High-pressure Debye-Waller and Grueneisen parameters of Au and Cu

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A computer movie simulating urban growth in the Detroit region

A Computer Movie Simulating Urban Growth in the Detroit Region †Waldo R. ToblerUniversity of MichiganIn one classification of models the simulation to be described would be considered a demographic model whose primary objectives are instructional. The model developed here may be used for forecasting, but was not constructed for this specific purpose, and it is a demographic model since it describes only population growth, with particular emphasis on the geographical distribution of this growth.As a premise, I make the assumption that everything is related to everything else. Superficially considered this would suggest a model of infinite complexity; a corollary inference often made is that social systems are difficult because they contain many variables; numerous people confuse the number of variables with the degree of complexity. Because of closure, however, models with infinite numbers of variables are in fact sometimes more tractable than models with a finite but large number of variables [27]. My point here is that the utmost effort must be exercised to avoid writing a complicated model. It is very difficult to write a simple model but this, after all, is one of the objectives. If one plots a graph with increasing complexity on the abscissa, and increasing effectiveness on the other axis, it is well known that science is only asymptotic to one hundred percent effectiveness. No scientist claims otherwise. But the rate at which this effectiveness is achieved is extremely important, ceterus paribus. In other words, the objective is high success with a simple model. Statistical procedures that order the eigenvalues are popular for just this reason. Because a process appears complicated is also no reason to assume that it is the result of complicated rules, examples are: the game of chess, the motion of the planets before Copernicus; evolution before Darwin and the double helix, geology before Hutton, mechanics before Newton, geography before Christaller, and so on. The plausibility of models also varies, but this is known to be an incomplete guide to the scientific usefulness of a model. The model I describe, for example, recognizes that people are born, migrate, and die. It does not explain why people are born, migrate, and die. Some would insist that I should incorporate more behavioral notions, but then it would be necessary to discuss the psychology of urban growth; to do this properly requires a treatise on the biochemistry of perception, which in turn requires discussion of the physics of ion interchange, and so on. My attitude, rather, is that since I have not explained birth, migration, or death, the model might apply to any phenomenon that has these characteristics, e.g., people, plants, animals, machines (which are built, moved, and destroyed), or ideas. The level of generality seems inversely related to the specificity of the model. A model of urban growth should apply to all 92,200 cities [9, p. 81] (not just to one city), now and in the future, and to other things that grow. These are rather ambitious aims. Conversely, the model attempts to relate population totals only on the basis of prior populations, and neglects employment opportunities, topography, transportation, and other distinctions between site qualities. Consequently the only difference between places in the model is their population density, and other demographic differences are ignored. Similarly, the population model attempts to relate population growth only to population in the immediately proceeding time period. Since, by assumption, everything is related to everything else, such a neglect of history may prove disastrous. To include all history, however, is known to require integral equations of the Volterra type [37] and these complicate the presentation. We may also determine empirically whether a neglect of history has serious consequences, at least in the short run. In summary, the manysimplifications of the model are acknowledged as advantages, particularly for pedagogic purposes.Conceptually, I have been influenced by Borchert’s model of the twin city region [2]. This was later applied to Detroit by Deskins, and I have used his data [8]. As formulated by Borchert and Deskins the model is in graphical form and suggests that the lines of growth coincide with extrapolations, modified by local conditions, of the orthogonal trajectories to the level curves of population density. The difficult step is to estimate the amount of growth along these trajectories, Presumably this is proportional to the population pressure, or the gradient of the population density [23].Following Pollack [26] specific equations may now he postulated, letting dP/dt denote population growth at any location:dP/dt = k, constant regional growth, ordP/dt = kP, proportional growth, ordP/dt = k(1- α)P, logistic growth, ordP/dt = k[(dP/dx)2 + (dP/dy)2]1/2 , growth is proportional to the population gradient, ordP/dt = k(d2P/dx2 + d2P/dy2), growth is proportional to the rate of change of the population gradient, ord2P/dt2 = k(d2P/dx2 + d2P/dy2), the acceleration of growth is proportional to the population curvature, and so on.Each of these equations could now be examined in some detail, or converted to finite difference form for empirical estimation purposes, but I prefer to generalize in a different direction.The simulation of urban growth raises questions of geographical syntax. As an example, recall that many predictive models are of the formC = BAwhere A is an n by 1 vector of known observations, B is an m by n transformation matrix of coefficients or transition probabilities, and C is the m by 1 vector to be predicted. This scheme seems inadequate as a geographical calculus. The geographical situation is better represented, in a simplified special case, asD = NGEwhere G and D are now m by n matrices, isomorphic to maps of the geographical landscape [32], and N and E are coefficient matrices representing North-South and East-West effects. The matrix D could of course be converted into a long column vector (mn by 1) by partitioning along the columns and the placing of these one above the other. But this destroys the isomorphism to the geographical situation. Since “the purpose of computing is insight, not numbers,”[13] I aim for a simple structure. Using geographical state matrices seems more natural than using state vectors. To some extent attempts to simulate urban growth are also related to the problem of comparing geographical maps, a question which occurs frequently in geography [30]. Let me clarify this analogy. Suppose I have a map showing the 1930 distribution of population in the Detroit region,and a map of the 1940 distribution. I would like to measure the degree of similarity of these two maps. Some type of correlation coefficient is needed. Certainly this is necessary to evaluate an urban growth model, which can be considered a means of predicting a map of population distribution. In order to evaluate the coefficient of correlation properly, I should have some notion of the probability of two randomly selected maps being similar. This requires some information concerning the distribution of actual population maps over the set of all possible population maps. Suppose that the population data are assembled by one-degree quadrilaterals of latitude and longitude, of which there are approximately 360 by 180 on a sphere. If only land areas are considered, say 90 by 180 ≈ 1.6 x 104 cells. If a maximum population density of 5000 persons per square-mile is allowed, each quadrilateral can contain from zero to roughly 17.5 x 106 people. The number of possible population maps is then the number of states raised to the number of cells, that is, (17.5 x 106)1.6 x 10 ^ 4 ≈ 1051. Not all of these are equally likely, and a prediction much better than random can be made by asserting that there will be no change from the present. This suggests that, from an information-theoretic point of view, a prediction does not contain a great deal of information! This unhappy conclusion is avoided by recognizing that geographical predictions must be discounted for the effect of persistence.The usual measure of association is the Pearsonian correlation coefficient. This not only serves as a measure of similarity, but also provides, via the linear regression equation, a means of prediction. Most discussions of methods of comparing maps overlook this important feature. This clearly suggests predicting the 1940 population of a cell as a linear function of the 1930 population of that cell, that is, P1940ij = A + B P1930ij . Now this, as a model, has advantages and disadvantages. For example, discrepancies between the model and the actual situation might be used as a measure of the perceived suitability of a site for occupation. More cogently, a major disadvantage is that it ignores the premise “everything is related to everything else.” The geographical interpretation of this premise should be that population growth at place A depends not only on the previous population at place A but also on the population of all other places. More concretely, population growth in Ann Arbor from 1930 to 1940 depends not only on the 1930 population of Ann Arbor, but also on the 1930 population of Vancouver, Singapore, Cape Town, Berlin, and so on. Stated as a giant multiple regression, the 1940 population of Ann Arbor depends on the 1930 population of everywhere else; that is, it is a function of about 1.6 x 104 variables, if population data are given by one-degree quadrilaterals. Note that the meteorologist has a similar problem when attempting to predict the weather, and solves it in the following ingenious manner [10, 11, 14, 15, 25 pp. 233-56; 96].The world wide (or hemispheric) distribution of the pertinent weather elements are summarized by an approximating equation. The coefficients of this equation are then used as surrogate variables, much reduced in number, representing the actual distribution. Geographers have also recently used such trend equations [6], but not in this interesting manner. The global distribution of population could now be approximated by an equation with a modest number of coefficients. Alternately, the world population potential [29]could serve as a single surrogate for the 1.6 x l04 variables. Instead of using this approach I invoke the first law of geography: everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things. The specific model used is thus very parochial, and ignores most of the world.There is merit in considering urban growth from yet another point of view. Think of it as a linear input-output system; that is, the 1930 population distribution serves as input to a black box, the output of which is the 1940 population distribution.Two points of view can be taken: (a) given the inputs and outputs, calculate the characteristics of the black box, i.e., infer theprocess; or (b) design the system to achieve a specific output. The latter is what an engineer does when he builds a radio, or what some urban planners hope to do. The present intent is to deduce some characteristics of the process.A convenient method of studying linear, origin invariant black boxes is by means of the response to a unit impulse:In the present instance the input and output are both two-dimensional distributions, and it is assumed that the system consists of a linear, positionallv invariant, local operator. Such processes are less familiar to engineers hut occur in the study of optical systems [20, 17 pp. 278-281, 28].The equivalent to the unit impulse is the unit inhabitant. Let us see what happens to him in a decade:(a) he has 0.3 children,(b) 0.2 of him dies,(c) 0.05 of him moves to California,(d) 0.4 of him moves to the suburbs,(c) 0.6 of him does nothingThese data are fictitious, hut observe that they include, birth, death, and migration. The net result is 1.15 inhabitants, geographically distributed some what more widely than originally. This then is the final model presented.The population of a cell, 1.5 miles on a side, is estimated as a linear function of the same and neighboring cells in the preceding time period, i.e., where the unit inhabitant came from, rather than where he went. This result can be visualized in several equivalent fashions. Consider the following Gedanken experiment. Randomly sample the population of the region under study and plot a map showing the locations of individuals in 1930 connected by a directed line to their locations in 1940. Now translate each line to a common origin, thus creating a migration rose. The end points of the migration vectors constitute a probability density surface. A comparable result could be achieved by a random sample of select cells and a study of the behavior of all of the inhabitants of these cells, followed by an averaging over all of the sampled cells. The net result should not differ appreciably from the present more indirect inferential procedure of comparing maps. Mathematically the distribution in, say, 1930 can he considered to be described by P(x,y}, that in 1940 by P’(x,y), and the spread of the unit inhabitant by W(u,v). The assumption is that each individual in P(x,y) undergoes an identical spreading W(u,v)P(x+u,y+v) and the final result is the sum of the individual effects, i.e., ΙΙW(u,v)P(x+u,y+v) du dv. Now if F(W) denotes the Fourier transform of W(u,v), F(W) = ΙΙW(u,v) exp(2πi(au + bv)) du dv then, by the two dimensional convolution theorem F(P’) =F(W)F(P). Thus, by converting to the frequency domain there exists a convenient procedure for calculating the spread function. Specific computational details, and application to other geographical situations are given in anearlier paper [33]. The similarity to Hägerstrand’s Mean Information Fields [12], and to an approximately 1000-region input-output study [18] should be apparent. A stochastic model can be written along similar lines [1].For the initial computer movie [19] the equations used are P1930+∆t ij = ΣΣ W pq P1930i+p,j+q , with p and q ranging from –2 to +2, and with W pq = A pq + B pq∆t where ∆t is measured in years from 1930. A pq and B pq were obtained from the coefficients given in the earlier paper [33] by weighting the 1950/60 coefficients twice as much as the 1930/40 and 1940/50 values. An additional movie, giving equal weight to all of the time periods by using W pq = A pq + B pq ∆t + C pq(∆t)2 may be more realistic. Both of these models describe time variant systems [3]. The movies simulate from 1910 to 2000 in time steps of ∆t = 0.5 and ∆t = 0.05 years. A time step of one frame per month would appear to be the most appropriate speed, assuming viewing at 16 frames per second. An interesting question is whether the same coefficients could he used for some other urban region of the United States since the exogenous conditions are obviously relatively constant.The expectation of course is that the movie representations of the simulated population distribution in the Detroit region will provide insights, mostly of an intuitive rather than a formal nature, into the dynamics of urban growth. Comparison of the simulated values for 1930, 1940,1950, and 1960 with the actual values for these dates shows that the model differs from a simple interpolation, which could in fact be made to provide an exact fit to the data and its time derivatives. Viewing the movies suggests that the model introduces an excessive amount of smoothing, and that the decline in population of the CBD does not seem to have been adequately captured by the equations. These inadequacies may he due to several factors. For example, theneighborhood over which the spread function was estimated may have been too small, or the8200 square-mile region over which it is averaged too large. Both of these deficiencies could beexplored by additional computations using the available data. Since there is some evidence thatdiffusion waves occur in city growth [24, 22, 35 pp. 326-340], an equation somewhat moregeneral than those postulated earlier may be proposed to characterize geographical change, namely,n m3 A nΜn P/Μt n = 3 k m(Μm P/Μx m + Μm P/Μy m)o owhere k is a variable function of x, y, and t. This is clearly an attempt to adapt the linear differential equation commonly encountered in systems analysis to take into account the geographical aspects of the problem. It can also be viewed as a statistical procedure for predicting a univariate geographical series, the usual exponential time discounting being extended to include exponential-like space discounting, each observation being related to aspace-time cone of previous and nearby observations. There is no assurance, of course, thaturban growth can be described by positionally invariant linear equations; eventual extension to interactive multivariate geographical forecasting is also required. From a pedagogic point ofview the model presented here has the distinct advantage that its shortcomings are obvious. Themodel given here, for example, uses translationally invariant two-dimensional Fourier transforms, but a rotationally invariant Mellin-Fourier transform would seem more appropriatefor cities. This would allow the spreading of the unit inhabitant to depend on his distance fromthe CBD, and this seems a more realistic approximation to the true, situation.LITERATURE CITED1. Bailey, N. “Stochastic Birth, Death, and Migration Processes for Spatially DistributedPopulations,” Biometrika, 55 (1968), pp. 189—98.2. Borchert, J. “The Twin Cities Urbanized Area: Past, Present, Future,” The Geographical Review, 51 (1961), pp. 47-70.3. Brown, B. M. The Mathematical Theory of Linear Systems. London: Chapman and Hall(Science Paperback), 1965.4. Brown, B. C. Smoothing, Forecasting and Prediction, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1962.5. Bunge, M. “The Weight of Simplicity in the Construction and Assaying of ScientificTheories,” Philosophy of Science, 28 (1961), pp. 120-19.6. Chorley, H. and P. Haggett, “Trend Surface Mapping in Geographical Research,”Transactions and Papers, Institute of British Geographers, 37 (1965), pp. 47-67.7. Connelly, D. S. “The Coding and Storage of Terrain Height Data: an Introduction toNumerical Cartography,” Unpublished thesis, Cornell University, September, 1968.8. Deskins, D. R., Jr., “Settlement Patterns for the Detroit Metropolitan Area: 1930-1970,”Unpublished paper, Department of Geography, University of Michigan, 1963.9. Doxiadis, C. A. Ekistics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968.10. Epstein, E. S. “Stochastic Dynamic Prediction,” Tellus, forthcoming.11. Friedman, D. “Specification of Temperature and Precipitation in Terms of CirculationPatterns,” journal of Meteorology, 12 (1965), pp. 428—35.12. Hägerstrand, T., Innovation Diffusion as a Spatial Process. Translated by A. Pred.Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1967.13. Hamming, R. Numerical Methods for Scientists and Engineers. New York: McGraw-Hill,1962.14. Hare, F. “The Quantitative Representation of the North Polar Pressure Fields,” PolarAtmosphere Symposium. New York: Pergamon Press, 1958.15. Haurwitz B. and R. Craig, “Atmospheric Flow Patterns and Their Representation bySpherical Surface Harmonics,” Geophysical Research Paper No. 1-1, Cambridge Research Center, 1952.1.6.Highway Research Board, Urban Development Models, HRB-Special Report 97,Washington, D.C., NRC, 1968.17. Hsu, H. P. Outline of Fourier Analysis. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967.18. Isard, W. Methods of Regional Analysis, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1960.19. Knowlton, K. “Computer Produced Movies,” Science, 150 (1965), pp. 116-20.20. Kovasznay, L. and H. Joseph, “Image Processing,” Proceedings, Institute of Radio Engineers(May, 1955), pp. 560-570.21. Lee, D. Models and Techniques for Urban Planning, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory ReportVY-2474-G-1, September, 1968.22. Morrill, R., “Waves of Spatial Diffusion.” Journal of Regional Science, (1969), pp.1-18.23. Muehrcke, P. “Population Slope Maps,” Unpublished MA. thesis, Department of Geography, University of Michigan, 1966.24. Newling, .B. “The Spatial Variation of Urban Population Densities,” Geographical Review, 59 (1969), pp. 242-232;25. Petterssen, S. Weather Analysis and Forecasting. 2nd ed. Vol. 2, New York; McGraw-Hill, 1956.26. Pollack, H. “On the Interpretation of State Vectors and Local Transformation Operators,” Colloquium on Simulation, University of Kansas Computer Contribution 22, Lawrence, 1968, pp. 43-6.27. Robinson, E. An Introduction to Infinitely Many Variates. New York, Hafner, 1959.28. Rosenfeld, A. Picture Processing by Computer. New York; Academic Press, 1969.29. Stewart, J. Q. and W. Warntz, “Physics of Population Distribution,” Journal of Regional Science, 1 (1958), pp. 99-123.30. Tobler, W., “Computation of the Correspondence of Geographical Patterns,” Papers, Regional Science Association,15 (1965), pp. 131-39.31. Tobler, W. “Spectral Analysis of Spatial Series,” Proceedings, Fourth Annual Conference on Urban Planning Information Systems and Programs, University of California, Berkeley, 1966. pp. 179-86.32. Tobler, W. “Of Maps and Matrices.” Journal of Regional Science, 7 (Supplement, 1967); pp. 276-80.33. Tobler, W., “Geographical Filters and Their Inverses,” Geographical Analysis, 1 (1969), pp. 234-53.34. Volterra, V. Theory of Functionals and of Integral and Integro-Differential Equations. Dover: New York, 1959.35. Watt, K. Ecology and Resource Management. New York; McGraw-Hill, 1968.36. White, R. M. and W. C. Palson, Jr. “On the Forecasting Possibilities of Empirical Influence Functions,” Journal of Meteorology, 12 (1955), pp. 478—85.†W. Tobler, 1970, “A Computer Movie Simulating Urban Growth in the Detroit Region”, Economic Geography, 46, 2 (1970), pp. 234-240. (The ‘first law of geography’ is at the bottom of page 236 in the original).。

页岩储层体积压裂综述

参考文献[1]张秀青.储油库油气挥发过程的分析及计算[J].石油库与加油站，2011（6）：31-33[2]梁颖.固定顶油罐油气损耗规律研究[D]. 西安：西安石油大学硕士学位论文，2013从20世纪30年代开始，美国对于页岩气的开发逐渐兴起，经过80多年的探索，人类对页岩气的认识已经越来越深入，尤其是最近几年美国页岩气的大量开采，使美国由原油进口国变为原油出口国[1]。

页岩储层体积压裂技术也在近几年得到了广泛应用。

但总体来说，对于页岩储层体积压裂核心技术的研究尚且不够完善，对于增产机理的认识还有待完善。

因此，笔者从多个方面对目前页岩储层体积压裂的研究现状进行了调研和总结。

1　储层油气的赋存和渗流机理相对于常规油气储层来说，页岩储层孔隙结构复杂，孔隙大小从几纳米到几微米，孔隙结构的非均质性影响着储层中油气的储集、吸附能力以及运移情况。

对于页岩储层孔隙度的测定，常规的方法主要有氦孔法，D. L. Luffel 等测定建立的泥页岩孔隙度的GRI法，但使用气测孔隙度的方法，可能会受到页岩渗透性差的影响，造成测试结果偏低。

2012年，Glorioso和 Rattia较系统地总结了页岩气藏物性参数测试成果。

在化学性质方面，他们讨论了干酪根、总有机碳、热成熟度、吸附气和含气量的测试和计算方法；在页岩物性方面，讨论了实验室内对孔隙度、颗粒密度、水饱和度、矿物成分和渗透率等方面的测试方法。

他们指出对这些页岩物性的测试一般采用GRI（Gas Research Institute）方法[2]。

2　物理实验通常用于低渗透常规油气开发的实验仪器及测试技术也可用于页岩储层研究中，如研究孔隙结构的高压压汞法（High pressure mercury capillary pressure，MCIP）、核磁共振法（Nuclear Magnetic Resonance，NMR）、扫描电子显微镜图像观测法（Scanning Electron Microscopy，SEM）等；研究页岩矿物成分的有傅里叶变换红外光谱法（Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy，FTIR），薄片分析法（Thin Section Analysis，TS），X-射线衍射法（X-ray Diffraction）等。

Harder To Breathe(live版)文本歌词

harder to breathe - 张宇How dare you saythat my behavior is unacceptableSo condescending unnecessarily criticalI have the tendency of getting very physicalSo watch your stepcause if I do you ll need a miracleYou drain me dryand make me wonder why I m even hereThis Double Vision I was seeing is finally clearYou want to staybut you know very well I want you goneNot fit to for you tread the ground I m walking onWhen it gets cold outsideand you got nobody to loveYou ll understand what I meanwhen I say There s no way we re gonna give upAnd like a little girl cries in the face of a monsterthat lives in her dreamsIs there anyone out there cause it s getting harderand harder to breatheIs there anyone out there cause it s getting harderand harder to breatheWhat you are doing is screwing things up inside my head You should know better you never listened to a word I saidClutching your pillow and writhing in a naked sweat Hoping somebody someday will do you like I didWhen it gets cold outside and you got nobody to love You ll understand what I meanwhen I say There s no way we re gonna give upAnd like a little girl cries in the face of a monsterthat lives in her dreamsIs there anyone out there cause it s getting harder and harder to breatheIs there anyone out there cause it s getting harder and harder to breatheDoes it kill Does it burn Is it painful to learnThat it s me that has all the controlDoes it thrill Does it stingWhen you feel what I bringAnd you wish that you had me to holdWhen it gets cold outsideand you got nobody to loveYou ll understand what I meanwhen I say There s no waywe re gonna give upAnd like a little girl cries in the face of a monsterthat lives in her dreamsIs there anyone out there cause it s getting harder and harder to breatheIs there anyone out there cause it s getting harder and harder to breatheIs there anyone out there cause it s getting harder and harder to breathe。

Annu.Rev.Mater.Res.31_1_2001

Annu.Rev.Mater.Res.2001.31:1–23Copyright c2001by Annual Reviews.All rights reserved S YNTHESIS AND D ESIGN OF S UPERHARDM ATERIALSJ Haines,JM L´e ger,and G BocquillonLaboratoire de Physico-Chimie des Mat´e riaux,Centre National de la Recherche Scientiﬁque,1place Aristide Briand,92190Meudon,France;e-mail:haines@cnrs-bellevue.fr;leger@cnrs-bellevue.frKey Words diamond,cubic boron nitride,carbon nitride,high pressure,stishovite s Abstract The synthesis of the two currently used superhard materials,diamond and cubic boron nitride,is brieﬂy described with indications of the factors inﬂuencing the quality of the crystals obtained.The physics of hardness is discussed and the importance of covalent bonding and ﬁxed atomic positions in the crystal structure,which determine high hardness values,is outlined.The materials investigated to date are described and new potentially superhard materials are presented.No material that is thermodynamically stable under ambient conditions and composed of light (small)atoms will have a hardness greater than that of diamond.Materials with hardness values similar to that of cubic boron nitride (cBN)can be obtained.However,increasing the capabilities of the high-pressure devices could lead to the production of better quality cBN compacts without binders.INTRODUCTIONDiamond has always fascinated humans.It is the hardest substance known,based on its ability to scratch any other material.Its optical properties,with the highest refraction index known,have made it the most prized stone in jewelry.Furthermore,diamond exhibits high thermal conductivity,which is nearly ﬁve times that of the best metallic thermal conductors (copper or silver)at room temperature and,at the same time,is an excellent electrical insulator,even at high temperature.In industry,the hardness of diamond makes it an irreplaceable material for grinding tools,and diamond is used on a large scale for drilling rocks for oil wells,cutting concrete,polishing stones,machining,and honing.The diamonds used for industry are now mostly man-made because their cutting edges are much sharper than those of natural diamonds,which have been eroded by geological time.The synthesis of diamond has been a goal of science from Moissant at the end of the nineteenth century to the successful synthesis under high pressures in 1955(1).However,diamond has a major drawback in that it reacts with iron and cannot be used for machining steel.This has prompted the synthesis of a second superhard0084-6600/01/0801-0001$14.001A n n u . R e v . M a t e r . R e s . 2001.31:1-23. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r gb y C h i n e s e Ac ade m y of S c i e n c e s - L i b r a r y o n 05/16/09. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .2HAINESL ´EGERBOCQUILLONmaterial,cubic boron nitride (cBN),whose structure is derived from that of dia-mond with half the carbon atoms being replaced by boron and the other half by nitrogen atoms.The resulting compound is half as hard as diamond,but it does not react with iron and can be used for machining steel.Cubic boron nitride does not exist in nature and is prepared under high-pressure high-temperature conditions,as is synthetic diamond.However,its synthesis is more difﬁcult,and it has not been possible to prepare large crystals.Industry is thus looking for new superhard ma-terials that will need to be much harder than present ceramics (Si 3N 4,Al 2O 3,TiC).Hardness is a quality less well deﬁned than many other physical properties.Hardness was ﬁrst deﬁned as the ability of one material to scratch another;this corresponds to the Mohs scale.This scale is highly nonlinear (talc =1,diamond =10);however,this deﬁnition of hardness is not reliable because materials of similar hardness can scratch each other and the resulting value depends on the speciﬁc details of the contact between the two materials.It is well known (2)that at room temperature copper can scratch magnesium oxide and at high temperatures cBN can scratch diamond (principle of soft indenter).Another,more accurate,way of deﬁning and measuring hardness is by the indentation of the material by a hard indenter.According to the nature and shape of the indenter,different scales are used:Brinell,Rockwell,Vickers,and Knoop.The last two are the most frequently used.The indenter is made of a pyramidal-shaped diamond with a square base (Vickers),or elongated lozenge (Knoop).The hardness is deduced from the size of the indentation produced using a deﬁned load;the unit is the same as that for pressure,the gigapascal (GPa).Superhard materials are deﬁned as having a hardness of above 40GPa.The hardness of diamond is 90GPa;the second hardest material is cBN,with a hardness of 50GPa.The design of new materials with a hardness comparable to diamond is a great challenge to scientists.We ﬁrst describe the current status of the two known super-hard materials,diamond and cBN.We then describe the search for new bulk super-hard materials,discuss the possibility of making materials harder than diamond,and comment on the new potentially superhard materials and their preparation.DIAMOND AND CUBIC BORON NITRIDE DiamondThe synthesis of diamond is performed under high pressure (5.5–6GPa)and high temperature (1500–1900K).Carbon,usually in the form of graphite,and a transi-tion metal,e.g.iron,cobalt,nickel,or alloys of these metals [called solvent-catalyst (SC)],are treated under high-pressure high-temperature conditions;upon heating,graphite dissolves in the metal and if the pressure and temperature conditions are in the thermodynamic stability ﬁeld of diamond,carbon can crystallize as dia-mond because the solubility of diamond in the molten metal is less than that of graphite.Some details about the synthesis and qualities of diamond obtained by this spontaneous nucleation method are given below,but we do not describe the growthA n n u . R e v . M a t e r . R e s . 2001.31:1-23. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r gb y C h i n e s e Ac ade m y of S c i e n c e s - L i b r a r y o n 05/16/09. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .SUPERHARD MATERIALS 3of single-crystal diamond under high pressure,which is necessary in order to ob-tain large single crystals with dimensions greater than 1mm.Crystals of this size are expensive and represent only a very minor proportion of the diamonds used for machining;they are principally used for their thermal properties.It is well known that making diamonds is relatively straightforward,but control-ling the quality of the diamonds produced is much more difﬁcult.Improvements in the method of synthesis since 1955have greatly extended the size range and the mechanical properties and purity of the synthetic diamond crystals.Depending on the exact pressure (P )and temperature (T )of synthesis,the form and the nature of the carbon,the metal solvent used,the time (t )of synthesis,and the pathways in P-T-t space,diamond crystals (3,4)varying greatly in shape (5),size,and fri-ability are produced.These three characteristics are used to classify diamonds;the required properties differ depending on the industrial application.Friability is related to impact strength.It is the most important mechanical property for the practical use of superhard materials,and low friability is required in order for tools to have a long lifetime.In commercial literature,the various types of diamonds are classed as a function of their uses,which depend mainly on their friabilities,but the numerical values are not given,so it is difﬁcult to compare the qualities of diamonds from various sources.The friability,which is deﬁned by the percentage of diamonds destroyed in a speciﬁc grinding process,is obtained by subjecting a deﬁned quantity of diamonds to repeated impacts by grinding in a ball-mill or by the action of a load falling on them.The friability values depend strongly on the experimental conditions used,and only values for crystals measured under the same conditions can be compared.The effect of various synthesis parameters on their quality can be evaluated by considering the total mass of diamond obtained in one experiment,the distribution size of these diamonds,and the friability of the diamonds of a deﬁned size.A ﬁrst parameter is the source of the carbon.Most carbon-based substance can be used to make diamonds (6),but the nature of the carbon source has an effect on the quantity and the quality of synthetic diamonds.The best carbon source for diamond synthesis is graphite,and its characteristics are important.The effect of the density,gas permeability,and purity of graphite on the diamond yield have been investigated using cobalt as the SC (7).Variations of the density and gas permeability have no effect on the diamond yield,but carbon purity is important.The main impurity in synthetic graphite is CaO.If good quality diamonds are required,the calcium content should be kept below 1000ppm in order to avoid excessive nucleation on the calcium oxide particles.A second factor that alters the quality of diamonds is the nature of the SC.The friability and the size distribution are better with CoFe (alloy of cobalt with a small quantity of iron)than with invar,an iron-nickel alloy (Table 1:Ia,Ib;Figure 1a ).Another parameter is how the mixture of carbon and SC is prepared.When ﬁne or coarse powders of intimately mixed graphite and SC are used,a high yield of diamonds with high friabilities is obtained (8).These diamonds are very small,A n n u . R e v . M a t e r . R e s . 2001.31:1-23. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g b y C h i n e s e A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s - L i b r a r y o n 05/16/09. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .4HAINESL ´EGERBOCQUILLONTABLE 1Friabilities of some diamonds as a function of the details of the synthesis process fora selected size of 200–250µmSDA a MBS a 100+70Ia Ib IIa IIb IIc IIIa IIIb Synthesis CoFeInvar 1C-2SC 1C-1SC 2C-2SC Cycle A Cycle B detail stacking stacking stacking Friability 74121395053637250(%)aThe SDA 100+is among De Beers best diamond with a very high strength that is recommended for sawing the hardest stones and cast refractories.MBS 70is in the middle of General Electric’s range of diamonds for sawing and drilling.Other diamonds were obtained in the laboratory using a belt–type apparatus with a working chamber of 40mm diameter.(C,graphite;SC,solvent-catalyst.)with metal inclusions,and they are linked together with numerous cavities ﬁlled with SC.A favorable geometry in order to obtain well-formed diamonds is to stack disks of graphite and SC.The effect of local concentration has been exam-ined by changing the stacking of these disks (Table 1:IIa,IIb,IIc;Figure 1b ).The method of stacking modiﬁes the local oversaturation of dissolved carbon and thus the local spontaneous diamond germination.For the synthesis of dia-mond,the heating current goes directly through the graphite-SC mixture.Because the electrical resistivity of the graphite is much greater than that of the SC,the temperature of the graphite is raised by the Joule effect,whereas that of the SC increases mainly because of thermal conduction.Upon increasing the thickness of the SC disk,the local thermal gradient increases and the dissolved atoms of carbon cannot move as easily;the local carbon oversaturation then enhances the spontaneous diamond germination.This enables one to work at lower tempera-tures and pressures,which results in slower growth and therefore better quality diamonds.Another important factor for the yield and the quality of the diamonds is the pathway followed in P-T-t space.The results of two cycles with the same ﬁnal pressure and temperature are shown.In cycle A (Figure 1d ),the graphite-SC mixture reaches the eutectic melting temperature while it is still far from the equilibrium line between diamond and graphite;as a result spontaneous nucleation is very high and the seeds grow very quickly.These two effects explain the high yield and the poor quality and small size and high friability of the diamonds compared with those obtained in cycle B (Figure 1d ;see Table 1IIIa and IIIb and Figure 1c ).Large crystals (over 400µm)of good quality are obtained when the degree of spontaneous nucleation is limited.The pathway in P-T-t space must then remain near the graphite-diamond phase boundary (Figure 1d ),and the time of the treatment must be extended in the ﬁnal P-T-t conditions.Usually,friability increases with the size of the diamonds.Nucleation takes place at the beginning of the synthesis when the carbon oversaturation is important,and the carbon in solution is then absorbed by the existing nuclei,which grow larger.A n n u . R e v . M a t e r . R e s . 2001.31:1-23. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g b y C h i n e s e A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s - L i b r a r y o n 05/16/09. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .SUPERHARD MATERIALS5Figure 1Size distribution of diamonds in one laboratory run for different synthesis pro-cesses;effects of (panel a )the nature of the metal,(panel b )the stacking of graphite and metal disks,(panel c )the P-T pathway.(Panel d )P-T pathways for synthesis.1:graphite-diamond boundary and 2:melting temperature of the carbon-eutectic.The diamond synthesis occurs between the boundaries 1and 2.The growth time is about the same for all the crystals,thus those that can grow more quickly owing to a greater local thermal gradient become the largest.Owing to their rapid growth rate,they trap more impurities and have more defects,and therefore their friability is higher.Similarly,friability increases with the diamond yield.The diamonds produced by the spontaneous nucleation method range in size up to 800–1000µm.The best conditions for diamond synthesis correspond to a compromise between the quantity and the quality of the diamonds.A n n u . R e v . M a t e r . R e s . 2001.31:1-23. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g b y C h i n e s e A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s - L i b r a r y o n 05/16/09. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .6HAINESL ´EGERBOCQUILLONCubic Boron NitrideCubic boron nitride (cBN)is the second hardest material.The synthesis of cBN isperformed in the same pressure range as that for diamond,but at higher tempera-tures,i.e.above 1950K.The general process is the same;dissolution of hexagonal boron nitride (hBN)in a solvent-catalyst (SC),followed by spontaneous nucle-ation of cBN.However,the synthesis is much more complicated.The usual SCs are alkali or alkaline-earth metals and their nitrides (9):Mg,Ca,Li 3N,Mg 3N 2,and Ca 3N 2.All these SCs are hygroscopic,and water or oxygen are poisons for the synthesis.Thus great care must be taken,which requires dehydration of the materials and preparation in glove boxes,to avoid the presence of water in the high-pressure cell.Furthermore,the above compounds react ﬁrst with hBN to form inter-mediate compounds,Li 3BN 2,Mg 3B 2N 4,or Ca 3B 2N 4,which become the true SC.These compounds and the hBN source are electrical insulators,thus an internal furnace must be used,which makes fabrication of the high pressure cell more complicated and reduces the available volume for the samples.In addition,the chemical reaction involved is complicated by this intermediate step,and in gen-eral the yield of cBN is lower than for diamond.Work is in progress to determine in situ which intermediate compounds are involved in the synthesis process.The crystals of cBN obtained from these processes are of lower quality (Figure 2)and size than for diamond.Depending on the exact conditions,orange-yellow or dark crystals are obtained;the color difference comes from a defect or an excess of boron (less than 1%);the dark crystals,which have an excess of born,are harder.As in the synthesis of diamond,the initial forms of the SC source,hBN,play important roles,but the number of parameters is larger.For the source of BN,it is better to use pressed pellets of hBN powder rather than sintered hBN products,as the latter contain additives (oxides);a very ﬁne powder yields a better reactivity.Doping of Li,Ca,or Mg nitrides with Al,B,Ti,or Si induces a change in the morphology and color of cBN crystals,which are dark instead of orange,are larger (500µm),have better shapes and,in addition,gives a higher yield (10).Use of supercritical ﬂuids enables cBN to be synthesized at lower pressures and temperatures (2GPa,800K),but the resulting crystal size is small (11).Diamond and cBN crystals are produced on a large scale,and the main problem is how to use them for making viable tools for industry.Different compacts of these materials are made (12)for various pacts of diamonds are made using cobalt as the SC.The mixture is treated under high-pressure high-temperature conditions,at which superﬁcial graphitization of the diamonds takes place,and then under the P-T-t diamond synthesis conditions so as to transform the graphite into diamond and induce intergranular growth of diamonds.The diamond compacts produced in this way still contain some cobalt as a binder,but their hardness is close to that of single-crystal pacts of cBN cannot be made in the same way because the SCs are compounds that decompose in air.Sintering without binders (13)is possible at higher pressures of about 7.5–8GPa and temperatures higher than 2200K,but these conditions are currently outside the range of thoseA n n u . R e v . M a t e r . R e s . 2001.31:1-23. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g b y C h i n e s e A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s - L i b r a r y o n 05/16/09. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y.SUPERHARD MATERIALS7Figure 2SEM photographs of diamond (top )and cBN (bottom )crystals of different qualities depending on the synthesis conditions (the long vertical bar corresponds to a distance of 100µm).Top left :good quality mid-sized diamonds of cubo-octahedral shape with well-deﬁned faces and sharp edges;top right :lower quality diamonds;bottom left :orange cBN crystals;bottom right :very large black cBN crystals of better shapes.A n n u . R e v . M a t e r . R e s . 2001.31:1-23. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g b y C h i n e s e A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s - L i b r a r y o n 05/16/09. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .8HAINESL ´EGERBOCQUILLONused in industrial pacts of cBN with TiC or TaN binders are ofmarkedly lower hardness because there is no direct bonding between the superhard crystals,in contrast to diamond compacts.In addition,they are expensive,and this has motivated the search for other superhard materials.SEARCH FOR NEW SUPERHARD MATERIALSOne approach for increasing hardness of known materials is to manipulate the nanostructure.For instance,the effect of particle size on the hardness of materials has been investigated.It is well known that high-purity metals have very low shear strengths;this arises from the low energy required for nucleation and motion of dislocations in metals.The introduction of barriers by the addition of impurities or grain size effects may thus enhance the hardness of the starting phase.In this case,intragranular and intergranular mechanisms are activated and compete with each other.As each mechanism has a different dependency on grain size,there can be a maximum in hardness as the function of the grain size.This effect of increasing the hardness with respect to the single-crystal value does not exist in the case of ceramic materials.In alumina,which has been thoroughly studied,the hardness (14)of ﬁne-grained compacts is at most the hardness of the single crystal.When considering superhard materials,any hardness enhancement would have to come from the intergranular material,which would be by deﬁnition of lower hard-ness.In the case of thin ﬁlms,it has been reported that it is possible to increase the hardness by repeating a layered structure of two materials with nanometer scale dimensions,which are deposited onto a surface (15).This effect arises from the repulsive barrier to the movement of dislocations across the interface between the two materials and is only valid in one direction for nanometer scale defor-mations.This could be suitable for coatings,but having bulk superhard materials would further enhance the unidirectional hardness of such coatings.In addition,hardness in these cases is determined from tests at a nanometer scale with very small loads,and results vary critically (up to a factor of three)with the nature of the substrate and the theoretical models necessary to estimate quantitatively the substrate’s inﬂuence (16).We now discuss the search for bulk superhard materials.Physics of HardnessThere is a direct relation between bulk modulus and hardness for nonmetallic ma-terials (Figure 3)(17–24),and here we discuss the fundamental physical properties upon which hardness depends.Hardness is deduced from the size of the inden-tation after an indenter has deformed a material.This process infers that many phenomena are involved.Hardness is related to the elastic and plastic properties of a material.The size of the permanent deformation produced depends on the resistance to the volume compression produced by the pressure created by the indenter,the resistance to shear deformation,and the resistance to the creation and motion of dislocations.These various types of resistance to deformation indicateA n n u . R e v . M a t e r . R e s . 2001.31:1-23. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g b y C h i n e s e A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s - L i b r a r y o n 05/16/09. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .SUPERHARD MATERIALS 9Figure 3Hardness as a function of the bulk modulus for selected materials (r-,rutile-type;c,cubic;m,monoclinic).WC and RuO 2do not ﬁll all the requirements to be superhard (see text).which properties a material must have to exhibit the smallest indentation possible and consequently the highest hardness.There are three conditions that must be met in order for a material to be hard:The material must support the volume decrease created by the applied pressure,therefore it must have a high bulk modulus;the material must not deform in a direction different from the applied load,it must have a high shear modulus;the material must not deform plastically,the creation and motion of the dislocations must be as small as possible.These conditions give indications of which materials may be superhard.We ﬁrst consider the two elastic properties,bulk modulus (B)and shear modulus (G),which are related by Poisson’s ratio (ν).We consider only isotropic materials;a superhard material should preferably be isotropic,otherwise it would deform preferentially in a given direction (the crystal structure of diamond is isotropic,but the mechanical properties of a single crystal are not fully isotropic because cleavage may occur).In the case of isotropic materials,G =(3/2)B (1−2ν)/(1+ν);In order for G to be high,νmust be small,and the above expression reduces thenA n n u . R e v . M a t e r . R e s . 2001.31:1-23. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g b y C h i n e s e A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s - L i b r a r y o n 05/16/09. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .10HAINESL ´EGERBOCQUILLONto G =(3/2)B (1−3ν).The value of νis small for covalent materials (typicallyν=0.1),and there is little difference between G and B:G =1.1B.A typical value of νfor ionic materials is 0.25and G =0.6B;for metallic materials νis typically 0.33and G =0.4B;in the extreme case where νis 0.5,G is zero.The bulk and shear moduli can be obtained from elastic constants:B =(c 11+2c 12)/3,G =(c 11−c 12+3c 44)/5.Assuming isotropy c 11−c 12=2c 44,it follows that G =c 44;Actually G is always close to c 44.In order to have high values of B and G,then c 11and c 44must be high with c 12low.This is the opposite of the central forces model in which c 12=c 44(Cauchy relation).The two conditions,that νbe small and that central forces be absent,indicate that bonding must be highly directional and that covalent bonding is the most suitable.This requirement for high bulk moduli and covalent or ionic bonding has been previously established (17–19,21–24)and theoretical calculations (19,25,26)over the last two decades have aimed at ﬁnding materials with high values of B (Figure 3).The bulk modulus was used primarily for the reason that it is cheaper to calculate considering the efﬁcient use of computer time,and an effort was made to identify hypothetical materials with bulk moduli exceeding 250–300GPa.At the present time with the power of modern computers,elastic constants can be obtained theoretically and the shear modulus calculated (27).The requirement for having directional bonds arises from the relationship be-tween the shear modulus G and bond bending (28).Materials that exhibit lim-ited bond bending are those with directional bonds in a high symmetry,three-dimensional lattice,with ﬁxed atomic positions.Covalent materials are much better candidates for high hardness than ionic compounds because electrostatic interac-tions are omnidirectional and yield low bond-bending force constants,which result in low shear moduli.The ratio of bond-bending to bond-stretching force constants decreases linearly from about 0.3for a covalent material to essentially zero for a purely ionic compound (29,30).The result of this is that the bulk modulus has very little dependence on ionicity,whereas the shear modulus will exhibit a relative de-crease by a factor of more than three owing entirely to the change in bond character.Thus for a given value of the bulk modulus,an ionic compound will have a lower shear modulus than a covalent material and consequently a lower hardness.There is an added enhancement in the case of ﬁrst row atoms because s-p hybridization is much more complete than for heavier atoms.The electronic structure also plays an important role in the strength of the bonds.In transition metal carbonitrides,for example,which have the rock-salt structure,the hardness and c 44go through a maximum for a valence electron concentration of about 8.4per unit cell (31).The exact nature of the crystal and electronic structures is thus important for determin-ing the shear modulus,whereas the bulk modulus depends mainly on the molar volume and is less directly related to ﬁne details of the structure.This difference is due to the fact that the bulk modulus is related to the stretching of bonds,which are governed by central forces.Materials with high bulk moduli will thus be based on densely packed three-dimensional networks,and examples can be found among covalent,ionic,and metallic materials.In ionic compounds,the overall structure isA n n u . R e v . M a t e r . R e s . 2001.31:1-23. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g b y C h i n e s e A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s - L i b r a r y o n 05/16/09. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .principally deﬁned by the anion sublattice,with the cations occupying interstitial sites,and compounds with high bulk moduli will thus have dense anion packing with short anion-anion distances.The shear modulus,which is related to bond bending,depends on the nature of the bond and decreases dramatically as a func-tion of ionicity.In order for the compound to have a high shear modulus and high hardness (Figure 4),directional (covalent)bonding and a rigid structural topology are necessary in addition to a high bulk modulus.A superhard material will have a high bulk modulus and a three-dimensional isotropic structure with ﬁxed atomic positions and covalent or partially covalent ionic bonds.Hardness also depends strongly on plastic deformation,which is related to the creation and motion of dislocations.This is not controlled by the shear modulus but by the shear strength τ,which varies as much as a factor of 10for different materials with similar shear moduli.It has been theoretically shown that τ/G is of the order of 0.03–0.04for a face-centered cubic metal,0.02for a layer structure such as graphite,0.15for an ionic compound such as sodium chloride,and 0.25for a purely covalent material such as diamond (32).Detailed calculationsmustFigure 4Hardness as a function of the shear modulus for selected materials (r-,rutile-type;c,cubic).A n n u . R e v . M a t e r . R e s . 2001.31:1-23. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a r j o u r n a l s .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g b y C h i n e s e A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s - L i b r a r y o n 05/16/09. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .。

超深层高压油气藏天然气偏差系数计算新模型

◄油气开发►doi:10.11911/syztjs.2023112引用格式：杨鹏程，薛浩楠，李升，等. 超深层高压油气藏天然气偏差系数计算新模型[J]. 石油钻探技术，2023, 51（6）：106-114.YANG Pengcheng, XUE Haonan, LI Sheng, et al. A new model for calculating deviation factor of natural gas in ultra-deep oil and gas reservoirs under high pressure [J]. Petroleum Drilling Techniques ，2023, 51(6)：106-114.超深层高压油气藏天然气偏差系数计算新模型杨鹏程1，薛浩楠1，李升1，陈科杉2（1. 中国石油集团西部钻探工程有限公司井下作业公司，新疆克拉玛依 834000；2. 中国石油大学（华东）石油工程学院，山东青岛 266580）摘　要: 为适应我国深层、超深层高压油气藏钻采需要，利用高温高压PVT 特性测量系统，开展了高压条件下不同组分天然气样品的PVT 特性测量试验，试验结果表明，高压下天然气偏差系数随压力升高大致呈线性增大，随温度升高而减小，但总体差别较小。

基于1 443组Standing-Katz 图版拟合数据、试验测量数据和公共试验数据，建立了大温度压力范围的天然气偏差系数试验数据库。

采用多元非线性拟合数值方法，对现有模型进行改进，建立了计算超深层高压油气藏天然气偏差系数的新模型。

将该模型与常用的HY 法、DPR 法、LXF 法等方法进行了对比，误差分析表明，该模型在高压段的相对误差在2%以内，计算精度高于HY 法、DPR 法、LXF 法等方法，满足工程要求，可以为超深层高压油气藏安全高效钻采提供指导与帮助。

关键词: 超深层高压油气藏；天然气偏差系数；数据库；计算模型；Standing-Katz 图版；误差中图分类号: TE311+.1 文献标志码: A 文章编号: 1001–0890（2023）06–0106–09A New Model for Calculating Deviation Factor of Natural Gas inUltra-Deep Oil and Gas Reservoirs under High PressureYANG Pengcheng 1, XUE Haonan 1, LI Sheng 1, CHEN Keshan2(1. Downhole Operation Company, CNPC Xibu Drilling Engineering Company Limited, Karamay, Xinjiang, 834000, China ; 2.School of Petroleum Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China ), Qingdao, Shandong, 266580, China )Abstract: In order to meet the drilling and production requirements of deep and ultra-deep oil and gas reservoirs under high pressure in China, PVT characteristic measurement experiments of natural gas samples with different components under high-pressure conditions were carried out by using high-temperature and high-pressure PVT characteristic measurement system. The experiments show that the deviation factor of natural gas under high pressure increases linearly with the increase in pressure and decreases with the increase in temperature, but the overall difference is small. At the same time, an experimental database of the deviation factor of natural gas in a large temperature and pressure range is established based on 1 443 sets of data including Standing-Katz chart fitting data, experimental measurement data, and public experimental data. Through the numerical method of multivariate nonlinear fitting, the existing models are improved, and a new model for calculating the deviation factor of natural gas of ultra-deep oil and gas reservoirs under high pressure is established. The predicted results of the model are compared with those of HY,DPR, LXF, and other common methods. The error analysis shows that the relative error of the model is less than 2% in the high-pressure section, and its calculation accuracy is higher than that of HY, DPR, LXF, and other methods, which meets the practical needs of engineering and can provide guidance and support for safe and efficient drilling and production of ultra-deep oil and gas reservoirs under high pressure.Key words: ultra-deep reservoirs under high pressure; deviation factor of natural gas; database; calculation model;Standing-Katz chart; error随着在深层、超深层勘探方面取得许多重要突破，深层、超深层已成为我国陆上油气勘探开发的主要接替领域，但这类储层普遍具有高温、高压特点[1–2]。

Health eduaction of hypertention

What is Blood Pressure?
The force of blood against the wall of the arteries. SystolicSystolic- as the heart beats Diastolic - as the heart relaxes Written as systolic over diastolic. Normal Blood pressure is less than 130 mm Hg systolic and less than 85 mm Hg diastolic.
Other Treatment
If Lifestyle Modification is not working, blood pressure medication may be needed. there are several types: DiureticsDiuretics-work on the kidney to remove access water and fluid from body to lower blood pressure. Beta blockers-reduce impulses to the blockersheart and blood vessels.
High Blood Pressure
A consistent blood pressure of 140/90 mm Hg or higher is considered high blood pressure. It increases chance for heart disease, kidney disease, and for having a stroke. Has no warning signs or symptoms.

高血压英语PPT课件

• "Blood pressure" is the force of blood pushing against the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps blood. If this pressure rises and stays high over time, it can damage the body in many ways.
9
Signs and Symptoms of High
Blood Pressure
• High blood pressure (HBP) itself usually has no signs or symptoms. Rarely, headaches may occur.
• Some people only learn that they have HBP after the damage has caused problems, such as coronary hear disease, stroke, or kidney failure.
7
• For some women, blood pressure can rise if they use birth control pills, become pregnant, or take hormone therapy.
• Children younger than 10 years old who have HBP often have another condition that's causing it (such as kidney disease).
8
• An inherited genetic factors: about half of patients have family history of hypertension

增压与减压作文800字

增压与减压作文800字### 英文回答：Supercharging vs. Turbocharging: A Comparative Analysis.Supercharging and turbocharging are two methods of forced induction used to increase the power output of an internal combustion engine. Both methods achieve this by increasing the mass of air forced into the engine's cylinders, resulting in a more efficient combustion process and increased power. However, the two methods differ intheir operating principles and design.Supercharging.Supercharging involves using a mechanically driven compressor to force air into the engine's intake manifold. The compressor is typically belt-driven or gear-driven from the engine's crankshaft. As the engine speed increases, the compressor speed also increases, resulting in aproportional increase in boost pressure. Superchargers are relatively simple in design and can be easily installed on most engines. However, they can be inefficient at low engine speeds and may require additional cooling systems to prevent overheating.Turbocharging.Turbocharging utilizes the exhaust gases produced by the engine to drive a turbine, which is connected to a compressor. The compressor then forces air into theengine's intake manifold. This system is more efficient than supercharging, as it does not require additional power from the engine to drive the compressor. Turbochargers can produce higher boost pressures than superchargers,resulting in greater power gains. However, they can be more complex and expensive to install, and they may experience turbo lag, which refers to the delay in boost pressure buildup.Advantages of Supercharging.Simpler design and installation.More efficient at low engine speeds.Less expensive than turbocharging.Disadvantages of Supercharging.Can be inefficient at high engine speeds.May require additional cooling systems.Advantages of Turbocharging.More efficient than supercharging.Can produce higher boost pressures.Does not require additional power from the engine to drive the compressor.Disadvantages of Turbocharging.More complex and expensive to install.May experience turbo lag.Conclusion.Supercharging and turbocharging are both effective methods of forced induction that can significantly increase the power output of an internal combustion engine. Superchargers are simpler and more efficient at low engine speeds, while turbochargers are more efficient and can produce higher boost pressures. The choice between supercharging and turbocharging depends on the specific requirements and constraints of the engine and application.### 中文回答：增压与涡轮增压，比较分析。

gas_injection

ggHigh Pressure Gas Re-injectionPremium Technology Enhancing Oil Recovery while Protecting the EnvironmentGEOil & GasNuovo Pignone S.p.A.via F. Matteucci, 250127 Florence - Italy T +39 055 423211F +39 055 /oilandgasCOMK/MARK 883/II - Designed by: Studio Tre Fasi Printed by: Sagraf - 1-2006©2006 Nuovo Pignone S.p.A. all rights reservedExperience mattersGE’s Oil & Gas business has pioneered the manufacturing and testing of very high pressure sour gas centrifugalcompressors. The Karachaganak compressors that were full load tested in 2000 and early 2003operate at a nominal discharge pressure of 560 bar with gas containing 5% H 2S.They are the first in the world to be used in this challengingapplication. To achieve this leap in technological capabilities, asubstantial research &development effort on materials,gaskets, rotor-dynamics and dry gas seals was necessary. Since then we have achieved another milestone with a compression train with anominal discharge pressure of 630 Bar operating on gas with a H 2S content of greaterthan 15%. Recently, we have tested a new re-injection train at a discharge pressure of 800 Bar for compression of extremely sour gas (18% H 2S, 5% CO 2).Safety is not optionalGE’s compressors are designed with special focus on rotor dynamics and gas sealing to avoid, toxic release or overpressure situations.Vibration is minimized at all operating conditions by using very rigid shafts. Gas seals for both the casing and shaft are designed to maximize redundancy and with thegreatest possible consideration to safety.Sour Gas ApplicationsGE’s Oil & Gas business is a world leader in compression of natural gas for high-pressure re-injection with over 30 years of experience in this field.The industry’s first machine with a discharge pressure of 427 bar was installed by GE’s Nuovo Pignone division in the early 1970s at the Hassi Messaoud Plant in Algeria.The innovative design approaches, the extensive testing capabilities and the high reliability demonstrated in all installations have positioned us as the leading manufacturer of compressors for this type ofapplication.The innovation continues today with research and development aimed at designing compression trains with discharge pressures of 1000 bar and higher associated with high content of acid gas.Over 200 high-pressurecompression trains with more than 350 compressor bodies have been produced by GE’s Oil & Gas business in the last 30 years. About half of these train configurations are driven by GE MS5002 gas turbines and more than 50 have nominal discharge pressures greater than 500 bar. While heavy-duty gas turbine drivers have generally been used forcompression trains for onshore applications, the majority of our high pressure offshoreinstallations use GE aeroderivative gas turbine drivers.InstallationsHassi Messaoud - AlgeriaTengiz Field - Kazakhstan MS5002 Gas Turbine driving Centrifugal CompressorsBCL305B+BCL304C+BCL304DN’kossa - CongoMS5002 Gas Turbine driving Centrifugal Compressors BCL406B+BCL307C Pigap - VenezuelaMS5002 Gas Turbine driving Centrifugal Compressors BCL406B+BCL305C+BCL305D Karachaganak (Kazakhstan)550 Bara with 5% H 2SGE imagination at workBetween 1975 (North Sea) and 2005 (Kazahkstan) more than 40 turbocompressor units for re-injection applications with discharge pressures in excess of 200 bar were full load tested by GE’s Oil & Gas business. The full load string tests in the outdoor test bed shown in the photos were carried out with all auxiliaries including lube and seal systems, control panels and fully instrumentedprocess panels. The testarrangement must be as closeas possible to the finalconfiguration to reproducemechanical andthermodynamic performancein the field. All of the criticalfeatures of the machine arefully verified including:• Thermodynamicperformance (pressureratio, efficiency,surge limit,etc.).• Rotordynamics, criticalspeed and verification ofall potential excitationphenomena such asrotating stall.• Shaft end seal behaviorand auxiliary systems.• Control system for thecomplete train.• Coolers.Full load testing of Re-injection TurbocompressorsHigh-pressure re-injection compressor design is one of the most demanding challenges in the field of turbomachinery. For this reason GE invests continually in research and development efforts focused on producing advanced technology designs and new calculation codes to meet the ever increasing challenges of the industry. Rotordynamics: The impact of high gas density on impellers and balancing drum seals can cause rotor stability problems potentially leading to subsynchronous vibration phenomena. Maximizing rotor stiffness and bearing damping together with the use of special seals are used to ensure safe lateral behavior in the most critical and challenging high pressure machines.Rotating Stall: The low flows typical of high pressure applications together with the high gas densities make these machines particularly susceptible to rotating stall. The strong aerodynamic excitationsassociated with this phenomenoncould severally limit the operationof the machine.In order to avoidthe occurrence of potentialrotating stall problems, pre-designed and tested stages areused. Extensive R&D has beenconducted using bothcomputational and experimentaltechniques to identify advancedsolutions to achieving a broaderoperating range.To this end, an optimizeddiffuser shape (pinch) and lowsolidity vaned diffusers havenow been qualified, andcompressor internals can beeasily adjusted on the basis oftest results.Performance: The extremepressure and density of the gasmake the prediction ofperformance computationallychallenging.Equations of state have beenvalidated, even in the presenceof sour gas, through extensivelaboratory programs atpressures up to 1000 bar. Theextensive use of validatedstandard stages completelyremoves uncertainty inperformance evaluation asverified by full load testsconducted at our facilities andsite performance.Shaft end sealing: Recently,dry gas seals (DGS) havereplaced oil seals in re-injectionapplications. The increasedreliability of dry gas sealsallows differential dynamicpressures up to 425 bar. Theuse of DGS in high pressureapplications is now a standardin compressor technology.Casing Sealing System: Thetrend toward high sour gasapplications has requiredmajor efforts in the design ofmachines for zero leakage tothe environment. This objectivehas been successfully achievedthrough the introduction of:• new, more reliable gasketdesigns;• new, patented gas leakagerecovery system.DesignGE’s Oil&Gas BusinessTechnology Milestones Kashagan (Kazakhstan)Turnkey Sour Gas Re-injection Barges800 bar at 18% H2SKashagan Turbocompressor Units:Testing In Massa PlantKashagan (Kazakhstan)Centrifugal CompressorsBCL404B+BCL404C+BCL304EAntisurge Control ValvesAll antisurge control valves aredesigned, manufactured and tested in-house. A fully balanced design with lowfriction forces enables fast and smoothoperation of these flow control elements.Multistage trims are designed to limitboth noise levels and kinetic energydeveloped during throttling operations.Extensive R&D effort has been devotedto achieving high reliability andextremely low fugitive emission levelsfor all the operating conditions.Air Cooled Heat ExchangersPipe and Bend Air Cooled HeatExchangers are manufactured by GEOil & Gas in Vibo Valentia, Italy. Sincethe late 60s, we have manufacturedmore than 10,000 API 661 qualitybundles from in-house designsdeveloped to meet the demandingspecifications of our Customers. Wehave the manufacturing experience,capabilities and specialized equipmentneeded for the production of bundlesfrom special materials (incoloy,titanium, alloy steel, etc.) suitable forhigh pressure sour gas applications.Compression IslandsGE integrates its equipment (turbines, compressors, expanders, air coolers, valves, etc.) into optimized engineered solutions to meet Customer requirements. Islands are typical solutions for on-shore installations. In addition to the equipment, the GE offering includes system engineering (electrical, mechanical, instrumental), the supply of the necessary balance of plant items (gas separators and coolers, valves, piping, electrical and control systems), start-up/commissioning and project management. Compression Islands are offered under single source and responsibility; i.e., guarantees and a warranty are given on the entire system instead of on the equipment only. Upon Customer request, the supply and responsibility can be extended to the entire station, adding all necessary auxiliary systems.。

219525906_纤维素纳米化处理技术研究现状

白辰雨，王天卉，户昕娜，等. 纤维素纳米化处理技术研究现状[J]. 食品工业科技，2023，44（14）：465−473. doi: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022090298BAI Chenyu, WANG Tianhui, HU Xinna, et al. Research Progress on Preparation of Nanocellulose[J]. Science and Technology of Food Industry, 2023, 44(14): 465−473. (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022090298· 专题综述 ·纤维素纳米化处理技术研究现状白辰雨1,2,3，王天卉1,2,3，户昕娜1,2,3，卢舒瑜1,2,3，马　涛1,2,3, *，宋　弋1,2,3（1.中国农业大学食品科学与营养工程学院，北京 100083；2.国家果蔬加工工程技术研究中心，北京 100083；3.农业农村部果蔬加工重点实验室，北京 100083）摘　要：纳米纤维素因具有可再生、易改性以及优异的机械性能，在众多领域具有广阔的应用前景。

植物来源的纳米纤维素主要包括纤维素纳米晶体和纤维素纳米纤维，本文主要介绍了以农副产品为原料的纤维素纳米化处理技术及其分类，包括制备纤维素纳米晶体的经典无机酸水解法以及有机酸水解法、低共熔溶剂法和离子液体法等新型制备方法。

此外，还介绍了制备纤维素纳米纤维常用的预处理手段和制备方法，预处理方法包括以2,2,6,6-四甲基哌啶-1-氧自由基氧化为代表的氧化法预处理以及酶法预处理；制备方法包括高压均质、精细研磨、高强度超声和高压微射流等技术。

最后，对现行纤维素纳米化处理技术中存在的问题进行综合分析，并探讨了其未来研究需求，以期为纳米纤维素的绿色高效生产提供理论参考。

海工高强钢在海水中应力腐蚀研究进展

第20卷第8期装备环境工程2023年8月EQUIPMENT ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING ·53·收稿日期：2023-03-29；修订日期：2023-05-08 Received ：2023-03-29；Revised ：2023-05-08 作者简介：滕乙正（1998—），男，硕士研究生。

Biography ：TENG Yi-zheng (1998-), Male, Postgraduate. 通讯作者：张海兵（1983—），男。

Corresponding author ：ZHANG Hai-bing (1983-), Male.引文格式：滕乙正, 张海兵, 马力, 等. 海工高强钢在海水中应力腐蚀研究进展[J]. 装备环境工程, 2023, 20(8): 053-060.TENG Yi-zheng, ZHANG Hai-bing, MA Li, et al. Research Progress of Stress Corrosion of Marine High-strength Steel in Seawater[J]. Equip-ment Environmental Engineering, 2023, 20(8): 053-060.海工高强钢在海水中应力腐蚀研究进展滕乙正，张海兵，马力，张一晗，李祯，侯健，孙明先（中国船舶重工集团公司第七二五研究所海洋腐蚀与防护重点实验室，山东青岛 266200）摘要：从高强钢材料的合金成分、金相组织、加工工艺、残余应力以及海水温度、Cl －浓度、pH 值等环境条件和腐蚀程度等方面总结了高强钢应力腐蚀的影响因素。

结合高强钢的使用环境和力学特点，简述了高强钢的应力腐蚀开裂机理，包括氢致开裂理论、阳极溶解理论、腐蚀产物楔入理论、应力吸附破裂理论等。

针对高强钢在海洋环境中的应力腐蚀问题，分别从组织成分优化、表面处理和阴极保护等方面论述了应力腐蚀防护方法。

林菲尔·拜肯斯朗电动液

SAM400 & 650 PERKINS DIESEL ENGINE DRIVENIM568 April, 1997Mar ‘95Mar ‘95Mar.‘93for selecting a QUALITY product by Lincoln Electric.We want you to take pride in operating this Lincoln Electric Company product •••as much pride as we have in bringing this product to you!Read this Operators Manual completely before attempting to use this equipment.Save this manual and keep it handy for quick reference.Pay particular attention to the safety instructions we have provided for your protection.The level of seriousness to be applied to each is explained below:vv(1)Consult applicable federal, state and local laws regardingspecific requirements for use on public highways.SPEED CONTROL LEVERManually allows the engine to run at its high idle speed controlled by the governor or at the factory set low idle speed.When welding or using auxiliary power the speed control lever must be in the “RUN”position.T o reduce the engine to low idle speed when not welding or not using auxiliary power place the speed control lever in the “IDLE”position notch.ENGINE TEMPERATURE GAUGEDisplays the coolant temperature in the engine block. OIL PRESSURE GAUGEDisplays the oil pressure to the engine.When the engine starts running, watch for the oil pressure to build up.If no pressure shows within 30 seconds, stop the engine and consult the engine instruction manual. BATTERY CHARGING AMMETERDisplays the current going from the charging alternator into the batteries.It is normal for charging current to be high (above 15 amps) after starting or when the batter-ies are ‘low’on charge.ENGINE HOUR METER(Factory Installed Optional Feature)The optional engine hour meter records the total run-ning time on the engine in hours.It can be used to keep a record of maintenance on the engine and or welder. ENGINE PROTECTION SYSTEMThe engine protection system shuts down the engine under high coolant temperature or low oil pressure conditions by allowing the fuel solenoid valve to close.place.3.Remove the two screws on the top end of the wirefeeder nameplate.4.Position the “Portable Field Control”mounting slotsover these holes and replace the screws.5.Route the leads with the LN-5 or LN-6 control cableback to the power source.MOUNTING ON LN-71.Remove the top screws on the side of the LN-7 con-trol box cover.(This is the left side when facing the nameplate).2.Position the “Portable Field Control”on the side ofthe control box with the mounting slots over these holes and replace the screws.3.Route the leads with the LN-7 control cable back tothe power source.OUTPUT STUDSWith the Engine OFF connect the work cable to the “T o Work”stud.A.For Stick Electrode Welding1.Connect the electrode cable to the “Stick”studand the work cable to the “T o Work”stud.Connect the “T AP”lead in the SAM650 to theappropriate stud to adjust current and the arccharacteristics as described under “Currentand Voltage Controls.”2.Install the “Portable Field Control”.B.Automatic or Semiautomatic WeldingFor all automatic welding processes, connect the welding power cable from the wire feeder to the “Connect to Auto.Equipment”stud.Connect the “T AP”lead in the SAM650 to the appropriate stud to adjust current and the arc characteristics as described under “Current and Voltage Controls.”1.LN-7, LN-8, LN-9, NA-3, NA-5, LT-7 and LT-56 Wire Feeders.a.Make the connections exactly as speci-fied on the connection wiring diagramincluded in the wire feeder InstructionManual.b.Install the “Portable Field Control”whenusing an LN-7.CURRENT AND VOLTAGE CONTROLS Constant Voltage WeldingThe SAM-400 “Current Control”is NOT in the circuit when the ‘Electrode Polarity’switch is set for constant voltage welding.Set the open circuit voltage (OCV) needed for the par-ticular application with the “Constant Voltage Control”located to the left of the nameplate.Adjust the final welding voltage with either the wire feeder voltage con-trol or the “Portable Field Control”.Set the welding cur-rent with “Amps”or “Wire Feed Speed”control on the wire feeder.Low Range Feature (SAM400 K1279-1 only) --Extends the output voltage range of the SAM400 welder down to 12 volts for constant voltage welding. The maximum output current is not to exceed the rat-ing of the machine.The Low Range Feature provides a two-position manual switch which allows the operator to set his machine for normal welding or for low voltage welding.Factory installed only.On the SAM650 connect the “T ap”lead inside the machine to the appropriate “Innershield”stud for”Min. (Flat) Slope.”“Med.Slope”or “Max.Slope”.Low voltage (below 20 volts) low current welding often requires “Max.Slope”to adjust the weld metal droplet size for minimum spatter and to control puddle fluidity and bead shape.Innershield and other spray transfer type processes generally operate with “Med.Slope”.A Hot Start circuit on all models operates automatical-ly whenever the toggle switch is set on “Constant Voltage.”It increases the open circuit voltage by sev-eral volts until the arc is established -- then the voltage automatically drops to normal welding voltage.When the wire feeder is started before the arc is started, the voltmeter indicates a voltage several volts higher than welding voltage.T o read actual welding voltage, the arc must be established.Constant Voltage Welding With Variable Inductance Control:SAM-400 Only.Variable inductance or slope control is usually desir-able for low voltage (below 20 volts) applications and is sometimes useful in other constant voltage jobs.To introduce this control into the circuit, set the “Electrode Polarity”switch to “Variable Voltage”and the toggle switch to “Constant Voltage”.Then the “Current Control”acts as the variable inductance control. Normally this control must be kept within the 8 to 1 o’clock range.To Set The Controls -- Stick Weldinga.Make the coarse setting of welding heat with theSAM400 “Current Control”or the SAM650“T ap’”lead.b.Adjust for the desired arc characteristics with the“Variable Voltage Control”.For a soft arc desired for most welding keep this control between 7 and High.For a more digging arc, set it lower.c.If remote control is NOT desired leave the“Portable Field Control”on “High”.For remote con-trol, leave the “Variable Voltage Control”near “High”and make the adjustments described in paragraph “b”above with the “Portable Field Control”.Remember, increasing either the “Variable Voltage Control”or “Portable Field Control”setting also increases the current.To Set The Controls -- Submerged Arca.The open circuit voltage (OCV) is generally notcritical in submerged arc welding.Therefore, the “Variable Voltage Control”can usually be left between 7 and “High”-- no future adjustments are needed.b.Set SAM400 “Current Control”so the calibrationon the higher scale is a little above the current desired.Set the SAM650 “T ap”lead to the stud with the lowest current range that still provides the desired current.c.Make the final current adjustment with either thewire feeder current control or the “Portable Field Control”.Set the arc voltage with the wire feeder control.Consult the following illustrations for examples of how to set the machine.STARTING WELDERS WITH DEAD BATTERIES Array DO NOT attempt to start a SAM engine driven welder by driving the welding generator as a starter motor using the output of another welder.In addition to the possibility of damaging the machines, starting a SAM engine welder without using its starting circuit elimi-nates the operation of the flashing circuit.This can cause the generator to fail to produce any output. AUXILIARY POWERAn alternator generates 2 KVA of 120/240 volt 60 Hertz AC power.It is available either from #31 and #32 on the terminal strip or from the receptacles on the Control Panel.Be careful not to overload this circuit. The auxiliary power receptacle should only be used with three wire grounded type plugs or approved dou-ble insulated tools with two wire plugs.The alternator is protected by thermostats and fuses. DUTY CYCLEDuty cycle is based on a ten minute period and opera-tion in an ambient temperature of 104°F(40°C).The SAM400 is NEMA rated at 60% duty cycle.The SAM650 is NEMA rated at 80% duty cycle.Duty cycle is based on a ten minute period.Therefore, a 60% duty cycle welder can be operated at nameplate rated out-put for 6 minutes (8 minutes for 80% duty cycle) out of every 10 minute period without overheating.The auxiliary power can be used continuously (100% duty cycle) within its rated current capacities.STARTING INSTRUCTIONSBe sure all Pre-Operation Maintenance has been per-formed.(See Installation Section of this manual.)T o start the engine, set the speed control lever in the “RUN”position.Place ignition toggle switch in the “ON”position.Push in the engine protection system reset button (if so equipped).Engage the starter button. When the engine starts running, observe the oil pres-sure.If no pressure shows within 30 seconds, stop the engine and consult the engine operating manual.T o stop the engine, place the ignition toggle switch in the “OFF”position.When an engine is started for the first time, some of the oil will be needed to fill the passages of the lubricatingsystem.Therefore, on initial starting, run the engine forK799 Hi-Freq™-Provides high frequency plus a gas valve for TIG welding.A water valve is available as an option.Requires 115 volt AC input.Cannot be used with optional meters connected, or in constant voltage mode.(Limited to 250A - 60% Duty Cycle).K802-D Power Plug Kit -For SAM welders with stan-dard 2KVA of AC auxiliary power.Kit includes male plugs for each auxiliary receptacle.K805-1 Ether Start Kit -Injects ether for starting aid. Recommended only when engines are frequently started at temperatures under 10°F (-12°C).Ether cylinder is not included.K767-1 Undercarriage -A 4-wheel steerable under-carriage for in-plant and yard towing1with E78-14 load range (B) tubeless tires.Mounts directly to welder base.1For highway use, consult applicable federal, state and local laws regarding possible requirements for brakes, lights, fenders, etc.Linc-Thaw™- Includes meter and fuse to protect the welder when thawing frozen water pipes.(L2964-[ ] Specify SAM400 or SAM650)K704(SAM400 only) Standard Accessory Kit -Includes electrode and work cables, headshield, work clamp and electrode holder.K865(SAM400 only) Engine Hour Meter Kit -(Standard on K1279-1).Keeps track of how long engine has been eful for following recom-mended maintenance schedules on machine.SAM400 only:Inspect the oil bath air filter daily - more often in dusty conditions.When necessary clean and fill the oil bath. The filter should never be removed while the engine is running.PERIODIC MAINTENANCE1.Blow out the welder and controls with an air hose atleast once every two months.In particularly dirty locations, this cleaning may be necessary once a e low pressure air to avoid driving dirt into the insulation.2.The SAM400 current control reactor brushes areself-lubricating and should not be greased.Keep the contacts clean.This control should be moved from maximum to minimum daily to prevent the controls from sticking.3.See the engine Instruction Manual for periodicengine maintenance information.Change the crankcase oil at regular intervals using the proper grade of oil as recommended in the engine operat-ing manual.Change the oil filter in accordance with the instructions in the engine operating manual.When the filter is changed add one quart of oil to the crankcase to replace the oil held in the filter dur-ing operation.4.Belts tend to loosen after the first 30 or 40 hours ofoperation.Check the cooling fan belt and tighten if necessary.DO NOT OVER TIGHTEN.BEARING MAINTENANCEThis welder is equipped with a double-shielded ball bearing having sufficient grease to last indefinitely under normal service.Where the welder is used con-stantly or in excessively dirty locations, it may be nec-essary to add one-half ounce of grease per year.A pad of grease one inch wide, one inch long and one inch high weighs approximately one-half ounce.Over greasing is far worse than insufficient greasing. When greasing the bearings, keep all dirt out of the area.Wipe the fittings completely clean and use clean equipment.More bearing failures are caused by dirt introduced during greasing than from insufficient grease.Arcing or excessive exciter brush wear indicates a pos-sible misaligned shaft.Have an authorized Field Service Shop check and realign the shaft. COOLING SYSTEMThe SAM welders are equipped with a pressure radia-tor.Keep the radiator cap tight to prevent loss of coolant.Clean and flush the cooling system periodi-cally to prevent clogging the passage and overheating the engine.When antifreeze is needed, always use the permanent type.CONTACTOR MAINTENANCEWhere the output contactor is operated frequently when tacking or making short welds, turn the engine off and inspect the contactor every three months:1.be sure the mating surfaces of silver contacts arenot worn and all make contact at approximately the same time.2.Make sure the springs and holders are not brokenor out of adjustment.Approximate spring com-pression after making contact is 1/8”.Less than 1/16”compression indicates worn contacts that should be replaced.3.Make sure the moving contact or other movingparts are not binding.4.Check interlock contacts and springs.Be suremounting screws are tight.NOTE A:If at any time either of the Control (PC) boards is replaced, follow the calibration procedure outlined later in this sec-tion under “Control P.C.Board Calibration Procedure”.The open circuit voltage will be out of range if trimmers are not properly set.If both trimmers are set at minimum, the machine might lose excitation.NOTE B:When making continuity checks, use the 1K (X1000) or next higher range.NOTE C:Do not replace PC boards without following outlined procedure for indicated trouble -- damage may result due to other defective parts.DC on SAM400 machines or 45±1 volts forSAM650 machines.Recheck to make surereadings fall within limits.T rimmer #4 set-ting is dependent on T rimmer #3.B.Constant Voltage1.Place toggle switch in constant voltageposition.2.T urn constant voltage rheostat and portablefield control to high.3.Set T rimmer #1 so that OCV is 60±1 voltsDC on SAM400 machines or 68±1 volts forSAM650 machines.4.T urn constant voltage rheostat and portablefield control to low.5.Set T rimmer #2 so that OCV is 21±0.5 voltsDC on SAM400 machines or 22±0.5 voltsfor SAM650 machines.Recheck to makesure readings fall within limits.T rimmer #2setting is dependent on T rimmer #1.N O T E :T h i s d i a g r a m i s f o r r e f e r e n c e o n l y .I t m a y n o t b e a c c u r a t e f o r a l l m a c h i n e s c o v e r e d b y t h i s m a n u a l.T h e s p e c i f i c d i a g r a m f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c o d e i s p a s t e d i n s i d e t h e m a c h i n e o n o n e o f t h e e n c l o s u r e p a n e l s .Now Available...12th EditionThe Procedure Handbook of Arc WeldingWith over 500,000 copies of previous editions published since 1933, the Procedure Handbook is considered by many to be the “Bible”of the arc welding industry.This printing will go fast so don’t delay.Place your order now using the coupon below.The hardbound book contains over 750 pages of welding infor-mation, techniques and procedures.Much of this material has never been included in any other book.A must for all welders, supervisors, engineers and designers.Many welding instructors will want to use the book as a reference for all students by taking advantage of the low quan-tity discount prices which include shipping by 4th class parcel post.$15.00postage paid U.S.A.MainlandHow To Read Shop DrawingsThe book contains the latest information and application data on the American Welding Society Standard Welding Symbols.Detailed discussion tells how engineers and drafts-men use the “short-cut”language of symbols to pass on assembly and welding information to shop personnel.Practical exercises and examples develop the reader’s ability to visualize mechanically drawn objects as they will appear in their assembled form.187 pages with more than 100 illustrations.Size 8-1/2”x 11”Durable, cloth-covered board binding.$4.50postage paid U.S.A.MainlandNew Lessons in Arc WeldingLessons, simply written, cover manipulatory techniques;machine and electrode characteristics;related subjects, such as distortion;and supplemental information on arc welding applications, speeds and costs.Practice materials, exercises,questions and answers are suggested for each lesson.528 pages, well illustrated, 6”x 9”size, bound in simulated,gold embossed leather.$5.00postage paid U.S.A.MainlandNeed Welding Training?The Lincoln Electric Company operates the oldest and most respected Arc Welding School in the United States at its corporate headquarters in Cleveland, Ohio.Over 100,000students have graduated.Tuition is low and the training is “hands on”For details write:Lincoln Welding School 22801 St.Clair Ave.Cleveland, Ohio 44117-1199.and ask for bulletin ED-80 or call 216-383-2259 and ask for the Welding School Registrar.Lincoln Welding SchoolBASIC COURSE $700.005 weeks of fundamentalsThere is a 10%discount on all orders of $50.00 or more for shipment at one time to one location.Orders of $50 or less before discount or orders outside of North America must be prepaid with charge, check or money order in U.S. Funds Only.Prices include shipment by 4th Class Book Rate for U.S.A. Mainland Only.Please allow up to 4 weeks for delivery.UPS Shipping for North America Only.All prepaid orders that request UPS shipment please add:$5.00For order value up to $49.99$10.00For order value between $50.00 & $99.99$15.00For order value between $100.00 & $149.00For North America invoiced orders over $50.00 & credit card orders, if UPS is requested, it will be invoiced or charged to you at cost.Outside U.S.A. Mainland order must be prepaid in U.S. Funds.Please add $2.00 per book for surface mail or $15.00 per book for air parcel post shipment.METHOD OF PAYMENT:(Sorry, No C.O.D.Orders)CHECK ONE:Name:_______________________________________________Address:_______________________________________________Ohio 44117-1199216-361-5901.JapaneseChineseKoreanArabicREAD AND UNDERSTAND THE MANUFACTURER’S INSTRUCTION FOR THIS EQUIPMENT AND THE CONSUMABLES TO BE USED AND FOLLOW YOUR EMPLOYER’S SAFETY PRACTICES.SE RECOMIENDA LEER Y ENTENDER LAS INSTRUCCIONES DEL FABRICANTE PARA EL USO DE ESTE EQUIPO Y LOS CONSUMIBLES QUE VA A UTILIZAR, SIGA LAS MEDIDAS DE SEGURIDAD DE SU SUPERVISOR.LISEZ ET COMPRENEZ LES INSTRUCTIONS DU FABRICANT EN CE QUI REGARDE CET EQUIPMENT ET LES PRODUITS A ETRE EMPLOYES ET SUIVEZ LES PROCEDURES DE SECURITE DE VOTRE EMPLOYEUR.LESEN SIE UND BEFOLGEN SIE DIE BETRIEBSANLEITUNG DER ANLAGE UND DEN ELEKTRODENEINSATZ DES HER-STELLERS. DIE UNFALLVERHÜTUNGSVORSCHRIFTEN DES ARBEITGEBERS SIND EBENFALLS ZU BEACHTEN.JapaneseChineseKoreanArabicLEIA E COMPREENDA AS INSTRUÇÕES DO FABRICANTE PARA ESTE EQUIPAMENTO E AS PARTES DE USO, E SIGA AS PRÁTICAS DE SEGURANÇA DO EMPREGADOR.。

CollegePressures完整译文

Unit 2 Colle‎g e Press‎u resDear Carlo‎s: I despe‎r atel‎y‎need‎a‎dean‘s‎excus‎e for my chem.（化学） midte‎r m（期中考试）, which‎will begin‎in about‎one hour. All I can say is that I total‎l y blew it this week. I‘ve‎falle‎n incre‎d ibly‎（难以置信地‎，非常地）, incon‎c eiva‎b ly（不可思议地‎） behin‎d.敬爱的卡洛‎斯院长：还有一个小‎时就要化学‎期中考试了‎，我急切需要‎一个院长给‎我点建议。

我唯一能说‎的就是，我这周过得‎浑浑噩噩，课业落下一‎大截。

Carlo‎s: Help! I am anxio‎u s to hear from you. I‘ll‎be‎in‎my‎room‎and‎won‘t‎leave‎it until‎I hear from you. Tomor‎r ow‎is‎the‎last‎day‎for…帮帮我！我非常需要‎你的回应！我会一直在‎房间里等，直到你给我‎回应。

明天就是最‎后一天...Carlo‎s: I left town becau‎s e I start‎e d buggi‎n g out again‎.I staye‎d up all night‎to finis‎h a take-home make-up exam and am typin‎g it to hand in on the tenth‎. It was due on the fifth‎. PS: I‘m‎going‎to the denti‎s t. Pain is prett‎y bad.我离开城镇‎是因为我又‎得赶时间开‎溜了。

我熬了一整‎晚做完家庭‎完成的考试‎，然后打印出‎来在第十周‎上交。

heartdesease心脏病的概要

Overall, men have a higher risk of heart attack than women. But the difference narrows after women reach menopause.
Heredity
Risk factors (including high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity) may also be passed from one generation to another.
artery disease.
Smokingห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
Most people know that cigarette and tabacco smoking increases your risk of lung cancer, but fewer realize that it also greatly increases your risk of heart disease and peripheral vascular disease .
drinking small
Lifestyle Changes
Maintaining a Healthy Weight
If you're overweight or obese, try to lose weight. A loss of just 5 to 10 percent of your current weight can lower your heart disease risk. To lose weight, cut back your calorie intake and do more physical activity.

翻译(赵宏伟)

模型试验动态施工力学效应大跨度岩土隧道©上海交通大学和斯普林格出版社柏林海德堡2011年版文摘:大时间一直是一个争论的焦点为大跨度岩土隧道施工方法。

合理的施工方法对隧道的稳定性和施工进度有很大影响。

变形和失败的围岩是相当复杂的。

关联的大跨度岩土隧道郑州-在中国西安高速客运铁路线,大型模型试验与等比1:20研究在各种施工方法的动态力学行为。

它们包括正面的挖掘支持和不支持,和钳工加工方法的支持。

发现预变形和压力积累发生在工作面。

三种施工方法是进一步研究的影响,尤是在隧道位移和应力变化。

透露,钳工加工方法转移负载unexcavated区域,限制水平变形,有效地减少了应力集中,延长了峰值的位置之间的距离对于应力集中和工作面,从而增加稳定性。

模型试验结果不仅为确定合理的施工方法,提供理论基础但也可以作为参考类似的隧道和地下工程施工。

关键词:物理模型、施工方法、岩土隧道施工力学、稳定CLC号码:你452.2文档代码:0引入大型铁路的快速发展建筑在中国的脸和工作隧道的跨度越来越大。

的关键大跨度隧道的成功一直consid -感染一种高度复杂的问题的观点工程,在很大程度上减少经验公式(1 - 2)提供了良好的结果类似的地质条件。

隧道的建设诱发压力变化对地面与对应荷兰国际集团(ing)位移。

如果采用不当,它会导致更高的工程建设的风险,在-折痕成本,过度的围岩破坏区,甚至隧道崩溃。

演唱和胫骨[3]研究了在支持时间根据新的软岩隧道奥地利隧道的方法。

大量的研究工作完成隧道围岩级别和供给接口技术[4 - 7]。

尽管一些以往的研究进行了失效机理,动态的大跨度岩土隧道和压力的行为工作面与尊重变化——很少研究我们的施工方法(8 - 12)。

通Luo-chuan隧道线路在高的郑州-西安线路高速铁路客运线是两车道的岩土,这是控制工程之一。

工作的区域脸是164平方米,跨度为15.2米。

由于大型跨越,建设的难度大幅增加。

作为由于扰动围岩的构造-,合理的施工方法有影响稳定和工程成本。

High Blood Pressure Causes, Symptoms and Treatments

High blood pressure - definitionAnyone whose blood pressure is 140/90mmhg or more for a sustained period is said to have high blood pressure, or hypertension.Blood pressure is usually divided into five categories:▪Hypotension (low blood pressure)Systolic mmHg 90 or less, orDiastolic mmHg 60 or less▪NormalSystolic mmHg 90-119, andDiastolic mmHg 60-79▪PrehypertensionSystolic mmHg 120-139, andDiastolic mmHg 80-89▪Stage 1 HypertensionSystolic mmHg 140-159, andDiastolic mmHg 90-99▪Stage 2 HypertensionSystolic mmHg over 160, andDiastolic mmHg over 100Causes of high blood pressureWhen referring to the causes of high blood pressure, it is divided into two categories:▪Essential high blood pressure (primary high blood pressure) - no cause has been identified.▪Secondary high blood pressure - the high blood pressure has an underlying cause, such as kidney disease, or a specific medication the patient is taking. Even though there is no identifiable cause for essential high blood pressure, there is strong evidence linking some risk factors to the likelihood of developing the condition. Most of the causes below are essential high blood pressure risk factors; there are also a couple of secondary high blood pressure examples:▪Age - the older you are the higher the risk.▪Family history - if you have close family members with hypertension, your chances of developing it are significantly higher. An international scientificstudy involving over 150 scientists from 93 centers in Europe and theUSA identified eight common genetic differences which may increase the risk of high blood pressure.▪Temperature - A study which monitored 8801 participants over the age of 65 in three French cities, found that systolic and diastolic blood pressure valuesdiffered significantly across the four seasons of the year and according to the distribution of outdoor temperature. Blood pressure was lower when it got warmer, and rose when it got colder.▪Ethnic background - evidence in Europe and North America indicates that people with African and/or South Asian ancestry have a higher risk ofdeveloping hypertension, compared to people with predominantly Caucasian or Amerindian (indigenous of the Americas) ancestries.▪Obesity/overweight - overweight refers to having extra body weight from muscle, bone, fat and/or water.Obesity tends to refer just to having a highamount of extra body fat. Both overweight and obese people are more likely to develop high blood pressure, compared to people of normal weight.▪Some aspects of gender - in general, high blood pressure is more common among adult men than adult women. However, after the age of 60 both men and women are equally susceptible. Women aged 18-59 are more likely to identify the signs and symptoms and subsequently to seek treatment for high blood pressure, compared to men.▪Physical inactivity - lack of exercise, as well as having a sedentary lifestyle, raises the risk of hypertension.▪Smoking - smoking causes the blood vessels to narrow, resulting in higher blood pressure. Smoking also reduces the blood's oxygen content so the heart has to pump faster in order to compensate, causing a rise in blood pressure. ▪Alcohol intake - the risk may even sometimes include people who drink regularly, but not in excess. People who drink regularly have higher systolic blood pressure than people who do not, say researchers from the University of Bristol, UK. They found that systolic blood pressure levels are about 7mmHg higher in frequent drinkers than in people who do not drink.▪High salt intake - researchers from the University of Michigan Health System reported that societies where people don't eat much salt have lower blood pressures than places where people eat a lot of salt.▪High fat diet - many health professionals say that a diet high in fat leads to a raised high blood pressure risk. However, most dietitians stress that theproblem is not how much fat is consumed, but rather what type of fats. Fats sourced from plants, such as avocados, nuts, olive oil, etc., as well as omega oils which are common in some types of fish, are good for you - while, saturated fats which are common in animal sourced foods, as well as trans fats are bad for you.▪Mental stress - various studies have compelling evidence that mental stress, especially over the long term, can have a serious impact on blood pressure. An interesting study carried out by researchers at the University of Texas,suggested that how air traffic controllers handle stress can affect whether they are at risk of developing high blood pressure later in life. In view of this study, and many others that focus on stress management, it would be fair to assume that some levels of stress which are not managed properly can raise the risk of hypertension.▪Diabetes - people with diabetes are at a higher risk of developing hypertension. Among patients with diabetes type 1, hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) is a risk factor for incident hypertension in type 1 diabetes -intensive insulin therapy reduces the long-term risk of developing hypertension.People with diabetes type 2 are at risk of hypertension due to hyperglycemia, as well as other factors, such as overweight/obesity, certain medications, and some cardiovascular diseases.▪Psoriasis - An American study that followed 78,000 women for 14 years found that having psoriasis was linked to a higher risk of developing high blood pressure and diabetes. Psoriasis is an immune system condition that appears on the skin in the form of thick, red scaly patches.▪Low birth weight - the link between low birth weight and hypertension becomes stronger as individuals get older - especially among white males, as opposed to female and males and female of Afro-Americans, scientists at the Tulane Center for Cardiovascular Health, New Orleans reported.▪Pregnancy - pregnant women have a higher risk of developing hypertension than women of the same age who are not pregnant. It is the most common medical problem encountered during pregnancy, complicating 2% to 3% of all pregnancies. Most countries divide hypertensive disorders in pregnancy into four categories: 1. Chronic hypertension, 2. Preeclampsia-eclampsia,3. Preeclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension.4. Gestationalhypertension.Symptoms of high blood pressureMost people with high blood pressure will not experience any symptoms until levels reach about 180/110 mmHg.High blood pressure symptoms typically include:▪Headache - usually, this will last for several days.▪Nausea - a sensation of unease and discomfort in the stomach with an urge to vomit.▪Vomiting - less common than just nausea.▪Dizziness - Lightheadedness, unsteadiness, and vertigo.▪Blurred or double vision (diplopia).▪Epistaxis - nosebleeds.▪Palpitations - disagreeable sensations of irregular and/or forceful beating of the heart.▪Dyspnea - breathlessness, shortness of breath.Anybody who experiences these symptoms should see their doctor immediately.Children with high blood pressure may have the following signs and symptoms:▪Headache.▪Fatigue.▪Blurred vision.▪Nosebleeds.▪Bell's palsy - inability to control facial muscles on one side of the face. Newborns and very young babies with high blood pressure may experience the following signs and symptoms:▪Failure to thrive.▪Seizure.▪Irritability.▪Lethargy.▪Respiratory distress.People who are diagnosed with high blood pressure should have their blood pressure checked frequently. Even if yours is normal, you should have it checked at least once every five years, and more often if you have any contributory factors.Treatments for high blood pressureTreatment for high blood pressure depends on several factors, such its severity, associated risks of developing stroke or cardiovascular, disease, etc.Slightly elevated blood pressureThe doctor may suggest some lifestyle changes if the patient's blood pressure is only slightly elevated and the risk of developing cardiovascular disease considered to be small.Moderately high blood pressureIf the patient's blood pressure is moderately high and the doctors believes the risk of developing cardiovascular disease during the next ten years is above 20%, the patient will probably be prescribed medication and advised on lifestyle changes.Severe hypertensionIf blood pressure levels are 180/110 mmHg or higher, the doctor will refer the patient to a specialist (cardiologist).Changes in lifestyle that can help lower high blood pressureThe following are recommended lifestyle changes that can help you lower your blood pressure.Regular exerciseA regular program of exercise can prove beneficial in lowering blood pressure.Exercising for 30 to 60 minutes five days a week will usually lower a person's blood pressure by 4 to 9 mmHg. If you embark on an exercise program you should see the benefits fairly soon - within a matter of two to three weeks, especially if you have been leading a sedentary lifestyle for a long time.It is important to make sure you check with your doctor before embarking on any physical activity program. Exercise needs to be tailored to the needs and health of the patient.The secret of getting success out of exercise is to do it regularly. Exercising at weekends and doing nothing from Monday to Friday will be much less effective.Reducing alcohol consumptionAlcohol consumption is a double-edged sword. Some studies indicate it helps lower blood pressure, while others report the opposite. In very small amounts it may lower blood pressure. But if you drink too much, even moderate amounts regularly in some cases, blood pressure levels may go up. People who drink more than moderate amounts of alcohol regularly virtually always experience elevated blood pressure levels.Eating healthilyThis means eating plenty of fruits and vegetables, good qualityunrefined carbohydrates, vegetable oils, and omega oils. If you eat animal products make sure all the fat is trimmed and avoid processed meats.Lowering salt (sodium) intakeStudies have shown that even a moderate reduction in sodium intake can lower blood pressure levels by 2 to 8 mmHg.A study found that most Americans who are diagnosed with hypertension still consume more than the recommended levels of salt. Study leader, Umed Ajani, an epidemiologist with the National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Promotion, said "Perhaps the most striking finding is that no difference in sodium intake was observed between those who received advice and those who did not."A report published in March, 2009 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), USA, suggests that 7 in every 10 adult Americans should limit their sodium intake to 1,500 mg a day (about 2/3 of a teaspoon of salt). The report estimated that 145 million Americans - 70% of the adult population - have one of three risk factors for hypertension.Losing weightStudies have revealed that even moderate weight loss - just ten pounds - can have a significant impact in lowering elevated blood pressure. If you are overweight, the nearer you get to your ideal weight the more your blood pressure is likely to fall. Any high blood pressure medications you are taking will become more effective when you lose weight. Reducing your waistline will have the greatest effect. Achieving your ideal body weight involves a combination of exercise, good diet, and at least 7 hours good quality sleep each night.Keeping a food diary can double weight loss as part of a managed program, scientists at Kaiser Permanente's Center for Health Research discovered.Lowering caffeine consumptionThere are scores of studies that report on whether caffeine has an impact on blood pressure. As many of them have conflicting conclusions it is understandable that people become exasperated.Habitual coffee drinking is not linked to an increased risk of high blood pressure in women, although a link was found with sugared or diet colas , reported researchers from Brigham and Women's Hospital and the Harvard School of Public Health.Researchers found that healthy adults who drank two cans a day of a popular energy drink experienced an increase in their blood pressure and heart rate. The researchers, from Henry Ford Hospital believe the caffeine and taurine levels in energy drinks could be responsible for increases in blood pressure and heart rate.All researchers agree on one thing: Excessive caffeine consumption is not good for people who have hypertension. Therefore, it would be wise to keep an eye on your caffeine consumption. Remember that caffeine is present in most coffees, many teas, sodas (carbonated drinks), chocolates, and some other foods and drinks.Relaxation techniquesResearchers at Massachusetts General Hospital found that adding the relaxation response, a stress-management approach, to other lifestyle modifications may。

资源勘查工程专业外语

专业外语复习题英译汉、汉译英:1) abnormal high formation pressure 异常高地层压力 2) reservoir drive 油藏驱动 3) hydrostatic pressure gradient 静水压力梯度 4) geothermal gradient 地温梯度 5) dolomitization 白云岩化作用 6) rollover anticline 滚动背斜 7) unconformity trap 不整合圈闭 8) faulting trap 断层圈闭 9) salt plug 盐丘 10) the use of well logging 测井应用 11) stratigraphic trap 地层圈闭 12) Permian sandstone reservoir 二叠系砂岩储层 13) the late petroleum generation hypothesis 晚期石油生成说 14) organic-rich shale 富含有机质页岩 15) buoyancy 浮力 16) clastic or detrial rock 碎屑岩 17) the strike contours 等值高线 18) transgressive sequence 水进层序 19) desgressive sequence 水退层序 20) sequence stratigraphy 层序地层学 21) well —sorted sands 分选好的砂 22) secondary growth of quartz 石英次生加大 23) the capacity of a fault 断层封闭 24) growth fault 同生（生长)断层 25) fluvial facies 河流相 26) Carboniferous limestone 石炭化石灰岩 27) Cretaceous dolomite 白垩纪白云岩 28) fan —delta 扇三角洲 29) insoluble organic matter 30) a potential source rock 潜在烃源岩 31) evolutionary stages of kerogen 干酪根的演化阶段 32) secondary pores 次生孔隙 33) petroleum migration 石油运移 34) hydrocarbon accumulation 烃类聚集 35) kerogen 干酪根 36) porosity 孔隙度37) permeability 渗透率 38) water —saturation 含水饱和度39) hydrodynamic condition 水动力条件40) oils and source rocks correlation 油源岩对比 41) effective porosity 有效孔隙度 42) types of reservoir drives 油藏驱动类型 43) lens of sandstones 砂岩透镜体 44) sedimentary facies 沉积相 45) minor structure 微幅构造 46) subsidence or depression belt 沉陷带47) nose structure 鼻状构造 48) reservoir heterogeneity 储集层非均质性 49) high point of structure 构造高点 50) oil-field water 油田水 51) original reservoir pressure 原始储层压力 52) salinity 盐度(矿化度） 53) anticline 背斜 54) syncline 向斜 55) normal fault 正断层 56) reverse fault 逆断层57) geological mapping 地质制图 58) organic matter 有机质 59) residual oil 剩余油 60) primary pore 原生孔隙 secondary pore 次生孔隙61) coarse —sandstone 粗砂岩 62) fine —sandstone 细砂岩 63) silt stone 粉砂岩 64) mature stage of hydrocarbon source rock 烃源岩成熟阶段 65) structural strike contours 构造等值线 66) absolute permeability 绝对渗透率 67) arkoses 长石砂岩 68) elaborate geological description of oil pools 油藏精细地质描述名词解释：1、Fossils： are the recognizable remains or traces of animals and plants that were preserved in sediments,rocks and other materials。

NSS Mastering Biology Suggested Answer Book 1B (eng)

Suggested answers to Exercise and Reading to learn(Note: The overseas examination boards bear no responsibility for the suggested answers contained in this publication. Answers for HKCEE and HKALE questions are not available due to copyright restrictions.)Chapter 7 Gas exchange in humansExerciseMultiple-choice questions (p. 7-26)1 D2 B3 C4 C5 C6 B7 B8 A9 C10 C11 DShort questions (p. 7-28)12The dust particles and bacteria from the air cannot be filtered by cilia or trapped by mucus.1m They can go directly into our lungs. 1m The dust will block the air passage and the bacteria will cause respiratory infection. 1m13 a Air sacs 1mb Nasal cavity 1mTrachea 1mBronchi 1mBronchioles (except the smallest ones) 1mc Intercostal muscles 1mRibs 1mDiaphragm 1m 14 a In sequence:upwards / outwards 1mdownwards / flatten 1mb i On diagram:Oxygen arrow to blood from air and CO2 arrow to air from blood 1mOxygen arrow to red blood cell 1mCO2 arrow from plasma 1m ii Diffusion 1miii Large surface area 1m 15 HKCEE Biology 2005 I Q416Structured questions (p.7-29)17 a B and C 2mMucus traps dust. 1mCilia beat mucus up the trachea,preventing it from entering the lungs. 1mb F, G and H 3mc E, air sac 1m x 2It is the site of gas exchange between air and blood. 1m 18 a General description of pressure changesDecreases to a minimum of –0.29 / –0.3 / –0.31 kPa 1mat 0.8–0.9 s 0.5mThen returns to zero at the end of inspiration 1mat 1.62–1.7 s 0.5mb Changes from –0.29 / –0.3 / –0.31 kPa to 0.29 / 0.3 / 0.31 kPa 1mOverall change of 0.58–0.62 kPa 1mc i Contraction of diaphragm and intercostal muscles 1mIncreased volume in thorax / chest, decreased pressure 1mPressure rises as air moves in 1m ii Relaxation of diaphragm and intercostal muscles 0.5m Reference to elasticity / elastic fibres 0.5mDecreased volume in thorax / chest, increased pressure 1mPressure decreases as air moves out 1m 19HKCEE Biology 2001 I Q4b20HKCEE Human Biology 1999 I Q1b21 a1mb Hydrogencarbonate indicator / lime water 1mc A: Hydrogencarbonate indicator changes to yellow / lime water turns milky 1mB: Hydrogencarbonate indicator remains orange / lime water remains clear 1md i Collect a jar of atmospheric air as inhaled air. 1mCollect a jar of exhaled air by blowing slowly into a gas jar over water. 1mLower a burning candle into the jar of inhaled air and the jar of exhaled air. 1mRecord how long the candle can burn in each jar. 1m ii The candle can burn longer in the jar of inhaled air. 1mIt is because some oxygen of the inhaled air is absorbed in the lungs and theexhaled air contains less oxygen. 1m 22 a i Arrow at peak of curve 1mii Intercostal muscles contract 1m Diaphragm contracts / flattens / moves down 1mRibs move upwards and outwards 1m iii Line goes up 1mb i Bronchiole 1mii Mucus traps dust / microorganisms 1m Cilia sweep mucus away from air sacs 1m iii Any two from: 1m x 2 Stimulates mucus-secreting cells / excess mucus producedInhibits ciliaLeads to cancerEssays (p. 7-31)23CartilageIn trachea / bronchi 0.5mHolds airway open / prevents collapse 0.5mLow resistance to air movement 0.5m Ciliated epithelium / ciliaSweep mucus 0.5mRemove particles from lungs 0.5m Mucus-secreting cellsSecrete mucus 0.5mTrap bacteria / dust / pollen / particles 0.5m Blood vesselsSupply oxygen / nutrients to tissues of lung 0.5mSurround air sacs / good blood supply to air sacs 0.5mDeliver carbon dioxide / pick up oxygen 0.5mReference to wall of capillary being thin 0.5mEase of / rapid gaseous exchange OR short diffusion pathway 0.5m Smooth muscleAdjust size of airways in exercise 0.5m EpitheliumThin wall of air sacs 0.5mEase of / rapid gaseous exchangeOR short diffusion pathway 0.5mReference to larger surface area of numerous air sacs 0.5m Quality of written communication 2m24Any three from: 1m x 3 Inhaled air contains more oxygen than exhaled airInhaled air contains less carbon dioxide than exhaled airInhaled air contains less water vapourRelative amount / percentage of nitrogen also changesExplanation:Respiration results in lower blood oxygen / higher blood carbon dioxide 1m Oxygen enters blood / carbon dioxide leaves blood in air sacs 1m by diffusion 1m Water vapour diffuses from moist surface 1m Breadth of knowledge 2m max Quality of written communication 1m max Reading to learn (p. 7-32)1During inhalation,diaphragm muscles and intercostal muscles contract. 1m Diaphragm flattens and rib cage moves upwards and outwards. 1m Volume of thoracic cavity increases and pressure decreases. 0.5m Air rushes into the lungs. 0.5m During exhalation,diaphragm muscles and intercostal muscles relax. 1m Diaphragm returns to dome shape and rib cage moves downwards and inwards.1m Volume of thoracic cavity decreases and pressure increases.Air is forced out of the lungs. 1m2The iron lung was connected with a pump which changed the pressure inside. 1m When the pressure inside the iron lung is lower than that inside the lungs of the patient, air rushes into the lungs. 1m When the pressure inside the iron lung is higher than that inside the lungs of the patient, air inside the lungs is forced out of it. 1m3Advancement in the making of artificial joint 1m Reduces risk of allergy allows patients to move more flexibly 1m (Accept other reasonable answers)Chapter 8 Transport in humansExerciseMultiple-choice questions (p. 8-31)1 C2 D3 B4 A5 B6 B7 A8 B9 C10 B11 B12 BShort questions (p. 8-33)13 a i Haemoglobin 1mii Carries oxygen / forms oxyhaemoglobin 1m from lungs to tissues 1mb No nucleus / biconcave disc 1m14 HKCEE Biology 2006 I Q115 a Blood flows twice through heart 1mper one full circulation 1mORPulmonary circulation / to lungs 1mSystemic circulation / to the body 1mb Any one from: 1mMore oxygen reaches tissues / cells OR more efficient supply to tissues / cellsHelps sustain high blood pressureLess resistance to flowEasier to return blood to heartMore rapid circulationGreater activity possibleToo high a pressure does not damage lungs16HKCEE Biology 2001 I Q3bStructured questions (p. 8-34)17 HKCEE Biology 2005 I Q8a18 HKCEE Biology 2004 I Q3c19 a As the total cross-sectional area of vessels increases (due to branching of arteries intoarterioles) / large number of capillaries 1mResistance to blood flow increases and blood pressure falls 1mORFormation of tissue fluid at the arterial end of capillary beds 1mDecreases blood volume and therefore decreases blood pressure within the capillarybeds 1mORGreater distance from heart 1mPressure gradually reduces with distance from heart / pressure is maintained by smalllumen of the arteries 1mORVeins have a larger lumen 1mLarger volume equals decreased pressure 1mb Any two from: 1m x 2The arteries have a thick wall (particularly the tunica media) to resist pressureThe arteries contain numerous elastic fibresElastic fibres allow expansion under pressureSmall arterial lumen ensures high pressurec Any two from: 1m x 2The veins have a large lumen to reduce the resistance of blood flowing into themVeins rely on the movement of surrounding muscle tissue to move blood alongThey possess valves to prevent backflowDescription of how valves workd i Tissue fluid forms at the arterial end of capillary networks because of the highblood pressure. 1m ii Reabsorption at the venule end is brought about osmotically because of the lower solute potential provided by the retained proteins. 1m20 a Pulmonary artery 1mb S ➝ D ➝ C ➝ P ➝ X ➝ Q ➝ B ➝ A ➝ R(2m for all correct answers or no marks)c R has a thicker wall than S. 1mR has a smaller lumen than S. 1md Blood in R has more oxygen / less carbon dioxide / more glucose than in S. (any 2)1m x 2e The semilunar valves are closed. 1mThe cardiac muscle of A and C relaxes. 1mThe pressure inside A and C is lower than the pressure in P and R. 1m Essay (p. 8-35)21Any 10 from: 1m x 10 Highest pressure is in the aorta / arteries / closest to heart, where there is rhythmic rise and fall / pulse.Pressure drops progressively from arteries to arterioles.Pressure drops further through capillaries / progressive drop with increased distance from heart.Pressure in veins is low.(Marks of the above points may be awarded on annotated graph)Rise and fall in aorta or arteries corresponds to contraction of ventricles.Friction with walls causes pressure drop.Arterioles have large total cross sectional area. Capillaries give even greater crosssectional area.Few vessels subdividing into many smaller vessels, causing substantial pressure drop from arterial values / narrow lumen increases friction so pressure drops.Effect depends on whether arterioles are dilated or constricted / reference to elastic recoil in artery walls / maintains pressure.Pressure also drops in capillaries because of leakage of fluids into tissues.Pressure in veins / away from heart is non-rhythmic because influence of ventricles has been dissipated.Pressure in veins can be increased by squeezing action of (skeletal) muscles.This works because of the presence of valves in veins.Reading to learn (p. 8-36)1Blood is returned to the heart from different organs through blood vessels, instead of being used up as suggested by Galen. 1m Blood cannot flow from one ventricle to the other through pores in the septum of the heart, because there is no pore in the septum. Blood flows from one ventricle to the other through blood vessels. 1m 2Some of the deoxygenated blood in the right atrium and ventricle will bypass the lungs.1m Blood in the right atrium and ventricle directly goes to the left atrium and ventricle and pumped to different parts of the body. 1m Organs and tissues cannot get enough oxygen supply from the blood. 1m 3Harvey used careful calculations and repeated experiments to show blood was not used up, but flowed in a closed loop. 1m He dissected the septum of the heart to show it contained no pores. 1m 4Yes, scientists should be skeptical of other people’s findings. 1m Though Galen’s idea remained unchallenged for over 1000 years, Harvey was skeptical of the idea and did experiments to prove that it was wrong. Because of his skeptics and hard work, he finally worked out the correct theory of blood flow 1mChapter 9 Nutrition and gas exchange in plants ExerciseMultiple-choice questions (p. 9-23)1 C2 B3 C4 D5 D6 C7 C8 D9 A10 AShort questions (p. 9-25)11 a photosynthesis, autotrophs 0.5m x 2b Minerals, deficiency diseases 0.5m x 2c photosynthesis, respiration 0.5m x 2d Oxygen, carbon dioxide 0.5m x 2e compensation point, respiration 0.5m x 212 HKCEE Biology 2005 I Q8b13 a Any one from: 1mLongThin cell wallLack of waterproof layer / cuticleLarge surface areaPresent in large numbersMembrane proteins / carriers / channelsMany mitochondriab Active transport / diffusion 1mc The water potential of soil water is usually higher than that of the root cells.0.5mWater moves down the water potential gradient into the root cells by osmosis 0.5mthrough the channel proteins / differentially permeable cell membranes and 0.5mthe freely permeable cell walls. 0.5m 14 a D (mesophyll cell), E (air space) and F (guard cell) 0.5m x 3There are many air spaces to allow diffusion of gases on the moist surfacesof mesophyll cells. 1mGuard cells control the opening of stomata, which allow diffusion of gases. 0.5mb A (cuticle) and F (guard cell) 0.5m x 2Cuticle is impermeable to water. 0.5mGuard cells control the opening of stomata, which allow diffusion ofwater vapour. 0.5m 15 a Area of the field of view= 0.1 mm (height) ⨯ (5.7 cm / 3.4 cm ⨯ 0.1 mm) (length)= 0.0168 mm21mStomatal density= 4 stomata / 0.0168 mm2≈ 238 stomata per mm2 of the leaf surface 1mb Sorghum grows in dry conditions. 1mIt loses water through the stomata rapidly. 1mHaving few stomata can reduce water loss and hence conserve more water. 1m16 a To carry out photosynthesis. 1mT he cells locate near the top of the leaf so that they can trap the maximum amount oflight for photosynthesis. 1mThe cells are densely packed and contain many chloroplasts. 1mb BuoyancyStorage of oxygen / carbon dioxide / gasesAllows rapid diffusion of gases(any 2) 1m x 2c To enable exchange of gases. 1mIt would let in water if stomata are in lower epidermis. 1m Structured questions (p. 9-26)17 HKALE Biology 1998 I Q9a18 HKCEE Biology 2004 I Q4c19 HKCEE Biology 2005 I Q9Essay (p. 9-27)20Plants need to obtain oxygen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for respiration and photosynthesis respectively.They also need to obtain water and minerals from the soil for the production of different substances they need. 1m Carbon dioxide and oxygen:Plants exchange gases with the environment by diffusion. In terrestrial plants, gasexchange takes place through leaves, stems and roots.In leaves, gases from the environment diffuse into the air space through the stomata. Gases dissolve in the moist surface of the mesophyll cells. They then diffuse to the neighbouring cells. 1m Gases diffuse from the leaves to the environment in the reverse way.In woody stems, gas exchange takes place through the lenticels. 1m In roots, gas exchange takes place all over their surfaces. 1m Water and minerals:The water potential of the soil water is usually higher than that of the cytoplasm of the root hairs, water moves into the root hairs by osmosis. 1m Water passes across the cortex from cell to cell by osmosis or moves along the cell walls.1m Water is drawn up the xylem vessels by transpiration pull. 1m Most minerals are absorbed into the root cells by active transport. They are taken upagainst a concentration gradient using energy from respiration. 1m Some dissolved minerals are absorbed along water. 1m Communication max 3mReading to learn (p. 9-28)1Certain plants can make use of toxic substances as their nutrients. 1m 2It is cost-effective. 1m 3The toxic substances absorbed by the plants may escape from the leaves and pollute the air.The plants containing the toxic substances may affect the environment if they are notproperly disposed of.The clean-up process is slow because the plants take months to grow.(any 2) 1m x 2 4When the plants decay, the toxic substances absorbed by the plants may return to the soil.Animals living in soil may be harmed by the toxic substances. 1mChapter 10 Transpiration, transport and support in plants ExerciseMultiple-choice questions (p. 10-23)1 D2 C3 A4 C5 BShort questions (p. 10-24)6 HKCEE Biology 1997 I Q17 HKCEE Biology 2001 I Q38 HKCEE Biology 2006 I Q99 a Xylem cells have thick cell walls which contain a hard substance called lignin as wellas cellulose. This makes the xylem strong enough to provide support to the plants.2m The cortex cells have thin cell walls only. Support is provided by their turgidity.When the cells are turgid, they become rigid and press against each other. 2mb Diagram: The stem bends greatly and the leaves drooped 1mReason:The non-woody stem contains little xylem tissue. 1mIts support is mainly by the turgidity of cells. The cells become flaccid when there isnot enough water. 1mc The buoyancy of water provides much support to the submerged plant. 1m10 a i Water flow is not restricted. / Transpiration stream is maintained. 1mii Provides support / Waterproof to prevent water loss 1mb i The rate of water flow in xylem decreases as the total area of the stomatalopenings decreases. 1m ii Increasing temperature leads to higher rate of evaporation / transpiration. 1miii Lower plateau (start and finish at same point) 1m 11 HKCEE Biology 2002 I Q3Structured question (p. 10-26)12 a The dye had travelled 9 cm up the stem in two hours. 0.5mRate of water movement = 9/2 0.5m= 4.5 cm per hour 1mb Any two of the following: 1m x 2Increase the light intensity around the plant.Decrease the relative humidity around the plant.Use a fan to increase ventilation around the plant.c Prepare several Coleus plants with different numbers of leaves. 1mPut them under the same condition and start the experiment at the same time. 1mEstimate the total surface area of leaves in each plant by tracing all the leaves ongraph paper and counting the number of squares. 1mThe rate of water movement is expected to increase with the surface areaof leaves. 1mThe relationship may not be a directly proportional one since the surface areas ofstems are not included but transpiration occurs through the cuticle of stems as well.2m Essay (p. 10-27)13Light intensity:The rate of transpiration increases with an increase in light intensity. 1m As the light intensity increases, the stomata open wider. 1m More water vapour in the air space diffuses out through the stomata. 1m In darkness, the stomata close, so that the rate of transpiration decreases.1m Wind:The rate of transpiration increases in windy conditions. 1m In still air, the water vapour that diffuses out of the leaves accumulates around the stomata.1m Wind blows away the water vapour and prevents the decrease in the concentration gradient of water vapour between the air space in the leaves and the surrounding air. 1m Relative humidity:The rate of transpiration decreases with an increase in the relative humidity of thesurrounding air. 1m Since the air space in the leaves is saturated with water vapour, a higher relative humidity of the surrounding air will decrease the concentration gradient of water vapour between the air space and the surrounding air. 1m Therefore, less water vapour from the air space will diffuse out through the stomata. 1m (Or correct answers for other factors, e.g. air temperature, availability of soil water, air pollution, air pressure, etc.)14 HKALE Biology 2005 II Q5aReading to learn (p. 10-28)1Plants lose water rapidly under hot, dry conditions 1m when the stomata open for gas exchange. 1m The availability of water to plants is low. 1m2The needle shape greatly reduces the surface area of leaves. 1m Less water evaporates from the leaf surface. 1m3The needle-like leaves contain few chloroplasts. 0.5m The amount of food produced by photosynthesis in the leaves is small. 0.5m Instead, the epidermal cells of the stems contain many chloroplasts. 0.5m They can carry out photosynthesis to produce sufficient food for the plant.0.5m 4The swollen stems of cacti store a lot of water. 1m The turgidity of cells provides support for the plant. 1m。

新兴冷冻技术提高冷冻肌肉食品的质量和安全性的应用

a magnetic ﬁeld can change the freezing characteristics of water molecules
movements of polar molecules become stronger under the impact of the electric ﬁeld
from the electrical disturbances
3.Electromagnetic assisted freezing
01 Microwave is not the only kind of electromagnetic wave that can exert force on 02 Chaplin (2013) suggested that, besides microwaves at 915 and 2450 MHz, radiofrequency radiation (RF) at 27.12 MHz or even at extremely low frequency of 3–300 Hz can affect water molecules signiﬁcantly 03 Therefore, it seems that electromagnetic waves in several frequency bands
the change of Gibbs
From the thermodynamic point of view, when relative change in the Gibbs free energy for the system became free energy during liquid crystallization under an applied electrically assisted freezing (EF), and showed that the free energy of a system under freezing decreases due to the polarization of molecules in the system affected by the strength of the applied ﬁeld.

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a r X i v :c o n d -m a t /0307750v 1 [c o n d -m a t .m t r l -s c i ] 30 J u l 2003High-pressure Debye-Waller and Grüneisen parameters ofAu and CuMatthias J.Graf ∗,Carl W.Greeff ∗and Jonathan C.Boettger ∗∗Los Alamos National Laboratory,Los Alamos,New Mexico 87545,USAAbstract.The lattice vibrations are determined in the quasi-harmonic approximation for elemental Au and Cu to twice their normal density by ﬁrst-principles electronic band-structure calculations.It is found for these materials that the important moments of the phonon density of states can be obtained to high accuracy from short-ranged force constant models.We discuss the implications for the Grüneisen parameters on the basis of calculated phonon moments and their approximations by using bulk moduli and Debye-Waller factors.PACS:63.30.+t,91.60.Fe,62.50.+pLA-UR:03-5245Accurate and reliable high-pressure standards are fun-damental for the study of matter under extreme condi-tions and in the earth sciences.With the advent of neu-tron and x-ray diffraction measurements up to several hundred GPa in diamond anvil cells it becomes impor-tant to be able to determine precisely the pressure.At high pressures the equation of state (EOS)of elemental metals are commonly used as pressure scales.However,these scales are based on either extrapolation of low-pressure data or reduction from the Hugoniot to room temperature.The reduction of the Hugoniot curve onto P −V isotherms requires model assumptions about the Grüneisen parameter,which are experimentally not well founded.Our ability to calculate accurate moments of the phonon distribution from ﬁrst-principles electronic structures enables us to strongly constrain the Grüneisen parameter and to establish an accurate EOS and high-pressure standard for elemental gold and copper.This is an important step toward high-precision high-pressure experiments.Since recent experiments raised concerns about the consistency of these standards [1],we revisited the prob-lem of high-pressure standards using a semi-empirical approach combined with ﬁrst-principles electronic struc-ture calculations [2].This method is different from the tight-binding approach that was earlier applied to solid copper [3].We determined the lattice vibrational con-tribution to the EOS in the quasi-harmonic approxi-mation of elemental face centered cubic Au and Cu by ﬁrst-principles electronic structure calculations.We found that the important moments of the phonon density of states can be obtained to high accuracy from short-ranged force constant models.In this paper,we present the implications for the Grüneisen parameter based on those calculations and their approximations by using bulk moduli and Debye-Waller factors which,in principle,can be obtained from ultrasound and neutron/x-ray diffraction measure-ments.The accuracy of our results is based on the ac-curacy of ﬁrst-principles electronic structure calcula-tions,which were performed in the local-density approx-imation (LDA)and generalized-gradient approximation (GGA)of density functional theory.From these results elastic moduli and zone boundary phonon frequencies were obtained.Fitting simultaneously a short-ranged,second nearest-neighbor Born-von Kármán (BvK)force matrix model to the zone boundary frequencies and the elastic moduli enabled us to generate phonon disper-sion curves in the entire Brillouin zone and to compute any phonon moment needed,which is typically accurate within a few percent.At high temperatures,i.e.,in the classical limit,the temperature dependence of the pressure of a solid is dominated by the contribution from lattice vibrations,P vib .Its temperature derivative at constant volume,(∂P vib /∂T )V ,is proportional to the Grüneisen parame-ter γ,which is deﬁned byγ=−∑kd ln ωkd ln V,(1)where the phonon frequencies ωk are functions of vol-ume only and the summation is over all eigenmodes.Eq.(1)deﬁnes the logarithmic phonon moment ω0.For practical reasons one often uses an interpolating Debye phonon model for calculating the EOS or for ana-TABLE1.Bulk modulus B,log-momentω0,thermal mean-square displacement u2 ,andGrüneisen parameterγfor Au and Cu at ambient conditions were obtained from the theoreticaldata in Figs.1(a)and2(a)using Eq.(4).Experimental results are listed where available.Au theo.167.7 3.4983.2 2.99 2.76 3.03 expt.167Ref.[4] 3.65Ref.[5]63Ref.[6] 2.95Ref.[7]Cu theo.149.5 6.8661.7 1.85 2.31 1.69 expt.137Ref.[4] 6.43Ref.[5]76Ref.[8] 2.02Ref.[7]BV1/3,weﬁnd the following ap-proximations to the Mie-Grüneisen theory for the high-temperature Grüneisen parameter,γ≈γB=−12d ln B 2d ln u2TABLE2.Fit parameters andω0,B,and u2 for Au and Cu at ambient conditions were obtained fromﬁtting the theoretical data in Figs.1(a)and2(a)using Eq.(5).The reference valuesγref are from[7]and were derived using the thermodynamic deﬁnition ofγ=(V/C V)(∂P vib/∂T)V,with the speciﬁc heat C V.Au 2.95 2.95 2.72 3.00 1.229 1.064 1.481 3.48166.983.8Cu 2.02 1.85 2.29 1.680.4450.7740.623 6.86149.161.3modulus with decreasing V.At such high pressures and room temperature the excited phonons probe mostly the linear part of the phonon dispersion.The slope of the dis-persion near the zone center is crudely proportional to the bulk modulus,while the Debye-Waller factor averages all frequencies weighted by the temperature dependent occupation factor of each mode.Therefore,we expect Eq.(3)to fail when the temperature becomes comparable to the high-temperature Debye-Waller phonon moment. Roughly speaking,for T of the order of the log-moment, k B T∼¯hω0.In summary,we have successfully computed with high accuracy phonon moments of elemental gold and cop-per fromﬁrst-principles electronic structure calculations combined with a Born-von Kármán force model.From the logarithmic phonon moments we calculated the vol-ume dependence of the Grüneisen parameter up to twice the normal density of Au and Cu at ambient conditions. Comparing the Grüneisen parameter with approxima-tions based on the bulk modulus and the Debye-Waller factor,we found that for low compression,0.8<V/V0< 1.0,the approximation using the thermal mean-square displacement is more accurate than the one using the bulk modulus,while at higher compression the bulk modu-lus gives generally better agreement withγ.Therefore, a combination ofγB andγDW,which can be obtained from ultrasound and diffraction measurements,can give an estimate of the volume dependence of the Grüneisen parameterγwithin approximately10%.This provides a useful alternative for determining the Grüneisen parame-ter besides using the thermodynamic relation,which de-pends on the knowledge of the bulk modulus,thermal expansion,and speciﬁc heat.This work was supported by the Los Alamos National Laboratory under the auspices of the U.S.Department of Energy.REFERENCES1.Akahama,Y.,Kawamura,H.,and Singh,A.K.,J.Appl.Phys.92,5892(2002).2.Greeff,C.W.,and Graf,M.J.(preprint).3.Rudin,S.,Jones,M.D.,Greeff,C.W.,and Albers,R.C.,Phys.Rev.B65,235114(2002).4.deLaunay,J.,Solid State Phys.2,220(1956).5.Dederichs,P.H.,Schober,H.,and Sellmyer,D.J.,in Landolt-Börnstein,Metalle:Phononzustände,Elektronenzustände und Fermiﬂächen,eds.Hellwege,K.-H.,and Olsen,J.L.,Springer,Berlin,1981,vol.13. 6.Killean,R.C.G,and Lisher,E.J.,J.Phys.F:Metal Phys.5,1107(1975).7.Wallace,D.C.,Statistical Physics of Crystals and Liquids,World Scientiﬁc,New Jersey,2002.8.International Tables for X-Ray Crystallography,Kynoch,Birmingham,England,1974,V ol.3.9.Moruzzi,V.L.,Janak,J.F.,and Schwarz,K.,Phys.Rev.B37,790(1988).10.Zhao,Y.,Lawson,A.C.,Zhang,J.,Bennet,B.I.,V onDreele,R.B.,Phys.Rev.B62,8766(2000).11.Graf,M.J.,Jeong,I.-K.,Starr,D.L.,and Heffner,R.H.,(e-print /cond-mat/0209603,Phys.Rev.B in press).12.Söderlind,P.,Eriksson,O.,Wills,J.M.,and Boring,A.M.,Phys.Rev.B48,5844(1993).13.Abdallah,J.,User’s manual for GRIZZLY,Los AlamosNational Laboratory report LA-10244-M.14.Burakovsky,L.,and Preston,D.L.,(e-print/cond-mat/0206160).。