语言学教程Chapter-10.-Language-and-Computer
胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照
语言学教程chapter1-31.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。
如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。
2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,nguage functionsinclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingualfunction.功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。
语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。
3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’sdistinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the casewith phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。
4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’sdistinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the nativemembers of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’singenuith or intuition alone.位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。
《语言学教程》Chapter-2-ics
语法
语法
语法是语言中词和句子的结构规律和 规则，是语言的组织原则。语法包括 词法和句法两部分。词法研究词的内 部结构和变化规律；句法研究短语和 句子的结构规律和规则。
语法的特点
语法具有抽象性、生成性、层次性和 系统性等特点。抽象性是指语法规则 是对语言中具体实例的抽象概括；生 成性是指语法能够生成无限多的合乎 语法的句子；层次性是指语法结构分 为若干层次，不同层次之间存在递归 关系；系统性是指语法规则相互联系 、相互制约，形成一个完整的系统。
新的词汇、表达方式和语法结构等可能会随着时间的推移而出 现，丰富和发展语言的表达和沟通功能。
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语言与社会文化的关系
语言与文化的关系
语言是文化的重要组成部分，是文化 传承和发展的载体。语言中蕴含着丰 富的文化信息，反映了特定民族的历 史、传统、信仰、价值观等。
语言与文化相互影响，语言使用中的 词汇、语法、表达方式等都受到文化 的影响，同时语言也影响了人们对世 界的认知和表达方式。
语音的生理属性
语音的生理属性包括发音机制和听觉机制。发音机制包括呼吸系统、声源系统、调制系统 和共鸣系统；听觉机制包括听觉接收器和大脑处理声音信息的过程。
词汇
词汇
词汇是语言中所有词的总和，是语言的建筑材料。词汇由词和固定词组构成，包括实词和虚词两大类。实词表示事物 、概念、动作等具体内容；虚词表示语法关系和语气等抽象内容。
语法的作用
语法在语言中起着非常重要的作用。 首先，语法保证语言的正确性和规范 性，使人们能够准确地表达思想、传 递信息。其次，语法使语言具有生成 性，能够生成无限多的合乎语法的句 子。最后，语法使语言具有开放性， 能够吸收外来文化和方言的影响，不 断丰富言演变的原因
语言学教程课后习题答案第一章资料(最新整理)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazellesin the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, someguidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associativemeaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋10 Language Acquisition
Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD (Language Acquisition Device), like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for language acquisition. The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty (青春期） or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure. The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)
(完整)《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第1章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。
所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？语言学的一些重要区别1.“描写式”和“规范式”描写式：客观系统地记录一种语言的模式和用法或变化。
语言学教程
语言学教程本《教程》自1988年出版以来，受到广大教师和学生的广泛欢迎，赢得了广泛的赞誉，为我国语言学事业做出巨大的贡献。
但是，近10多年来，语言学的发展又取得了长足的进展，新的成果急需补充。
有鉴于此，主编胡壮麟先生及一批中青年语言学家对教材做了修订。
修订版听取了在第一线使用本书的老师们的意见，对有些意义不大的内容作了删除或删节，对十余年来语言学领域中的新进展作了充分反映。
本《教程》自1988年出版以来，受到广大教师和学生的广泛欢迎，赢得了广泛的赞誉，为我国语言学事业做出了巨大的贡献。
但是，近10多年来，语言学的发展又取得了长足的进展，新的成果急需补充。
有鉴于此，主编胡壮麟先生及一批中青年语言学家对教材做了修订。
修订版听取了在第一线使用本书的老师们的意见，对有些意义不大的内容作了删除或删节，对十余年来语言学领域中的新进展作了充分反映。
在注重理论的深透性的同时，也增加了语言的浅近性和趣味性。
修订版对问题和练习做了调整和补充。
并附了答案。
另外，为了适应不同程序的读者的需要，本《教程》的编者将出版一本语言学高级教程，将语言学中难度较大、理论性较强的内容作专门的讨论，以供研究生教学使用。
高级教程将在近期内推出，敬请广大读者关注。
编写本书的指导原则是：①以英语专业高年级学生为主要对象，也可供英英语专业的研究生使用。
②用英语编写，尽可能选用英语例句。
③在内容上，既要传授基本知识，也要反映语言学中的最新发展。
④在观点上，不拘泥于一派之说。
⑤讲授本书内容时可详可简，授课教师可根据自己学校的教学方案和学生程度进行调整。
修订版《语言学教程》'Linguistics.A Course Book' second edition主要内容：Chatpter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsChapter 2 Speech SoundsChapter 3 LexiconChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 MeaningChapter 6 Language Processing in MindChapter 7 Language,Culture and SocietyChapter 8 Language in UseChapter 9 Language and LiteratureChapter 10language and ComputerChapter 11Linguistics and Foreign Language TeachingChapter 12Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics修订版<<语言学教程>>分为12个章节，它们分别是：第一章语言学导论第二章语音第三章词汇第四章句法第五章意义第六章语言的心理过程第七章语言，文化和社会第八章语言的使用第九章语言与文学第十章语言和计算机第十一章语言学和外语第十二章现代语言学理论与流派“语言学概论”是我国高校文科尤其是语言文学（汉语言文学、少数民族语言文学、外国语言文学）专业的基础理论课，是普通语言学的入门课。
语言学教程复习题与答案
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts andchecked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies thebasic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations ofthe sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is calledmorphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies themorphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not inisolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the writtenlanguage.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguisticof the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, becauseA. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparativetook a (n) view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a __point of view. A. sociological…psychological B. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD. semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, __ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between __ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called__,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through __, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics46. Language 47. Phonetics 48Morphology 51. Applied Linguistics 53 Productivity 54. Displacement 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?III. 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. 3l.CIV. 41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. : The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. 45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker 55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have tofollow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V 61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail. First of all, language is a system, becauseelements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrarybecause there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they areassociated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocalbecause the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirelyarbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for languageto have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Language is productiveor creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. Theycan send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and Duality The duality nature of language means that language is a system, whichconsists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Displacement means that language can be used to refer to thingswhichare present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics isdescriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studiesand describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and adiachranic study? The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular pointin time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, notthe written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinctionbetween langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance? American linguist N.Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the r ules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may havemistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’sdistinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences? Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Language is arbitraryin nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)Chapter 2：PhonologyI. 1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both ChineseandEnglish.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and theydistinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called . English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue inthe mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels,semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into differentcategories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting onesound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segmentwhich occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of twoor more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speechsounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, , they are allb_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible forvarieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms ofp____ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speechsound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of thesegments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s____ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broadtranscription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word inisolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular languageand how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three importantcavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of thevocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. <![endif]>34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress:word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips C.tongue D. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds. A.voiceless B. voiced C. vowel D. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feat ure of asequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B.same C. exactly alike D. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and theycan distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricate B. voicedalveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintainingthe highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemicsegments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________. A. phonetic components B. immediate constituents C.suprasegmental features D. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, acollection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. sound C.allophone D. phoneme44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C.phonemes D. allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 48. international phonetic alphabet 49.intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53.phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. 21. Aspiration 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop 27.Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32.oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:IV. : Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctivevalue. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally acceptedsystem of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather thanthe word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.51. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages52. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. Itstudies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.53. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. Itstudies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.54. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking alanguage. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.55. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes.If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.56. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.57. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for onesound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. 58. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing? 1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.59. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position ofthe tongue in the mouth. 2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. 3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels. 4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.60. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics? They differ intheir approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the。
语言学教程Chapter-10.-Language-and-ComputerPPT课件
It has not made much progress since its birth.
The stages it has gone through: (1) The independent work by MT
researchers (2) Why the drawbacks of MT in early days? (2) Towards good quality output (3) The development of translation tools
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10.4 computer mediated communication
❖ Mail ❖ News ❖ Power point ❖ Blog ❖ Chartroom ❖ Emoticons ❖ Smileys
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10.4.1 Mail and News
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10.4.2 powerpoint
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10.2 machine translation
❖ The definition ❖ The two types of it ❖ People examine it philosophically,
religiously, politically, economically.
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10.2.1 history of development
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(2) Research by MT researchers
❖ 1. the transfer approach ❖ 2. the interlingual approach ❖ 3. the knowledge-based approach ❖a ❖b ❖c
胡壮麟语言学教程修订版课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter10
Chapter 10 Language and ComputerWhat is computational linguistics?Computational linguistics is a branch of applied linguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language.(1) It includes the analysis of language data so as to establish the order in which learnersacquire various grammatical rules or the frequency of occurrence of some particularitem.(2) It includes electronic production of artificial speech and the automatic recognition ofhuman speech.(3) It includes research on automatic translation between natural languages.(4) It also includes text processing and communication between people and computers. 10.1 Computer-assisted language learning (CALL)10.1.1 CAL / CAI vs. CALLCAI (Computer-assisted instruction) means the use of a computer in a teaching program. CAL (Computer-assisted learning) refers to the use of a computer in teachingand learning and in order to help achieve educational objectives. CAI aims at seeingeducational problems on the part of the teacher, whereas CAL emphasizes the use of acomputer in both teaching and learning. CALL (Computer-assisted language learning)means the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.If CAI or CAL deals with teaching and learning problems in general, CALL deals withlanguage teaching and learning in particular.10.1.2 Phases of CALL development (4 periods)1. During this period, computers were large mainframe machines kept inresearch institutions.2. Small computers appeared and cost cheaper than before, which made ageneration of programs possible.3. The learning was not so much supplied by the language of the text itself as bythe cognitive problem-solving techniques and the interaction between studentsin the group.4. Instead of writing specific programs for language teaching, word-processinghas adapted to language teaching by enabling students to compose and try ourtheir writings in a non-permanent form.10.1.3 Technology1. Customizing, template, and authoring programs.2. Computer networks.3. Compact disk technology4. Digitized sound.10.2 Machine translation (MT)10.2.1 History of development1. The independent work by MT researchers2. Towards good quality output3. The development of translate tools10.2.2 Research methods1. Linguistic approach2. The practical approaches(1) The transfer approach(2) The inter-lingual approach(3) Knowledge-based approach10.2.3 MT Quality10.2.4 MT and the Internet10.2.5 Spoken language translation10.2.6 MT and human translationAt the beginning of the new century, it is apparent that MT and human translation can and will co-exist in relative harmony. Those skills which the human translators cancontribute will always be in demand.(1) When translation has to be of “publishable” quality, both human translation andMT have their roles. MT plays an important part in large scale and rapid translation ofboring technical documentation, highly repetitive software localization manuals, andmany other situations where the costs of human translation are much higher than theones of MT. By contrast, the human translators are and will remain unrivalled fornon-repetitive linguistically sophisticated texts (e.g. in literature and law), and even forone-off texts in specific highly-specialized technical subjects.(2) For the translation of texts where the quality of output is much less important,MT is often an ideal solution.(3) For the one-to-one interchange of information, there will probably always be arole for the human translators. But for the translation of personal letters, MT systemsare likely to be increasingly used; and, for electronic mail and for the extraction ofinformation from web pages and computer-based information services, MT is the onlyfeasible solution.(4) As for spoken translation, there must surely always be a market for the humantranslators. But MT systems are opening up new areas where human translation hasnever featured: the production of draft versions for authors writing in a foreign language,who need assistance in the translation of information from databases; and no doubt,more such new applications will appear in the future as the global communicationnetworks expand and as the realistic usuality of MT becomes familiar to a wider public.10.3 Corpus linguistics10.3.1 Definition1. Corpus (pl. corpora): A collection of linguistic data, either compiled as writtentexts or as a transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus isto verify a hypothesis about language –for example, to determine how theusage of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.2. Corpus linguistics: Corpus linguistics deals with the principles and practice ofusing corpora in language study. A computer corpus is a large body ofmachine-readable texts.10.3.2 Criticisms and the revival of corpus linguistics10.3.3 Concordance10.3.4 Text encoding and annotation1. It should be possible to remove the annotation from an annotated corpus inorder to revert to the raw corpus.2. It should be possible to extract the annotation by themselves from the text.3. The annotation scheme should be based on guidelines which are available tothe end user.4. It should be made clear how and by whom the annotation was carried out.5. The end user should be made aware that the corpus annotation is not infallible,but simply a potentially useful tool.6. Annotation schemes should be based as far as possible on widely agreed andtheory-neutral principles.7. No annotation scheme has a priori right to be considered as a standard.10.3.5 The roles of corpus data1. Speech research2. Lexical studies3. Semantics4. Sociolinguistics5. Psycholinguistics10.4 Information retrieval (IR)10.4.1 Scope defined10.4.2 An information retrieval system10.4.3 Three main areas of research1. Content analysis2. Information structure3. Evaluation10.5 Mail and news。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》第九章Language_and_Literature
Thus the term covers a wide area of meaning. This may have its advantages, but may also be problematic: which of the above meanings is intended must often be deduced from the context in which the term is used.
2.1 What is ‘foregrounding’? foregrounding’
In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to foregrounding’ refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.
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The red-haired woman, redsmiling, waving to the disappearing shore. She left the maharajah; she left maharajah; innumerable other lights o’ o’ passing love in towns and cities and theatres and railway stations all over the world. But Melchior she did not leave.
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（第10章语言习得——第12章语言与大脑）
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（第10章语⾔习得——第12章语⾔与⼤脑）第10章语⾔习得1. Try to explain the terms:Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition DeviceCritical Period HypothesisKey: (1) Language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.(2) Chomsky referred to children’s innate ability to learn their native language as Language Acquisition Device (LAD). The LAD was described as an imaginary “black box”existing somewhere in the human brain. The “black box”is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language’s structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.(3) This hypothesis was put forward by Eric Lenneberg in 1967. It states that children have a special propensity for acquiring language, especially between the ages of 2 to 13. There are two versions of CPH. While the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure, the weak one holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.2. Among the language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.Key:There are three language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter. Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. According to innatist view, human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops.Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects, the innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children’s acquiring complex system, and the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.In my opinion, I think that the interactionist view is more reasonable, because environment plays a great role in our acquisition of language. Only when conversations provide the right level of language that children are capable of processing can they facilitate children’s language acquisition, otherwise, it is insufficient for children to learn the language’s structure.（答案不唯⼀，⾔之成理即可）3. Which of the following statements are TRUE and which are FALSE? Why?a. All normal children have equal ability in learning their first language.b. It is easy for parents to teach their children grammar.c. The young child is not taught to speak, or to understand his language. There isno formal learning of grammar or pronunciation practice.d. At first children do not inflect nouns or verbs.e. Children learn their native language well whenever they start and whateverkinds of language samples they receive.f. The ability to learn a second language as an adult may vary considerablybetween individuals.g. For a child to acquire his mother tongue the most basic requirement is that hehears people speaking this language. He will then begin to learn the language.h. Phonology and grammar are finite, tightly structured systems, the child mustmaster them before puberty in order to be a native speaker of the language. Key: a) True. (Language acquisition device explains it.)b) False. (Grammatical development is partly a matter of growing “competence”and partly a matter of increasing “performance”capacity. Some subtle grammatical distinctions may not be mastered much before the age of ten.)c) True. (Young children acquire their mother tongue.)d) True (At the beginning, children’s acquisition focuses on content.)e) False (Critical Period Hypothesis can explain it.)f) True (Different individuals are exposed to different language learning environment; and their learning abilities are affected by different motivation and personalities.)g) True. (When a child begins acquire his mother tongue, he must be exposed to the language environment.)h) True. (Critical Period Hypothesis can explain it.)4. Each of the following utterances comes from the speech of a child in thetwo-word state. Identify the semantic relation expressed by each of these utterances.Key:a) The child’s utterance “Jimmy swim”may have a lot of different semantic meanings such as “Jimmy can swim”, “Jimmy swims”, or “Jimmy is swimming”. For children have no concepts of tense at this age, he/she only use two words “Jimmy swim”to express his/her intended meaning “Jimmy is swimming?”, a interrogative question.b) The semantic meaning of “Ken book”is “Ken’s book”. The part which is omitted by the child is the possessive case of Ken, but it still can imply the meaning of “Ken’s book”.c) When the child sees his/her father in the office, the child may say “Daddy office”, which means “Daddy is at his office”.d) By omitting the subject of the sentence “You”, the child expresses the meaning using “Push baby”. Obviously the meaning is synonymous with “You push the babies”.e) When the child sees his/her mother reading, he/she simply says “Mommy read” instead of using the present tense.第11章第⼆语⾔习得1. To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experiences?Key: Theoretically the new findings and advances in first language acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. For example, we started to learn our native language from listening, then speaking.（答案不唯⼀，⾃由发挥即可）2. Try to observe yourself and pay attention to your own learning experience, what conclusions are you more likely to use or depend on Chinese in learning and using English?Key: When I first contacted with English, I often used Chinese to help me learn it. According to the pronunciation of some English words, I picked an approximate accent to mark an English word. Chinese played a great role as interlanguage in such an English learning process. Those Chinese markers helped me remember the English words better.（答案不唯⼀，⾃由发挥即可）。
英语语言学教程课后整理
Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.----Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.Prescriptive&Descriptive规定性&描写性(定义、区别)Prescriptive----Ifalinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(tradi tionalgr ammar)Descriptive----Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic) Synchronic&Diachronic共时性对历时性（定义）Synchronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory(modernlinguistics)Diachronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperi odoftime)vidual.DualityAcousticphonetics----fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother. Classificationofvowels（元音）Monophthongsorpure/singlevowels（单元音）Diphthongsorglidingvowels（双元音）Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:。
语言学教程电子书
武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组English LinguisticsChapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (2)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (11)Chapter 3 Lexicon (24)Chapter 4 Syntax .........................................................................35 Chapter 5 Meaning ....................................................................50 Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind ..................................60 Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society .................................63 Chapter 8 Language in Use .. (68)武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions inlinguisticsTeaching procedures Language 1.1 Why study language? A tool for communication A tool for access to other fields An integral part of our life and humanity If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. 1.2 What is language?1.2.1 different senses of languagewhat a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system1.2.2 definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to agoal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot bearranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideasby convention.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms. People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users. Human ----language is human-specific. Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity. “Language Acquisition Device”(LAD) bird songs and bee dances(×) 1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征 Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. a. Arbitrariness ----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(Saussure) The link between them is a matter of convention. E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese) Mansion (French) 房子(Chinese) E.g 2. eat (in English) manger (in French) 吃 (in Chinese) conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structurallinguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language isiconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such asonomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash) For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connectionbetween the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, thesets of signals used in communication is finite.b. Duality ----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, thelevel of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningful武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped andregrouped into words.each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.e.g. /k/ /a: / and /p/ --carp & parkwoof (but not “w-oo-f ” )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, sincewith a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of soundcombinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economy c. Creativity ----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) a. We can create new words; b. We can create endless new sentences with limited number of words Duality and recursiveness lead to creativity. e.g. “A three-eyed white monkey is sleeping soundly on the bed of the King ofFrance.”He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a schoolwhich was known… (Go on endlessly)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source ,will fail to do so if the location is really ‘new’. In one experiment, a hive of beeswas placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees weretaken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hiveabout their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gangbuzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’tlocate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding locationhas a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The beecannot create a ‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement ----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Displacement gives human beings the power to handle generalization and abstraction. Bee communication : When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source. e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmission You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission. 1.4 Origin of language The Biblical account Language was God’s gift to human beings. The bow-wow theory Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo . The pooh-pooh theory Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy. The yo-he-ho theory Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc. The evolution theory Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need. 1.5 Functions of language 1.5.1 Informative function: 信息功能 Language is used to note down and to pass information. It is predominantly the major role of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud as when they are working on a math problem. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.5.2 Interpersonal function: 人际功能 Language is used for human communication/for communication among people. It is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. E.g. the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves. Dear Sir, Dear Professor… 1.5.3 Performative function: 行事功能 We can use language/words to do things. a. We can use it to make others do something; b.We do something ourselves at the time when we are saying something. The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons. E.g. marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children etc . The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. 岁岁平安（every year be safe and happy ） 1.5.4 Emotive function: 感情功能 Language can be used to express feelings or emotions. Egs. “My God.” “Alas!” “Ouch!” “Damn it!” “Wow.” 1.5.5 Phatic communication: 酬应功能 交感性谈话 Language can be used to maintain relationship. This function originated from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language. Egs. “Good morning.” “God bless you.” “I’m sorry to hear it.” “Good day.” “Hello!” “Good-bye.” 1.5.6 Recreational function: 娱乐功能 Language can be used for joy, fun, amusement, or recreation. Egs. Jokes, Chinese cross talk, lyrics, poetry in general 1.5.7 Metalingual function: 元语言功能 Language can be used to talk about itself.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Eg. “book” is a word that we use to refer to something that we read…What teachers do in class is mainly the use of language of this function-to uselanguage to explain language.Linguistics1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of allhuman society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by furtherobservation------theory1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguisticsphonetics 语音学phonology 音系学（音位学）morphology 词法学syntax 句法学semantics 语义学pragmatics 语用学1.7.1 Phoneticsa branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of sounds and providesmethods for their description, classification and transcription.Any speech sound whether it distinguishes meaning or not will be described.Eg. three “p”s are noted in “speak”(un-aspirated, as [p=]), “peak”(aspirated, asindicated by the diacritic h in [p h ]), “deep”.1.7.2 Phonologya branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. --of theminimal meaningful sounds.--of the minimal sounds that distinguish meaning.Eg. the three “p”s in 1) above don’t distinguish meaning. They are of onemeaningful phoneme.Yet, in “tip” and “sip”, or “tip” “dip” the change of “t” to “s” or “t” to “d” bringsabout another word, therefore, “t” and “s” are two independent phonemes.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.7.3 Morphology a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the internal organization of words. --of the formation of words. Prefix, suffix, root. Eg. friend | ly glob | al | iz | ation dialogue, monologue 1.7.4 Syntax a branch of linguistics which studies the rules that govern the combination of words and phrases into sentences. Words are organized into structures more than just word order. E.g. a. The children watched [the firework from the hill ]. b. The children watched [the firework ][from the hill ]. 1.7.5 Semantics a branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. --meaning of words and their relations; --meaning of sentences/ sentence meaning. 1.7.6 Pragmatics a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use. Eg .a. A: How do you think of my new dress? B: The one you had last week was really beautiful. b. A: Shall we go to the cinema? B: I have to complete the homework. 1.8 Macrolinguistics External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions 1.8.1 Psycholinguistics --study of language to psychology 1) How human mind works when we use language 2) How infant acquire mother tongue 3) How we process the information we receive in course of communication 1.8.2 Sociolinguistics -- study of social aspects of language 1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics --are interested in the history and structure of formerly unwritten language 1.8.4 Computational linguistics 1) machine translation: translating from one language to another 2) Information retrieval: finding relevant document in large Collection of text 3）corpus linguistics武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive “描写式”和 “规定式” They represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (how things are); if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive(how things ought to be). 1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic “共时”和 “历时” The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a. the features of English used in Shakespeare’s time －Synchronic b. the study of the changes English has undergone since then － Diachronic 1.9.3 langue & parole “语言” 和 “言语” The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use. What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. 1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用 The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.9.5 Etic vs. Emic 音素的或非音位的/位学的a) Etic —Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential, differentiations.b) Emic —An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated asmeaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communityrather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.HomeworkQuestions and Exercises1,4,6,12 Self-study guide Read “A New Concise Course On Linguistics For Students Of English” Chapter 1 Introduction.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Chapter 2 Speech SoundsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge aboutphonologyTeaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distributio.Teaching procedureLanguage is a “system of vocal symbols”. Speech sounds had existed long beforewriting was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are stilllanguages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is amajor part of linguistics.As we know, there are two branches in linguistics, which deal with speech sounds.They are phonetics (the study of sounds) and phonology (the study of sound patterns).In this chapter, we will discuss these two branches.Phonetics2.1 Speech production and perceptionThe speech sound can be studied in three different ways, thus in phonetics there are three mainbranches Articulatory phonetics----the study of the production of speech sounds. 发声语音学Acoustic phonetics ----the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech. 声学语音学 Auditory phonetics----the study of the perception of speech sounds, how sounds arereceived and understood 听觉语音学2.2 Speech organs (vocal organs)Refers to the parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.The three cavities of the vocal tract : the pharynx (pharyngeal cavity), the mouth (oral cavity), the nose (nasal cavity).The air- stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities,resulting in the production of various sounds. The pharyngeal cavityLarynx: a t the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam’s apple. This is the武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组first place where sound modification might occur.vocal folds (vocal cords): V ocal cords are two membranes, the positions of whichgives different sounds.●When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the soundproduced is said to be voiceless . e.g. [p, s, t ]●When they are close together, the airstreams causes them to vibrate and producesvoiced sounds. e.g. [b, z, d]●When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them, then produce the glottal stop [?] The oral cavity The oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification. Tongue: the most flexible Uvula, the teeth and the lips Hard palate, soft palate (velum) Alveolar ridge: the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth Various obstructions created within the oral cavity lead to the production of varioussounder [p] [b]; [s] [z]; [k] [g] The nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected to the oral cavity at the back of the mouth .The soft partof the roof of the mouth; the velum (soft palate) can be draw back to close the passageso that the air can only go through the mouth and produce vowels and most consonants.The passage can also be left open to allow air to exit through the nose and producenasal consonants [m] [n] [g] 2.2 Segments, divergence, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergenceSegments-- the individual soundsDivergence between sound and spelling—there are more sounds in English than itsletters can represent, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptiona method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组2.3.2.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet)IPA : the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by theInternational Phonetic Association in 1888 on the basis of the phonetic alphabetproposed at the time. It is a standardized and internationally accepted system ofphonetic transcription.The Danish grammarian Jespersen first proposed the idea in 1886.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996.The basic principle : using a separate letter selected from major European languagesfor each distinctive sound and the same symbol should be used for that sound inany language in which it appears.2.3.2.2 Two ways to transcribe speech soundsBroad transcription : transcription with letter-symbols only. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. Narrow transcription : transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study ofspeech sounds.Diacritics: A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a soundvalue different from that of the same letter without the mark.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels Consonants: sounds produced by constricting and obstructing the vocal tract at someplace to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.When the vocal cords vibrate, the sound produced is a voiced sound (浊音)。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)即第二版
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k”itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’sdiachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English hasundergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event.What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can beconsidered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes throughcertain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place ofarticulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and thensuddenly releasing it. In English, [] are stops and[] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escapewith friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip,close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without thevocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English thisclass of sounds includes [].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream fromthe lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [] is theonly lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that theunderside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hardpalate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the shortprojection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards eachother.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsPlace of articulationManner ofarticulation Bilabial Labio-dentalDental AlveolarPost-alveolarPalatal Velar GlottalStop NasalFricative Approximant LateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairsof consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degreesare recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have beennasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowelsCardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to providea frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[],CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47.2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel[] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel[] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the twosubjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of thedifferent forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at thebeginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occursdin the word like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirate[ ] in peak and the unaspirated [ =] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heardand identified as // and not as //; they are both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative → voiceless / __________ voiceless.This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, itis put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //.It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similarunits. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unitthat cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech orwriting.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example.If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and thesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties,which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separateword class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements ina sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.。
语言学教程电子书
武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组English LinguisticsChapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (2)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (11)Chapter 3 Lexicon (24)Chapter 4 Syntax .........................................................................35 Chapter 5 Meaning ....................................................................50 Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind ..................................60 Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society .................................63 Chapter 8 Language in Use .. (68)武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions inlinguisticsTeaching procedures Language 1.1 Why study language? A tool for communication A tool for access to other fields An integral part of our life and humanity If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. 1.2 What is language?1.2.1 different senses of languagewhat a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system1.2.2 definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to agoal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot bearranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideasby convention.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms. People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users. Human ----language is human-specific. Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity. “Language Acquisition Device”(LAD) bird songs and bee dances(×) 1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征 Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. a. Arbitrariness ----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(Saussure) The link between them is a matter of convention. E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese) Mansion (French) 房子(Chinese) E.g 2. eat (in English) manger (in French) 吃 (in Chinese) conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structurallinguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language isiconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such asonomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash) For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connectionbetween the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, thesets of signals used in communication is finite.b. Duality ----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, thelevel of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningful武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped andregrouped into words.each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.e.g. /k/ /a: / and /p/ --carp & parkwoof (but not “w-oo-f ” )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, sincewith a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of soundcombinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economy c. Creativity ----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) a. We can create new words; b. We can create endless new sentences with limited number of words Duality and recursiveness lead to creativity. e.g. “A three-eyed white monkey is sleeping soundly on the bed of the King ofFrance.”He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a schoolwhich was known… (Go on endlessly)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source ,will fail to do so if the location is really ‘new’. In one experiment, a hive of beeswas placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees weretaken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hiveabout their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gangbuzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’tlocate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding locationhas a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The beecannot create a ‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement ----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Displacement gives human beings the power to handle generalization and abstraction. Bee communication : When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source. e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmission You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission. 1.4 Origin of language The Biblical account Language was God’s gift to human beings. The bow-wow theory Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo . The pooh-pooh theory Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy. The yo-he-ho theory Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc. The evolution theory Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need. 1.5 Functions of language 1.5.1 Informative function: 信息功能 Language is used to note down and to pass information. It is predominantly the major role of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud as when they are working on a math problem. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.5.2 Interpersonal function: 人际功能 Language is used for human communication/for communication among people. It is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. E.g. the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves. Dear Sir, Dear Professor… 1.5.3 Performative function: 行事功能 We can use language/words to do things. a. We can use it to make others do something; b.We do something ourselves at the time when we are saying something. The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons. E.g. marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children etc . The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. 岁岁平安（every year be safe and happy ） 1.5.4 Emotive function: 感情功能 Language can be used to express feelings or emotions. Egs. “My God.” “Alas!” “Ouch!” “Damn it!” “Wow.” 1.5.5 Phatic communication: 酬应功能 交感性谈话 Language can be used to maintain relationship. This function originated from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language. Egs. “Good morning.” “God bless you.” “I’m sorry to hear it.” “Good day.” “Hello!” “Good-bye.” 1.5.6 Recreational function: 娱乐功能 Language can be used for joy, fun, amusement, or recreation. Egs. Jokes, Chinese cross talk, lyrics, poetry in general 1.5.7 Metalingual function: 元语言功能 Language can be used to talk about itself.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Eg. “book” is a word that we use to refer to something that we read…What teachers do in class is mainly the use of language of this function-to uselanguage to explain language.Linguistics1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of allhuman society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by furtherobservation------theory1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguisticsphonetics 语音学phonology 音系学（音位学）morphology 词法学syntax 句法学semantics 语义学pragmatics 语用学1.7.1 Phoneticsa branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of sounds and providesmethods for their description, classification and transcription.Any speech sound whether it distinguishes meaning or not will be described.Eg. three “p”s are noted in “speak”(un-aspirated, as [p=]), “peak”(aspirated, asindicated by the diacritic h in [p h ]), “deep”.1.7.2 Phonologya branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. --of theminimal meaningful sounds.--of the minimal sounds that distinguish meaning.Eg. the three “p”s in 1) above don’t distinguish meaning. They are of onemeaningful phoneme.Yet, in “tip” and “sip”, or “tip” “dip” the change of “t” to “s” or “t” to “d” bringsabout another word, therefore, “t” and “s” are two independent phonemes.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.7.3 Morphology a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the internal organization of words. --of the formation of words. Prefix, suffix, root. Eg. friend | ly glob | al | iz | ation dialogue, monologue 1.7.4 Syntax a branch of linguistics which studies the rules that govern the combination of words and phrases into sentences. Words are organized into structures more than just word order. E.g. a. The children watched [the firework from the hill ]. b. The children watched [the firework ][from the hill ]. 1.7.5 Semantics a branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. --meaning of words and their relations; --meaning of sentences/ sentence meaning. 1.7.6 Pragmatics a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use. Eg .a. A: How do you think of my new dress? B: The one you had last week was really beautiful. b. A: Shall we go to the cinema? B: I have to complete the homework. 1.8 Macrolinguistics External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions 1.8.1 Psycholinguistics --study of language to psychology 1) How human mind works when we use language 2) How infant acquire mother tongue 3) How we process the information we receive in course of communication 1.8.2 Sociolinguistics -- study of social aspects of language 1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics --are interested in the history and structure of formerly unwritten language 1.8.4 Computational linguistics 1) machine translation: translating from one language to another 2) Information retrieval: finding relevant document in large Collection of text 3）corpus linguistics武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive “描写式”和 “规定式” They represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (how things are); if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive(how things ought to be). 1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic “共时”和 “历时” The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a. the features of English used in Shakespeare’s time －Synchronic b. the study of the changes English has undergone since then － Diachronic 1.9.3 langue & parole “语言” 和 “言语” The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use. What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. 1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用 The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.9.5 Etic vs. Emic 音素的或非音位的/位学的a) Etic —Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential, differentiations.b) Emic —An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated asmeaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communityrather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.HomeworkQuestions and Exercises1,4,6,12 Self-study guide Read “A New Concise Course On Linguistics For Students Of English” Chapter 1 Introduction.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Chapter 2 Speech SoundsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge aboutphonologyTeaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distributio.Teaching procedureLanguage is a “system of vocal symbols”. Speech sounds had existed long beforewriting was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are stilllanguages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is amajor part of linguistics.As we know, there are two branches in linguistics, which deal with speech sounds.They are phonetics (the study of sounds) and phonology (the study of sound patterns).In this chapter, we will discuss these two branches.Phonetics2.1 Speech production and perceptionThe speech sound can be studied in three different ways, thus in phonetics there are three mainbranches Articulatory phonetics----the study of the production of speech sounds. 发声语音学Acoustic phonetics ----the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech. 声学语音学 Auditory phonetics----the study of the perception of speech sounds, how sounds arereceived and understood 听觉语音学2.2 Speech organs (vocal organs)Refers to the parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.The three cavities of the vocal tract : the pharynx (pharyngeal cavity), the mouth (oral cavity), the nose (nasal cavity).The air- stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities,resulting in the production of various sounds. The pharyngeal cavityLarynx: a t the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam’s apple. This is the武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组first place where sound modification might occur.vocal folds (vocal cords): V ocal cords are two membranes, the positions of whichgives different sounds.●When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the soundproduced is said to be voiceless . e.g. [p, s, t ]●When they are close together, the airstreams causes them to vibrate and producesvoiced sounds. e.g. [b, z, d]●When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them, then produce the glottal stop [?] The oral cavity The oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification. Tongue: the most flexible Uvula, the teeth and the lips Hard palate, soft palate (velum) Alveolar ridge: the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth Various obstructions created within the oral cavity lead to the production of varioussounder [p] [b]; [s] [z]; [k] [g] The nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected to the oral cavity at the back of the mouth .The soft partof the roof of the mouth; the velum (soft palate) can be draw back to close the passageso that the air can only go through the mouth and produce vowels and most consonants.The passage can also be left open to allow air to exit through the nose and producenasal consonants [m] [n] [g] 2.2 Segments, divergence, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergenceSegments-- the individual soundsDivergence between sound and spelling—there are more sounds in English than itsletters can represent, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptiona method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组2.3.2.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet)IPA : the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by theInternational Phonetic Association in 1888 on the basis of the phonetic alphabetproposed at the time. It is a standardized and internationally accepted system ofphonetic transcription.The Danish grammarian Jespersen first proposed the idea in 1886.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996.The basic principle : using a separate letter selected from major European languagesfor each distinctive sound and the same symbol should be used for that sound inany language in which it appears.2.3.2.2 Two ways to transcribe speech soundsBroad transcription : transcription with letter-symbols only. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. Narrow transcription : transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study ofspeech sounds.Diacritics: A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a soundvalue different from that of the same letter without the mark.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels Consonants: sounds produced by constricting and obstructing the vocal tract at someplace to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.When the vocal cords vibrate, the sound produced is a voiced sound (浊音)。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第10-11章
Chapter 10 Language and Computer1. 计算机语言学计算机语言学可以看作是应用语言学的分支，即通过计算机处理人类语言。
计算机语言包括：对语言数据的分析，建立一个序列，通过它，语言学习者可以获得各种语法规律或某一特定词项的出现频率；人工语言的电子生成和人类语言的自动识别；它也包括不同自然语言之间的自动翻译和语篇处理；人与计算机的交流。
2. CAI, CAL & CALL2.1. CAI：计算机辅助教学，就是在教学过程中使用计算机。
2.2. CAL：计算机辅助学习，强调在教和学两方面使用计算机，通过学生自己的推理和和实践，帮助学习者达到教学目标。
2.3. CALL：计算机辅助语言学习，如果说CAI,和CAL是处理一般的教和学，那么CALL是用来处理语言教学的。
它特别是指将计算机运用到第二语言或外语的教学中去。
3. 机器翻译&人工翻译3.1. 定义机器翻译是指使用机器将语篇从一种自然语言翻译至另一种自然语言。
机器翻译可分为两类：不需要辅助的和需要辅助的。
3.2. 机器翻译&人工翻译在新世纪之初，很明显，机器翻译和人工翻译能够且将会相对协调地同时存在。
我们仍旧需要那些人工翻译者所作出的贡献。
当翻译不得不讲究“可发行”质量时，机器翻译和人工翻译都具有各自的作用。
对语篇翻译来说，在对输出的质量要求不高的地方，机器翻译是一种理想的解决方法。
对信息的一对一交换而言，人工翻译家可能总是会有作用的。
至于口语翻译，一定会是人工翻译者的市场。
4. 计算机语料库4.1. 语料库(corpus)A collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language--- for example, to determine how the application of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.语料库是一个语言数据的集合，可以有书面文本构成，也可以由录音言语的转写本构成。
胡壮麟 语言学教程 第十章 Language and Computer 课件
By the end of the 1980s, many educators felt that CALL was still failing to live up to its potential. Critics pointed out that the computer was being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion and thus ―finds itself making a greater contribution to marginal rather than to central elements‖ of the language teaching process.
Hypermedia: disadvantages
Quality of available programs. Today's computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive. Multimedia technology as it currently exists thus only partially contributes to integrative CALL.
Communicative CALL: Model 1
Computer as ―knower-of-the-right-answer‖, an extension of the computer as tutor model. But the process of finding the right answer involves a fair amount of student choice, control, and interaction. Programs to provide skill practice, but in a non-drill format. Courseware for paced reading, text reconstruction, and language games.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题(1-12章,含答案)
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题（1-12章，含答案）胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题Chapter 1 Introductions to Linguistics I. Choosethe best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbolsused for human __________A. contactB. municationC. relationD. munity 2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD.bang3.The function of the sentence ―Water boils at 100degrees Centigrade.‖ is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4.In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate thehost or the people present are likely to say―碎碎（岁岁）平安‖as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functionsdoes it perform? A. Interpersonal B. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overe the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6.Study the following dialogue. What function does itplay according to the functions of language? — Anice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7.__________ refers to the actual realization of theideal language use r’s knowledge of the rules of hislanguage in utterances. A. Performance B.petence C. Langue D. Parole8.When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking forsomething or at someone that exists hear and now. Itcouldn’t be sorrow ful for some lost love or lost bone.This indicates the design feature of __________. A.cultural transmission B. productivity C. displacementD. duality9.__________ answers such questions as how we asinfants acquire our first language. A.Psycholinguistics B.Anthropological linguistics C.Sociolinguistics D. Applied linguistics10.__________ deals with language application to otherfields, particularly education. A. Linguistic theory B. Practical linguistics C. Applied linguisticsD. parative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statementsare true or false. (10%)11. Language is a means of verbal munication. Therefore, the munication way used by the deaf-mute is not language. 12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and mostefficient way of the human munication systems. 14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be geically transmitted. 16. Only human beings are able to municate.17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist. 18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an exle of the diachronic study of language. 19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of__________ munication.22. In any language words can be used in newways to mean new things and can be bined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is__________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been calledthe __________ theory. 25. Linguistics is the__________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in thesense that the linguist tries to discover what languageis rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguisticanalysis is the primacy of __________ over writing. 28. The description of a language as it changes through timeis a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two importantconcepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all members of a speech munity.30. Linguistic potential is similar toSaussu re’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using exles. (20%)31. Design feature 32. Displacement 33. petence 34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tellus what language will be if it has no such design feature?（南开大学，20xx）36. Why is it difficult to define language?（北京第二外国语大学，20xx）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysisscientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）Key:[In the reference keys, I won’t give exles orfurther analysis. That seems too much work for me.Therefore, this key is only for reference. In order to answer this kind of question, you need more exles. So you should read the textbook carefully. – icywarmtea] I.1~5 BACCC 6~10 BACAC II.11~15 FFTFF 16~20 FFFFFIII.21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity 23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho 25. scientific 26.descriptive 27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic 29. langue 30. petence IV.31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal munication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space)at the moment of munication.33. petence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, andits grammatical rules. petence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledgeinvolved in petence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of petence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular pointin the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time. V. 35.Duality makes our language productive. A large numberof different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words outof a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words,there can be astronomical number of possible sentencesand phrases, which in turn can bine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal munication systems do nothave this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it willbe like animal municational system which will be highlylimited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound binations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning. 36.It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus,definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations. VI. 37.It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis –collect data – check against the observable facts – eto a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences. A. intonation B. tone C. pronunciation D. voice2.Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3.An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased pare __________ of the p phoneme. A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones 4.The opening between the vocal cords is sometimesreferred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5.The diphthongs that are made with a movement of thetongue towards the center are known as __________diphthongs. A. wide B. closing C. narrow D. centering 6.A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called__________. A. minimal pairs B. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones 7.Which branch of phoics concerns the production ofspeech sounds? A. Acoustic phoics B.Articulatory phoics C. Auditory phoicsD. None of the above8.Which one is different from the others according toplaces of articulation? A. [n] B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9.Which vowel is different from the others according tothe characteristics of vowels? A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cordsare vibrating? A. Voiceless B. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statementsare true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to thestudy of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs hasto undergo a number of modification to acquire thequality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when theyoccur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely,the substitution of one for the other does not produce adifferent word, but merely a different pronunciation. 14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phoics is concerned with theperception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but notall syllables contain an onset and a coda. 17.When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowelglides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness ofthe pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs.lax or long vs. short. 19. Received Pronunciationis the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states thatwhen there is a choice as to where to place a consonant,it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close togetherso that the air is pushed out between them, causing__________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowelsis the part of the tongue which is at the highest pointin the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail /veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an exle for illustrating__________.27. In English there are a number of__________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs ofspeech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ ing from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using exles. (20%)31. Sound assimilation 32. Suprasegmental feature 33. plementary distribution 34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phoics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，20xx）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phoic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Exle: voiced alveolar stop[d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel (3) lateral liquid (4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative 答案I.1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABB II.11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFF III.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction 23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs 27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation 29. Phonemes 30. air stream IV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which isdifferent from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phoic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone. 33. plementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phoic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the samelinguistic environment they are said to be in plementary distribution.。
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10.3 corpus linguistics
area of example-based machine translation.
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10.2.3 MT quality
❖ Faults of MT ❖ 1. ❖ 2.
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10.2.4 MT and the internet
❖ The internet is demanding the translation of the real-time on-line messages (often colloquial) which MT can deal with.
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10.2.6 MT and Human translation
❖ The strong points of MT ❖ The strong points of Human translation ❖ MT is proper for…. ❖ Human translation is proper for….
❖ The further profound impact on MT by internet:
❖ 1. ❖ 2.
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10.2.5 speech translation
❖ Speech translation by MT is the most widely anticipated development in the new century.
3
10.1.2 phases of CALL development
❖ Four phases ❖ Phase one ❖ Phase two ❖ Phase three ❖ Phase four
4
10.1.3 technology
❖ Programs developed in CALL ❖ Or what we can do with CALL ❖ (1) ❖ (2) ❖ (3) ❖ (4) ❖ (5)
Chapter ten language and computer (computational linguistics)
10.0 introduction Computer literacy Computational linguistics Its research problems
1
10.1 computer-assisted language learning (CALL)
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10.2.2 research methods
❖ Two research methods: ❖ The research from the linguistic theories ❖ The research by MT researchers ❖ 1. the transfer approach ❖ 2. the interlingual approach ❖ 3. the knowledge-based approach ❖a ❖b ❖c
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(2) Research by MT researchers
❖ 1. the transfer approach ❖ 2. the interlingual approach ❖ 3. the knowledge-based approach ❖a ❖b ❖c
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With the help of corpus linguistics, recently research has moved into the
It has not made much progress since its birth.
The stages it has gone through: (1) The independent work by MT
researchers (2) Why the drawbacks of MT in early days? (2) Towards good quality output (3) The development of translation tools
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10.1.1 CAI /CAL vs. CALL
❖ The differences of the first two ❖ The differences of the first two and the
third ❖ The forms taken by CALL: ❖ A. ❖ B. ❖ C.
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(1) The linguistic approach
❖ The relevant theories for MT theory as a testbed for linguistic theories were information theory, categorical grammar, transformational-generative grammar, dependency grammar, and stratificational grammar in the 1950s and 1960s; artificial intelligence, lexical-functional grammar, generated phrase structure grammar, head-driven phrase structure grammar, Montague semantics, etc. In the 1970s and 1980s; neural networks, connectionism, parallel processing, and statistical methods and others nslation
❖ The definition ❖ The two types of it ❖ People examine it philosophically,
religiously, politically, economically.
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10.2.1 history of development