Chapter_1_Speech_sounds
Chapter_2_sounds 第二章 语音
• Stop (or Plosive)
– Oral & Nasal
• Fricative • (Median) Approximant • Lateral (Approximant) • Trill • Tap or Flap • Affricate
• The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.
– the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period;
– they may narrow the space considerably; or
– they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.
Chapter Two Speech Sounds
• As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system.
• The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [ə] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this space would involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points.
chapter 2 speech sounds
3 声腔
声腔包括口腔、鼻腔和咽腔三部分。 口腔可分为上下两个部分，上面部分包括上唇、上 齿、齿龈(alveolar ridge)、硬腭(hard palate)、软腭(soft palate/velum)和小舌 (uvula)。齿龈是上腭前段凸出的部分，硬腭是齿 龈之后口腔上壁坚硬的部分，软腭是硬腭后面的柔 软部分。软腭后面连接的是小舌，软腭与小舌可以 上下移动。口腔的下面部分包括下唇、下齿和舌头。 舌头是口腔里最重要、最灵活的器官，它可以分为 舌尖(tip)、舌叶(blade)、舌面三部分。舌尖位 于舌头的最前端，舌头自然平伸时，舌尖后面与齿 龈相对的部分叫舌叶。舌叶之后的部分叫舌面，又 可以分为前、中、后三部分。其中相对于硬腭的部 分是舌面前和舌面中，相对于软腭的部分是舌面后， 舌面后又可以叫舌根（root)。
physiological property physical features psychological property
Three ways of approaching phonetics:
Articulatory Phonetics (发音语音学): The study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics (声学语音学): The study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual / Auditory Phonetics (听觉语音学): is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
Classification of Speech sounds
SpeechSounds剖析.
• For example, • pin/bin, pin /pen, pin/ping. • Sounds in contrastive distribution should be assigned to different phonemes.
符号•标记
• • • • + - 表示是否具有某一特征 〔+vocalic〕 〔-vocalic〕 # ：双加号用来分隔词与语素，例如 telegraph，telegraphic，tele+graph # ic • Ф：表示零，即空位 • （）可有可无的符号放在该符号里。 • A(B) 表示或者A，或者AB。
• Matthews’ definition • • The smallest distinct sound unit in a given language: [tip]
• Technically speaking, a phoneme is defined as a minimal distinctive unit in the sound system of a language. In other words, a phoneme is the smallest unit that cannot be further divided into smaller parts at the level of sounds.
• Different from English phonetics, English phonology does not deal with the actual production of English sounds, but with the abstract aspects: the function of sounds and their patterns of combination.
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made? The Nasal Cavity（鼻腔）
●When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless. e.g. [p, s, t ] ●When they are close together, the airstreams cause them to vibrate and produces voiced sounds. e.g. [b, z, d] ●When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them, then produce the glottal stop [?]none in En.
2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made? The Oral Cavity（口腔）
The oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification. Tongue: the most flexible Uvula, the teeth and the lips, Hard palate, soft palate (velum) Alveolar ridge: the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth
语言学前八章节小结
语言学前八章节小结Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1 Definition of language: it is a means of verbal communication.2 Design feature of language:①Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.②Duality: is the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Creativity: language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.④Displacement: human language enables their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.3 Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.Chapter 2 speech sounds1 Maximal onset principle, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.Chapter 3 from morpheme to phrase1 Roof: a roof is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.2 Affix: an affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme, so affix is naturally bound.3 Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflectional affix:those are not used to produce new words but to indicate the grammatical meaning of the words.Derivational affix: those are not used to make new words and are often used to make words of different category.The differences between them:①Inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes.②Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to.③That whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often onother factors within the phrase or sentence at stake.4 A minimum free form: this was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated that sentence should be treaded as the Maximum free form while words as the minimum free form.5 Blending: it is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.6 Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which hasa heavily modified headword.Chapter 4 from word to text1 Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually 名词短语动词短语形容词性短语属于向心结构2 Exocentric construction is just the opposite of endocentricconstruction. It refers toa group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is. There is no definable centre or head inside the group.Usually 简单句介词短语介宾结构Chapter 5 meaning一types of meanings:1 conceptual meaning: logical, cognitive, or denotative content2 connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to3 social meaning what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.4 affective meaning what is communicated of the feeling and attitudes of the speaker.5 reflected meaning what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.6 collocative meaning7 thematic meaning二the referential theory1 definition: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.2 A theory which explicitly employed the notion “concept” is the semantic triangle proposed by Ogden and Richards in The Meaning of Meaning.3 antonymy(1) gradable antonymy 等级反义词（2）complementary antonymyDifferences between them1 intermedia ground2 criterion complementary3 cover term(3) converse antonymyTe chnically, the cover term is called “unmarked”, and the covered “marked”, or unusual. That mean s, in general, it is the cover term that is more often used. If the covered is used, then it suggested that there is something odd, unusual here. The speaker may already know that somebody /something is young, small, near, and he wants to know the extent in greater detail.Chapter 6 language and cognition1Cognition: another definition of cognition is the mental processor faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. 2Psycholingistics is the study of psychological aspects of language；it usuallystudies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.Chapter 7 language culture and societyLanguage is an indispensable carrier of culture.1Context of situation① A leading figure i n a linguistic tradition later known as the London school, triedto set up a model to illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrent factors. In the end, he developed his own theory of context of situation.②A: the relevant fea tures of the participants, persons, personalities.B: the relevant objects.C: the effect of the verbal action.2Speech community refers to a group of people who share not only the same rules of speaking, but at least one linguistic variety as well3SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESESWhat this hypothesis suggests is this: Our language helps mould our ways of thinking and, consequently , different languages may probably express speakers＇unique ways of understanding the world. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other, similarity between languages is relative.The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak version of this hypothesis, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.3William Labov, a famous sociolinguist, he turned out that class and style are two major factors influencing the speakers＇choice one phonological variant over another. Based on these findings, Labov explicitly delineated the patterns of stratification by class and, more importantly, successfully introduced class as an indispensiblesociolinguistic variable.Chapter 8 Language in use一Speech act theory 言语行为理论Performatives and constativesA theory of the illocutionaryDefinition: when we speak we move our vocal organs andproduce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.Locutionary act 发话行为Illocutionary act 行事行为Illocutionary force 行事语力Perlocutionary act 取效行为二the cooperative principle 合作原则1 Definition：Make your conventional contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.QuantityQualityRelationManner2 Characteristic of implicature①Calculability ②cancellability ③non-detachability 不可分离性④non-conventionalityAt the end of the discussion, we may summarize conversational implicature as a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, atheory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答： The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-basedframework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always“invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky'sare very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system? 答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets ofstructures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taughtand learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration. 答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For e xample: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused? 答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks forgeneral purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrowtranscription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ]. Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: closevowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowelsis the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4)[ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop(2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate(4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short(6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ intheir focus of study? Who do you think willbe more interested in the difference between,say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phoneticianor a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language–– the speech sounds. But while both arerelated to the study of sounds,, they differin their approach and focus. Phonetics is ofa general nature; it is interested in all thespeech sounds used in all human languages:how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features theypossess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different froma phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentsare called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/. 9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part,caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that followsit. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding formssignature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning? 答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift ofstress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done oris possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial formof ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial formof 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving theactionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who worksin a company”interviewee, “one who isinterviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectives examples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nouns exam ples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns oradjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e.specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namelymeaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as workand help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional factstogether with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number ofcoordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinatephrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semanticand syntactic roles. Semantically, ithelps to make more precise the meaningof the head. Syntactically, ittypically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrasesand provide information aboutentities and locations whoseexistence is implied by the meaning ofthe head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rulein accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det NAdvb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, acomplement, and a specifier. Draw theappropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det + head(argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +d) The apple might hit the man.S → NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S → NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences containmodifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all containconjoined categories. Draw a treestructure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all containembedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences containsa relative clause. Draw the deep structureand the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the followingsentences involve the inversion。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题——第二章：语音
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题——第二章：语音Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1~5 ACDAA6~10 DBABB1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantIV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone. 33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). V arious instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative。
语言学讲义第一章
Chapter 2Speech Sounds2.1 Phonetics and PhonologyWe can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology•Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. •Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.Major branches of phonetics：1. Acoustic phonetics (发音语音学): the study of the physical properties of the speech sounds.2. Auditory phonetics (声学语音学): the study of the way listeners perceive these speech sounds.3. Articulatory phonetics (听觉语音学): the study of how the vocal tract produces the sounds of language.•Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.–It aims to ‗discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur‘.–In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together.–Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them,–and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. Differences Between Phonology and Phonetics2.2 Speech organsPositions of vocal folder( 声带)•V oiceless: [p, s, t] 声带分开，气流无阻碍•V oiced: [b, z, d] 声带相连，气流受阻•Glottal stop(喉塞音): [?] 声带紧闭，无气流通过•Nasals: [m, n, ŋ] 双唇紧闭，鼻腔发音2.3 Segments, divergences and phonetic transcription•Segment音段：there are 4 sound segments in pronouncing “above” (a-b-o-v)•Divergence偏差：ghoti → enough [f] →women [i] →[f i∫] fishnation [∫]→•phonetic transcription音标The IPA→International Phonetic AssociationInternational Phonetic Alphabet•In 1886, the Phonetic Te achers‘ Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to popularize their methods. It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897. The first version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888.2.4 Consonants and vowels•Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract.•Vowel The sounds in the production of which no vocal organs come very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.In what ways consonants differ from vowels?•Air-stream in Articulation--consonants: the flow of air comes out with some obstructions.--vowels: the flow of air comes out freely2) Function:--consonants are used to separate the vowels.--vowels are used to help the speech organs to get from one consonant position to the next.Categories of consonants:(according to manner of articulation & place of articulation)According to manner of articulation•Stop/plosive 爆破音Oral stop 口腔爆破[ b, p, t, d, k, g]Nasal stop 鼻腔爆破[ m, n, ŋ]•Fricative 摩擦音[ f, v, θ, ð, s, z ʃ, ʒ, h]•(median) Approximant 无摩擦延续音[w, ɹ, j]•Lateral (Approximant)舌边音[ l ]•Affricate (stop + fricative) 塞擦音[ tʃ, dʒ]•others: trill颤音tap一次性接触音flap闪音[r]According to places of articulation•Bilabial 双唇音[b, p, m]•Labiodental 唇齿音[f, v]•Dental 齿音[θ, ð ]•Alveolar 齿龈音[ t, d, n, s, z, ɹ, l ]•Postalveolar / palatal-alveolar颚齿龈音[ ʃ, ʒ]•Retroflex 卷舌音[ r ]•Palatal舌面中音[ j ]•Velar 软颚音[ k, g, ŋ]•Uvular 小舌音（法语中）•Pharyngeal 咽头音（阿拉伯语中）•Glottal 喉音[ h ]Table of English ConsonantsDescription of English consonants•The consonants of English can be described in the following manner:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricativeV owels•English vowels P52V owel glides•Pure/ monophthong vowels [a] [i]•V owel glidesDiphthongs [ai] [ei]Triphthong [aie] [aue]Description of English vowels•The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:–the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);–the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);–the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and–lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).•We can now describe the English vowels in this way:–[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel–[✞] high back lax rounded vowel–[ ] mid central lax unrounded vowel–[✈] low back lax rounded vowelEnglish vowels2.5 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription•2.5.1 Coarticulation•Sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, map, lamb. When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation.–If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.–If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map.2.5.2 Narrow and Broad Phonetic Transcription•◆Broad transcription: omit some details, not necessarily phonological, used in most dictionaries and language textbooks, often in square brackets [ ]◆Narrow transcription: phonological in character, differentiate speech sounds in more detail with the help of the diacritics, enclosed in slant brackets / /•[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.–This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].2.6 Phonological AnalysisDefinition of Phonology•Yule‘s book, P54―Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.‖ It studies speech as a purposeful human activity; it views speech as a sys tematically organized activity, intended– under normal circumstances—to convey meaning.Some Key Concepts of PhonologyPhone and Phoneme•A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. e.g. [tin] → [t] [i] [n]•A phoneme can be defined as a minimal unit of sound capable of distinguishing words of different meanings. E.g. [tin] [din] → /t/ /d/–In English, the distinction between aspirated [p h] and unaspirated [p] is not phonemic.–In Chinese, however, the distinction between /p/ and /p h/ is phonemic.Differences Between Phone & Phoneme2.6.1 Phonemes and Allophones•Minimal Pairs•§Minimal pairs: When two words such as ―pat‖ and ―bat‖ are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair.Allophones•Allophone: the phonetic variants of a phoneme, or, a set of different forms of a phoneme. e.g. the 2 allophones of the same phoneme /p/ are [pʰ] as in pin and [p] in spin.Complementary distribution•In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context:–[p] occurs after [s] while [p h] occurs in other places./p/ [p] / [s] _____[p h] elsewhere•This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation.•Phonetic similarity: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance•Free Variants and Free Variation (P59)Apart from complementary distribution, a phoneme may sometimes have free variants. For example, cup→[kʰɅpʰ] or [kʰɅpɅ] (the diacritic ― Ʌ‖ indicates no audible release in IPA symbols) The difference may be caused by dialect, habit or individual preference, instead of by any diatribution rule, such phenomenon is called free variation.2.6.2 Phonological processesAssimilationDefinition ---When two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or ―copied‖ by the other, the process is known as assimilation, which is also often used synonymously with coarticulation.Types ---•Regressive assimilation /anticipatory coarticulation ( a following sound influences a preceding sound, e.g lamb);•Progressive assimilation /perseverative coarticulation (a preceding sound influences a following sound ,e.g ?to meet you )•Note: assimilation is also happened between words,e.g. sun glass /ŋ/, you can keep them. /ŋ/2.6.3 phonological rules•Nasalization rule (鼻音化):[-nasal] → [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal]→stands for “becomes”/ refers to “in the environment of ”___ “ focus bar” refers to “ the location of the change”/æ/→[æ̃] /____+nasal,+ consonant.e.g. lamb → [læ̃m b] can → [cãn]•Dentalization rule（齿音化）:[-dental] → [+dental] / ____ [+dental]e.g. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛṋθ]/n/ is dentalized before a dental fractive /θ/•Velarization rule（颚音化）:[-velar] → [+velar] / ____ [+velar]e.g. since [siṋθ] sink [siŋk]the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal /ŋ/ before the velar stop /k/. (They are all instances of assimilation.)Aspiration rule•V oiceless stop →aspirated/ word initially and initially in stressed syllable•V oiceless stop →unaspireted /#s __ (#:word boundary)voiceless stops are aspirated when they are the initial of a stressed syllable; and are unaspirated after /s/.e. g. “pin” for the first case, and “spin” for the latter one.Lengthening rule•V →V___C# voiced•(V owels are lengthened preceding voiced consonant)Flapping rule•Alveolar stop →voiced flap/V__V unstressed•(/t/,/d/ become [D] between two vowels, the second of which is unstressed)G lottalization rule•Stop voiceless →[?]/__σor /__nasal (σ:syllable boundary)•(/p/, /t/, /k/, especially /t/. Are glottalized when syllable-final or before nasals).Deletion rule•§Under certain circumstances some sounds disappear. Some preceding fricatives and affricates will be influenced by the following sound, which is a devoicing process, namely, the voiced sound will become voiceless.•[+voiced] →[+voiceless]/__ [+voiceless]•(f, v, s, and others)•( love to →[ lΛvtə] [lΛftə] ;•(For more examples please refer to P 61)The English pluralsEnglish Past Tense form•The regular past tense form in English is pronounced as [t] when the word ends with a voiceless consonant, [d] when it ends with a voiced sound, and [ɪd] when it ends with [t] or [d]. e.g. •stopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashed, reached•stabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed, soothed, bridged•steamed, stunned, pulled•played, flowed, studied•wanted, located, decided, guided2.7 Distinctive FeaturesThe idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. Since then several versions have been suggested.Definition: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound of a language (phoneme) from another or one group of sounds from another group.•[+voiced]& [+nasal] are distinctive features.•Some of the major distinctions include [consonantal], [nasal] and [voiced].–The feature [consonantal] can distinguish between consonants and vowels, so all consonants are [+consonantal] and all vowels [–consonantal].–[nasal] and [voiced] of course distinguish nasal (including nasalized) sounds and voiced sounds respectively•These are known as binary features because we can group them into two categories: one with this feature and the other without.–Binary features have two values or specificati ons denoted by ‗ + ‘ and ‗–‘ so voiced obstruents are marked [+voiced] and voiceless obstruents are marked [–voiced].•The place features are not binary features – they are divided up into four values:–[PLACE: Labial]–[PLACE: Coronal]–[PLACE: Dorsal]–[PLACE: Radical]•They are often written in shorthand forms. P672.8 Syllables•Suprasegmentals•Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.•The principal suprasegmentals are:2.8.1 the Syllable Structure•Syllable•Words can be cut up into units called syllables. A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.•Onset: the beginning sounds of the syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in English.•Rhyme( or rime): the rest of the syllable, after the onset. The rhyme can also be divided up: rhyme=nucleus + coda•Nucleus: the core or essential part of a syllable.•Coda: the final sounds of a syllable; the ones following the nucleus. These are consonants in English2.8.2 The syllable structureσO(nset) R(hyme)N(ucleus ) Co(da)k r æ k t •Monosyllabic word: a word with one syllable, like cat and dog,•Polysyllabic word: a word with more than one syllable, like transplant or festival•Open syllable: bar, tie•Closed syllable: bard, tied•Maximal Onset Principle (MOP)–When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. /k∧ntri/2.9 Stress•Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [│] is often used just before the syllable it relates to.–A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter.–Types: primary ~; secondary ~Changing English Stress PatternBecoming norm •inTEGral •coMMUNal •forMIDable •conTROVersyVerb •conVICT •inSULT •proDUCE •reBEL•BLACKboard•BLACKbird。
语言学教程课后答案定义归纳
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第三版）---------课后习题单词定义归纳Chapter I Invitation to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:定义特征design feature:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.功能function:the role language plays in communication . to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations . religious, legal).共时的synchronic:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.历时的diachronic:said of the study of development of language and languages over time.规定式prescriptive:to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.描写式descriptive:to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.任意式arbitrariness:the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.二层式duality:the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units . words) and meaningless segments . sounds, letters).移位式displacement:the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.寒暄phatic communion:said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.元语言metalanguage:a language used for talking about language.宏观语言学macrolinguistics:a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.语言能力competence:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.语言运用performance:the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.语言langue:the language system shared by a “speech community”.言语parole:the concrete utterances of a speaker.Chapter 2 Speech sounds1. Define the following terms:语音学phonetics:the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual/auditory phonetics.发音语音学articulatory phonetics:the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.音系学phonology:the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.发音器官speech organs:those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‘vocal organs’.带声器官voicing:the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate again st each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‘voiced’. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‘voiceless’.国际音标International Phonetic Alphabet:a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.辅音consonant:a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.元音vowel:a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.发音方式manner of articulation:ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.发音部位place of articulation:the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.基本元音Cardinal Vowels:a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.半元音semi-vowel:segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, . [j] and [w].滑元音vowel glide:vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived.协同发音coarticulation:simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the followingsound, it is known as ‘anticipatory coarticulation’; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‘perseverative coarticution’.音位phoneme:a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast ,between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.音位变体allophone:variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.同化现象assimilation:a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with ‘coarticulation’. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‘regressive assimilation’; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‘progressive assimilation’.剩余位置条件Elsewhere Condition:The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.区别特征distinctive features:a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.音节syllable:an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.最大节首原则Maximal Onset Principle:a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.重音stress:the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‘prominent’, it is a ‘stressed’ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‘unstressed’ syllable.语调intonation:the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.声调tone:a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Chapter 3 Lexicon1.Define the following terms语素morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexically or grammatically. Take for example, the word tourists contains three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning –ist (meaning “person who does someth ing), and a minimal unit of grammatical function –s (indicating plural). Meanwhile, from the above example, we can further classify morphemes into different types on different dimensions: (a) free morphemes, which can stand by themselves as single words, . tour in tourist, and bound morphemes, which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, . –ist, -s. (b) lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. Both of these two types of morphemes fall into the “free” category. The first category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the “content” of message we convey, . house, long and follow. The second category consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, . but, above, the and it. (c) derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. These two types of morphemes fall into the “bound” category. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category ofa word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree. As a useful way to remember the different categories of morphemes, the following chart can be used: It should be pointed out, morphemes may also be divided into roots and affixes, the root being that partof a word structure which is left when all the affixes have been removed. Root morphemes may be bound or free, and are potentially unlimited in number in a language; Affixes are bound morphemes and limited in number. For instance, in try, tries, trying, tried, the root is try, and –s, -ing, -ed are affixes.复合词compound:refers to the words that consist of more than on lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate wordsto produce a single form, such as classroom, mailbox, fingerprint, sunburn. In terms of the word class of compounds, there are Noun compounds . daybreak), Verb compounds . brainwash), Adjective compounds . dutyfree) and Preposition compounds . throughout). Meanwhile compounds can be further divided into endocentric compound and exocentric compound in terms of its structural organization. The head of a nominal or adjectival endocentric compound is d is derived from a Verb, and it is usually the case that the first member is a participant of the process verb. Consider the following two examples: self-control and virus-sensitive. The exocentric nominal compounds are formed by V+N, V+A, and V+P, whereas the exocentric adjectives come from V+N and V+A. Here are some examples: Nouns scarecrow playboy cutthroat Adjectives take home Lackluster breakneck屈折变化inflection:is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.词缀affix:the collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morpheme. Affixes ina language are limited in number, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position around the root or stem of a word. Prefixes are these affixes that have be added to the beginning of a word . un- in unhappy); suffixes are those added to the end of a word . –ish in foolish); infixes, as a third type of affix, is not normally found in English but fairly commonin some other languages. As the term suggests, it is an affix that is incorporated inside another word. It is possible to see the general principle at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or aggravating circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers: Absogoddamlutely! And Unfuckingbelievable! In fact, all affixes are bound morphemes.派生词derivation:is the most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words. It is accomplished by means of a large number of affixes of English language, and shows the relationship between roots and affixes. For exa mple: mis +represent à misrepresent, joy+ ful à joyful, sad + ness à sadness. In contrast to inflection, derivation can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged, . dis + card à discard (changed) and dis + obey à disobey (unchang ed). It is worth mentioning that word forms that come from derivation are relatively large and potentially open. Take the prefix pre- for example. One can easily list hundreds of words from any dictionary, such as preamble, pre-arrange, precaution, precede, precedent, precept, precinct, precognition, precondition, precursor, among many others 词根root:refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, the left part is the root nation. Apparently, all words contain a root morpheme. And roots can be further classified into free root morpheme and bound root morpheme. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive, and conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit, and submit; -tain in retain, contain, and maintain; -cur in incur, recur, and occur, etc. Third, a few English roots may have both free and bound variants. For instance, sleep (/slip/) and child (/taild/) are free root morphemes, whereas slep- in the past tense form of sleep, . slept and child- in the plural form of child, namely children, cannot exist by themselves, and are hence bound. 语素变体allomorph:A morpheme, like a phoneme, is a linguistic abstraction, which must be realized as certain phonetic formsor variants in different phonetic environments. Each of the phonetic forms or variants is a morph. A single morpheme may be phonetically realized as two or more morphs. The different morphs that represent or which are derived from one morpheme is called the allomorphs of that morpheme. In practice, some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog” “bark” etc. In other instances the re may be considerable variation, that is to say, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. For example, the plural sememe in English can be represented by the voiceless /s/, the voiced /z/, the vowel-consonant structure /z/, the diphthong /a/ found in the irregular form of /mas/, the nasal sound /n/ in /ksn/, the long vowel /i/ in /tiθ/ and the zero form /i/ of /ip/ and others. Each would be said to be an allomorph of the plural morpheme.词干stem:is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. For example, friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.黏着语素bound morpheme:refers to those which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme. For example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and -ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and -ed are two bound morphemes. There are two types of morphemes which fall into the “bound” category: derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree.自由语素free morpheme:refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves. In English cats, cat is free since cat is a word in its own right. Free morphemes therefore necessarily constitute mono-morphemicwords. So all mono-morphemic words are free morphemes. Poly-morphemic words/compound words may consist wholly of free morphemes, and English aircraft, godfather and housewife. As for its subtypes, free morphemes can be further divided into lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. The former is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the “content” of message we convey, . house, long and follow. The latter consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, . but, above, the and it.词位lexeme:in order to reduce the ambiguity of the term word, lexeme is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which appears in different grammatical contexts. For example, “write” is the l exeme of the following set of words: write, writes, wrote, writing, written.词汇lexicon:refers to the whole vocabulary of a language as against grammar of a language.语法词grammatical word:refers to those which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Grammatical words serve to link together different content parts. So they are also known as Function Words.词汇词lexical word:refers to those which have mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Lexical words carry the main content of a language. So lexical words are also known as Content Words.封闭类closed-class:A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easily add or deduce a new member.开放类open-class:is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions, or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.混成法blending:is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, telephone + exchange à telex; transfer + resister à transistor.借词loanword:The borrowing of a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter. For instance, English borrowed au pair, encore, coup d'etat and others from French, al fresco (in the open air) from Italian, tea from Chinese, sputnik from Russian and moccasin (a type of shoe) from an American Indian language.混合借词Loan blend:is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. For example, the first parts of the words coconut and China-town came from Spanish and Chinese respectively, but the second parts are of the English origin.转移借词Loan shift: is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. For example, the Italian ponte means “bridge” in the literal sense, when it refers to a type of card game, the meaning was borrowed from English.缩略词acronym:is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. For example, WTO stands for World Trade Organization. This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields, . Aids—acquired immune deficiency syndrome, COBOL—common business oriented language.脱落loss:the loss of sound refers to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. Take the sound /x/ in . (old English) again for example. Apart from having changed into /f/ or /k/ in some words as mentioned above, this velar fricative was simply lost between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare. Sounds lost may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels. For example, temperature /'temprt/ à /'temprt/.逆构词法Back formation:refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. For example, the word television appeared before televise. The first part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language.同化assimilation:refers to the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation. The assimilation processes at work could be explained by the “theory of least effort”; that is, in speaking we tend to use as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often the places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds. Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often. For instance, in expressions such as immobile, irrevocable, impolite, illegal, the negative prefixes im-, il-, or ir- should be in- etymologically. Sometimes assimilation may occur between two sounds that are not too far separated. For instance, discussing shortly (/s/ becomes This is called “non-contiguous” or “distant” assimilation.异化dissimilation:refers to the influence of one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different. For example, grammar .) à glamor .) peregrinus (Latin) à pilgrim marbre (French) à marble ，In all these examples, one of the phonemes, /r/, dissimilates to /l/ in the course of time, which has changed the morpheme in question.俗词源folk etymology:refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous. For example, the word sparrowgrass in English was derived from asparagus and the Spanish cucaracha was changed into English cockroach.Chapter 4 Syntax1. Define the following terms:句法syntax:the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.共现co-occurrence:It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For instance, what can precede a noun (dog) is usually the determiners and adjectives, and what can follow it when it takes the position of subject will be predicators such as bark, bite, run, etc. In short, co-occurrence is the syntactic environment in which a construction, with its relevant elements, can appear grammatically and conventionally. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.结构体construction:it refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use construct contains. It can be further divided into the external and internal properties. Take sentence The boy kicked the ball as an example, we will determine the external syntax as an independent clause, while NP (“the boy”), VP (“kicked”) and NP (“the ball”) will be assigned respectively to t he different elements in this clause.向心结构endocentric:Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable Centre or Head. In the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the Centre or Head of this phrase or word group.成分constituent:Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence The boy ate the apple, S (A), the boy (B), ate the apple(C), each part is a constituent. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the boy) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (“S”, here a sentence), then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A.离心结构exocentric:Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable "Centre" or "Head" inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction. In the sentence The boy smiled, neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.从属关系subordination:Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the Head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. In the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head. 范畴category:The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, ., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, and so on.并列关系coordination:A common syntactic pattern in English and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. This phenomenon is known as coordination. In the construction the lady or the tiger, both NPs the lady and the tiger have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.一致关系agreement:Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). For instance, the syntactic relationship between this pen and it in the following dialogue:--Whose is this pen--Oh, it’s the one I lost.嵌入embedding:Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in another clause in syntactic subordination. ., I saw the man who had visited you last year.递归性recursiveness:it mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within ., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. For example, “I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new”.衔接cohesion:Cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. The cohesive devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. In the following example, the cohesive devi ce is “Reference”, that is, “it” refers back to the door: He couldn't open the door. It was locked tight.语法主语和逻辑主语grammatical subject & logical subject:Grammatical and logical subjects are two terms accounting for the case of subject in passive voice. Take the sentences a dog bit John and John was bitten by a dog as examples. Since the core object noun (John in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called grammatical subject, for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies; the core subject (a dog), now the object of a preposition (by a dog), is called a logical subject, since semantically the core subject still does what a subject normally does: it performs an action. Chapter 5 Meaning1. Define the following terms:概念意义conceptual meaning:This is the first type of meaning recognized by Leech, which he defined as the logical, cognitive, or denotative content. In other words, it overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference. But Leech。
语言学期末复习题
胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题Chapter 1I. Choose the best answer. (20%)5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6.Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. InterpersonalII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an exa mple of the diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)nguage, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentencesbased on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________theory.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)1. Design feature2. DisplacementV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]10.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)14.[p] is a voiced bilabial stop.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda ratherthan the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)23.The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24.One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth.A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25.Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)36.What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1.Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems7.The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending9.The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreementII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)13.Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.15.Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.18.In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs,adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.30.Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Blending32.Allomorph33.Closed-class wordV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门大学，2003）Chapter 4 SyntaxI.Choose the best answer. (20%)1.The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical9.The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinateII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%).16.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verbphrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)24.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject isgrammatically called __________.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Syntax32.IC analysisV.Answer the following questions. (20%)36.Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis.Chapter 5 MeaningI.Choose the best answer. (20%)5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6.“Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above9.Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonymsII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)12.Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while thereference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.13.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.15.Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. 17.The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.__________ can be defined as the study of meaning.24.Words that are close in meaning are called __________.26.__________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27. __________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.30.According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Entailment32. Propositionponential analysis34.ReferenceV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?Dogs, cats, pets, parrots; trunk, branches, tree, roots36.What are the three kinds of antonymy?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a) words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, carb. milk, alcohol, rice, soup(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractorb. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）Chapter Six PsycholinguisticsChapter 7 Language, Culture and SocietyI.Choose the best answer. (20%)1._______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2.The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)34. SociolinguisticsSapir-Whorf HypothesisV. Answer the following questions. (20%)Summarize the features of the female languageChapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication? Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy.(2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.。
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 语音 语言学胡壮麟
Two major areas of study of speech sounds are:
Phonetics Phonology
II. Phonetics
2.1 Definition Phonetics (the study of sounds) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages.
Figure 1: Articulation of bilabial nasal stops.
Figure 2: Articulation of alveolar nasal stops.
Figure 4: Articulation of velar nasal stops.
3) fricatives: The obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage (close approximation of articulators).
The air stream (source of energy) coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in various ways. Speech sounds in most languages are achieved by compression of the lung volume causing air flow which may be made audible if set into vibration by the activity of the larynx, and then modified in the oral and nasal cavities.
chapter-2-Speech-Sounds语言学
• Its main principles were that
– there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and
– the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.
1.1 Speech production and perception
Speech Production (speaker A)
Speech Perception (speaker B)
A three-step process of speech sounds
Articulatory phonetics----the study of the production of speech sounds
Stop hopping to top. Quash quakes quickly!
Deer fear mere tears.
•
Bob Hope taps the cup.
Kent sent a cent to Ant.
•
Fox falls in love in fall.
• Goat road a boat to vote.
1.3.2 Two ways to transcribe speech sounds
• Broad transcription: transcription with lettersymbols only. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. E.g.help [help], speak [spi:k]
胡壮麟《语言学教程》
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）学习指导前言其实我的这一个语言学学习指导系列本来没有想做得这么大的，最初只是我买了一本语言学教程的辅导资料，发现里面有的名词解释总结得很不错，所以就想整理一下各章的名词解释。
后来觉得既然是整理，光整理名词解释，还不如对知识点做一个较全面的学习指导材料。
结果就此一发而不可收，终于形成了现在的这一整套资料。
不明白是什么的朋友们可以参考考研论坛外语版的相关帖子。
本资料主要分为三部分，第一部分为各章节提纲笔记，第二部分为重点章节测试题，第三部分为测试题参考答案。
整理这一套资料真得很劳心费力，希望能够对大家有所帮助。
在考研论坛上，我所有的相关资料都设置了阅读权限和K币，一个是为了防止盗用，但更重要的不是为了限制什么，只是希望大家在能够很容易得到资料的同时，也能够想到要付出一些，将来考上研了以后能够回到这里，与后来的研友们分享一些所能够得到的信息，资源共享，信息交流，这才是考研论坛的本意。
也希望大家在以后复习语言学的时候，能够想到冰暖茶在这门课程上作的小小的努力，如果大家都能成功，我的努力就是值得的。
需要说明的是，我在整理资料的过程中，得到了ksguobw, lxm1000w, micronannan, 天使精灵（排名不分先后）等朋友的资源共享和大力协助，在此对他们以及一贯支持冰暖茶的朋友们表示感谢！由于水平有限，加之时间仓促，疏漏之处在所难免，欢迎各位读者批评指正。
冰暖茶2006年11月目录前言 (1)目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon………………………………………………………………………………14Chapter 4 Syntax………………………………………………………………………………21Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind………………………………………………………29Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society………………………………………………………35Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer……………………………………………………………49Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching………………………………………53Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguist ics………………………………………59第二部分重点章节测试题……………………………………………………………………67Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology……………………………………………………………70Test Three Morphology…………………………………………………………………………73Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics……………………………………………………………………………79Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theor ies and Schools of Modern Linguistics………………………………………88第三部分测试题参考答案……………………………………………………………………91参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship totheir meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the s tudy of a language through the course of its history. E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence isstable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emic[These two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohong’s book, I can understand them better, bu t because they are vaguely mentioned in Hu’s book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. – icywarmtea]Being etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investiga tor’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Romanalphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English, [ ] are stops and [ ] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English, [ ] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes [ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [ ] is the only lateral in E nglish.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls ofthe pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network免费考研网。
语言学一至三章重点
语言学一至三章重点Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.1 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2 What are the design features of language?The features that refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication can be called design features.1]ArbitrarinessThe forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There are different levels of arbitrariness.2] Duality aBy duality is meant the property of having two levels of structure that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. We call sounds here primary units as opposed to such secondary units as words, since the primary units are meaningless and the secondary units have distinct and identifiable meaning.3] CreativityCreativity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language. By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.4] DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent at the moment of communication.1.3 What are the functions of language?1] Informative functionIt is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. Language serves for the expression of content: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.2] Interpersonal functionBy far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.3] Performative functionThe perfomative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons.4] Emotive functionIt is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against some or something. It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.5] Phatic functionThe phatic function refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or marinating social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas. It refers to the social interaction of language.7] Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about itself. This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: we human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking.1.4 What is linguistics?Linguistics is a branch of science which takes language as its object of investigation.1.5 What is the difference between descriptive study and prescriptive study?A linguistic study is descriptive if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for correct language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on high written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It believes that whatever occurs in natural speech should be describe in the analysis.1.6What is the difference between synchronic description and diachronic description?The description of a language at some point of time is a synchrony study. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.1.7 What are langue and parole? What is the difference between them?F. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualizes language, or the realization of langue.Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints.For F. de Saussure parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instancesof parole, to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.8 What are competence and performance? What is the difference between them?According to N. Chom sky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowle dge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sound2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made,transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected.2.2 What is IPA?On the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time, the International Phonetic Association devised the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) in 1888.2.3 What’s the difference between broad and narrow transcriptions?Narrow transcription is meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades, while broad transcription is intended to indicate only those sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.2.4 The description of English consonantConsonant Description = voice/voiceless + places of articulation + manners of articulation[p] voiceless bilabial stop2.5 What is phonology?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.2.6 What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms are supposed to form a minimal pair for example, pill and bill, pill and till, till and dill, till and kill.2.7 What are phone, phoneme and allophone?Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A phoneme is a phonological unit. It is unit that is ofdistinctive value.The phones representing a phoneme are called its allophones. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is morpheme?Morpheme: it is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. A morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?A free morpheme is one that ma y constitute a word by itself, such as “bed”, “tree” and “sing”.A bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “-al” in “national”.3.3 What are compound word and derivation word?It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.According to semantic criteria, compounds fall into two classes:The first class is called endocentric compounds comprising words like armchair (a kind of chair) and houseparty (a kind of party). In each, one constituent is the center and the other is the modifier.The second class is exocentric compounds, consisting ofwords like redskin and birdbrain, in which there is no focal element and the whole refers to something else rather than what either the constituents. Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.3.4 What are lexical changes? Explain them respectively.(1) InventionPeople can create new word coping with the new entities appeared during the social and economic development.(2) BlendingIt is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.(3) AbbreviationA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial and final parts.(4) AcronymIt is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified head word.(5) Back-formationBack-formation occurs when a real or supposed affix (that is,a prefix or suffix) is removed from a word to create a new one.(6) Analogical creationIt can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.(7) Borrowingi. loanwords: ii. loanblend：iii. loanshif：iv. loan translation：。
语言学教案Chapter2SpeechSounds
语⾔学教案Chapter2SpeechSounds Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perception2.2 Speech organs2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergences2.3.2 Phonetic transcription2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels2.4.2 Consonants2.4.3 Manners of articulation2.4.4 Places of articulation2.4.5 The consonants of English2.5 V owels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels2.5.3 V owel glides2.5.4 The vowels of RP2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 Coarticulation2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions2.7 Phonological analysis2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairs2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 Allophones2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 Assimilation2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules2.9.3 Rule ordering2.10 Distinctive features2.11 Syllables2.11.1 The syllable structure2.11.2 Sonority scale2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal onset principle2.12 Stress2.1 Speech production and perceptionLanguage i s first and foremost a “system of vocal symbols”.Sound is prior to writing.Phonetics: the study of soundsPhonology: the study of sound patterns.Speech SpeechProduction Perception(Speaker A) (Speech B)●ARTICULATORY PHONETICS: the study of the production of speech sounds●ACOUSTIC PHNETICS: the study of physical properties of sounds produced in speech●AUDITORY PHONETIC: the study of perception of speech sounds2.2 Speech organsSPEECH ORGANS(or VOCAL ORGANS): parts of the human body involved in the production of speechLungTrachea(or windpipe)Throat: pharynx, larynxNoseMouth: tongue, parts of palateVOCAL TRACTAIRSTREAM: source of energyPulmonic & Non-pulmonicLARYNXV ocal folds, and ventricular foldsPositions of vocal folds●Apart: [p, s, t]●Close together: [b, z, d]●Totally together: glottal stopPHARYNXMOUTHUpper lip, upper teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvulaLower lip, lower teeth, tongue, mandible(lower jaw 下腭)TONGUE:tip, blade, front, back, root2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesSEGMENTE.g. above(“e” is silent)QUESTION: Why divergence between sound and symbol?2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionQuestions: Why do we need phonetic transcription?International Phonetic Alphabet2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsCONSONATNS are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow or air in the oral cavity.VOWELS are produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.SEMI-VOWEL/SEMI-CONSONA TNT2.4.2 ConsonantsNOTE: In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. E.g. bad(a) MANNERS OF ARTICULATION(b) PLACES OF ARTICULATION2.4.3 Manners of articulation(1) STOP/POSITIVENASAL STOP (or NASAL): [m, n, ]ORAL STOP (or STOP): e.g. [p, b, t, d](2) FRICATIVE: [f, v, h](3) (MEDIAN) APPROXIMANT(4) LATERAL (APPROXIMANT): [l](5) OthersTRILL (or ROLL)TAP(or FLAP)AFFRICATIVEE.g. “ch-” in “church”2.4.4 Places of articulatio n(1) BILABIAL(2) LABIODENTAL(3) DENTAL: made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth, e.g. [ , ?]. (Onlyfricative are strict dental)INTERDENTAL(4) ALVEOLAR: made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge(5) POSTALVEOLAR(6) RETROFLEX: “r” of red.(7) PALATAL(8) VERLAR: [k, g] in cat and get(9) UVULAR: rural Northern accent, “r” in try(10) PHARYNGEAL(11) GLOTTAL2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived pronunciation (RP) (or BBC English, Oxford English)[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative2.5 V owels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel descriptionC.f. V owels vs. consonantsObstruction of airstreamCriteria of vowels:●The part of the tongue that is raised — front, center, or back●The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate — high, mid (mid-high andmid-low), low●The kind of opening made at the lips — various degrees of lip rounding or spreading●The position of the soft palate — raised for oral vowels, and lowered for nasalized vowels2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowelsCardinal vowels (基本元⾳)1844 A. J. Ellis1867 A. M. Bell, Visible Speech1917 Daniel Jones, Outline of English Phonetics (1962)CARDIANL VOWELSCardinal vowel diagramSCHW A (中性元⾳): the tongue position for the neutral vowel [?] is neither high nor low and neither front nor back2.5.3 V owel glidesPURE VOWELS (or MONOPHTHONGS)VOWEL GLIDES●Diphthongs●Triphthongs2.5.4 The vowels of RPGeneral agreement on vowels despite minute differenceUnsettled issues:●Speaker’s accent and personal preference. E.g. [?] [е] in bed and peg; [aI] or [ΛI]●The length of a particular vowel may vary according to the context in which they occur.E.g. vowel before a voiced consonant﹥vowel before a voiceless consonantbead ﹥beat≈bidTense vowel & Lax vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationNOTE: Sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.COARTICULATIONAnticipatory coarticulation: lampPerseverative coarticulatio n: map2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsDIACRITICSE.g. Nasalization:[a] in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is labeled as [?] BROAD TRANSCRIPTIONS NARROW TRANSCRIPTIONS2.7 Phonological analysisC.f. phonetics & phonologyPHONETICS: a branch of linguistics which studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received; the study of all possible speech soundsPHONOLOGY: a branch of linguistics which studies the sound system of language; the study of the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.PHONOLOGICAL STRUCTURE: which sound units are used and how they pattern2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsT or F: All the sounds cause change in the meaning of a word.C.f. tin & dintin [tin] din [din]MIMIMAL PAIRSPHONEME: the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two wordsE.g. /p/, /t/, /e/2.8.2 The phoneme theory“phonème”: speech sound (Pp 57)NOTE: Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.2.8.3 AllophonesPhonemic transcription: / /Phonetic transcription: [ ]C.f. peak vs. speakpeak [sp h i:k] speak [sp=i:k]PHONE : individual sounds as they occur in speech. E.g. [p=], [p h] are two different phones and variants of the phoneme /p/ ALLOPHONES (⾳位变体): the variants of a phonemeCOMPLMENTARY DISTRIBUTION(1) /p/ [p=] / [s] __________[p h] elsewhere(Note: “[s] _________ ” is the environment I which /p/ appears.)ALLOPHONY / ALLOPHONIC V ARIATIONPHONETIC SIMILARITYFREE V ARIANTS2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationEx.a. cap [kap] can [k?n]b. tap [tap] tan [t?n]ASSIMILATIONREGRESSIVE ASSIMILIATIONPROGRESSIVE ASSIMLIATONEx. a. pan [?] cake b. sun [?] glassesc. you can [?] keep themd. he can [?] go now(3) f, v; ,e; s, z; ?, ?, t?, d?DEVOCINGEx.a. five past [fa I vpa:st] [fa I fpa:st]b. love to [lΛvt?][lΛft?]2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesPHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES(4) /v/ [f]Voiced fricatives are transformed into voiceless fricatives before voiceless segments. voiced fricative voiceless/ ____________ voicelessPHONOLOGICAL RULE“/” : to specify the environment in which the change takes placeFocus bara. Nasalization rule[- nasal] [+ nasal]/ ___________ [+ nasal]b. Dentalization rule[- dental] [+ dental]/ ___________ [+ dental]c. Velarlization rule[- velar] [+ velar]/ ___________ [+ velar]EPENTHESISE.g. a. a hotel, a boy, a wagon, a white houseb. an apple, an honour, an orange curtain, an old ladyNOTE: it is the lack of a consonant that requires the nasal [n] to be added to thee article a.(5) ? [n] / [?] __________ V2.9.3 Rule orderingEx.a. desk [dεsk] desks [dεsks]b. box [b ks]boxes[b ks?z]-(e)s: [s], [z], [?z]SIBILANTSTherefore:a.The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds.b.The /z/ appears after voiced sounds. (All vowels are voiced.)b.The /?z/ appears after sibilants.UNDERLYING FORM / UNDERLYING REPRESENTATION (UR)SURFACE FORM / SURFACE REPRESENTATION (SR)(6) z s / [-voice, C] ____________ (Devoicing)(7) ? ? / sibilant ___________ z (Epenthesis)Ex.a. //si:t + z//b. //bεd + z//c. //keIs + z//s N/A *s DevoicingN/A N/A N/A Epenthesissi:ts bεdz keIss Outputa. //si:t + z//b. //bεd + z//c. //keIs + z//N/A N/A ? Devoicings N/A N/A Epenthesissi:ts bεdz keIs?z OutputRULE ORDERING2.10 Distinctive featuresDISTINCTIVE FEATURESE.g. voiced obstruent [+voiced], voiceless obstruent [-voiced][+sonorant], [- sonorant][+ nasal], [- nasal]2.11 SyllablesSUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURESLINEAR approach of phonologyNON-LINEAR approach / MULTI-LEVEL PHONOLOGY2.11.1 The syllable structurec.f. Chinese and English syllable structureChinese syllable structure: CVEnglish: MONOSYLLABIC(with one syllable) or POLYSYLLABIC(with more than one syllables) NUCLEUS/PEAK (核⼼/峰): vowel or consonanttable [teibl]:[tei], [bl]RHYME (or RIME) (韵基), ONSET (节⾸)NUCLEUS (核⼼): the vowel within the rhymeCODA (节尾): the consonant(s) after the nucleusσO(nset) R(hyme)N(cleus) Co(da)k l a s pEnglish syllable: (((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)Chinese syllable: (C)V(C)2.11.2 Sonority scale(17) Sonority scale:Most sonorous 5 V owels4 Approximants3 Nasals2 Fricatives1 Stops(18) 5 *4 *32 *1 * *k l a s pThe sonority of each sound gradually rises to a peak at the nucleus and then falls at the coda.2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal onset principleQUESITION: How to separate polysyllables?Country [kΛntri]*[kΛ.ntri], *[kΛntr.i]*[ntri], *[ kΛntr][kΛn.tri]MAXIMAL ONSET PRINCIPLE: when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda2.12 StressSTRESS refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. [']normal: inTEGral, forMIDableconservative: INtegral, FORmidablePR: laBORatory, DEBris, GARage,。
语言学--2.Speech_sounds
英 语 专 业 考 研 真 题 精 选
1. What is acoustic phonetics? [人大2003研] 【答案】Acoustic phonetics is a technical area of linguistics. It is the study of sound waves made by the human vocal organs for communication. 2. Auditory phonetics studies how sounds are perceived by the speaker.[清华2001研] 【答案】F
●When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them, then produce the glottal stop [?]
13
The oral cavity
口腔
The oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification. Tongue: the most flexible Uvula, the teeth and the lips Hard palate, soft palate (velum) Alveolar ridge: the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth Various obstructions created within the oral cavity lead to the production of various sounds [p] [b]; [s] [z]; [k] [g]
2. Phonology
Speech Sounds 讲义
Chapter Two Speech Sounds--------Phonetics and PhonologyPart One Phonetics1. Phonetics i s the study of sounds, which occur in the world’s language. It studies the characteristics of speech sounds.2. Speech organs are the human body involved in the production of speech, including the lungs, the trachea, the throat, the nose and the The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract(声道).3. Divergence means the English spelling does not represent its pronunciation.Why?Reasons:1> Different letters may represent the same sound; 2> A single letter may represent different sounds. 3> Some letters do not represent any sound at all.4.IPA( International Phonetic Alphabet) is a standard set of symbols for transcribing the sounds of any world’s language.P295. Consonants and VowelsIn describing sounds, a basic distinction is made between consonants and vowels.1> There is an obstruction of airstream at some point of the vocal tract in producing consonants2> Consonants can be studied from two angles( aspects), Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation.According to the manner of articulation(发音方式）,the consonants can be divided into the following six kinds.(1) Stops: [p,b],[t,d],[k,g](2) Fricatives(擦音): [s,z], [θ, ð ],[∫,З],[f,v].[h](3) Affricates(塞擦音): [t∫,dЗ](4) Nasals:[m,n, η](5) Laterals(边音):[l](6) Approximants(通音):[r,w,j]According to the place of articulation(发音位置),the consonants can be divided into the following eight kinds.(1)Bilabial(双唇音):[p,b],[m],[w](2)Labial-dental(唇齿音): [f,v](3)Detal(齿音):[f,v](4)Alveolar(齿龈音):[t,d],[s,z],[n],[r],[l](5)Velar(软腭音):[k,g],[η](6)Glottal(声门音):[h](7)Palatal(硬腭音):[j](8)Postalveolar(后齿龈音): [∫,З]3>There is no obstruction of air stream in producing vowels. No articulators come very close together and the airstream passes through the vocal tract.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels include:[i],[e],[ε], [æ],[u],[o], [ɔ],[а]V owels can studied from the following four angles.①Part of the tongue that is raised------front,center, back②the height of the tongue------high, middle, low③the shape of the lips------rounded, unrounded④the length of the sound------tense, laxPart Two From Phonetics to Phonology1.Coarticulation means the sound of language are greatly influenced by neighbouring sounds, including anticipatory coarticulation( the sound becomes more like the following sounds)(先期协同发音), and preservative coarticulation( the sound displays the influence of the former sound)(后滞协同发音).For example, in lamb, the vowel [æ] has some feature of the following nasal [m], then we call it anticipatory coarticulation. In map, the vowel [æ] is influenced by the former nasal [m], then we call it preservative coarticulation.Phonetic transcription contains two kinds of transcription, one is narrow transcription and the other broad transcription.The narrow transcription tries to show all the possible speech sounds, including the minutest parts of pronunciation. The IPA chart has a set of diacritics for the purpose of transcribing the minute parts of pronunciation.2. PhonologyPhonetics studies the physical characters of speech sounds’production system, while phonology focuses on the linguistic patterns of speech sounds and how they are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.1.PhonemeMinimal Pairs ------------PhonemeMinimal Pairs test is to take a word, replace one sound by another, and see whether to generate a different meaning.For example,tin[tin]--------replace [t] by [d]-------din[din]------ a different word results.①Then tin and din can be called minimal pairs.Minimal pairs: When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound unit which occurs in the same place of the order, the two forms are supposed to form a minimal pair.②And [t] and [d] are important in English, because they enable us to distinguish tin from din, tie from die.Then these important units like [t] and [d] can be called phoneme. Phoneme is a phonological unit, and is the smallest unit that can distinguish one word from another.2. AllophonesA phone is a phonetic unit. The speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones(音子). The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called this phoneme’s allophones.For example,peak-----BT-----/pi:k/-----NT---aspirated--[phi:k]speak---BT----/spi:k/----NT---unaspirated--[spi:k][p,ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme/p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation. In this phenomenon, the allophones are said to bein complementary distribution(互补分布)because they never occur in the same context: [p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places.3. Phonological Process1> Assimilation It refers to the process by which a sound becomes similar to the neighboring sound. For example,five past------[faivpa:st]------[faifpa:st]has to ------[h æztu:]-------[h æstu:]You can[η] go now.2> Epenthesis(增音) An interesting case is the indefinite article a/an in English. Examples: a boy, a girl, a hotel, a yellow hatan apple, an honor, an orange hat--------It is the lack of a consonant between vowels. Then inserting a nasal[n] bwtween them.3> Suprasegmentals(超音段特征) Suprasegmental features refers to the characters of linguistic units larger than phoneme, including stress, tone, and intonation.①SyllableIt is an important unit in the study of suprasegments. In can be classified into two types, monosyllable, like cat and pen, and polysyllable, like computer and festival.A syllable can be divided into onset(节首),nucleus(节核，韵峰), and coda(节尾).For onset, it may be empty or filled by a cluster as many as three consonants, like sclaff[sklæf].For nucleus, it is a must for a syllable, and is often the task of vowels.For coda, it may be empty or filled as many as four consonants, like sixths[siksθs ]. A syllable with a coda is called a closed syllable; a syllable without a coda is called an open syllable.Another analysis:nucleus+coda=rhyme(韵基）So also a syllable=onset+ rhyme②StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In description, a raised vertical line[´]is often used just before the syllable.③Intonation(语调)Intonation refers to the occurrence of repeating fall-rise patterns, which have the respective meaning in it.。
Speech,Music,Sound–TheovanLeeuwen
Annexe 2Speech, Music, Sound – Theo van LeeuwenTable des matières « complétée »Chapter 1 - Introduction p. 11- Interacting speech, music and “noise”p.12- Some principles of semiotics p. 4a) Describing semiotic resources p. 4b) Explaining how semiotic resources are used p. 9c) Exploring how semiotic resources can be expanded p. 103- Exercises and discussion points p. 11Chapter 2 - Perspective p. 121- Perspective and social distance p. 122- Perspective and the soundscape p. 15summary p. 223- Sound and social distance p. 24summary p. 274- Immersion p. 285- An example: perspective and social distance in the radio play p. 296- Exercises and discussion points p. 3335Chapter 3 - Time p. 1- The rule of the clock and of the metronome p. 352- The anatomy of measured time p. 39summary p. 423- Degrees of regularity: speech p. 424- Degrees of regularity: music p. 47summary p. 505- Unmeasured time p. 516- Polyrhythms p. 547- Subverting metronomic time p. 588- An example: news signature tunes p. 609- Exercises and discussion points p. 64Chapter 4 – Interacting sounds p. 661- Sequentiality and simultaneity in speech p. 66summary p. 712- Sequentiality in music p. 71summary p. 763- Simultaneity in music p. 77a) Interlock p. 78b) Social unison p. 79c) Social heterogeneity p. 80d) Social domination p. 81summary p. 844- An example: the duet p. 855- Exercises and discussion points p. 90Chapter 5 – Melody p. 921- The sound act p. 92a) Joy p. 95b) Tenderness p. 95c) Surprise p. 96d) Anguish p. 96summary p. 972- Continuity p. 98summary p. 1013- Melodic patterns p. 101a) Pitch movement p. 103b) Pitch range p. 105c) Pitch level p. 107d) The articulation of the melodic phrase p. 109summary p. 1104- Gesture and texture p. 112summary p. 1145- The sonata form p. 1156- Example: a film soundtrack p. 1197- Exercises and discussion points p. 123Chapter 6 – Voice quality and timbre p. 1251- The materiality of sound p. 1252- Dimensions of voice quality and timbre p. 129a) Tense/lax p. 130b) Rough/smooth p. 131c) Breathiness p. 133d) Soft/loud p. 133e) High/low p. 134f) Vibrato/plain p. 134g) Nasality p. 135summary p. 1403- The sounds of speech p. 142a) Frontality p. 146b) Height p. 147c) Aperture p. 147d) Voicing p. 147e) Plosives p. 148f) Fricatives p. 148g) Nasals p. 149h) Semi-vowels p. 149summary p. 1504- An example: the singing voice p. 1505- Exercises and discussion points p. 154Chapter 7 – Modality p. 1571- The idea of modality p. 1572- Naturalism and abstraction in music and film soundtracks p. 1633- The modality of sound p. 170a) Pitch range p. 172b) Durational variation p. 172c) Dynamic range p. 173d) Perspectival depth p. 174e) Degrees of fluctuation p. 175f) Degrees of friction p. 175g) Absorption range p. 176h) Degree of directionality p. 177i) The abstract – sensory coding orientation p. 177j) Naturalistic coding orientation p. 179k) Sensory coding orientation p. 179summary p. 1804- Example: television drama p. 1825- Exercises and discussion points p. 187189Chapter 8 – Afterword p. 1- Metafunctional configurations p. 189a) The ideational metafunction p. 189b) The interpersonal metafunction p. 189c) The textual metafunction p. 1902- Mode, medium and the process of semiosis p. 1913- Making meaning p. 1934- Immersion p. 195 Appendix: System networks and sound scripts p. 198 Glossary p. 203 Bibliography p. 215 Index p. 223Annexe 3 Montage des system networksAnnexe 5 An example, the duetpp. 86 à 89Annexe 6Table of Musematic Occurrence, Philip Tagget Analyse de “Front Row” d’Alanis Morissette, Serge LacasseAnnexe 1 Bibliographie choisie de l’auteur Theo van LeeuwenSrikant Sarangi, Theo Van Leeuwen, British Association for Applied Linguist. Applied Linguistics and Communities of Practice: Selected Papers from the Annual Meeting of the British Association for Applied Linguistics. Cardiff University: Continuum Pub Group, September 2002 (British Studies in Applied Linguistics). (pub. Octobre, 2003).Gunther Kress, Theo Van Leeuwen. Multimodal Discourse: The Modes and Media of Contemporary Communication. Edward Arnold, 2001.Theo Van Leeuwen, Carey Jewitt . Handbook of Visual Analysis. Sage Publications, 2001.Gunther Kress, Theo Van Leeuwen. Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. Routledge, 1996.。
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Post-alveolar
（后齿龈音）
• Postalveolar sounds involve the area just behind the alveolar ridge as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the tongue tip or (usually) the tongue blade -- diacritic symbols can be used if it matters which. English postalveolars include [ F], [ V ], [tF] [dV].
Palatal
（硬腭音）
• The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the hard palate. The English glide [j] is a palatal.
Velar
（软腭音）
Chapter one
Introduction
Anatomy of the Vocal Tract
Diagram of the Speech Organs
Classification of sounds
Vowels and consonants
• Vowels are produced without any obstruction of the air stream in the mouth, voiced (with the vibration of the vocal cords) . • Consonants are produced with some form of obstruction of the air passage, voiced or voiceless.
• • • 1：Plosive (爆破音）（塞音 stops） 2：Fricative (摩擦音） 3：Approximant （近似音）/Semi-vowel (半元音） 4：Affricate （破擦音）5：Nasal（鼻音） 6：Lateral（边音）
Places of Articulation
Description of English consonants
Place Manner Plosive Voicing Voiceless Voiced p b t d k g Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Palatalalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Bilabial （双唇音）
• The articulators are the two lips. (We could say that the lower lip is the active articulator and the upper lip the passive articulator, though the upper lip usually moves too, at least a little.) English bilabial sounds include [p], [b], and [m].
• The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the soft palate. English velars include [k], [g], and [N ].
Glottal
（声门音）
This isn't strictly a place of articulation, but they had to put it in the chart somewhere. Glottal sounds are made in the larynx. For the glottal stop, the vocal cords close momentarily and cut off all airflow through the vocal tract. English uses the glottal stop in the interjection uh-uh (meaning 'no'). In [h], the vocal cords are open, but close enough together that air passing between them creates friction noise.
Nasal
Affricative
Voiced
Voiceless Voiced
m
n
tʃ dʒ
ŋ
Fricative Lateral approximant
Voiceless Voiced voiced Voiceless Voiced
f v
θ ð
s z l
ʃ ʒ
h
w
ɹ
j
Phonetics
Vowels 1. Description of vowels 1) the part of tongue that is raised: front, center, back. 2) the height of tongue or to what degree the tongue is raised towards the palate: high or close, mid-high or close-mid, mid-low or open-mid, low or open. 3) opening or spreading of the mouth
Manner of Articulation
• In its narrow sense, the manner of articulation refers to how close the articulators get to each other, i.e., the degree of constriction. In this course, if it is not specified clearly, this term is always used in its narrow sense. • The main constriction degrees are:
The sounds of English
1. Pronunciations Received pronunciation(RP) General American(GR)
2. English consonants
Description of English consonants e.g. [p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative [m] bilabial nasal [j] palatal approximant
Labio-dental （唇齿音）
• The lower lip is the active articulator and the upper teeth are the passive articulator. English labio-dental sounds include [f] and [v].
2. The cardinal vowels
Primary cardinal vowels
Secondary cardina vowelsNote to the CVs
The cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. The idea of system of CVs was first suggested by A. J. Ellis in 1844, and taken up by A. M.Bell. The system learned above was put forward by Daniel Jones from 1917 onwards.
Alveolar (齿龈音）
• Alveolar sounds involve the alveolar ridge as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the tongue blade or (usually) the tongue tip -- diacritic symbols can be used if it matters which. English alveolar sounds include [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l].