FunctionalApproacheso_省略_meerandChristia

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英语教学综合专硕考研王蔷《英语教学法教程》考研真题集

英语教学综合专硕考研王蔷《英语教学法教程》考研真题集一、语言和语言学习Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.1. According to the _____ theory represented by Vygotsky, learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners.（山东师范大学2018研）【答案】socio-constructivist @~！【解析】本题考查的是社会建构主义理论的观点。

以维果茨基为代表的社会建构主义理论认为学习的最佳途径是师生之间以及学生之间的活跃互动。

2. The functional view not only sees language as a _____ system but also a means for doing things.（安徽师范大学2015研）【答案】linguistic @~！【解析】本题考查的是功能主义语言理论。

该种语言理论不仅将语言视作语言系统，还将它看作一种方法。

3. There are at least three theoretical views of language and the nature of language proficiency. The first is ______, the second is ______ and the third is ______.（天津师范大学2012研）【答案】structural view，functional view，interactional view @~！【解析】本题考查的是语言理论。

语言理论有三种，分别是结构主义语言理论、功能主义结构理论和交互式语言理论。

4. The constructivist theory believes that _____ is a process in which learners construct meaning based on their own experiences and what they already know.（山东师范大学2017研）【答案】learning @~！【解析】本题考查的是建构主义学习理论的观点。

功能对等理论相关文献

Literature review----The history and development of functional equivalenceThose who insist functional equivalence define that translation is a unique way of human being's activity with specific intentions, which is language service item for customers 、readers 、function and aims of the text in society circumstance.Baker tell us that the process of translation should not been limited by original text and it's influence to the translated or even the certain function which author use in the text. Meanwhile, he got the result that translation is certainly depend on the needs that readers and users aims to translate text eventually.Eugene A. Nada, a famous America translator, got the functional Equivalence in his book of Language and Culture: Translation Context in 2001. First of all, a minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. Secondly, idealistic of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.Nada start his research of translation theory, which has significantly influenced on people in the field of translation. Because he gave his ideas that combine this two concepts of function and meanings will be better for a word to have the true meaning in specific language context. The theory of functional equivalence was widely used in translation research and practice; however, it was just used in the field of literature translation. In 70 to 80s of last century, there came to German functional equivalence scholars, which is a sign of transforming from functions alone to combine with communication for researching. (Chen Juan, foreign studies of Shanghai university, 2008)The functional Equivalence emphases that translation is a process of which use the most suitable and natural words to reproduce the original in the text from it's meanings to terms. On the one hand, functional equivalence describes equivalence as the standard of translation and also a part of the core concept in modern translation. Many western language scholars always adopt the functional equivalence when they give their ideas about translation. While the earliest one gave the functional equivalence is George Camber, the founder of equivalence, who insists to connect the meanings of word with intention of using it in 18th century. In 1934, the Soviet Union literature scholar Seamier gave his idea of equivalence, which explains it theoretically in the writer’s prospective and then the Equivalence formed initially. (Zhang Li, Journal of XianNing College , 2010, 76-77)Alexander Fraser Tyler figured out the Three Principles in his Essay on the Principles of Translation, which sets three criteria rules for translating in 1790. The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which means that the translated should be as functional as possible in transforming the original information to readers. The style andmanner of writing in the translation should be of the same character with that of the original. It gives the translator a implying that they need to describe character of the original as fairly as possible, otherwise the translated would not be properly understood by readers.Liu Chong De, a well-known Chinese translator, gave his views of faithfulness、expressiveness of translation in 1994. Faithfulness, namely, the translated should be faithful to the content of the original. Expressiveness means to be as expressive as the original.参考文献Jan De Ward. Eugene Albert Nada. From One Language to Another. Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating. Nelson. 1986电影字幕中文化因素的翻译《中国电力教育》2008 年第19 期窦强浅谈电影字幕翻译《大众商务》2009 年第08期Eugene Albert Nada Language. Culture and Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 1993Eugene A, Nada & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2004.方琰，曹莉编. 《经典电影精彩片断语言评析》.北京；清华大学出版社. 2001. Grossman, The Translation Debate 75.高捷;从Nida的功能对等理论看中国民俗词语的翻译[D];西安电子科技大学;2011年郝琨功能派视觉下的英语导游词研究长春教育学院学报2010 第2期金丽;;功能对等理论指导下的科技英语长句翻译[J];宁波广播电视大学学报;2010年01期金1等效翻译探索(增订版) 1 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,1998李运兴字幕翻译的策略《中国翻译》2001 年第04 期李养龙刘颖字幕英译策略的句法分析《四川外国语学报》2007 年第01 期李弘梅；奈达“功能对等”理论在品牌翻译中的应用[j]; 齐齐哈尔大学学报（哲学社会科学版）；2007年04期.李红霞动态功能对等翻译的合理性及其破缺——奈达翻译理论一瞥广东行政学院510053李波;张晶;;浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等”和德国功能派“目的论”的差异性[J];黑龙江教育学院学报;2010年02期Li Yupeng. Journal of Beijing Electric Power college. 2010 H315刘四龙，重新认识翻译理论的作用——对奈达翻译思想转变的反思[J]中国翻译，2001；（2）.Nada, Eugene A &Taber, G,R. Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden; E, J.Brill.1969.Nida. Eugene A. Towards a Science of Translating [M].Leiden: E. J.Nada, Eugene A Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 1993.Nada, Eugene A &Taber, G,R. Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden; E, J.Brill.1982.Nord ,Christian.目的性行为———析功能翻译理论,上海:上海外语教育出版社,2001R. Graves, “The Polite Lie,” The Atlantic 215（June1965）80.单文波.对奈达动态对等论的再思考[J].海南师范学院学报, 2003(4).功能对等理论在医学翻译中的运用沈向怡袁媛中国高等医学教育2010年05期绍巍功能对等理论对电影字幕翻译的启示北京第二外语学院100024Journal of Xi’an International Studies UniversityTaylor，C The Subtitling of Film; reaching another community. Italy ; University of Trieste, 2001. 谭载喜，西方翻译简史[M]北京；商务印书馆，1991.谭载喜，新编奈达论翻译[M]北京；中国对外翻译出版.王海涛;刘楠;;中文电影片名文化蕴含词语的英译[J];长城;2009年04期谢奎奈达“功能对等”理论视域中的中文菜单英译研究西南石油大学外国语学院2010 第20 期肖愈;文化翻译视域下电影片名的翻译策略研究[D];西北大学;2010年肖陆锦；英语影片汉译技法探讨[J]；江汉石油学院学报（社科版）; 2001年01期。

Systemic-Functional Grammar

Systemic-Functional GrammarOriginatorM.A.K. Halliday, is the founder of systemic functional linguistics. In1947-1949, he studied at Beijing University and in 1949-1950 at Ling Nan University. In 1955, he got doctor’s degree at Cambridge University with The Language of the Chinese. Halliday has developed ideas stemming from Firth’s Theories in the London School. He is probably the most important representative of the System-Functional School. His system-functional grammar has had great effect on various disciplines related to language, such as language and machine translation.DefinitionSystemic-functional grammar is a form of grammatical description originated by Michael Halliday. It is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the twentieth century, having great effect on various disciplines related to language, such as language teaching, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, stylistics, and achine translation.It is part of a social semiotic approach to language called systemic functional linguistics. In these two terms, systemic refers to the view of language as "a network of systems, or interrelated sets of options for making meaning"; functional refers to Halliday's view that language is as it is because of what it has evolved to do. Thus, what he refers to as the multidimensional architecture of language "reflects the multidimensional nature of human experience and interpersonal relations."The basis of the theoryLanguage users are actually making choices in a system of systems and trying to realize different semantic functions in social interaction. And language is inseparable from social activities of man. Thus, it takes actual uses of language as the object of study, in opposition to Chomsky’s TG Gramma r which takes the ideal speaker’s linguistic competence as the object of study.The components of the theorySystemic-Functional Grammar has two components: systemic grammar and functional grammar. They are two inseparable parts for an integral framework of linguistic theory. Systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. And this network consists of subsystems from which language users make choices. Functional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction, based on the position that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably determined by the uses or functions which they serve.MetafunctionsFrom early on in his account of language, Halliday has argued that it is inherently functional. His early papers on the grammar of English make reference to the "functional components" of language, as "generalized uses of language, which, since they seem to determine the nature of the language system, require to be incorporated into our account of that system." Halliday argues that this functional organization of language "determines the form taken by grammatical structure". Halliday refers to his functions of language as metafunctions. He proposes three generalfunctions: the ideational (natual world), the interpersonal (social world) and the textual (verbal world).Ideational metafunctionThe ideational function is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. Present in all language uses, the ideational function is a meaning potential, because whatever specific use one is making of language he has to refer to categories of his experience of the world.The ideational metafunction is the function for construing human experience. It is the means by which we make sense of "reality". Halliday divides the ideational into the logical and the experiential metafunctions. The logical metafunction refers to the grammatical resources for building up grammatical units into complexes, for instance, for combining two or more clauses into a clause complex. The experiential function refers to the grammatical resources involved in construing the flux of experience through the unit of the clause.T he principal system for the ideational function is the “transitivity” system. In English, we make choices between different types of processes, participants, and circumstances. They are known collectively as the transitivity choices. We first divide the choices into six kinds: material process, behavioral process, mental process, verbal process, relational process and existential process.Material process is a process of doing something. We can distinguish two types of material process: action process (John kicked the ball) and event process (the train left five minutes ago). Within mental process, there is first the distinction between internalized process (I like it) and externalized process (It puzzled me). Behavioral process is related to some physical behaviors (John laughed) and verbal process is related tothe verbal deeds (John said it is cold in the room). Relational process is related to attribution and identification (John is on the sofa) and existential process is related to the existing thing (There is a cat on the sofa).Interpersonal metafunctionThe interpersonal metafunction embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and perform a speech act. Because the clause is not confined to the expression of transitivity, there are non-ideational elements in the adult language system. Interpersonal function is realized by MOOD and MODALITY.Mood shows what role the speaker selects in the speech situation and what role he assigns to the addressee. If the speaker selects the imperative mood, he assumes the role of one giving commands and puts the addressee in the role of one expected to obey orders. Mood is made up of two parts: the “Subject” and “Finite” element. The subject can be a noun, a noun phrase, or a clause. For example, Ignoring the problem will not make your work easier. Finite elements are tense morphemes, auxiliary verbs and modal verbs that express tense or modality, and they are part of the verb phrase.Modality specifies if the speaker is expressing his judgment or making a prediction. For example, Give me that teapot!The Textual FunctionThe TEXTUAL FUNCTION refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from arandom list of sentences. Although two sentences may have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they may be different in terms of textual coherence. The contents of the textual function include theme, rheme, information and cohesion.Theme is about which gives thee clause its character as a meaning. In the textual metaunction, a clause is analyzed into Theme and Rheme. For example, This house was built by John Smith. This house is the theme and was built by John Smith is the rheme. And the theme can be divided into unmarked theme and marked theme. Unmarked theme is that the theme is same with the subject while marked them means that the theme is different from the subject.Information, in its technical grammatical sense, is the tense between what is already known or predictable and what is new and unpredictable. Hence the information unit is a structure based on the function of the Given and the New. In the idealized form each information unit consists of a Given element accompanied by the New.Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exists within the text, defining it as a text. Textual cohesiveness is realized mainly by two cohesive devices:Reference: a participant element introduced at one place in the text can be taken as a reference point for something that follows. E.g. He could not open the door. It was locked tight.Substitution: it is replacement of one linguistic item by another. E.g. “Why could not you use your recorder?"“I don’t have one.”。

功能加忠诚理论诺德[文字可编辑]

Intended reaction recognition of something known
adopt the sender's viewpoint do what the sender is asking for learn certain forms of behavior
buy the product
(讨厌，又下雨了！)
Wait here till it stops raining!
(等雨停了再说吧！)
Nasty weather again,isn't it? (见鬼的天气又卷土重来了，你没感觉到吗？)
A Translation-oriented Model of Text Functions(Christiane Nord)
3. 贾斯塔?赫兹?曼塔利(Justa Holz Mantari) 的翻译行为理论(theory of translation action)
? 翻译行为理论把翻译视为有目的，重结果的交际活动，把翻译过程视为与文化转换相关联的信息传递综合体（message-transmitter compounds)
纪实型翻译Documentary Translation
翻译功能
为目的语文化读者记录原语文化交际互动
翻译类型
纪实型翻译
翻译形式逐行对照翻译逐词对应翻译语文学翻译异国情调翻译
翻译目的翻译焦点举例说明
再现原语系统
原语词汇结构+句法对比语言学
再现原语形式
原文词汇单位
新闻文本中的引语
再现原文形式+内容原文句法单位
? referential function
informative function ( a traffic accident)

自考外语教学法第一章课后附答案

自考外语教学法第一章课后附答案第一章1-What are the function and result of the two controversies in ancient Greece? 古希腊两个著名论争的功能和结果?One controversy was between the naturalists and the conventionalists. The naturalists argued that the form of words reflected the nature of objects. The conventionalists thought that language was conventional and there was no logic connection between form and meaning of words. The other controversy was between the analogiata and the anomalists on the regularities of language. The analogists claimed language was regular and there were rules for people to follow. The anomalists maintained there were no rules . Their debate roused people’s interest in language and led them to t he detailed study of Greek. The direct result was the appearance of a book of Greek grammar.2 What are the main features of traditional linguistics? 传统语言学的主要特征Traditional Linguistics was practical in nature. People made a study of language in order to read classic works. Traditional linguists believed that the written form oflanguage was superior to spoken form. They tried to set up principles and standards for people to use language correctly.3-What are the contributions made by Franz Boas, Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield to the development of American structuralism? Franz Boas, Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield 对美国结构主义发展的贡献Franz Boas and Edward Sapir were forerunners of American structuralism. Boas studied the American Indians’ languagesand found that the traditional grammatical model could not be used to analyse the structure of those languages. He had to describe those language as they were used. This started American structuralism. Leonard Bloomfield accepted the theories and principles of Franz Boas. He argued that linguists should describe instead of prescribing what people say and should take an inductive approach in analyzing data. In 1933, he published the book Language.It soon became the bible of American structuralism.4-What is the influence of behaviorism over American structuralism? 行为主义对美国结构主义的影响In 1933, the American psychologist John Watson published an article entitled Psychology as Behaviorist Views It . This was the formal introduction behaviorism. Watson believed we had no direc t way to observe the animal’s mind. We could only observe the animal’s behavior and the external environmental conditions. Behaviorists studied the relation between stimuli and responses. They divided learning process into two kinds. One kind is now called classic conditioning. The otheris called operant conditioning. Behaviorism helped the development of structuralism.5-- What is Chomsky’s explanation of the first languageacquisition process? 乔姆斯基对母语获得的解释Chomsky assumes that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is made up of a set of general principles calleduniversal grammar. When the child is born, the particular language environment will trigger the LAD. C hildren’s language acquisition process completes when the universal grammar is successfully transformed into the grammar of a particularlanguage.6-What is the difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance? 语言能力和语言应用的不同Linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge of the language that a native speaker of that language possesses. Linguistic performance refers to the actural utterance produced by the native speakers.7-How does transformational generative linguistics differ in research methods? 在研究方法上转换生成语言学有什么不同?Transformational generative linguistics opposes the structuralist method of taking linguistic performance as the goal. It also attacks the inductive approach. It believes that linguistics should study the linguistic competence, not the performance, of the native speaker andtry to set up a system of rules that will generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences.8--What is the main feature of functional linguistics? 功能语言学的特征Functional linguistics, founded by Malinowski and deve loped by Firth, believes ―the meaning of any single word is to a high degree dependent on its context‖ It introduced the phrase ―context ofsituation‖. The theory is based on the notion of function in context. Its point of view is that linguistic events should be accounted for at three primary levels: substance, form and context. The theory also divides a particular situation type into three dimensions.9--What is the basic theory of Gestalt psychology? 格式塔心理学的主要理论Gestalt psychology appeared in the 1920s. Its research wasfocused on the area of perception, aiming at the exploration of the relationship between parts and whole in people’s perceptional experience. It claimed that people received objects and scenes as organized wholes before they noticed their component parts. The word Gestalt means ―organized shape‖ or ―whole form ‖ in English.10--What is the basic theory of psychoanalysis? 心里分析的主要理论The basic theory of psychoanalysis is put forward by Freud. The theory divided the mind into conscious and unconscious mind. The conscious mind is only a very small part of the whole mind while therest remains unconscious. Psychoanalysis aims to analyse the irrational behavor of patients.11--What are the principles of behaviorism? 行为主义的原则The principles of behaviorism are as follow: Psychologists should study what could be observed publicly and objectively instead of considering animal’s mental events because these things could not be seen. Behaviorism believes that the study should be focused on learning and the relation between stimuli and responses. 12--What is thedifference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? 经典性和操作性条件反射的区别Classical conditioning means the stimulus that does not elicit a response comes to elicit a response after it is paired several timeswith a stimulus that already elicited a response. Operant conditioning means the occurrenceof a response will be determined by the consequence of theresponse.13-- What are the three factors that have helped to set up the cognitive psychology? 认知心理学发展的三个前提条件The three factors are the development of computer technology, Jean Piaget’s research work on the reasoning abilities of children, and the work of the American linguist Chomsky.14--How does the cognitive psychology explain the acquisition of knowledge? 认知心理学如何解释知识获得The term cognitive means knowledge and cognitive psychology can be defined as the study of people’s ability to acquire, organize, remember and use knowledge to guide their behaviour. As for the acquisition of knowledge, cognitive psychology believes that there are two principal types of cognitive structures which are called schemas and concepts. The schemas refer to sets of rules that define categories of behaviour and concepts are rules that describe properties of events and theirrelations with one another. Children acquireschemas and concepts by interacting with their environment with the help of two processes —assimilation and accommodation.15--How does the habit-formation theory explain the second language acquisition process? 习惯养成论如何解释二语获得过程Habit-formation theory was put forward by a group of behaviorists. According to their theory, learning a second language means the formation of a new set of linguistic habits. Imitation and practice play n important role in the process of habit-formation. Imitation will help learners identify the association between stimuli and responses while practice willreinforce the association and help learners to form the new linguistic habit.16--how does the hypothesis of linguistic universals explain the second language acquisition process? 语言共性说The hypothesis says there exist certain linguistic properties which are true to all natural languages into core grammar and peripheral grammar. Human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). The second language learners usually acquire the coregrammar of the target language and then the peripheral grammar. The core grammar of the learner’s mother tongue will help the learners to learn the target language. 17--How does the acculturation theory explain the second language acquisition? 文化传递说Acculturation means individuals of one culture have to go through the process ofmodification in attitudes, knowledge and behavior in order to do well in another culture. It believes that second language acquisition is justone aspect of acculturation and the degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition.18--How does the discourse theory explain the second language acquisition process? 话语情境说The discourse theory argues that thereis little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of the second language acquisition –only through communication discourse can the learner acquire the second language.19---What are the five hypothesis of the monitor theory?They are the acquisition –learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis,and the affective filter hypothesis.20--How does the cognitive theory explain the second language acquisition process?The cognitive theory claims that second language learning should be regarded as the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill. The process of second language acquisition is a process in which the internal representations are being restructured constantly. The acquisition involves two process- automaticity and restructuring. Language learning at the beginning stage involves none of the process of restructuring.21-What are the principles and consequences of the Reform Movement?The principles of the Reform Movement were the primacy of speech, the centrality of the connected text as the kernel of the language teaching process, and the absolute priority of an oral method in theclassroom. The consequences were great. Many people took part in the reform and movement. A lot of book were published. Anapplied linguistic approach to language teaching began to take shape.22--What’s the contribution made by Daniel Jones and Harold Palmer to the development of Daniel Jones teaching?Daniel Jones was the first one that helped to make a profession the teaching of English as a second /foreign language. And he did a lot of research on the profession of foreign language teaching. He wrote a number of books from his research. Harold Palmer tried out the Oral Method in his teaching and did his research on the English vocabulary. He published a lot of books on methods of language teaching and textbooks.23 What are the reasons for the rise and fall of Audiolingual Method?Audiolingual Method comes from the theories and ideas of behaviourism and structurism. It was very popular in the 1950s. Towards the end of the 1950s, transformational generative linguistics started a war against it and finally brought it down from its dominant position.24-What are the main trends of applied linguistic research in the present period?In the present period, applied linguists have began to study foreign language teaching from different perspectives. New ideas and newtrends appear very quickly. The new trends include communicative language teaching, new approaches to language syllabus and exploration of human relations, in foreign language teaching.。

乔丹教学理论

1. 能够掌握1000-1500 英语单词，300 多个句型，120 个场景对话。

2. 能听懂简单的配图小故事；能听懂常用指令和要求并作出适当的反应。

3. 能在口头表达中做到发音清楚、重音正确、语调达意。

4. 能够进行简单英语会话，满足日常生活表达交流需要，能看懂程度相当英语教学节目和英文动画片。

5. 能恰当运用一些最常用的日常套语，如问候、告别、致谢、致歉等，能在教师的帮助下讲述小故事。

6. 能根据拼读规律读出简单的单词，能借助图片读懂简单的故事或小短文，养成按意群阅读的习惯。

7. 能写出常用简单英语句型，根据范文，能够编写简单英文短文。

8. 能在教师帮助下表演英语小故事或话剧，能表演歌谣40-60 首。

9.语音：掌握大多数英语单词的发音规则，具有见词能读、听音能写的能力。

乔丹美语教学专家经过大量的时间经验论证，综合了各个流派教学法的特点，总结出自己独到而又有效的教学模式，使乔丹美语的学员在短期内就能喜欢上英语，学会英语，让英语脱口而出。

具体教学方法运用如下:一、英语交际法 (Functional Approach)1．重视学生的实际需要；2．重视交际能力的培养，有利于学生在一定的社会环境中恰当地使用目的语进行交际。

交际法在很大程度上它以通用外语教学为主，即教学内容以日常使用的语言为主，培养人们获得在日常生活中运用外语达到交际目的的能力。

二、全身反应法（total physical response）1. 听力理解领先。

首先培养学生的听力理解能力，然后再要求学生用口语表达。

2. 学生应通过身体对语言的反应动作来提高理解力。

这种身体反应应该由教师用有计划指令来控制，学生根据教师的指令做出相应的动作，从而感知并理解掌握语言。

3.允许学生在预先做好准备的情况下发言。

教师不强迫学生发言。

4. 教学应强调教学的意义而不是形式，这样可以降低学生的紧张情绪。

三、情景教学法（The Situational Approach）1．热身练习，复旧引新；这是教学的一个环节，开课前，热身活动可以活跃课堂气氛，有时起复习作用，有时为新课作铺垫。

Lecture 9 The Functional Approach

4.4.1 Functional sentence perspective
A sentence can be analyzed from the functional perspective (theme 主位and rheme 述位) and the grammatical point of view（subject主语and predicate谓语). The subject is also called the basis, or the starting point, of the utterance. The predicate is the nucleus, or the core, of the utterance.
Lecture Nine 4.4 The Functional Approach
Two major approaches in linguistics
In linguistics, there two major approaches: formal linguistics represented by Chomsky and functional linguistics represented by Prague School and systemic functional grammar.
1. Indicative mood: the form of the verb used in Declarative sentences or questions. She sat down. Are coming with us? 2. Imperative mood: the ü form of the verb in Imperative sentences. Be quiet ! Put it on the table. Being waiting for me at five. 3. Subjunctive mood: the form of the verb often used to express uncertainty, wishes, desires, etc.

韩礼德三大纯理功能

1.Functional grammar
• The adult’s language has to serve many functions, senven functions of children‘s language are gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions, which are meta-functions(纯理功能）: • Ideational function （概念功能） Interpersonal function （人际功能） Textual function.（语篇功能）
2.4.Behavioral processes(行为过程)
• Behavioral processes refer to physiological and psychological behaviour such as breathing,coughing,smiling,laughing,crying.
Functional grammar ----Three metafunctions
1.Functional grammar 2.The Ideational Function 3.The Interpersonal Function 4.The Textual Function
1.Functional grammar
Mood
• Those who wish to participate in the contest must put their names here.
the murderer. phenomenon
the skirt. phenomenon that she was absent. phenomenon

功能主义翻译方法

the translator has to make critical decisions as to how define the translation skopos and which strategies can best meet the target recipient’s requirements;
—Christiane Nord
4. Key conamceajpts of Skopos tohr eory
shif
t fro
第
m ‘li
一
ngu istic
章
equ
ival
enc
e’
From its standpoint, translation is considered not as a process of transcoding (the position usually adopted by earlier non-functionalist approaches), but as a form of human action which has its own purpose basically decided on by the translator.
5.3 Aim of translation
the Skopos rule the coherence rule (intratextual
coherence) the loyalty rule (intertextual
coherence)
Illustrations P97
3. Nord: Functionality Plus Loyalty
‘visibility’ of the translator

Self-Constructing Adaptive Robust Fuzzy Neural Tracking Control of Surface Vehicles

Self-Constructing Adaptive Robust Fuzzy Neural Tracking Control of Surface Vehicles WithUncertainties and Unknown DisturbancesNing Wang,Member,IEEE,and Meng Joo Er,Senior Member,IEEEAbstract—In this paper,a novel self-constructing adaptive robust fuzzy neural control(SARFNC)scheme for tracking surface vehicles,whereby a self-constructing fuzzy neural network(SCFNN)is employed to approximate system uncertainties and unknown disturbances,is proposed. The salient features of the SARFNC scheme are as follows: 1)unlike the predeﬁned-structure approaches,the SCFNN is able to online self-construct dynamic-structure fuzzy neural approximator by generating and pruning fuzzy rules,and achieve accurate approximation;2)an adaptive approximation-based controller(AAC)is designed by combining sliding-mode control with SCFNN approximation using improved projection-based adaptive laws,which avoid parameter drift and singularity in membership functions simultaneously;3)to compensate for approximation errors,a robust supervisory controller(RSC) is presented to enhance the robustness of the overall SARFNC control system;and4)the SARFNC consisting of AAC and RSC can achieve an excellent tracking performance,whereby tracking errors and theirﬁrst derivatives are globally uniformly ultimately bounded.Simulation studies and comprehensive comparisons with traditional adaptive control schemes demonstrate remarkable performance and superiority of the SARFNC scheme in terms of tracking errors and online approximation.Index Terms—Adaptive robust tracking control, self-constructing fuzzy neural network(SCFNN),surface vehicle.I.I NTRODUCTIONC ONTROL of a surface vehicle has recently attracteda great deal of attention,including,model-and approximation-based approaches[1].Model-based approaches require system dynamics to be at least partially known so Manuscript received December26,2013;revised June20,2014;accepted September5,2014.Date of publication October9,2014;date of current version April14,2015.Manuscript received inﬁnal form September19,2014. This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant51009017and Grant51379002,in part by the Applied Basic Research Funds through the Ministry of Transport of China under Grant 2012-329-225-060,in part by the China Post-Doctoral Science Foundation under Grant2012M520629,in part by the Program for Liaoning Excellent Talents in University under Grant LJQ2013055,and in part by the Funda-mental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China under Grant 2009QN025,Grant2011JC002,Grant3132013025,and Grant3132014206. Recommended by Associate Editor D.Vrabie.N.Wang is with Marine Engineering College,Dalian Maritime University, Dalian116026,China(e-mail:@).M.J.Er is with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,Nanyang Technological University,Singapore639798(e-mail: emjer@.sg).Color versions of one or more of theﬁgures in this paper are available online at .Digital Object Identiﬁer10.1109/TCST.2014.2359880that traditional nonlinear control laws,i.e.,feedback linearil-ization[2],backstepping technique[3],and sliding-mode control(SMC)[4],can be applied.Unfortunately,traditional adaptive control techniques are meaningful only for systems whose nonlinear dynamics and/or uncertainties are linear-in-the-parameter with explicitly deﬁned regressors.Moreover, the surface vehicle dynamics inevitably suffer from complex hydrodynamics,uncertainties,and unknown disturbances with respect to external environments[5],[6],and thereby resulting in great difﬁculties using traditional control schemes.In this context,the simpliﬁed vessel dynamics of[1]has become the nominal model for many model-based design techniques. Holtzhüter[7]developed an adaptive high precision track controller for a linear model through a combination of feedforward and linear quadratic Gaussian feedback control. Considering a nonlinear ship model,Vik and Fossen[8] proposed a semiglobal exponentially stable output feedback control law for automatic heading control where the yaw rate is reconstructed by a linear observer.Wondergem et al.[9] extended the foregoing results to an output feedback trajectory tracking control scheme for3-DOF fully actuated surface ships in the presence of bining with the traditional input–output linearization strategy,a continuous SMC can be designed to ensure system’s robustness and better performance[10].Recently,the backstepping and sliding-mode techniques have been intensively applied to tracking control of surface vehicles[11]–[13].In the backstepping framework,Lefeber et al.[14]proposed a simple state-feedback control law that renders tracking error dynamics globally exponential stable.Instead of traditional feedback linearization and nonlinearity cancelation,Li et al.[15] proposed a feedback dominance-based backstepping controller for a4-DOF nonlinear ing a second-level sliding mode strategy of[16],Yu et al.[17]designed a robust tracking controller for an underactuated ship with uncertain parameters. However,traditional nonlinear controllers are essentially model-based approaches,whereby most of the works mainly focus on mathematical solutions to underactuated or nonholonomic system control while practical uncertainties and disturbances are usually omitted[18].In this context,previous model-based(adaptive)control methods would inevitably rely on partially or fully known model dynamics since the equivalent control is directly derived from the nonlinearity cancellation or dominance while an additional robustness term is designed to attenuate residual errors.In addition to uncertain1063-6536©2014IEEE.Personal use is permitted,but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.See /publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.dynamics,unknown external disturbances are actually of greater importance for tracking control of surface vehicles. In comparison with model-based methods,approximation-based approaches via fuzzy logic systems(FLSs)[19]–[22], neural networks(NNs)[23]–[28],and fuzzy NNs(FNNs) [29]–[32]do not require parametric or functional certainty and have been widely applied to active suspension systems[33], robot manipulators[34],inverted pendulums[35],and Micro-Electro-Mechanical System gyroscope[36].Due to model uncertainties and unknown disturbances imposed on a surface vehicle,the approximation-based control methods are highly desired to realize online adaptation and robustness to unknown dynamics.In the early stage,researchers have directed much efforts to ship steering control via FLS[37],[38]andNN[39],respectively.Although functional uncertainties could be handled,the scheme considered only the single-input,single-output(SISO)steering equation and neglected the couplings with the surge and sway dynamics.Considering unmodeled dynamics,the NN-based model reference adaptive control scheme was proposed in[40]for trajectory tracking of surface vehicles.Yang and Ren[41]developed an adaptive fuzzy robust tracking control algorithm for a ship autopilot system to maintain the ship on a predetermined heading, whereby stability is guaranteed using the input-to-state stability approach and small gain theorem.Tee and Ge[42] addressed the problem of tracking a desired trajectory for fully actuated ocean vessels by the combination of feedforward NN and domination design techniques,which allow time-varying disturbances to be handled.Recently,Dai et al.[43]presented a stable adaptive NN tracking controller for the ocean surface ship in uncertain dynamical environments in the framework of backstepping and Lyapunov synthesis.In spite of various achievements,the learning ability of the aforementioned adaptive approximation-based control schemes with only output weights being updated is actually limited by the predeﬁned regressors since the weight adapta-tion is merely required to guarantee stability of the closed-loop system rather than uncertainty identiﬁcation.In this context,the FNN can enhance the learning capability of FLS by incorporating the NN topology,which allows all free parameters to be adaptively updated according to performance criteria[44],[45].Note that adaptive laws only consider parameter learning without structure update,i.e.,the number of fuzzy rules or hidden nodes must be determined a priori, although the resulting performance is acceptable because con-vergence of the tracking error does not necessarily imply con-vergence(or even robustness)of the estimated parameters[46]. It implies that the approximation accuracy would be much poorer if inadequate fuzzy rules,i.e.,too many or too few,are predeﬁned.To circumvent the aforementioned problem,Park et al.[47], [48]proposed self-structuring NN and FLS control schemes for SISO nonlinear systems,whereby new hidden neu-rons and fuzzy sets are increasingly created to cover observations,and thereby decreasing approximation errors. However,the resulting architecture and memory storage could grow without bound.Recently,the self-organizing FNN(SOFNN)with structure and parameter updated Fig.1.Earth-ﬁxed O X o Y o and the body-ﬁxed AXY coordinate frames. simultaneously have been proposed in[49]–[51]and refer-ences therein,which can automatically generate fuzzy rules in addition to parameter update.It has also attracted researchers to incorporate the SOFNN into adaptive approximation-based control schemes[52]–[55].Note that the previous SOFNN-based adaptive and robust control methods inevitably suffer from the deﬁciency that parameter adaptation is rarely able to avoid parameter drift and the singularity problem in that the centers and widths of the membership functions might be updated beyond the universe of discourse and crossing zeros,respectively,if only the norms are assumed to be bounded.In addition,to the best of our knowledge,there does not exist any SOFNN-based control scheme for tracking a surface vehicle.In this paper,a novel self-constructing adaptive robust fuzzy neural control(SARFNC)scheme for tracking surface vehicles in the presence of uncertainties and unknown disturbances is proposed.In the SARFNC scheme,a self-constructing FNN (SCFNN)is developed by dynamically generating and pruning Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy rules according to structure learning criteria.The SCFNN is then used to approximate uncertain dynamics together with unknown external disturbances,and thereby contributing to an SCFNN-based adaptive controller by deﬁning a sliding mode and employing projection-based adaptive laws for centers,widths,and output weights in the SCFNN.It should be emphasized that the proposed adap-tive laws ensure that the widths of the membership function are strictly positive and bounded.In addition,a robust supervisory controller(RSC)is designed to suppress the SCFNN-based approximation error.Moreover,the tracking error and its ﬁrst derivative are proved to be globally uniformly ultimately bounded(GUUB).The rest of this paper is organized as follows.Section II formulates the trajectory tracking control problem associated with surface vehicles.The SCFNN is addressed in Section III and the SARFNC scheme is presented in Section IV.Simu-lation studies and comprehensive comparisons are conducted in Section V.The conclusion is drawn in Section VI.II.P ROBLEM F ORMULATIONAs shown in Fig.1,the earth-ﬁxed frame O X o Y o and the body-ﬁxed frame AXY of surface vehicles are commonlyWANG AND ER:SARFNC OF SURFACE VEHICLES993 used to clearly formulate the problem to be resolved in thispaper.The axes O X o and OY o are directed to the northand east,respectively,while axes AX and AY are directedto fore and starboard,respectively.Assuming that the vesselis port-starboard symmetric,the distance x g between thegeometric center A and the gravity center G is allocatedalong the axis AX.Letη=[x,y,ψ]T be the3-DOF position(x,y)and heading angle(ψ)of the vessel in the earth-ﬁxedinertial frame,and letν=[u,v,r]T be the correspondinglinear velocities(u,v),i.e.,surge and sway velocities,andangular rate(r),i.e.,yaw,in the body-ﬁxed frame.Thedynamic model of the surface vehicle can be described asfollows:˙η=R(ψ)νν(1a)M˙ν+C(νν)νν+D(νν)νν=τ+R T(ψ)b(1b)whereτ=[τ1,τ2,τ3]T and b(t)=[b1(t),b2(t),b3(t)]T arethe control input and unknown time-varying dynamics andexternal disturbances due to wind,waves,and ocean currentsin the body-ﬁxed frame,respectively,and the matrix R(ψ)isthe3-DOF rotation matrix given byR(ψ)=⎡⎣cosψ−sinψ0sinψcosψ0001⎤⎦(2)with the following properties:R T(ψ)R(ψ)=I, R(ψ) =1∀ψ∈[0,2π].(3) Furthermore,the inertia matrix M=M T>0,the skew-symmetric matrix C(νν)=−C(νν)T of Coriolis and centripetal terms and the damping matrix D(νν)are given byM=⎡⎣m11000m22m230m32m33⎤⎦(4a)C(νν)=⎡⎣00c13(νν)00c23(νν)−c13(νν)−c23(νν)0⎤⎦(4b)D(νν)=⎡⎣d11(νν)000d22(νν)d23(νν)0d32(νν)d33(νν)⎤⎦(4c)where m11=m−X˙u,m22=m−Y˙v,m23=mx g−Y˙r, m32=mx g−N˙v,m33=I z−N˙r;c13(νν)=−m11v−m23r, c23(νν)=m11u;d11(νν)=−X u−X|u|u|u|−X uuu u2,d22(νν)=−Y v−Y|v|v|v|−Y|r|v|r|,d23(νν)=−Y r−Y|v|r|v|−Y|r|r|r|, d32(νν)=−N v−N|v|v|v|−N|r|v|r|,and d33(νν)=−N r−N|v|r|v|−N|r|r|r|.Here,m is the mass of the vessel,I z is the moment of inertia about the yaw rotation,and terms X∗,Y∗, and N∗denote the corresponding hydrodynamic derivatives. By substituting(1a)into(1b),the dynamic model(1a)–(1b) can be rewritten in the following afﬁne nonlinear form:¨η=f(ηη,˙η)+G(ηη)ττ(5)Fig.2.Architecture of the SCFNN.wheref(ηη,˙η)=f0(ηη,˙η)+ f(ηη,t)(6a)G(ηη)=R(ψ)M−1(6b)f0(ηη,˙η)=−R(ψ)⎛⎝S T(˙ψ)+M−1×[C(R T(ψ)˙η)+D(R T(ψ)˙η)]⎞⎠R T(ψ)˙η(6c) f(ηη,t)=R(ψ)M−1R T(ψ)b(t)(6d)S(˙ψ)=⎡⎣0−˙ψ0˙ψ00000⎤⎦.(6e)Remark1:The smooth vectorﬁeld f is implicitly unknown and is perturbed by time-varying external disturbances,while the input matrix G>0is known since the rotation matrix R is explicitly deﬁned by(2)and the inertia matrix M is usually assumed to be available.In other words,all parametric uncertainties and unknown dynamics have been encapsulated into the nonlinearity f(·).In this context,the objective of this paper is to design a self-constructing fuzzy neural control scheme for tracking the surface vehicle(5)with the ability to online identify the lumped unknown dynamics f(·),such thatηand˙ηof the surface vehicle can track arbitrary smooth reference trajectory ηd and itsﬁrst derivative˙ηd,respectively.III.S ELF-C ONSTRUCTING FNNIn this section,we present the SCFNN with dynamically evolving structure to accurately capture unknown nonlinear dynamics including uncertainties and disturbances,i.e.,f(z) in(5),where z=[ηT,˙ηT]T=[z1,z2,...,z m]T.A.ArchitectureAs shown in Fig.2,the SCFNN is comprised of four layers,i.e.,input,membership,rule,and output layers,which994IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY,VOL.23,NO.3,MAY 2015contribute to the fuzzy rule base as follows:IF z i is A l i ,THEN f j (z )=w l j ,l =1,2,...,N(7)where A l i ,i =1,2,...,m and w l j ,j =1,2,...,n are input fuzzy sets and output fuzzy singletons,respectively.The overall output of the SCFNN can be obtained as follows:f F (z )=[f 1,f 2,...,f n ]T =W T (z ;c ,σσ)(8)where f F :U z ⊂R m →R n ,and the output weight matrix Wand regressor vector (z ;c ,σσ)are deﬁned as follows:W =[ω1,...,ωωn ]∈R N ×n ,ωj = w 1j ,...,w N jT(9) =[φ1,φ2,...,φN ]T∈R N.(10)Here,the fuzzy basis function (FBF)is deﬁned by φl =exp −(z −c l )T −2l (z −c l )(11)where l =diag (σl 1,...,σl m )∈R m ×m ,c =[c T 1,...,c T N ]T ∈R mN ,and c l =[c l 1,...,c l m ]T are FBF center vectors and σ=[σT 1,...,σσT N ]T ∈R mN and σl =[σl 1,...,σl m ]T are the FBF width vectors.All parameters are bounded on U z and the width of a fuzzy set is positiveωj ≤ωj ,c i ≤c l i ≤c i ,0<σi ≤σl i ≤σi .(12)Without loss of generality,assume that there exists an optimal fuzzy approximator with N ∗fuzzy rules that can identify the nonlinear function f (z )with the minimal functional approximation error (MFAE)f (z )=(W ∗)T (z ;c ∗,σσ∗)+ε∗f (z )(13)where the MFAE ε∗f (z )=[ε∗f ,1,ε∗f ,2,...,ε∗f ,n ]T ∈R n is usually bounded on U z ,i.e.,|ε∗f ,j |≤εf ,j ,and(W ∗,c ∗,σσ∗)=arg min (W ,c ,σσ) max z ∈U z f F (z ;W ,c ,σσ)−f (z ).(14)Remark 2:The structure of traditional fuzzy or neuralapproximators used in the control paradigm is usually predeﬁned by trials and errors while only parameters are updated by adaptive laws,and thereby leading to ﬁxed-structure identiﬁer [46]and arising inaccurate identiﬁcation due to mismatched fuzzy rules or feature mappings.For surface vehicles with high frequency and large scale disturbances,the dynamic-structure fuzzy neural identiﬁer for complex dynamics is highly desired.B.Self-Constructing SchemeLet c i=[c 1i ,c 2i ,...,c N i ]Tand σi=[σ1i ,σ2i ,...,σN i ]Tbe the center and width vectors of the generated fuzzy sets in the i th dimension z i (t )individually,where c i ≤c l i ≤c i ,0<σi ≤σl i ≤σi ,i =1,2,...,m ,l =1,2,...,N .The SCFNN begins with no fuzzy rule,i.e.,c i (0)=∅,σi (0)=∅,ωj (0)=∅,and N (0)=0,and generates new fuzzy rules or prunes redundant ones according to the novelty of current observation z (t )to existing FBFs,i.e.,c i (t −1)=[c 1i ,c 2i ,...,c N (t −1)i ]T and σi (t −1)=[σ1i ,σ2i ,...,σN (t −1)i ]T.Calculate the generalized distance between z (t )and the existing FBFs as follows:d l =(z (t )−c l (t −1))T −2l (t −1)(z (t )−c l (t −1)),l =1,2,...,N (t −1)(15)where c l (t −1)=[c l (t −1)1,c l (t −1)2,...,c l (t −1)m ]T andl (t −1)=diag (σl (t −1)1,σl (t −1)2,...,σl (t −1)m ).1)Generation of Rule:Find the nearest fuzzy rule as follows:d min =minl =1,2,...,N (t −1)d l .(16)Ifd min >d thmin (17)there does not exist any fuzzy rule representing the current input.A new FBF needs to be generatedc N (t )=z (t ),σN (t )=σinit ,w N (t )=0N (t )=N (t −1)+1.(18)Here,d th minis the user-deﬁned threshold and can be easily chosen as d th min=ln (1/ ),0< ≤1,such that the dominant ﬁring strength is no less than ,and σinit is the initial width for the newly generated FBF.Otherwise,no new fuzzy rule will be generated,i.e.,N (t )=N (t −1).2)Pruning of Rule:Find the redundant FBFs sequentially as follows:J r ={l °},d l °<d 0.(19)IfJ r =∅(20)redundant fuzzy rules will be pruned as follows:c l °=∅,σl °=∅,w l °=∅,N (t )=N (t )−|J r |,l °∈J r .(21)Here,d 0is the user-deﬁned threshold under which the fuzzyrule is considered to be inactive,and is simply chosen as d 0=ln (1/ς),0<ς≤1.IV.S ELF -C ONSTRUCTING A DAPTIVE R OBUST F UZZYN EURAL C ONTROL As shown in Fig.3,the SARFNC scheme is proposed for tracking the surface vehicle (5)by employing two controllers,i.e.,adaptive approximation-based controller (AAC)and RSC.A.Structure of the SARFNCDeﬁne a sliding surface of the tracking error as follows:s =˙e +K 2e +K 1te (τ)d τ(22)where s =[s 1,...,s n ]T ∈R n ,K i =diag (k i 1,...,k in )∈R n ×n ,and e =η−ηd is the tracking error.Accordingly,the SARFNC framework is designed as follows:τSARFNC =τaac +τrsc(23)WANG AND ER:SARFNC OF SURFACE VEHICLES 995Fig.3.Block diagram of the SARFNC.whereτaac =MR T (ψ)− f F z ; W, c , σ +¨ηd −Ke (24)τrsc =MR T(ψ) −δ2+12δ2s .(25)Here,K =[K 1,K 2]∈R n ×m ,e =[e T ,˙e T ]T ∈R m , =diag (γ1,...,γn )>0,δ=0is a constant,and f F (z ; W , c , σ)is the SCFNN-based approximator,which is parameterizedby W , c , σand derived from the adaptive laws described in Section IV-C.B.SCFNN-Based ApproximationIn the SARFNC scheme (23),the unknown dynamics f (z )is online identiﬁed by the SCFNN with adaptive parameters and dynamic structure (13)using N (t )fuzzy rules as follows:f (z )= W T (z ; c , σ)+ εf (z )(26)where W ∈R N ×n , c ∈R mN ,and σ∈R mN are the estimatedparameters,and εf is the approximation error determined byεf =(W ∗)T ∗− W T +ε∗f(27)with ∗= (z ;c ∗,σσ∗)∈R N ∗and = (z ; c , σ)∈R N .Without loss of generality,assume that N ∗≥Nand (W ∗)T ∗=(W ∗1)T ∗1+(W ∗2)T ∗2,where W ∗1∈R N ×n , ∗1= z ;c ∗1,σσ∗1 ∈R N ,W ∗2∈R (N ∗−N )×n ,and ∗2= z ;c ∗2,σσ∗2 ∈R N ∗−N .From (27),we haveεf = W T ++ W T + ε∗f(28)where ε∗f =(W ∗2)T ∗2+ε∗f is the actual functional approx-imation error, W =W ∗1− W and = ∗1− are the output weight and regressor errors,respectively.By applying the Taylor series expansion of (·)to ( c , σ)in (28),we haveεf = W T + W T c c + σ σ+h (z ; c , σ) + W T + ε∗f= W T + W T cc + W T σ σ+ W T h (z ; c , σ)+ WT + ε∗f= W T+WT cc + WTσσ+εf (29)where c =c ∗1− c , σ=σ∗1− σ,and h (z ; c , σ)is the high-order term,and c and σare Jacobian matrices given byc∂ ∂c c = cσ= σ=diag φT c 1,...,φφT c N ∈R N ×mN(30) σ ∂ ∂σσ c = cσ= σ=diag φT σ1,...,φφT σN ∈R N ×mN .(31)Here,φT c l∂φl /∂c T l =[∂φl /∂c l 1,...,∂φl /∂c l m ]and φT σl ∂φl /∂σσT l =[∂φl /∂σl 1,...,∂φl /∂σl m ].From (11),we obtainφT c l φc ,l 1,...,φc ,l m =2 φl z 1− c l 1 σl 1 2,...,z m − c l m σl m2(32)φT σl φσ,l 1,...,φσ,l m =2 φl z 1− c l 1 2 σl 1 3,..., z m − c l m 2 σl m3 (33)and εf is the residual approximation error given byεf = W T h (z ; c , σ)+ W T + ε∗f .(34)Theorem 1:Consider the SCFNN-based approximationW T (z ; c , σ)to the vessel dynamics f (z ),z ∈U z ,the residual approximation error (34)admits the following boundedness :εT f εf≤8d 0w 2σ2 c T c +8d 20w 2σ2σT σ+2tr WT W + d <∞(35)where d =5w 2+4 n j =1(ςw +εf ,j )2,w = n j =1ω2j ,σ=inf i σi and d 0=ln (1/ς),0<ς≤1.Proof:Note that the high-order term h (z ; c , σ)in (34)can be derived fromh (z ; c , σ)= ∗1− − c (c ∗1− c )− σ(σσ∗1− σ)= − cc − σ σ.(36)Substituting (36)into (34),we haveεT f εf = W T − c c − σ σ + W T + ε∗f T × W T − c c − σ σ + W T + ε∗f= − c c − σ σ T W W T − c c − σσ + T W W T +( ε∗f )Tε∗f +2 − c c − σσ TW W T +2 − c c − σ σ T W ε∗f +2 T W ε∗f = T W W T + c T ( c )T W W T cc + σT ( σ)T W W T σ σ+ T W W T +( ε∗f )T ε∗f +2 T W W T +2 c T ( c )T W W T σσ−2 c T ( c )T W (W ∗1)T −2σT ( σ)T W (W ∗1)T +2 T W ∗1 ε∗f −2c T ( c )T W ε∗f −2 σT ( σ)T W ε∗f .(37)996IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY,VOL.23,NO.3,MAY 2015Using the following inequalities :2T W W T ≤ T W W T + T W W T (38)2 c T ( c )T W W T σ σ≤ c T ( c )T W W T cc + σT (σ)T W W T σ σ(39)−2 c T ( c )T W (W ∗1)T ≤ c T ( c )T W W T cc +T W ∗1(W ∗1)T (40)−2 σT (σ)T W (W ∗1)T ≤ σT ( σ)T W W T σ σ+ T W ∗1(W ∗1)T (41)2 T W ∗1 ε∗f ≤( ε∗f )Tε∗f + T W ∗1(W ∗1)T (42)−2 c T ( c )T Wε∗f ≤ c T ( c )T W W T c c +( ε∗f )Tε∗f (43)−2 σT ( σ)T W ε∗f ≤ σT ( σ)T W W T σ σ+( ε∗f )Tε∗f .(44)We rewrite (37)as follows:εT f εf ≤4c T ( c )T W W T c c +4 σT ( σ)T W W T σ σ+2T W W T +2 T W W T +3 T W ∗1(W ∗1)T +4( ε∗f)Tε∗f.(45)Note thatλmax ( c )T W W T c≤w 2λmax diag φc 1φT c 1,...,φφc N φTc N ≤2d 0w 2σ2(46)λmax ( σ)T W W T σ≤w 2λmax diag φσ1φT σ1,...,φφσN φTσN ≤2d 20w 2σ2.(47)Together with (45),it is not difﬁcult to see that (35)holds.This concludes the proof. Remark 3:In comparison with previous approximation analysis of [47]and [53]–[57],whereby reconstruction errors are either directly assumed to be bounded or implicitly shown with conservative bounds,Theorem 1explicitly presents the upper bound (35)of SCFNN-based approximation with respect to parameter estimate errors,and thereby facilitating stability analysis of the overall SARFNC system.C.Adaptive LawsTo avoid parameter drift and guarantee parameter bound-edness that ωj ≤ωj ,j =1,2,...,n ,c i ≤c l i ≤c i and 0<σi ≤σl i ≤σi ,i =1,2,...,m ,l =1,2,...,N ,the adaptive laws using the projection modiﬁcation for parametersωj ,c l i ,and σl i are designed as follows:˙ ωj =⎧⎪⎨⎪⎩ηw s j ,if ωj <ωj or ωj =ωj and s j ωT j ≤0ηw s j −ηw s j ωT j ωj / ωj 2,otherwise (48)˙ c l i =⎧⎪⎪⎪⎨⎪⎪⎪⎩ηc φc ,l i w T l s ,if c i < c l i <c i or c l i =c i and φc ,l i w T l s ≥0 or c l i =c i and φc ,l i w T l s ≤0 0,otherwise(49)˙ σl i=⎧⎪⎪⎪⎨⎪⎪⎪⎩ησφσ,l i w T l s ,if σi < σl i <σior σl i =σi and φσ,l i w T l s ≥0or σli =σi and φσ,l iw T l s ≤0 0,otherwise(50)where ωj =[ w 1j ,..., wN j ]T and w l =[ w l 1,..., w l n ]T .Remark 4:Due to the dynamic partitioning of the SCFNN,the fuzzy sets or hidden neurons with ﬁxed parameters can hardly guarantee optimal accommodation of online obser-vations,and thereby leading to poor identiﬁcation.In this context,it is highly desired that all the parameters of the SCFNN approximator are updated simultaneously for accurate approximation.Remark 5:Unlike traditional adaptive laws modiﬁed by the bounded norm,the improved projection-based adaptive laws in (48)–(50)are designed to ensure that the centers are updated within the universe of discourse and the widths are positively bounded in each dimension,respectively.In addition to center parameter drift,the singularity in membership functions can be avoided effectively.Remark 6:Although system states z =[ηT ,˙ηT ]T of the closed-loop SARFNC system are eventually bounded on U z ,it does not imply that parameter estimates ωj , c l i ,and σl i are ﬁnitely bounded since the width σl i and the center c l i might approach to zero and inﬁnity,respectively,if the aforemen-tioned projection modiﬁcations in (48)–(50)are removed.D.Stability AnalysisIt is essential that when the SARFNC scheme is applied to track the surface vehicle,the closed-loop system is stable.The key result ensuring closed-loop stability is stated here.Theorem 2:Consider the surface vehicle dynamics (5)with the proposed SARFNC control scheme using (23)–(25),and the adaptive laws for parameter updates using (48)–(50),where online approximation f F is realized by the SCFNN scheme (26).Then,the tracking error e (t )and its derivative ˙e (t )are GUUB and can be made arbitrarily small.Moreover,allparameters W , c ,and σand actual tracking states ηand ˙ηare bounded.Proof:Substituting (23)and (24)into (5)yields˙s = W T + W T cc + W T σ σ+εf +G τrsc .(51)Consider the following Lyapunov function :V 2=12s T s +tr ( W T W )ηw + c T c ηc +σT σησ.(52)Differentiating V 2with respect to time t and using (51),wehave˙V 2=s T W T + W T c c + W T σ σ+εf +G τrsc −η−1w tr ( W T ˙ W )−η−1c c T ˙ c −η−1σ σT ˙ σ=⎛⎝n j =1s j ωT j ⎞⎠ −η−1w nj =1ωT j ˙ ωj + c T ( c )T Ws −η−1c c T ˙ c + σT ( σ)T Ws −η−1σ σT ˙ σ+s T (εεf +G τrsc )WANG AND ER:SARFNC OF SURFACE VEHICLES 997=n j =1ωT j s j −η−1w ˙ ωj + c T ( c )TWs −η−1c˙ c + σT( σ)T Ws −η−1σ˙ σ +s T (εεf +G τrsc ).Furthermore,we have ˙V2=nj =1ωT js j −η−1w ˙ ωjterm 1+m ,N i ,l =1,1c liφc ,l i w T l s −η−1c˙ c literm 2+m ,N i ,l =1,1 σl i φσ,l i w T l s −η−1σ˙ σliterm 3+s T εf −δ2+12δ2s .(53)1)Term 1:Consider the case ωj 1 <ωj 1or ( ωj 1 =ωj 1and s j 1 ωT j 1≤0),where J 1={j 1}⊆J ={1,2,...,n }.By (48),we havej ∈J 1ωT js j −η−1w ˙ ωj =0.(54)Otherwise,i.e.,if ωj 2 ≥ωj 2≥ ω∗j 2 and s j 2 ωT j 2 >0,where J 2={j 2}⊆J .By (48),we have j ∈J 2ωT js j −η−1w ˙ ωj =j ∈J 2ωT j s j ωT j ωj / ωj =j ∈J 2s j ωT jω∗j− ωj T ωj / ωj =−12j ∈J 2s j ωT j ωj 2− ω∗j 2+ ωj −ω∗j2 / ωj ≤0.(55)Combining (54)with (55),we obtainterm 1= j ∈J 1ωT j s j −η−1w ˙ ωj + j ∈J 2ωT j s j −η−1w ˙ ωj≤0.(56)2)Term 2:From (49),if there exist (i 1,l 1)∈I c1⊆{1,2,...,m }×{1,2,...,N }such that 0<c i 1< c l 1i 1<c i 1or ( c l 1i 1=c i 1and φc ,l 1i 1w T l 1s ≥0)or ( c l 1i 1=c i 1and φc ,l 1i 1 w Tl 1s ≤0),we have(i ,l )∈I c 1c l i φc ,l i w T l s −η−1c˙ c li =0.(57)Otherwise,if there exist (i 2,l 2)∈I c2⊆{1,2,...,m }×{1,2,...,N }such that ( c l 2i 2≤c i 2≤c l 2∗i 2and φc ,l 2i 2 w T l 2s <0)or (c l 2∗i 2≥ c l 2i 2≥c i 2and φc ,l 2i 2 w T l 2s >0),we have(i ,l )∈I c 2c l i φc ,l i w T l s −η−1c ˙ c l i =(i ,l )∈I c 2c l i φc ,l i w T l s ≤0.(58)Combining (57)with (58),we haveterm 2=(i ,l )∈I c 1c l i φc ,l i w T l s −η−1c ˙ c li +(i ,l )∈I c 2c l i φc ,l i w T l s −η−1c˙ c li ≤0.(59)3)Term 3:From (50),if there exist (i 1,l 1)∈I σ1⊆{1,2,...,m }×{1,2,...,N }such that 0<σi 1< σl 1i 1<σi 1or( σl 1i 1=σi 1and φσ,l 1i 1 w T l 1s ≥0)or ( σl 1i 1=σi 1and φσ,l 1i 1w T l 1s ≤0),we have(i ,l )∈I σ1σl i φσ,l i w T l s −η−1σ˙ σli =0.(60)Otherwise,if there exist (i 2,l 2)∈I σ2⊆{1,2,...,m }×{1,2,...,N }such that ( σl 2i 2≤σi 2≤σl 2∗i 2and φσ,l 2i 2w Tl 2s <0)or (σl 2∗i 2≥ σl 2i 2≥σi 2and φσ,l 2i 2w Tl 2s >0),we have(i ,l )∈I σ2σli φσ,l iw T l s −η−1σ˙ σli =(i ,l )∈I σ2σl i φσ,l i w T l s ≤0.(61)Combining (60)with (61),we haveterm 3=(i ,l )∈I σ1σl i φσ,l i w T l s −η−1σ˙ σli +(i ,l )∈I σ2σl i φσ,l i w T l s −η−1σ˙ σli≤0.(62)Choose the Lyapunov function of the sliding surface asfollows:V 1=12s T s .(63)Applying (56),(59),(62),and (63)to (53),we have ˙V2≤˙V 1=s T ˙s =s T εf −δ2+12δ2 s =s Tεf −δ2+12δ2s T s=−12s T s −12 s δ−δ −1εf T s δ−δ −1εf +12δ2εT f −1εf ≤−12s T s +12δ2εT f −1εf .(64)。

英语语法教学方法

一、简介几种主要外语教学法及其语法教学观1、语法翻译法(Grammar-Translation Method/The Classical Method)语法翻译法是十八世纪创建的，直至十九世纪80年代之前的外语教学，它独领风骚。

其教学过程是先分析语法，然后把外语译成本族语，主张两种语言机械对比。

2、直接法(Direct Method)直接法是十九世纪下半叶始于西欧的外语教学改革运动的产物，是古典语法翻译法的对立面。

要求外语与思想直接联系，绝对不使用本族语，即完全不借助于翻译，语法降到完全不重要的地位。

3、听说法（The Audiolingual Method/ Oral Approach）听说法产生于第二世界大战爆发后的美国。

强调模仿、强记固定短语并大量重复，极其重视语音的正确，尤其强调语调训练，“There is little or no grammatical explanation: Grammar is taught by inductive analogy(归纳类推) rather than deductive（演绎的） explanation.”广泛利用对比法、在对比分析母语与外语的基础上学习外语的难点，并在教学中有针对性地加以解决。

但听说法过分重视机械性训练，忽视语言规则的指导作用，过分重视语言的结构形式，忽视语言内容和意义，存在流于“造作”的语言倾向。

4、视听法（Audio-Visual Method），又叫情景（Situational Method）视听法于20世纪五十年代首创于法国，它是以幻灯的视觉感受和录音的听觉感受相结合的一种教学法，是在直接法和听说法的基础上发展起来的。

主张听说训练必须同一定情景结合，在某一情景基础上进行。

视听法的缺点是过于重视语言形式，忽视交际能力的培养，过分强调整体结构，忽视语言分析、讲解和训练。

5、全身反应法（Total Physical Response）全身反应法是美国加州圣约瑟大学心理学教授詹姆士.阿歇尔(James Asher)于20世纪60年代提出的。

Omission(省略法)

Omission（省略法）Omission of Words Peculiar to English（省略英语特有的词）Omission of the Expletives It and There（省略语助词it和there）Examples & Drills Guided Translation(1) Omit impersonal it, which denotes natural phenomena, time, distance, or state of things in general:1. How is it with the sick man?2. It is all over with him.3. She feared it would go hard with Antonio.(2) Omit anticipatory it, which stands for an infinitive, a gerund, or a clause:4. Lu Xun has it that “Read your own work at least twice after you have got through yourwriting, trying to cut off all unnecessary words, sentences, and even paragraphs without any regret.”5. It is with words as with sunbeams: the more they are condensed, the deeper they burn.(3) Omit demonstrative it:6. I don’t think it is he.(4) Omit idiomatic it:7. Y ou’ll be in for it if father finds out you’ve not been to school for three days.要是爸爸发现你三天没去上学，你就要倒霉了。

Linguistics 4 C

Systemic Functional Grammar4.4T h e F u n c t i o n a l A p p r o a c h •Though the generative approach has been very influential in the past 40 odd years, we cannot ignore another important approach to the study of language: the functional approach.•In this section, however, we only have space to discuss two of them in some depth: the Prague school and systemic-functional grammar Functional sentence perspective•One of the main ideas of the Prague Linguistic Circle is that a sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side. Vilem Mathesius, file-long chairman of the Circle, held that apart from the analysis of a sentence in terms of subject and predicate from the formal point of view, there may also be a functional analysis in terms of THEME and RHEME.•In his terminology, the first term refers to ―that which is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds‖, and the second ―what the speaker states out, or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance‖ (Danes 1974).•主位：已知的信息或至少在给定语境中是明确的，说话者从它开始谈话。

Introduction to Python

>>> lst1 = [1, 2, 3, 4] >>> lst2 = map(str, lst1) >>> print lst2 ['1', '2', '3', '4']
-
The function (str) takes one argument The result (lst2) is the same length as the original (lst1)
Built-in function: reduce
y1 y2 y3 y4
func t1 func t2 func t3
Example: Reduce by Adding
1 10 20 30
1+10 11 11+20 31 31+30 61
Built-in function: reduce
• Syntax 1: reduce(func, list)
Built-in function: zip
x1
x2
x3
x4
y1
y2
y3
y4
(x1, y1) (x2, y2) (x3, y3) (x4, y4)
Built-in function: zip
• Syntax: zip(list1, …, listn)
Example: Combine two lists
All lists must be of same length The function must take n parameters
Built-in function: map
• Example: adding numbers

英语教学法交际法

交际法介绍、描述与评析一.交际法的背景和理论依据交际法( the Communicative Approach),又称功能法(Functional Approach)或意念法(Notional Approach), 是以语言的“功能——意念”项目为纲,培养交际能力的外语教学法。

交际法是20世纪70年代根据语言学家海姆斯(Hymes)和韩礼德(Halliday)的理论形成的，是全世界影响较大的外语教学法流派。

交际学派认为：语言教学的目的是培养学生使用目的语进行交际的能力，语言教学的内容不仅要包括语言结构，还要包括表达各种意念和功能的常用语句。

交际法重视培养学生的语言能力，采用真实、地道的语言材料，主张句型加情景来学习语言，鼓励学生多多接触和使用外语。

交际法的代表人物有荷兰的范埃克(J.A.Van. Ek)，英国的语言学家威尔金斯( D. A. Wiklin) ，威多森( H. G. Widdowson)等。

交际法从诞生起就明确地把目标定位于使学生获得交际能力, 它强调语言的交际功能和语言的形式同等重要。

交际法针对传统教学法的弊端, 提出了重视语言交际功能的观点, 坚持以语言功能项目为纲来培养学生的交际能力, 打破传统语言教学死气沉沉的课堂教学局面。

因此, 交际教学法一经产生就风靡全球, 成为世界上影响最大的语言教学流派之一．长期以来，语言学界围绕语言的“形式一功能”争论不休，对它们的研究几乎涵盖了语言学研究的所有内容，而这些争论必然又反映在与之相对应的教学法理论和实践上。

交际法的流行反映出功能主义者在这场论战中取得胜利。

他们认为语言的本质在于它是用于人类交际的一种工具，外语教学应体现这一本质;能用外语进行成功的交际，就说明外语教学是基本成功的。

交际法对于语言本质的描述抓住了外语教学的关键所在，第一次为外语教学指明了方向。

同时，他们设计了各自不同的教学模式，丰富了外语教学理论，促进了教学法的发展。

交际教学法的理论依据主要源于功能主义的语言学理论和心灵主义的心理学理论(Bell.1981:146)。

FunctionalistTranslationTheories,功能派翻译理论(精)

Functionalist Approaches
• • • • Hans Vermeer, 1978 ☆ Reiss and Vermeer, 1984 ☆ Justa Holz-Mänttäri, 1984 ☆ Christiane Nord, 1988 2001: 126)
Function plus Loyalty
Nord:
“My personal version of the functionalist approach thus stands on two pillars: function plus loyalty. It is precisely the combination of the two that matters, even though there may be cases where they seem to contradict each other.”
• Fidelity rule:
Some relationship between ST and translatum must remain, once skopos principle and coherence rule have been satisfied.
Skopos theory
Skopos
Skopos theory
source-text producer source text source-text receiver
translator
initiator
Skopos
target text
receiver
commissioner
user
client
Skopos theory
• Skopos rule:

系统功能语法Functional-Approach

2017/8/22
Metafunctions
1
Ideational function
Interpersonal function Textual function
2
3
Ideational function(概念功能）
The function in which we conceptualize the world for our own benifit and that of others is called ideational function. We use language to talk about our experience of the world, including the world in our minds, to describe events and states and the entities involved in them. 概念功能就是向听话人传递新信息
Interpersonal Function(人际功能）
The Interpersonal Function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This includes the varies ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act. 人际功能包括了表达社会和个人关系的所有语言使用。包括讲话者进入话语情景并做出言语行为的所有方式。
FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
XXX
Outline
• Introduction about functional approach • Representative----Halliday • Key points about Systemic – Functional Grammar