农村劳动力转移文献综述英文

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U NDERSTANDING I NTERNATIONAL T RADE INA GRICULTURAL P RODUCTS:O NE H UNDRED Y EARS OFC ONTRIBUTIONS BY A GRICULTURAL E CONOMISTST IM J OSLING,K YM A NDERSON,A NDREW S CHMITZ,AND S TEFAN T ANGERMANNThe study of international trade in agricultural products has developed rapidly over the pastﬁfty years.In the1960s the disarray in world agriculture caused by domestic price support policies became thefocus of analytical studies.There followed attempts to measure the distortions caused by policies alsoin developing countries and to model their impact on world agricultural markets.Tools were advancedto explain the trends and variations in world prices and the implications of market imperfections.Challenges for the future include analyzing trade based on consumer preferences for certain productionmethods and understanding the impact of climate change mitigation and adaptation on trade.Key words:agricultural trade;commodity prices;trade policy;agricultural trade distortions;measure-ment of agricultural protection;modeling agricultural trade.JEL Codes:F13,F55,Q17.The study of the economics of international trade in agricultural and food products is a rela-tively new area of specialization in the agricul-tural economics profession.Certainly the three mainstream areas that dominated theﬁrstﬁfty years of the American Agricultural Economics Association(AAEA)—production economics, marketing,and policy—each acknowledged the existence of international trade,but they largely ignored the analytical challenge of understanding the behavior of international markets and their role in resource-use efﬁ-ciency and income distribution.By contrast, most agricultural economists trained since the1960s have been exposed to interna-tional trade theory and recognize the per-Tim Josling is Professor Emeritus,Food Research Institute,and Senior Fellow,Freeman Spogli Institute of International Studies, Stanford University.Kym Anderson is the George Gollin Professor of Economics and former executive director of the Centre for International Economic Studies at the University of Adelaide; Andrew Schmitz is the Ben Hill Grifﬁn,Jr.Eminent Scholar and a professor of Food and Resource Economics,University of Florida,Gainesville;a research professor,University of California, Berkeley;and an adjunct professor,University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.Stefan Tangermann is Professor Emeritus,University of Göttingen and former Director for Trade and Agriculture at OECD.We would like to thank the many members of the Inter-national Agricultural Trade Research Consortium(IATRC)who responded to an informal poll on the most inﬂuential writings in agricultural trade in their experience.vasive inﬂuence of international economic events on domestic markets and policies. Trade agreements have evolved to where they constrain domestic policy,and interna-tional commodity prices are usually trans-mitted at least to some extent back to the farm level.Even the“newer”areas of agri-cultural and applied economics,such as envi-ronmental and resource economics,develop-ment economics,and consumer economics,are inﬂuenced by the institutions of international trade.This review aims to document the growth of the study of international agricultural mar-kets and institutions by identifying some of the main contributions of the profession to our understanding of the key issues.It is a subjective assessment of the development of professional thinking on several of the main areas where contributions have been made to the understanding of the nature of inter-national trade in agriculture and food com-modities.Each of these advances illustrates the cumulative contributions made by economists working in universities and research agen-cies of national and international institu-tions.We apologize at the outset to the many whose work we have not been able to mention.Amer.J.Agr.Econ.92(2):424–446;doi:10.1093/ajae/aaq011Received December2009;accepted January2010©The Author(2010).Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Agricultural and Applied Economics Association.All rights reserved.For permissions,please e-mail:journals.permissions@ at Rijksuniversiteit Groningen on April 26, Downloaded fromJosling et al.Understanding International Trade in Agricultural Products425Changing Trade Issues over the Past Ten DecadesAgricultural economists,by the nature of their discipline,are attracted to the issues of the day. It follows that those who work on international trade issues in the main respond to emerg-ing trade situations that demand analysis and explanation.Theoretical developments and improvements in analytical technique often accompany these attempts to understand and explain current problems.As a backdrop to the more detailed discussion of the contributions of economists to the study of international agri-cultural trade,we therefore begin by tracing the evolution of trade issues over the100years since the founding of theAAEA.This will illus-trate the tumultuous nature of the changes that have called out to be addressed by economists, as well as the dramatic advances in theoretical and analytical tools that have been developed to understand these issues.Agricultural trade historically has been a signiﬁcant share of total commerce,and for many countries has played a dominant role in determining foreign policy.As late as1890, agricultural exports accounted for75%of the total exports from the United States(Johnson 1977,p.298).By the time the AAEA came into existence in1909,the export share was about 50%,and that share fell steadily until the1940s before reviving in the immediate postwar era to about20%.For the world as a whole,agri-cultural trade has steadily declined as a share of total trade in goods and services and is now less than8%,even though it has been increas-ing faster than world agricultural production. Yet trade in agricultural products remains very important for both high-income and develop-ing countries,and agricultural trade policies typically are among the most sensitive in any international trade negotiations.Theﬁrst two decades of the AAEA,from 1909to1929,was a period of steady decline in trade from the high point of the nineteenth-century globalization period to the growth of protectionist movements and the collapse of European empires in the devastation of World War I.Though the founding fathers of the AAEA were well aware of the geopol-itics of the period and the impact on agri-cultural tradeﬂows,few books or articles by agricultural economists stand out as dealing systematically with trade issues during that ernment intervention in agricul-tural markets was not on the horizon,and agricultural tariffs were generally low relative to barriers to trade in manufactured goods and services.During the1920s,the situation began to change.With domestic farm policy emergingas a way to boost rural incomes,pressure grewto use trade policy as part of the strategy.The McNary-Haughen Act was an early attemptto use trade policy to inﬂuence domestic mar-kets,and the same trend toward protectionismwas occurring in other countries.1The book by Edwin Nourse(1924)introduced a more holis-tic view of world markets as well as a cogent explanation of their signiﬁcance for U.S.agri-culture.At this time,trade theorists began to expand on the determinants of trade,and thesigniﬁcance of resource endowments emergedas a major factor in the explanation of tradeﬂows.By the third decade of the AAEA’s exis-tence,trade policy was a matter of high polit-ical interest and international contention.TheGreat Depression was widespread and pro-tracted in part because of increased trade pro-tection,and agricultural trade was not spared.The1930Smoot-Hawley tariff bill was origi-nally designed as an agricultural tariff increasebut ended up more generally applied to all goods.Did the profession sit idly by while theworld trade system disintegrated and economic autarchy reigned?It is not easy toﬁnd sem-inal articles from this period on agriculturaltrade and the collapse of markets,with the notable exception of T.W.Schultz’s,who wroteon world agricultural trade and the serious implications for U.S.markets(Schultz1935).The fourth decade was not one of major contributions to the agricultural economics lit-erature in the area of trade.Wartime condi-tions were not conducive to academic pursuits,since many members of the profession wereco-opted into government posts and presum-ably made contributions that may never be revealed.2However,the postwar trading sys-tem was being constructed in the1940s,and agricultural issues were often at the heart of the discussion.3The debates between such notable economists as James Meade and Keynes and1Agricultural economists commented on these issues,in the con-texts of both domestic policy and the trade system.Aﬁne exampleis the study by Black(1928),who warned of the consequences ofthis policy.2An exception was Henry C.Taylor’s book on world agriculturaltrade,emphasizing the importance of the European market(Taylorand Taylor1943).3The debate on managing commodity markets is an example;see the discussion below of the writings by Davis(1942)and Tsouand Black(1944).at Rijksuniversiteit Groningen on April 26, Downloaded from426April2010Amer.J.Agr.Econ.their American counterparts explicitly dealt with the inclusion of agricultural trade in the postwar system but were notable for their assumption that these issues were of such a high political importance that the arguments for freer markets were unlikely to prevail.Mean-while the theory of international trade took major steps forward:Samuelson’s(1948)arti-cle on factor price equalization appeared,and the basis was laid for modern trade theory. The decade of the1950s saw the start of a serious professional interest in agricultural and commodity trade.D.Gale Johnson published a book on the inconsistency between U.S.trade and agricultural policies:the one advocating open markets,the other maintaining protec-tive barriers(Johnson1950).For twenty years Johnson reﬁned this message and had a pro-found impact on the profession(if not on policy),as is detailed below.Condliffe(1951) included some insightful comments about agri-cultural trade in his book The Commerce of Nations,in addition to showing the complexi-ties of trade regulations at that time(Condliffe 1951).4The link between commodity trade and economic development and growth also began to be considered during this period.In fact this was the start of development economics as the colonial system disintegrated.Even the begin-nings of the political economy of agricultural trade can be traced to this period.Kindleberger (1951)introduced interest-group analysis into the explanation of national tariff policies,set-ting the stage for later political economy work on agricultural trade.By the start of the1960s the issue of agri-cultural commodity trade became a signiﬁcant international concern.The1960s saw sharp increases in agricultural protection in indus-trial countries.The trade system staggered under the burden of the disposition of sur-pluses built up under high price supports. Developing countries saw a different side of this with their requests for market access(on concessional terms)rebuffed by strong domes-tic political forces and their export earnings depressed by low commodity prices in interna-tional markets.Much of the professional writ-ing in the United States on agricultural trade in 4Condliffe inﬂuenced a generation of students at Berkeley, including Hillman,who began to ask systematic questions about the issues facing agricultural trade.Hillman(1996)shows some frus-tration over the lack of earlier studies on trade,declaring:“[A]bout the only works relating to agricultural trade were a1920s book by Nourse and Gale Johnson’s work on the trade policy dilemma of US agriculture.”this period focused on how to increase exports,either commercially or through food aid.The1960s saw another development thathas had a profound impact on agricultural trade:the rebirth of regional economic integra-tion and somewhat less ambitious free trade areas.European economists,as well as theirNorth American counterparts,were intriguedby the bold experiment of the European Eco-nomic Community(EEC)but were concernedabout the protectionist Common AgriculturalPolicy(CAP)that formed an integral partof the agreement.The tensions between theEEC(later the EU)and the United Statesover agricultural trade were a major theme for economists during this period and indeed untilthe mid-1990s,when the World Trade Orga-nization(WTO)internalized some of theseconﬂicts.Both trade theory and the theory of eco-nomic integration were developing rapidly,asreal-world events challenged accepted expla-nations.In the1960s,trade theorists paid increasing attention to international capital movements within the context of standardtrade theory:Capital movements could be a substitute for product trade.5Agricultural eco-nomics as a whole stuck close to its microeco-nomic roots and to a“closed economy”viewof the agricultural sector.There was still a dis-connect between the teaching of agricultural marketing and domestic policy on the one handand teaching about the functioning of the inter-national trade and monetary system on the other.This meant that the profession was some-what slow in responding to the emerging tradeissues of the1960s.6By the1970s a host of new issues had arisenwhich emphasized the importance of external economic events.A sharp rise in oil prices, together with droughts in India,Africa,and the USSR,caused agricultural commodity marketsto spike upward.Two devaluations of the dollar5Schmitz and Helmberger(1970)then developed a modelin which they demonstrate that capital movements and producttrade can be complements,in that increased capital movementsbring about increased product trade.Their examples chosen werefor agriculture and natural resource industries and presaged thegrowth of agricultural and food trade linked to foreign direct investment that has continued to this day.6In an editorial introduction to the otherwise impressive col-lection of articles on agricultural economics published by theAmerican Economics Association(AEA)in1969,the editorsadmit that the“decision to emphasize a limited number of topicsresulted in the exclusion of a number of areas in which agricultural economists have specialized.Among the more importantﬁelds thathave been excluded[is]...international trade”(AEA1969,p.xvi).D.Gale Johnson was on the selection committee for this volume,so presumably he found inadequate material in this area to include.at Rijksuniversiteit Groningen on April 26, Downloaded fromJosling et al.Understanding International Trade in Agricultural Products427and the virtual abandonment of the Bretton Woods monetary system added more shocks to markets.Increased macroeconomic instabil-ity and chaotic commodity market behavior showed up the dysfunctionality of domestic policies.D.Gale Johnson’s seminal bookWorld Agriculture in Disarray and his work on sugar markets encapsulated this situation(Johnson 1973,1974).G.Edward Schuh(1974)reminded the profession of the importance of macroeco-nomics to agricultural markets and the signif-icance of exchange rates to agricultural trade patterns.And,in an extensive survey of“tra-ditional”ﬁelds of agricultural economics from the1940s to the1970s(Martin1977),policies related to agricultural trade were deemed wor-thy of a full section,authored masterfully by D.Gale Johnson(Johnson1977).The1980s ushered in a remarkable period of conﬂicts over agricultural trade and of policy reform that sowed the seeds for their rec-onciliation.The reform of multilateral trade rules for agriculture had to await the neces-sary changes in domestic policy,but this reform eventually emerged from a mix of budget pressures and paradigm shifts.7The Interna-tional Agricultural Trade Research Consor-tium(IATRC,discussed in a later section) became a focus for work on trade.It was also a period when economists were becoming increasingly sophisticated in the art of building models of markets and estimating behavioral parameters.The international trade literature in general was changing over this period,with an examination of imperfect competition mod-els and of the importance of geography,the study of the political economy of protection, and the issue of regional integration.Agricul-tural economists became adept at translating and applying these new areas of exploration into the world of agricultural product trade and associated policies,as discussed below.The decade of the1990s saw a signiﬁ-cant change in the international rules gov-erning national trade policies for agriculture makes.That set of changes made this an active decade for agricultural trade professionals. Despite the signing of the General Agree-ment on Tariffs and Trade(GATT)in1947 by the advanced industrial countries,and the progressive reduction of tariffs on imports of manufactures,there had been little progress on reducing agricultural trade barriers.The 7Policy dialogue in international bodies such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development contributed signiﬁ-cantly to the paradigm shift,and this dialogue was an extension of the academic discussions of the time.changing paradigms of economic policy that started in the mid-1980s led eventually in1995to the full incorporation of agriculture intothe successor to the GATT,the World Trade Organization.8Multimarket and economy-wide models became still more sophisticated.This was an age of detailed empirical workon agricultural trade rather than one of con-ceptual improvements.But agricultural tradewas becoming mainstream in agricultural eco-nomics curricula,and domestic policy coursesin the United States and the EU began to include some“open economy”issues.Mean-while,agricultural trade itself was changingwith the globalization of the food industry, posing novel challenges for economists.It is clearly too early to judge the lasting nature of contributions since the beginning ofthe new millennium,but the expansion of the range of trade issues connected with environ-mental,consumer,animal welfare,water,and climate change issues has greatly broadenedthe focus of agricultural trade analysts.Recent concerns over the impact of price spikes onfood security and of the use of agriculturalcrops as biomass for fuel have kept agricul-tural trade issues high on the international agenda.Rapid growth in processed and high-value agricultural and food products,and a revolu-tionary spread of retail supermarkets accom-panied the“second wave”of globalization inthe modern era,so that it is no longer fancifulto talk of a global market for farm prod-ucts.Some economists focus on WTO issues, which have become a signiﬁcant subﬁeld of agricultural trade research and analysis.Oth-ers take a development view:Much empiricalwork on agricultural trade now is done by those examining developing-country issues,includ-ing questions such as the use of trade policyas an element in food security or antipoverty programs.Still others study regional or bilat-eral trade arrangements in all their glory, pondering the balance between the beneﬁtsof partial liberalization and the costs of giv-ing preferred access to high-cost producers.Many contributions are now made by those working in(or with)multilateral institutions (such as the World Bank,the Organisationfor Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD],and the United Nations Confer-ence on Trade and Development[UNCTAD]),8However,trade negotiations have continued to pivot on thethorny issue of liberalization of farm product trade,as evidencedby the current problems in the WTO’s Doha Round.at Rijksuniversiteit Groningen on April 26, Downloaded from428April2010Amer.J.Agr.Econ.often in collaborative studies.This seems to reﬂect a shift in the way in which agricultural trade research has been organized,a topic to which we return at the end of the paper.As a way of highlighting the ways in which the profession has responded to these chang-ing events,we organize our subjective survey around six areas.Each area is an example of a cumulative advance in understanding,starting with one or two articles and books and devel-oping into a body of more or less accepted wisdom.Contribution#1:Understanding the behavior of international commodity pricesOne of the most persistent questions in agri-cultural trade is whether there are consistent long-run trends in international market prices for agricultural commodities.On the one hand, supply constraints(limited land area)in the face of demand growth(population and per capita income)could push farm product prices ever higher.On the other hand,as consumers spend a high share of rising incomes on non-food items(the Engel effect),economic growth will cause a shift in demand away from basic foods.Relatively rapid agricultural productiv-ity growth will lower the costs of farm produc-tion and hence tend to lower farm prices.The evidence for much of this century appeared to point to a declining price trend.9However,the signiﬁcance of this trend became a matter of considerable controversy in the1960s.The variability of prices has also been a major topic for investigation over the years. High prices in the early1970s brought this issue to the fore,and a more recent price spike in 2007–8has renewed concerns about the corro-sive economic impact of market instability.Pri-mary product prices in international markets are notoriously more volatile than prices for other products.How much of the price volatil-ity is due to the characteristics of markets(e.g., supply shocks from weather or disease)and how much to government intervention became a subject for study in the1970s and1980s. Commodity Prices and the Terms of Trade The behavior of prices of agricultural com-modities on world markets has been an understandable obsession with economists.Of speciﬁc interest to agricultural trade analysis is 9This is in contrast to recent evidence for the period from the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century(Williamson2008).the trend in the relative price of agricultural products compared with nonagricultural prod-ucts.The terms of trade for agricultural(andother primary)products have featured promi-nently in debates about the possible bias ofthe trade system toward particular groups of countries.The debate on whether the economic system generated outcomes that were stacked against developing countries was highly visiblein the1960s.Prebisch(1950)and Singer(1950)had come independently to the conclusion thatthere was a structural reason for the observed decline in the price of agriculture relativeto manufactured goods,reinforcing the ten-dency due to the different income elasticities. Imperfect markets in industrial goods allowed manufacturers to retain much of the beneﬁtsfrom productivity increases rather than pass-ing them on to consumers,whereas agricultural productivity gains were passed directly to con-sumers(or at least processors)in the formof lower prices.As a consequence,the termsof trade turned progressively against the rural “periphery”in favor of the industrial“center.”The concept proved powerful in political termsand was a major motivation for the foundingof UNCTAD in1964and the calls for a New International Economic Order by developing countries in the1970s.The Prebisch/Singer hypothesis has donebetter as a political call to arms than as a statis-tical conclusion.A major revision of the datathat had originally been used was publishedby Grilli and Yang(1988),which broadly con-ﬁrmed a downward trend.10But other analysts disagreed with the interpretation of the data: Trends in prices over the past100years areby no means smooth.There have indeed beensharp declines in agricultural prices(particu-larly in1920)but also periods where the trendis upward(over theﬁrst part of the twenti-eth century),when it disappears(from1920until the late1970s),and when a strong down-ward trend begins(until1990)(Ocampo andParra2002).Cashin and Mc Dermott(2002, 2006)conﬁrm these results and reject boththe existence of a long-run trend and the evidence of structural changes in the series used.The past decade has seen a recovery of prices,and many argue that the trend maybe upward for at least a few more years to come.Moreover,the link between terms oftrade and economic development has become10Their data have since been updated to2000by Pfaffenzeller, Newbolt,and Rayner(2007).at Rijksuniversiteit Groningen on April 26, Downloaded fromJosling et al.Understanding International Trade in Agricultural Products429more blurred.Identiﬁcation of“primary prod-uct exporters”with“developing countries”looks increasingly dated:For many key farm commodities,high-income countries are the major exporters,and for many developing countries—especially in Asia—manufactured goods now dominate their exports.The recent revival of the idea that agricul-tural prices may be on a long-term upward trend owes much to three phenomena:rapid growth in emerging countries,particularly in China,India,and Brazil,with its implication for dietary improvements;the extraordinary increase in oil prices in2007,which raised energy costs in agriculture and led to gov-ernmental mandates and subsidies for biofu-els;and the apparent stagnation in technical advance in agriculture as a result of declin-ing research expenditures.Contributions to the understanding of these price movements have been somewhat contradictory.Someﬁnd a sig-niﬁcant role for speculation(Gilbert2008); others for biofuel policies(OECD and Food and Agriculture Organization[FAO]2008). But what seems generally agreed is that agri-cultural commodity prices now have a direct link with the price of petroleum,once it exceeds a threshold level at which biofuels become a privately proﬁtable substitute for fossil fuels. International Price ShocksThe importance of commodity priceﬂuctua-tions and of the domestic policy responses to them was made apparent in the1970s.The quadrupling of petroleum prices in1973–74 and their doubling again in1979–80,when the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Coun-tries(OPEC)coordinated major reductions in supply,triggered a renewed focus on analyzing the consequences of such nonfarm shocks for the agricultural sector.Initially the focus of this literature was on analyzing the impact on con-sumers andﬁrms,as producers faced sharply higher energy costs.But the magnitude of the petroleum price stimulated massive and rapid exploration for and exploitation of new energy reserves.Such supply reactions were incorpo-rated in the analysis of price impacts,leading to what became known as the“Dutch Disease”literature that sought initially to explain the effects on other sectors of the Dutch economy following the discovery and exploitation of nat-ural gasﬁelds off the coast of the Netherlands. Gregory(1975)made an early contribution to this literature on the impact of nonfarm sector booms:He found that the direct effect is a rise in the demand for labor in the booming nonfarm sector that will initially draw workersfrom other sectors to the booming sector butthat this is followed by an indirect impact on agriculture and other sectors as the change inreal income in the economy affects the demandfor all products.The same core theory has been used to ana-lyze the inter-and intrasectoral and tax policy impacts of agricultural commodity price boomsand busts.In the context of sub-SaharanAfrica,it was common practice for governments totax away windfalls from export price booms, either for depositing in a stabilization fund tobe drawn on to support farmers during periodsof price collapses or to boost treasury coffersso as to allow the boom to be shared withthe rest of the society,including nonboomingfarm industries.But recent analysis has castdoubt upon the ability of governments to effectsuch transfers.Trade economists have also been concernedwith the impact of storage policies on inter-national market price stability and on the optimal storage policy for an open economy.The early theoretical work on stabilization was stimulated by Hueth and Schmitz(1972),who showed the distributional effects in both a closed and an open economy from price stabi-lization brought about through storage.Feder, Just,and Schmitz(1977)analyzed storage poli-cies under trade uncertainty and showed cases where trade would be greatly reduced under ahigh degree of uncertainty.Just et al.(1978) analyzed the welfare implications of storagefrom an international perspective using non-linear assumptions,and Newberry and Stiglitz (1981)expanded the framework for optimal policy intervention under instability for open economies.The persuasive nature of their argu-ments,that private and public storage are code-termined and so the latter might just take theplace of the former,together with the return tolower prices in world markets,has effectively dropped the topic of intergovernmental stor-age agreements from the policy agenda sincethe1980s.11Domestic Policies and Market InstabilityThe argument that governments may exac-erbate international marketﬂuctuations bytheir own attempts to stabilize domestic prices11The topic did not totally disappear:Williams and Wright (1991),for instance,added additional insights into the welfareimpacts of commodity storage in both trade and no-trade situations.at Rijksuniversiteit Groningen on April 26, Downloaded from。

农村劳动力转移文献综述英文

Ⅰ.IntroductionThe transfer of rural surplus labor force is the main problem facing China's modernization process. The contradiction between the land and the people in China have become increasingly prominent in rural areas has generated a lot of surplus labor. Excessive rural surplus labor force will led directly to the low efficiency of agricultural production and farmers' incomes, restricting the construction of a new socialist countryside and urban-rural coordinated development. Rural million rural laborers need to be transferred, the transfer of rural surplus labor is still an arduous task.To comprehensively promote the construction of a new socialist countryside, the difficulty is the transfer of rural surplus labor force, the key is to strengthen the training of rural labor, and strive to improve the comprehensive quality of the rural labor force, make population pressure into human resource advantages, and the promotion of rural labor to non-agricultural industries and urban orderly transfer of a fundamental solution to the "three agricultural issues" to achieve the harmonious development of urban and rural economic and social.Ⅱ. literature review(A) Foreign research theories and perspectives1. Lewis model emphasizes the contribution of industrial high productivity of labor transfer. Lewis created a dual economy of rural surplus labor model in his article "Unlimited labor supply under the conditions of economic development" published in 1954. [1] assume that the Lewis surplus agricultural labor was an unlimited supply the production sector was Divided into the traditional agricultural sector and rural center city as the center of the modern industrial sector, labor transfer from rural to urban is caused by the transformation of the structure of industrial production led to the employment the structural transformation. The accumulation of capital made the scale of the industrial sector continue to expand, the demand for labor is also increasingly expanding, driven by the high marginal productivity of modern industrial, agricultural surplus labor transfer to the industrial sectorConstantly. Lewis's dual economy model shows the development process in developing countries is the process of the agricultural sector shrinking, industrial sector ever-expanding with the transfer of rural surplus labor.2.John C.H.Fei and Ranis stressed the importance to increase agricultural productivity for labor transfer. In 1961, the American economist John C.H.Fei and Ranis published an important paper entitled "A theory of the economic development", on the basis of Lewis's dual economy model, the process the labor flow to the industrial sector is divided into three stages. The first stage is similar to the Lewis model, the state of labor is in unlimited supply; the second stage, the agricultural labor force continues to decrease and agricultural productivity continue to gain, labor supply decreases elasticity; in the third stage, the industrial and agricultural productivity achieve a balance, zero value of the agricultural labor and low the value of labor completely disappeared, to complete the transformation from traditional agriculture to modern agriculture. The models take full account of the agricultural self-development impact to labor transfer. Fei and Ranis that directly think that any change in a production sector productivitymust be related to the same rate of strength and quality of technological revolution, any analysis of the growth of the labor surplus economy, should focus on not only changes in the productivity of the industrial sector, but also attention the same expansion of the agricultural sector at the same time.3. Jorgenson’s doctrine of consumer demand-driven labor force transfer. In the "dual economy" published in 1961, Jorgenson (Dale W.Jorgenson) pointed out that technological advances will promote industrial and agricultural sector wage to increase, and therefore industrial and agricultural wage level is not fixed. But Jorgenson point that the wage gap is not the root cause of labor transfer. In 1967, Jorgenson presented the view of consumer demand drive labor transfer in an article entitled "surplus labor and binary economic development", the fundamental transfer of rural labor is that consumer demand changes, the transfer is based on agriculture surplus rather than the exist of that marginal productivity is zero or greater than zero but less than the actual income level of the labor force. People stay in the agricultural sector in order to meet the physical needs for agricultural products, with the farm products remaining, the agricultural sector will lose the tension on the labor, so the labor transfer to the industrial sector of more exuberant demand.(B) Domestic researchDomestic "Three Rural Issues" experts and scholars, the Central Policy Research, Policy Research Office of the State Council, the various colleges and universities and provincial research institutes have carried out a lot of research work and the results.1.Industrialization and economic development are always accompanied by large-scale rural-urban (Rural → City) labor mobility. This flow will bring income rises, the upgrading of industries, and ultimately to promote the modern sector development, (Nong Zhu, 2002). In China, a large number of rural surplus labor force are tied to the limited arable land, do not treat them from rural transferred out of reasonable use, is not only a waste of labor resources, and make this part of the labor force has become a consumption of social wealth. The "Tenth Five-Year" period is the peak period of growth in the labor force in China, and for a long period of time in the future. With the continued increase of population and decreasing arable land, coupled with the advances in agricultural science and technology, China's surplus labor force, will also be incremented.With the Agricultural productivity level advancing, labor required in the cultivated land will be greatly reduced. The number of agricultural labor and land, capital and other resources compared situation no doubt there are a lot of surplus labor in the agriculture (Feng Wen, Sixue Zhao, 2004)2.The transfer of rural labor is the product of the rapid expansion of the initial stage of industrialization since China's reform and opening up. Labor transfer is simple transfer of employment space, the nature of labor force has not changed, still retains its status as farmers, to retain the land, is a "not encouraged farmers to leave their homes, into the factory city" part transfer of rural labor the junior transfer or so-called labor " The once transfer". " The once transfer " is characterized that the eastern coastal developed areas are the main inflow areas oflabor, labor's own level of education, quality factors, and go out to the employment structure of the labor force is mainly concentrated in the manufacturing and processing, construction, business services. The inflow of labor mobility performance of the economy is relatively developed areas to the most economically developed regions and backward regions to economically developed areas (Naiquan Liu, 2005). Rural labor force, "The twice transfer", also known as the labor transfer again, refers to the rural human capital investment, improve rural labor employment skills and abilities, relying on the market mechanism and policy guidance, realize rural labor from the labor intensive industries to capital, technology intensive industry and burgeoning industry, third industrial transfer, occupation, identity and residence migration flow conversion occur simultaneously, lifestyle produced simple change, enter town and become the self-run occupation of urban residents (Jiafu Chen, 2004 ).bor transfer will help to improve the quality of urbanization. With the accelerated pace of China's economic reform, more and more farmers get into the city to make a living, the farmers of a large number going to city,large and medium-sized cities in China entered a rapid period of expansion in the 1990s, China's urbanization level rapid improved, but the quality of urbanization was worrying us (Taizeng Ren, Liuyan Li, 2004).(C) Review of research literature contentThrough the article analyzes and consolidation about the labor transfer,I found that domestic reseaches of domestic labor transfer analyzed mainly from the 10 aspects:(1) the status ,problems and countermeasures of the transfer of rural surplus labor force in China; (2)the factor of restricting the transfer of rural surplus labor force and countermeasures; (3) industrial restructuring and labor transfer; (4) the transfer of rural labor in the process of urbanization; (5) the quality of the peasants on the transfer of rural surplus labor; (6) the mechanization of agriculture and rurallabor transfer; (7) China's investment in human capital in rural areas and rural surplus labor transfer; (8) the development of small towns and agricultural labor force transfer; (9) agricultural surplus labor transfer problem and outlet in transition period of China; (10) use comparison of productivity to analysis the transfer of the agricultural labor force in China.Specifically involved content are summarized as follows:The existing problems of rural surplus labor force, the constraints of rural surplus labor transfer, the countermeasures of rural surplus labor force transfer.(1) the transfer point of departure is not standardized, the constraints of the level of agricultural productivity and agricultural burdens, and low farm income. Vigorously develop small towns, the urbanization process. (2) transfer prominent spontaneous, unorganized, chaotic order. The constraints of the labor itself, the quality of the full use of agricultural resources, develop the agricultural potential employment opportunities. (3) transfer of a single channel, directly under the influence of geographical constraints plus transfer costs. Strong training, improve the comprehensive quality of the rural labor force. (4) the transfer of regional differences, exacerbated inter-regional inequality of economic development andincome. Shortage of funds constraints. Deepen institutional innovation, and ensure the effective transfer of agricultural labor. (5) rural surplus labor force dispersed, the way transfer biased, the development of township enterprises did not correspond with the capacity of rural surplus labor force. Vigorously promote the industrialization of agriculture. (6) social environmental constraints of the transfer process. Consolidation and development of township enterprises. (7) transferred cities’ grim employment situation. Establish and improve a unified labor market. (8) to accelerate the development of tertiary industry. (9) active in the organized inter-provincial and cross international labor output.Ⅲ. Research summary of the transfer of rural laborDomestic research on the transfer of rural labor, mostly in reference based on models the combination of the actual situation of China to make some improvements to obtain useful inspiration. Emerged as a growing trend for the transfer of agricultural labor from the depth and breadth of view. The transfer of rural labor issues related to motivation, implementation and development, covering economic development, economic progress, institutional change, industrial change and other factors. Their overall characteristics can be summarized as follows: more on transfer problems, less on study for the transfer of rural labor regional contribution and contribution to the development of farmers and farmers; more on countermeasure research , less to meet farmers to develop; characteristic digital significant of rural labor transfer are more qualitative research, quantitative research is less; multi-reference statistics, and the scope of the study is mainly concentrated in the developed coastal areas; more contribution to the region the rural labor force into and less on rural labor outflow region.Although influence factors of labor Transfer has been comprehensive, because our country is at the dual social and economic transition period, we should close connection with China's labor transfer status and the problems to expand the scope of the study, and deepen the impact of various factors research.Study regarded the focus on the rural labor force for the transfer of rural labor issues as the determinants power of agricultural production and economic development ,its total growth, sector allocation, the overall level of quality and the use of reasonable have close relationshipwith if the rural economy can sustained, stable and healthy develop, relate to the goal of building a moderately prosperous society. Future research should aim at how to effectively carry out the transfer of rural labor training, overall planning, integration of resources, and innovative mechanisms to strengthen the rural labor supply and demand resources system, as well as skills training system, the output service system and so on.Main References:[1]Dale W.Jorgenson.The Development of a Dual Economy[J].The Economic Journal，1961，71（282）：309-334.2] [U.S.] John C.H.Fei, Gustav Ranis. The development of labor-surplus economy, [M] Beijing: China Press, 1989.[3] Lewis. Dual economy theory [M]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Economics Press,1989.[4] Nong Zhu. "China's rural labor mobility and the" three rural "problems", Wuhan University Press, 2002[5] Naiquan Liu. The impact of labor migration on regional economic development "[M] Shanghaicaida Press, 2005[6] Feng Wen, Sixue Zhao. "Structural surplus labor transfer to explore" [J] population of the Northwest 2004[7] Jiafu Chen. do not underestimate the rural labor force, "twice transfer", "Chinese township and village enterprises [J] .2004[8]Taizeng Ren is too increased, Li Liu Yan. " the twice transfer of rural labor force transfer in cities". Wei Pu Information 2004, Phase 2Guide teacher's opinions:Guide teacher:2012 - -。

当代农民干农活英语作文

当代农民干农活英语作文Title: Contemporary Farmers and Agricultural Work。

In contemporary society, farmers play a vital role in ensuring food security and contributing to the economy. Engaging in agricultural activities requires dedication, hard work, and specialized knowledge. This essay delvesinto the significance of contemporary farmers and their involvement in agricultural work.Firstly, modern farmers are equipped with advanced technology and machinery that streamline agricultural processes. From tractors to automated irrigation systems, these tools enable farmers to increase efficiency and productivity. For instance, the use of precision farming techniques allows farmers to optimize the use of resources such as water and fertilizers, resulting in higher yields and reduced environmental impact.Moreover, contemporary farmers are not only cultivatorsbut also innovators. They continuously explore new techniques and practices to enhance crop quality and sustainability. For example, many farmers are adopting organic farming methods to meet the growing demand for chemical-free produce. Additionally, advancements in biotechnology have led to the development of genetically modified crops that are more resistant to pests and diseases, thereby reducing the need for harmful pesticides.Furthermore, the role of farmers extends beyond the fields as they actively participate in agricultural research and policymaking. Through collaboration with agricultural scientists and policymakers, farmerscontribute valuable insights based on their firsthand experiences. This collaboration facilitates the development of policies and initiatives aimed at addressing challenges such as climate change, market fluctuations, and rural development.In addition to their contributions to food production, contemporary farmers are also stewards of the land. They prioritize sustainable practices to preserve soil healthand biodiversity for future generations. Techniques such as crop rotation, cover cropping, and conservation tillage help prevent soil erosion, improve soil fertility, and promote ecological balance.Despite the advancements in technology and knowledge, farming remains physically demanding and labor-intensive work. Farmers often endure long hours and unpredictable weather conditions to tend to their crops and livestock. The reliance on manual labor for certain tasks, such as harvesting delicate fruits and vegetables, underscores the importance of skilled agricultural workers.Moreover, farmers face various challenges and uncertainties, including market volatility, fluctuating input costs, and natural disasters. Market trends and consumer preferences can significantly impact farm incomes, making financial planning and risk management essential skills for farmers. Additionally, climate change poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity, with extreme weather events becoming more frequent and unpredictable.In conclusion, contemporary farmers play a multifaceted role in modern society, contributing to food security, economic development, and environmental sustainability. Their dedication, innovation, and resilience are indispensable in meeting the challenges of feeding a growing global population while preserving natural resources. As we look to the future, supporting and empowering farmers will be crucial in building a more resilient and sustainable food system.。

介绍中国农业耕作方式的英语作文高中

介绍中国农业耕作方式的英语作文高中Agriculture, the backbone of China's economy, has undergone significant transformations over the centuries, reflecting the nation's rich cultural heritage and technological advancements. This essay delves into the historical and contemporary practices of Chinese agricultural cultivation, highlighting the traditional methods and their modern-day incarnations.**Traditional Agricultural Practices**For centuries, Chinese farmers have relied on a variety of traditional cultivation techniques, many of which have been passed down through generations. Rice paddies, a ubiquitous sight in China, are a testament to the importance of rice cultivation in the country. These paddies, often meticulously maintained, involve the use of water buffalo for plowing and the practice of flood irrigation to ensure adequate water supply for the rice plants.Another traditional practice is the use of organic fertilizers, such as manure and compost, to enrich the soiland promote healthy plant growth. This approach, which emphasizes sustainability and harmony with nature, is a stark contrast to the heavy reliance on chemicalfertilizers and pesticides seen in many modern agricultural systems.**Modern Agricultural Innovations**Despite the persistence of traditional practices, China has also made strides in modernizing its agricultural sector. The introduction of high-yielding crop varieties, advanced irrigation systems, and mechanized farming equipment has significantly increased productivity and efficiency.High-tech farming techniques, such as precision agriculture, are also becoming increasingly common. This approach employs the use of sensors, drones, and satellite imagery to monitor crop health, soil conditions, and weather patterns, enabling farmers to make informed decisions about when to plant, irrigate, and harvest.**Sustainability and Environmental Stewardship**In recent years, China has also placed a strong emphasis on sustainable agricultural practices. This includes the promotion of organic farming, which avoids the use of synthetic chemicals and focuses on maintaining soil health and biodiversity. Additionally, the government has implemented several policies and programs aimed at reducing water waste, soil degradation, and other environmental issues associated with agriculture.**Conclusion**In conclusion, Chinese agricultural cultivation has evolved over time, encompassing both traditional and modern practices. The persistence of traditional methods, such as rice paddies and organic fertilization, attests to the wisdom and resilience of Chinese farmers. At the same time, the adoption of modern technologies and innovations has transformed the sector, leading to increased productivity and sustainability. As China continues to develop and modernize, it remains to be seen how these traditional and modern practices will further evolve and contribute to the nation's agricultural prosperity.**中国农业耕作方式的演变**农业作为中国经济的支柱，几百年来经历了巨大的变革，这体现了中国丰富的文化遗产和科技进步。

田间劳动英语作文

田间劳动英语作文Field LaborField labor, also known as agricultural work, plays a vital role in our society. It involves various activities such as planting, cultivating, harvesting, and tending to crops in the fields. Field labor is essential for producing food, fiber, and other agricultural products that sustain our daily lives.One of the most significant aspects of field labor is its connection to nature. Farmers and agricultural workers have a deep appreciation for the land and the environment, as their work depends on the natural resources provided by the earth. They are responsible for nurturing the soil, managing water resources, and ensuring the health of plants and crops.Field labor is also physically demanding work that requires strength, endurance, and skill. Farmers often wake up early in the morning to tend to their crops and work long hours under the sun. They use tools and machinery to plow the fields, sow seeds, and harvest crops, demonstrating their expertise and dedication to their work.Moreover, field labor is a labor of love and tradition. Many farmers come from families with a long history of working the land, passing down knowledge and skills from generation togeneration. They take pride in their work and take satisfactionin seeing the fruits of their labor grow and flourish.In conclusion, field labor is a crucial and honorable profession that sustains our society and connects us to the land. It requires hard work, dedication, and a deep respect for nature. Farmers and agricultural workers play a vital role in feeding the world and preserving the environment for future generations. Their labor is essential for ensuring food security, promoting sustainability, and maintaining the balance between humans and the natural world.。

介绍中国农业耕作方式的英语作文

介绍中国农业耕作方式的英语作文China has a long history of agriculture, dating back thousands of years. Throughout this time, various farming techniques and methods have been developed and refined to suit the specific conditions of the country. In this essay, we will explore the different ways in which farming is practiced in China.One of the most traditional and commonly used farming methods in China is traditional agriculture. Traditional agriculture involves using hand tools and manual labor to cultivate crops. Farmers plant seeds, water the crops, and harvest them manually without the use of modern machinery. This method has been used for generations and is still practiced in many rural areas of China.Another popular farming method in China is terrace farming. Terrace farming involves cutting steps into hillsides to create flat areas for farming. This method is commonly used in mountainous regions where flat land is scarce. By creating terraces, farmers can prevent soil erosion and make the most of the available land for cultivation.In recent years, modern agriculture techniques have also become more prevalent in China. This includes the use ofmachinery such as tractors, combine harvesters, and irrigation systems to increase efficiency and productivity. These modern techniques have helped China to become one of the world's leading agricultural producers.Additionally, organic farming is gaining popularity in China as people become more aware of the importance of sustainable and environmentally-friendly farming practices. Organic farming involves using natural fertilizers, crop rotation, and other methods to cultivate crops without the use of synthetic chemicals.Overall, China has a diverse range of agricultural practices, from traditional methods to modern techniques. With a large population to feed and limited arable land, Chinese farmers have adapted and innovated to ensure food security for the nation. As the country continues to develop and modernize, agriculture in China will likely evolve further to meet the challenges of the future.。

劳动力流失的英语作文

I still remember the day vividly when I first heard about the phenomenon of labor force exodus, a term that was foreign to me back then. It was during a casual conversation with my uncle, a farmer who had spent most of his life working the land in our small village. He spoke of how many of his fellow villagers had left for the cities in search of better opportunities, leaving behind an aging population and vast stretches of uncultivated land.Growing up in a rural area, I had witnessed the gradual thinning of the community. The once bustling village markets were now a shadow of their former selves, with fewer vendors and customers. The local schools, once filled with the laughter of children, were now halfempty, their playgrounds silent and deserted. It was a stark contrast to the vibrant life I had known growing up.The labor force exodus, as I later learned, is a global issue that affects both developed and developing countries. It refers to the mass migration of workers from rural areas to urban centers in search of better job opportunities, higher wages, and improved living conditions. This phenomenon is driven by economic disparities, technological advancements, and the promise of a better life in the cities.One of the most significant impacts of labor force exodus is the ruralurban divide. As more and more young and ablebodied individuals leave their hometowns, rural areas are left with an aging population that struggles to maintain the local economy and infrastructure. This leads to a decline in agricultural productivity, as there are fewer people to work the land andmaintain the farms. The local economy suffers as businesses close down due to a lack of customers, and the remaining residents face higher costs of living due to reduced competition.Moreover, the exodus of the labor force also has a profound impact on the social fabric of rural communities. The departure of young people disrupts the traditional family structure, as parents are left to care for their grandchildren while their children work in the cities. This separation can lead to emotional distress and a sense of isolation among the elderly. Additionally, the loss of young people deprives rural areas of their potential leaders, innovators, and changemakers, further exacerbating the challenges faced by these communities.However, the labor force exodus is not without its benefits. For the individuals who migrate, it often means access to better job opportunities, higher wages, and improved living conditions. In the cities, they can find work in various industries, from manufacturing and construction to services and technology. This migration can lead to personal growth and development, as they gain new skills and experiences that can benefit them and their families.Furthermore, the influx of migrant workers into urban areas can contribute to the growth and development of the cities. They bring with them a diverse range of skills and experiences that can enrich the urban workforce and stimulate economic growth. However, this also poses challenges, such as the need for adequate housing, infrastructure, and social services to accommodate the growing population.In conclusion, the labor force exodus is a complex issue with farreaching implications for both rural and urban communities. While it offers opportunities for personal growth and economic development, it also poses significant challenges that need to be addressed. As a society, we must find ways to balance the need for economic growth with the preservation of our rural communities and the wellbeing of all our citizens. This may involve investing in rural development, creating job opportunities in rural areas, and improving the quality of life for those who choose to stay. Only by addressing these challenges can we ensure a more equitable and sustainable future for all.。

田地劳作英语作文

Title: The Serene Harmony of FieldworkThe sun rises, casting its golden hue over the vast expanse of the farmland, painting a picture of serene harmony. The air is filled with the fresh scent of newly tilled soil and the subtle notes of budding greenery. It is a scene that has existed for centuries, a testament to the unwavering bond between humanity and the land.As the first rays of the sun warm the earth, the farmers emerge from their humble dwellings, ready to embark on a day of labor in the fields. Their faces etched with the lines of hard work and wisdom, they carry the tools of their trade: hoes, plows, and watering cans. With practiced movements, they begin the rhythmic dance of tilling, planting, and watering, each stroke a poem in motion, a hymn to the fertility of the soil.The fieldwork is not without its challenges. The sun beats down mercilessly, and the earth can be unyielding. Yet, the farmers persevere, their backs stooped but their spirits resilient. They find solace in the simple act of nurturing the land, watching as their efforts slowly transform the barren soil into a tapestry of life.The fields become a canvas for their creativity, with each crop planted in precise rows, each plant nurtured with care. The farmers become conductors of a symphony, harmonizing with the natural rhythm of the earth. They are not just tillers of the soil; they are guardians of a way of life, custodians of a tradition that has been handed down through generations.As the day wanes, and the sun begins to sink behind the horizon, the farmers gather their tools and head back to their homes. Their backs may be sore, their hands roughened by the soil, but their hearts are filled with the satisfaction of a day well spent. They have labored in the fields, nurturing the land and harvesting its bounty, and in doing so, they have honored the ancient bond between humanity and the earth.The fields continue to thrive under their care, a testament to the power of their labor and the resilience of the land. And as the cycle of seasons turns, the farmers return to the fields, ready to embark on another day of labor, another chapter in the never-ending story of humanity and the land.**田地劳作的静谧和谐**太阳升起，金色的光芒洒向广袤的田野，绘制出一幅静谧和谐的画卷。

有关农民的生活水平变化英语作文

有关农民的生活水平变化英语作文Title: Transforming Lives: The Evolution of Farmers' Living Standards.In the annals of human history, the lives of farmers have often been marked by a consistent thread of hard work, perseverance, and resilience. However, in recent decades, there has been a remarkable transformation in the living standards of farmers across the globe, particularly in developing countries. This essay delves into the various factors that have contributed to this transformation and highlights the positive impact it has had on the lives of farmers and their communities.First and foremost, technological advancements have played a pivotal role in elevating farmers' living standards. The introduction of modern agricultural equipment and techniques has significantly increased agricultural productivity. This has not only led to higher yields but also allowed farmers to work more efficiently,reducing their physical burden. Furthermore, access to weather forecasting and climate monitoring tools has enabled farmers to make informed decisions about crop planting and harvesting, minimizing losses due to natural disasters.Another key factor has been the rise of government policies and initiatives that are specifically designed to improve the well-being of farmers. For instance, several countries have implemented subsidy programs that provide financial assistance to farmers, enabling them to invest in new technologies and improve their infrastructure. Additionally, market development initiatives have helped farmers connect with larger buyers, ensuring a steady flow of income and reducing their dependence on the whims of the market.Moreover, the emergence of cooperatives and collective farming models has empowered farmers to pool their resources and knowledge, enhancing their bargaining power and profitability. These cooperatives provide farmers with access to better inputs, such as high-quality seeds andfertilizers, and help them market their produce more effectively. They also act as a platform for farmers to share their experiences and learn new farming techniques, thereby promoting sustainable agriculture.Education and training have also played a crucial role in improving farmers' living standards. As farmers gain access to better educational opportunities, they are able to acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to adapt to changing market conditions and adopt new technologies. Governments and non-governmental organizations have recognized the importance of educating farmers and have invested in programs that provide them with agricultural training and extension services.Furthermore, the global trend towards organic and sustainable farming has presented farmers with new opportunities to enhance their income and living standards. Consumers are increasingly demanding products that are produced in an environmentally friendly manner, and farmers who adopt sustainable farming practices are able to tapinto this market. This shift has encouraged farmers toadopt more environmentally responsible methods of farming, such as crop rotation and organic fertilization, which not only improve soil health but also reduce their dependency on chemical inputs.In conclusion, the transformation of farmers' living standards is a testament to the power of innovation, policy reform, and collective action. The various factors discussed in this essay have collectively contributed to the improvement of farmers' lives, enabling them to enjoy better standards of living, increased prosperity, and greater social status. However, it is important to recognize that the journey is ongoing, and more needs to be done to ensure that all farmers can benefit from these positive changes. Continued investment in agricultural research, infrastructure development, and farmer education remains crucial to sustaining this momentum and creating a more equitable and sustainable future for farmers and their communities.。

农村脱贫英文作文

农村脱贫英文作文Living in the countryside is tough. Many families struggle to make ends meet, and poverty is a common issue. However, with the government's help and support, many rural areas have seen significant improvements in recent years.One of the key strategies for rural poverty alleviation is to develop local industries and create job opportunities. By promoting the development of agriculture, tourism, and other industries, rural residents are able to find stable sources of income and improve their living standards.In addition to economic development, the government has also implemented various social welfare programs to support rural residents. For example, the "Rural Five Guarantees" policy ensures that impoverished and vulnerable groups have access to basic living allowances, medical care, housing, and education.Education is another crucial aspect of rural povertyalleviation. By improving the quality of education in rural areas and providing more opportunities for young people to receive higher education, the cycle of poverty can be broken, and the future of rural communities can be transformed.Furthermore, infrastructure construction plays a vital role in rural poverty alleviation. With better roads, transportation, and access to clean water and electricity, rural residents are able to connect with the outside world more easily and enjoy a better quality of life.Overall, the efforts to alleviate rural poverty have made a significant impact on the lives of millions of people. With continued support and investment, we can look forward to a brighter future for rural communities.。

农民过去与现在的变化英语作文

The Transformation of Farmers: Past andPresentFarmers, the backbone of society, have experienced significant changes over the years. Once seen as a profession associated with hard labor and limited opportunities, farming has now transformed into a dynamic and diverse field, offering new avenues for growth and prosperity.In the past, farming was primarily an inherited occupation, passed down from generation to generation. Farmers typically worked on small plots of land, using traditional methods and tools to cultivate crops. Their lives were often characterized by hard work and limited resources, with limited access to modern technology and market opportunities. Their income was often unstable and dependent on the whims of nature, making it difficult to plan for the future.However, with the advent of technological advancements and policy changes, the farming landscape has undergone a radical transformation. Modern farming techniques, such as precision agriculture and sustainable farming practices,have increased yields and efficiency while reducing environmental impact. Farmers now have access to a wide range of advanced technologies, including drones, satellites, and smartphones, which provide them with real-time data and insights into their crops, soil, and weather patterns.Moreover, the agricultural sector has become more integrated with the global market, providing farmers with access to a wider range of crops, inputs, and markets. Farmers can now sell their products directly to consumers, bypassing traditional middlemen and increasing their profits. Government policies and subsidies have also played a crucial role in supporting farmers and encouraging innovation in the agricultural sector.These changes have not only improved the economic status of farmers but have also transformed their social and cultural lives. Farmers now have more opportunities to engage in education and training, enabling them to acquire new skills and knowledge. They are also able to participate in community activities and organizations, promoting a sense of community and belonging.In conclusion, the transformation of farmers from a traditional occupation to a dynamic and diverse field is a testament to the power of technological advancements and policy changes. Farmers now have more opportunities to grow and prosper, not only economically but also socially and culturally. As we move forward, it is crucial to continue supporting farmers and investing in agricultural research and development to ensure sustainable and inclusive growth in the agricultural sector.**农民过去与现在的变化**农民，作为社会的中坚力量，多年来经历了显著的变化。

农远新文献综述

玉林师范学院本科生毕业论文文献综述Acculturation in the English Teaching Classroom ofMiddle School中学英语课堂教学中的文化导入院系外国语学院专业英语学生班级2007级4班姓名农远新学号200703401402指导教师单位外国语学院指导教师姓名李琳琳指导教师职称讲师AbstractFor quite a long time, middle school teaching has accepted and practiced the teaching method which is based on the theory of structuralism. It emphasizes the cognition in the structure. Knowledge such as vocabulary, phrases, grammatical rules and so on is paid too much attention to, while the cultural background of the target language is ignored. With the development of reformation of English teaching, the acculturation and cultural awareness has drawn much attention. The paper mainly give a brief presentation of researches on culture teaching and acculturation both at home and abroad.Key words: Culture teaching, English teaching, middle schoolLiterature Review1 Researches AbroadResearches abroad on language and culture in the past decades are tremendous. Edward Sapir(1929:207)states that a language and the culture of its speakers cannot be analyzed in isolation. Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society.Robert Lado(1957:65)remarks that people are inclined to transfer the form, meaning and the distribution mode of their own language and culture into the target language and culture, which will surely cause misunderstanding among people. He is one of the first to suggest that cultural systems in the native culture could be compared with those in the target culture and serve as a source of transfer or interference in much the way other types of contrasting linguistic systems do.Byram (1989:61) observed that culture represents “hidden” curriculum in second foreign language teaching. Language teaching can rarely take place without implicitly teaching the culture of its speakers because language invariably refers to their knowledge and perceptions of the world, the concepts of culture, and cultural learning.Culture and language are inseparable and constitute a single universe or domain of experience. According to Kramsch (1993:152), the teaching of culture implicitly or explicitly permeates the teaching of social interaction, and the spoken and the written language. Second and foreign language learners necessarily become learners of the second culture because a language cannot be learned without an understanding of the cultural context in which it is used, however, even the nonnative speakers who have had many years of experience with second culture may have to find their “own place”at the intersection of their native and target cultures.Eli Hinkel (1999:78) seeks to reexamine the relationship between culture, language teaching and learning by showing how cultural factors influence many different aspects of second language learning and use. It serves not only to focusawareness on the role of cultural factors in language learning and teaching but also to develop an appropriate pedagogy to address the kinds of issues identified.2 Researches at HomeIn China, it is until the 1980s before scholars and language educators have recognized the importance of culture teaching in foreign language education. Xu Guozhang(1980:105)indicated that in different languages, many words with equivalent surface meanings have different cultural connotations in fact owing to different cultural traditions, folk tales and values, etc(qtd in Hu Wenzhong, 1988). Hence forth, many other scholars begin to pay attention to the cultural problems involved in communication and foreign language teaching, and devote to researches in this field.Hu Wenzhong(1990:25)first explains the necessity of culture teaching in foreign language teaching by analyzing five cultural faults that Chinese students tend to commit in intercultural communication. Language and culture are inseparable. Foreign language teachers should keep a close eye on the development of anthropology and sociology, and consciously integrate them in foreign language teaching.Systematic researches on culture teaching are conducted in China during the period from the late 1980s to the late 1990s.Various introductions and proposals of new concepts have emerged during this period of time. Y et culture teaching situation still remains undesirable in the whole in spite of the previous achievements in theoretical researches. Hence, reflections have been made on culture teaching since the late 1990s. Hu Wenzhong and Gao Yihong (1997:22-38) maintain that, to English major students, the objective of culture learning is more than tool grasping, more than being equipped with communicative skills to survive in modern society, and nothing like making themselves westernized. Culture teaching in foreign language teaching should aim at helping students develop their cultural sensitivity and their ability to cope with cultural variet y to enhance the whole nation’s cultural quality. According to Chen Shen (1999:56-62), cultural creativity refers to creating power produced through foreign language education, and motivation of innovation through the interactionbetween native culture and foreign culture. To achieve cultural creativity, first, teachers should pay equal attention to the content of culture teaching and the teaching process; second, teachers should reconsider the relationship between teaching and learning, and stimulate stude nts’ enthusiastic involvement in culture learning.As background of the study, this chapter presents a brief review of research literature concerning culture teaching in foreign language education both abroad and at home. Despite the accomplishments, the author of this dissertation believes that researches concerning acculturation in the English teaching classroom are still of necessity and significance.ReferencesClaire J Kramsch, Context and Culture in Language Teaching[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993:131/152.Edward Sapir, Culture, Language and Personality [M]. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1929:207.Eli Hinkel, Culture in Second Language Teaching and Learning [M]. New Y ork: Cambridge University Press, 1999:78.Michael Byram; Peter Grundy, Context and Culture in Language and Learning [M]. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1989:61.Robert Lado, Linguistics Across Culture[M]. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1957:65.Xu Guozhang, Culturally-loaded Words and English Language Teaching[A]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1980:105.陈申. 外语教育中的文化教学[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1999: 56-62. 胡文仲. 跨文化交际与英语学习[M]. 上海：上海译文出版社，1988.胡文仲. 跨文化交际学选读[M]. 长沙：湖南教育出版社, 1982: 25.胡文仲；高一虹. 外语教学与文化[M]. 长沙：湖南教育出版社, 1997: 22-38.。

外文文献

ABSTRACT
Rural labor force transfer training is one of important poverty alleviation measures in China. This paper describes training participation situation and evaluates training effects by matching methods in the case of coastal autonomous minority nationality areas of Yunnan province by using 2053 rural household data. The result shows that the average training participation from 2006 to 2008 is 26.39 percent. In addition, ATE is 18.33 percent, TT is 18.99 percent, TUT is 18.09 percent. And, TUT < ATE < TT . It demonstrates that the rural labor force transfer training program is effective and well-directed in coastal autonomous minority nationality areas of Yunnan province of China. Keywords: Coastal Autonomous Minority Nationality Areas; Treatment Effect; Training Effects Evaluation; Matching Evaluation

劳动力转移文献综述

我国农村劳动力转移原因的文献综述【摘要】劳动力转移是改革开放和经济发展的一个必然结果，本文结合相关的理论知识，根据中国复杂的国情变化，对影响中国农村劳动力转移的因素进行多角度有特色地进行归纳，再对这些影响因素进行简单地定性评价。

【关键词】劳动力转移收入行政综述Abstract：Labor transfer is an inevitable result of the reform and opening up and economic development. According to the changes of China's complex national situation ，this paper combined with relevant theoretical knowledge, has drown the characteristic conclusions from the factors that are affecting the transfer of rural labor force in China , and then evaluated the reasons simply and qualitativly.Keywords：labor transfer income administration policies literature review 中国的劳动力转移也是逐步形成的，实行工业化战略、户籍制度改革、人民公社制度和统购统销制度等体制解体后，打破了原有的劳动力结构模式，出现了劳动力初步转移的现象，起初劳动力转移主要是被乡镇企业吸纳,转移数量少,范围小，影响面也不大，逐渐随着经济增长，制度的不断深化改革，促使农业人口剩余的与日俱增；同时,随着经济的发展,城市建设的大量需要、产业结构的调整等因素,又需要大量的劳动力，因此就形成了大量劳动力转移的现状。

外文翻译：农村向城市的迁移和工资确定

Rural–urban migration and wage determination:The case of Tianjin, China1. IntroductionSince the mid-1980s, mass labor migration from the countryside to urban areas has been one of the most dramatic and noticeable changes in China. Based on survey data from Tianjin, this paper examines the characteristics of migrants and compares the employment and social conditions of migrants with those of permanent urban residents. It also investigates the determinants that affect wages of both migrant and nonimmigrant workers in order to evaluate how economic and social-demographic factors contribute to the earning gap between rural and urban workers.The economic reform in China that started in 1978 has created a “floating population” as over 100 million people have left their villages and streamed into cities where manufacturing and businesses boom. The migration of labor from agricultural to non-agricultural industries has increased the average income of rural people as migrant workers send a significant portion of their income back home. At the same time, rural migrant laborers have made great contributions to economic growth by complementing the labor force of cities and providing low-cost work. However, the benefits from economic growth have not been fairly shared between urban and migrant workers, and clear disparities exist in China's urban and rural labor markets. It is estimated that between 12 and 15 million non-farm jobs will be required annually just to absorb this surplus labor.Rural migrants generally make less money, receive far fewer benefits, and have no health insurance. Most live in precarious dormitories provided by their employers if they have any housing. Rural surplus laborers who moved to urbanareas are called mingong to mark their difference from the city-dwelling workers. Rural migrants are treated as strangers and outsiders in cities. They are denied formal urban membership and substantive rights and their children are largely prohibited from attending city schools.The urban–rural disparities in China's labor market may be categorized into two types. The first difference relates to productivity-related characteristics, such as education and job training, and the second relates to non-productivity-related characteristics, such as race, gender, or in our case, hukou status, which also could affect labor status. Discrimination is present if equally productive individuals within the same enterprise are treated differently simply because of their hukou status.In order to promote labor mobility and efficiency and to improve equality and social stability, it is important to first understand the motivations for migration and then examine the conditions that migrants encounter. Why do farmers migrate to cities? What are characteristics of migrants? What factors determine wages? Are migrant workers discriminated in China's urban labor market? To answer these questions, a survey of employees was conducted from October to December 2003 in Tianjin, one of the four central government municipalities in China. We found that, in addition to economic and social-demographic factors such as ownership of business, education, experience, and age, the restrictive hukou system has negatively influenced migrants' income. This paper limits its discussions to migrant and non-migrant workers with migrant workers defined as those not having Tianjin hukou.2. Rural–urban migration and wage determinants: a literature reviewMillions of people in the rural populations of the developing world confront the decision of migrating to urban areas and every year; many find it worthwhile to leave their villages for cities. The 2000 population census data show that144.39 million rural residents in China, or 11.6% of the total population, moved into cities and towns, in 2000.The massive rural–urban migration since 1980 can be broadly attributed to the huge surplus of rural labor, widening income and consumption disparities between rural and urban residents, and heavy taxation on the agricultural sector. The rapid expansion of China's rural labor force, improvement in production efficiency, and the continuing reduction of cultivated land have caused a larger portion of rural laborers to be underemployed or unemployed. In the early 1980s, the surplus of rural laborers was 70 million, or 18% of the entire rural labor force and this surplus grew to about 130 million, or 28% 10 years later.The widening income and consumption disparity between rural and urban residents is clearly a factor contributing to increasing migration. In 1978, annual per capita disposable income was 2.6 times higher for urban residents than for rural peasants and, by 2001, that ratio increased to 2.9. Over the same time period, the ratio of urban to rural consumption per capita increased from 2.9 to 3.5, demonstrating widening income and consumption disparities(NBSC, various years, 1994–2003). In addition, urban residents also enjoy various state-subsidies on food, education, employment, and medical services.The heavy tax burden on farmers also influences rural migration. Although the central government emphasized the importance of alleviating this burden, according to, local governments still tax a significant portion of farmers' income. Even worse, the agricultural taxation is regressive. For example, in 1996, the tax rate was 16.7% for rural families with an annual income between 400 and 500 yuan, but only 2.8% for those with incomes of 2500 to 5000. The high tax on farmers' income discourages investment in agricultural production, which also contributes to city migration.Table 1lists major reasons why the rural laborers surveyed wanted toSource: Survey conducted by the authors in Tianjin, 2003.Responses are not mutually exclusive. Total number of respondents is 455. migrate to the city of Tianjin. As expected, rural people migrate to seek higher income, better opportunities, a better quality of life, and a better education for themselves and their children. Interestingly, more than 20% of migrants cited loss of land in the countryside as a factor.The impact of education on rural–urban migration has been examined in the literature with some studies concluding that education is critical in driving rural laborers away from their land, while others suggest that education is not important in determining migration choice.Previous studies have argued that non-market factors are more important than market forces in driving the rural population to non-agricultural migrating jobs. Wu, Wang, and Xu (1990) and Wu (1994)found that many Chinese rural workers had been securing non-agricultural jobs through their friends or relatives,showed that networks of information and assistance are important for rural workers to get jobs in cities.The return of education on earnings is extremely low in China. The OLSestimates of the increase in earnings from an additional year of schooling range from 1.4% to 5.4%. Another study uses generalized method of moments estimation for young workers in China, and concludes that the estimated returns to schooling are about 15% overall and 16.9% for women.Zhao (1997)uses rural school education to show that OLS estimation underestimates the returns to education in China by ignoring the segregation of rural and urban labor markets. She found that the expected rate of return for a rural senior high school education is rather high because it improves access to urban employment where greater earnings are possible. Scholars have suggested various government policies to address migration issues .While wage and gender discrimination are common in many countries, they are particularly strong in China because of its unique ownership structure and hukou system. Meng (1998)found that overall wage discrimination was more prevalent in the state-owned sector. There is some disagreement about the relative level of gender discrimination in the state owned sector ( Maurer-Fazio & Hughes, 2000; Rozelle, Dong, Zhang, & Mason, 2000), but Dong and Bowles (2002)found that wage discrimination against women and migrant workers exists across ownership types. Significant sorting of rural labor migrants exist by occupation, sector, gender,age, marital status, education, and, especially, region of origin (see Roberts, 2001).3. Discussion and conclusionRural–urban migration has become a socioeconomic phenomenon in China since the late 1980s. This study examines factors of rural–urban migration, migrant characteristics, and the determinants of wages. Since the late 1980s, the labor surplus, heavy tax burden, and loss of lands in rural areas, combined with higher income, more opportunities, and better education in cities, have driven farmers to leave their homelands for cities. Past institutions, especially thehukou system, however, make rural–urban migration difficult. The government finds itself in a dilemma trying to balance the benefits brought by migrants and limit their inflow at the same time.A wage regression model is developed to study the determinants of the wage gap between rural and urban workers. Wages for both groups are sensitive to standard worker characteristics in the expected direction. The results also show that urban workers make more than migrant workers, holding all other things constant, which suggests wage discrimination. In this sample, hukou does have a significant impact on the wage gap between migrant and non-migrant workers. After accounting for human capital characteristics, female workers earn significantly lower wages than male workers in the urban sample, but not in the migrant sample. The ownership of the enterprise plays an important role in determining a worker's earning with, workers in SOEs receiving lower pay than those in other enterprises.The empirical results give the following policy implications. First, the hukou system not only hinders rural–urban migration but also contributes to a wage gap between migrant and urban workers. Abolishment of the hukou system will thus improve labor mobility, efficiency, and fairness. Second, given the positive influence of education and training on wages for both migrant and non-migrant workers, it is important to invest in human capital in order to increase the productivity of both rural and urban laborers. Strategies to alleviate poverty should place more emphasis on raising the educational level of the rural population than on restricting migration to cities. Third, female workers may face wage discrimination in the urban labor market. Much needs to be done to better protect female workers so that women are not pushed into low-status, low-wage jobs in the service sector.农村向城市的迁移和工资确定：基于中国天津的情况1、导言自20世纪80年代年代中期以来，大规模的劳动力从农村迁移到城市地区一直在戏剧性的和显著的变化着。

倪霓：labormigrationandearningsdiff

倪霓：labormigrationandearningsdiff倪霓：labor migration and earnings differences: the case of rural china读后感文章其实研究的是农村劳动力向城市转移的影响因素。

作者取得是四川省的随机家庭调查数据。

因为四川是一个人口众多也是大量劳动力向城市转移的城市。

文章首先介绍了关于劳动力转移的情况，将农村劳动力分为三类，农村农业就业，农村非农就业，劳动力转移。

然后对数据做了分析对比，还有回归，主要是对比农村非农就业，和农村劳动力转移，试图发现什么是影响人外出打工的主要原因（文章说明，由于文化，制度的限制很少的'外出打工人口会选择迁移）；意外的发现教育对外出打工影响不显著，而是否结婚，性别，年龄有显著的影响。

一般而言，男性，年轻，未婚的外出打工很高。

虽然存在着巨大的是收入差异，依然有很多人选择不外出工作，作者认为“情绪”是很重要的一个因素，比如乡愁，比如存在感和尊重感；另外一个重要因素是风险，找不到工作的风险，交通意外的风险也应该考虑成为外出打工的成本。

文章很简单也很短。

但是，真的很不喜欢这篇文章啊。

非常非常的没有深度，唯一的优点就是给我们信心，这样的文章都可以再国外发表呢，所以要努力。

作者首先提出问题就没有水平，不知道他具体在说什么，是说收入差距对劳动力转移的影响？还是说存在收入差距，但是为什么有人不肯转移？提出了问题之后分析地又非常不够深入，对于教育为什么不显著没有做深入探讨。

作者最后的结论称应该减少对劳动力迁移的人外障碍，从这里我推断他的主题是想说，虽然存在着巨大的收入差异，劳动力扔有很多不转移，是因为存在人为的、制度的、历史的及文化的屏障，可是这个不是更好的研究方向吗？下一篇也是这个作者的，要打起精神才有动力看。

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农村劳动力转移 文献综述 英文

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外文文献

劳动力转移文献综述

外文翻译：农村向城市的迁移和工资确定

倪霓：labormigrationandearningsdiff

农村劳动力转移文献综述英文

农村劳动力转移文献综述英文