
Dome：n. 圆屋顶，将动物拿到屋下培养，即驯化domesticate
区别于dominate：v. 占主导地位，统治…
Bring…into contact with…：使…进入到和…的接触中
limited to=restricted to=confined to=constrained to=restrained to
6.exposed farmers to insects and other pathogens
将农民暴露于昆虫和其他的病原体
7.breeding places for mosquitoes：蚊子的繁育地点
8.nutritional deficiencies：营养不足
9.the storage of food surpluses attracted new disease carriers such as insects and
rats：食物剩余的储存吸引了新的疾病携带者，例如昆虫和老鼠
注意：疾病携带者disease carrier，携带疾病，但自身并不被疾病感染发作。

例如我们常说的乙肝携带者，带有乙肝病毒，但自身不发作，有感染其他人的可能。

对于这个概念的理解有道题出了一个选项，很多考生做错。

我们结合题目再说。

在此，大家记住这个概念的真正意思。

10.In terms of what ailed and killed us, there was a shift to chronic diseases such as
heart and lung diseases.
In terms of：从…的角度去看=in respect to
ail: v. 使患病;使不适 If something ails someone, they are ill
a shift to chronic diseases: 朝向慢性病转变
chronic：adj. 慢性的，长期的chron-词根，时间的意思，所以chronicle：n.
编年史；synchronize：v. 使同步同时发生
11.new and serious antibiotic-resistant strains of tuberculosis have recently
appeared
antibiotic-resistant strains of tuberculosis：抗-抗生素的肺炎链球菌品种
strain：n. （细菌病毒的）品种，品系
antibiotic：n. 抗生素
12.overuse of antibiotics：抗生素的过度使用
13.to evolve resistance by exposing them to a constant barrage of selective
challenges：通过暴露于选择性挑战的连续轰炸中而进化出抵抗性（指一直给人体使用抗生素，结果人体中的有害细菌暴露于抗生素的连续轰炸中，加快了选择性进化速度）
a constant barrage：连续的弹幕轰炸
14.genetic mutation：基因突变
Syntax
1.Sanitation problems caused by larger, more sedentary populations would have
helped transmit diseases in human waste, as would the use of animal dung for fertilizer.
as would是一种省略+倒装，省略了与前句重复的谓语和宾语，
as would后面才是句子真正的主语
这个句子补全省略内容恢复正常语序为：the use of animal dung for fertilizer would have helped transmit diseases
Sanitation problems：卫生问题
Sedentary：adj. 定居的
transmit diseases：传递疾病
animal dung for fertilizer：用于肥料的动物粪便
2.With modern medical science providing immunizations and antibiotics and with
better public health measures and improved nutrition, many infectious diseases were brought under control, or even eliminated.
1）介词with表伴随；2）and 并列对象的寻找，根据结构对等，内容对等，
所以and with和前面的with并列。

Immunizations：n.免疫接种
Immune system: 免疫系统，是人体的防御系统defense system
Antibiotics：抗生素；抗菌素 Antibiotics are medical drugs used to kill bacteria and treat infections
Measures：n. 措施，方法
3.The increase in many of these came not only from the fact that fewer people
were dying from infectious disease and were living longer
of developing countries—a more sedentary life leading to less physical activity, more stress, environmental pollution, and high-fat diets.
并列对象的寻找，根据结构对等，内容对等
所以，but also from和前面的from并列；were living和前面的were dying 并列
infectious disease: 感染性疾病
upper classes：上层阶段
middle class：中产阶级
lower class：下层阶级
sedentary life：定居的生活
4.All those infectious epidemics were of the past.
“B e+介词”构成谓语，be of表示属于…
整句话意思为：所有的那些感染性流行病属于过去。

5.But on the heels of the second transition had come the third epidemiological
transition, and we are in it now.
完全倒装，谓语为不及物动词come，整个谓语提在主语之前，正常语序为：the third epidemiological transition had come.
on the heels of: 紧跟着…接踵而来
heel：n. 脚后跟
6.we contact other species that may carry diseases to which they are immune but
that prove deadly to us.
1）介词+which，which指介词前面的名词disease，所以后半句应是：they are immune to disease（他们免疫于这些疾病，即不受这些疾病感染）；2）that修饰对象的寻找，根据意思，that指前面的disease
Deadly: adj.致命的
整句话的意思是：我们接触到了其他的物种，这些物种也许带有疾病，对于这些疾病这些物种是免疫的，但这些疾病对我们确实致命的。

Earth’s Atmosphere
Words & Phrases
1.These elements were lost when the envelope of gases, or primary atmosphere,
that surrounded early Earth, was stripped away by the solar wind or by meteorite impacts, or both.
the envelope of gases：气体团
envelope本义是“信封”，这里指包裹地球的气体
stripped away：剥去，刮去
solar wind：太阳风
meteorite impacts：陨石撞击
2.Little by little, the planet generated a new, secondary atmosphere by volcanic
outgassing of volatile materials from its interior.
Little by little：一点点
volcanic outgassing：火山的气体喷出
volatile materials：挥发的物质
interior：n. 内部（反义词：exterior外部）
衍生：internal：adj. 内在的，external：adj. 外在的
3.Earth had virtually no oxygen in its atmosphere more than 4 billion years ago
Virtually：adv. 几乎;实际上;事实上;差不多 You can use virtually to indicate that something is so nearly true that for most purposes it can be regarded as true
Virtually=almost(考过词汇题)
4.Traces of oxygen were probably generated in the early atmosphere by the
breakdown of water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen by ultraviolet light
Traces of oxygen：微量的氧气
Trace：n. 少许;微量 A trace of something is a very small amount of it
breakdown of water molecules: 水分子的分解
ultraviolet light：紫外光
5.photosynthesis, the process whereby plants use light energy to induce carbon
dioxide to react with water, producing carbohydrates and oxygen
photosynthesis：n. 光合作用
synthesis：n. 合成
whereby：adv. 凭此;借以 A system or action whereby something happens is one that makes that thing happen
induce：v. 诱导，引起;导致 To induce a state or condition means to cause it.
Carbohydrates：n. 碳水化合物，糖类物质
6.most of the free oxygen produced by photosynthesis was combined with iron in
ocean water to form iron oxide-bearing minerals
be combined with iron: 与铁结合
iron oxide-bearing minerals：含有氧化铁的矿物质
oxide：n. 氧化物
mineral：n. 矿物质
7.gradual transition from oxygen-poor to oxygen-rich water
transition：n. 转变
8.reduced (oxygen-poor) iron compounds：还原铁化合物
9.oxidized (oxygen-rich) compounds predominate：含氧丰富的化合物占主导地位
predominate: v. 占主导地位
10.The sediments that were precipitated during the transition contain alternating
bands of red (oxidized iron) and black (reduced iron) minerals.
在过渡期期间被沉淀下来的沉淀物包含红色氧化铁和黑色还原铁交替出现的条带
precipitate：v. [气象] 使凝结而下降； [化]使沉淀
precipitation：n. 降水（包含降雨降雪降冰雹等一切气象降水），precipitation 在托福中经常出现，要记住
alternate：v. 交替出现，轮流
band：n. 条带；乐队
11.These rocks are called banded-iron formations: 这些岩石被称为条带铁岩层
Formation：n. 形成物;组成物;(岩或云)层 A rock or cloud formation is rock or cloud of a particular shape or structure.
12.in a state of dynamic equilibrium：处在一个动态平衡的状态
dynamic：adj. 动态的，动力的
equilibrium：n. 平衡
13.ozone filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation：臭氧过滤掉有害的紫外线辐射
14.life to flourish in shallow water and finally on land：生命在浅水并最终在陆地上
繁盛
flourish：v. 繁盛，兴旺发达=thrive=prosper（考过词汇题）
15.benefited mammals, which are voracious oxygen consumers：使哺乳动物获得
好处，哺乳动物是氧气消耗量特别大的动物
voracious：adj. 贪吃的;狼吞虎咽的;贪婪的;渴求的 If you describe a person, or their appetite for something, as voracious, you mean that they want a lot of something
oxygen consumers：氧气消耗者
16.An expectant mother’s used (venous) blood must still have enough oxygen in it
to diffuse through the placenta into her unborn child’s bloodstream.
直译为：一个预产母亲的用过的(静脉的)血必须仍然含有足够的氧气在里面，去通过胎盘扩散到她的未出生的孩子的血液里。

17.carbon is no longer available to react with the free oxygen
碳不再能够获得去和自由的氧气反应
available：adj. 能得到的，获得的
Syntax
pared to the Sun, whose composition is representative of the raw materials
from which Earth and other planets in our solar system formed, Earth contains less of some volatile elements, such as nitrogen, argon, hydrogen, and helium.
1）主语出现前的所有东西都是对主语的铺垫修饰，所以”compared to the sun”是主语Earth（地球被和太阳作比较）；2）介词+which，which指代介词前面的名词，所以”from which”中的which指代前面的“raw material”。

be representative of…：代表…，表现…，是…的典型
volatile elements：挥发性的元素
Nitrogen：n. 氮气
Argon：n. 氩气（了解即可）
Hydrogen：n. 氢气
Helium：n. 氦气
2.Along with the buildup of molecular oxygen (O2) came an eventual increase in
ozone (O3) levels in the atmosphere.
完全倒装句，谓语在主语前面，正常语序为：an eventual increase in ozone (O3) levels in the atmosphere came along with…
整句话意思为：大气中臭氧浓度的增加最终伴随着氧分子的累积而到来。

buildup：n. 累积= accumulation
eventual：adj. 最终的=ultimate=final（考过词汇题）
ozone：n. 臭氧
3.Not only do we require oxygen to fuel our high-energy, warm-blooded
metabolism, our unique reproductive system demands even more.
否定词放在句子开头，需提前助动词进行部分倒装
正常语序为：We do not only require oxygen to…我们确实不仅需要氧气去…
fuel: v. 为…提供燃料；推动…
warm-blooded: adj. 温血的，常温动物的
metabolism：n. 新陈代谢
unique reproductive system：独特的繁殖系统
demand：v. 要求，需求
4.The cycle is completed by decomposition, combines
with oxygen and forms carbon dioxide.
介词+which，which指代介词前面的名词，所以”in which”中的which指代前面的“decomposition”
直译为：这个循环通过降解完成，在降解当中，有机碳和氧气结合形成了二氧化碳。

Decomposition：n. 分解，降解
反义词：composition：n. 组成
Organic：adj. 有机物的，有机体的
inorganic：adj. 无机物的，无机的
organ：n. 器官
organism：n. 生物
microorganism: n.微生物
5.Thus there will be a net accumulation of carbon in sediments and of oxygen in
the atmosphere.
并列对象的确定，根据结构对等，内容对等，所以”and of”和前面的”of”并列，共同修饰accumulation。

翻译为：因此，碳在沉淀物里将能够累积，氧气在大气里也能够累积。

net: adj. 净得的，毛利的
Abstract →Concrete
1.E arth’s atmosphere has changed through time.
地球大气随时间是如何改变的？最初的原始大气(primary atmosphere)成分是什么？
如何演变成次级大气(secondary atmosphere)？次级大气和原始大气有何差别？此时是否有氧气(oxygen)？氧气是如何形成的？对生命的意义是什么？。