Answer to Pragamatics语言学练习4

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(完整版)语言学练习题及答案

练习1 1. There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. This is one of the design features of language.A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement2. Language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is . It makes people possible to talk everything within his knowledge.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement3. ___ refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that he has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation .A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement4. __ __ refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. The dog couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for some lost love or a bone to be lost. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement5. ______ means language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the linguistic system must be learnt anew by each speaker.A. dualityB. ArbitrarinessC. interchangeabilityD. cultural transmission6. ______ means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.A. dualityB. ArbitrarinessC. interchangeabilityD. cultural transmission7. To say “How are you.” “Hi” to your friends is the ____ __of language.A. directive functionB. informative functionC. phatic functionD. interrogative function8. “Tell me the result when you finish.” If you want to get your hearer to do something, y ou should use the _____ of language.A. directive functionB. informative functionC. phatic functionD. interrogative function9. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as __ ___.A. unnaturalB. something to be fearedC. naturalD. abnormal10. A linguist is interested in ___A. speech sounds only B. all sounds C. vowels only11. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A. [t] B. [m] C. [b] D. [p12. Which of the following sounds is a voiced affricate? A. [y] B. [t∫] C. [z] D. [dЗ]13. Which of the following sounds is a central vowel? A. [ ə ] B. [ i ] C. [ou] D. [a: ]14. In the following sounds , ______ is a palatal fricative ? A. [ s ] B. [∫] C. [ l ] D. [θ]15. In the following sounds, _____ is a voiceless affricative? A. [dЗ] B. [v] C. [t∫] D. [θ]16. In English if a word begins with a [ l ] or [ r ],then the next sound must be a __ __.A. fricativeB. nasal soundC. semi-vowelD. vowel17. Of the “words” listed below___ is not an English wordA. [r∧b ]B. [ læ b ]C. [məsta:∫]D. [lmæp]18. ___ are produced when the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and audibly released. A. Back vowels B. Stops C. Fricatives D. Glides19. The International Phonetic Association devised the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET in _____. A. 1965 B. 1957 C. 1888 D. 178820. ___ is a phonological unit , and it is a unit that is of distinctive value.A. PhoneB. PhonemeC. AllophoneD. Sound1. [ f ] is a dental consonant. F2. Phonology studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. F 7. The three / p / are allophones. T3. Phoneme is a phonological unit. T4. Phone is a phonetic unit. T5. When we study the different [ p ]’s in “[ pit ], [tip ], [spit ]” , they are similar phones which belong to phonetics. T6. But the three [ p ] belong to the different phoneme / p /. F8. ‘peak’is aspirated , phonetically transcribed as [ph]; ‘speak’ is unaspirated phonetically[ p=]. T9. [ph ], [p=] do not belong to the same phoneme / p /. F10. [p h] and [ p=] are two different phones, and are variants of the phoneme / p /, which is called ALLOPHONES of the same phoneme. T.语义学练习1._______ is not included in Leech’s associative meaning.A. Connotative meaningB. Social meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Thematic meaning2. Among Leech’s seven typ es of meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to _____. A. conceptual B. affective C. reflected D. thematic3. According to the referential theory, a word is not directly related to the thing it refers to. They are connected by ____. A. meaning B. reference C. concept D. sense4.”Big” and “Small” are a pair of __ opposites.A. complementaryB. gradableC. completeD. Converse5. The pair of words “same” and “different” are _____.A. gradable oppositesB.converse oppositesC. hyponymsD.contradictory6. A word with several meaning is called ______ word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC. an abnormalD. a multiple7. The semantic components of the word “gentleman” can be expressed as __.A. +animate, +male, +human, -adultB. +animate, +male, +human, +adultC. +animate, - male, +human, - adultD. +animate, - male, +human, +adult8. ______is the implied meaning, similar to “implication” and “implicature”. E.g. When we mention about “women”, we’ll think of her soft warm manner.A. DenotationB. Affective meaningC. Reflected meaningD. Connotation9. In the triangle advanced by Ogden and Richards, “thought or reference” is_ __A. word, sentenceB. the objectC. conceptD. symbol10. A linguistic is interested in ___A. What is said.B. What is right both in syntax and in semantics.C. What is grammaticalD. What ought to be said.11. The pair of words “lend”and “borrow” are ___A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. synonymsD. co-hyponyms12. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as _____.A. Lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words13. What is the meaning relationship between the two words “flower/tulip” ?A. PolysemyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. Antonymy14. The words “railway” and “railroad” are ___A. synonyms differing in emotive meaningB. dialectal synonymsC. collocationally-restricted synonymsD. synomyms differing in styles15. The pair of words “wide/narrow” are called__A. gradable oppositesB. complementary antonymsC. co-hyponymsD. relational opposites16. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementaries?A. single/marriesB. lend/borrowC. hot/coldD. old/young17. The name of “Morning Star”, “Evening Star” and “Venus” is one of the example that different words or name may refer to the same ____A. denotation B. connotation C. reference D. sense18. When we analyze the words “thrifty, economical, stingy”they are synonyms but they have different______A. stylistic meaningB. denotative meaningC. affective meaningD. collocational meaning20. “Seeing those pictures reminds him of his childhood.” The und erlined part in the sentence is_A. agent caseB. object caseC. instrument caseD. benefactive case1. Is reference tied to a particular time and place? T2. Every word in a language can find at least one referent in the objective world. ? F3. Can different expressions have the same referent? T4. Can reference be applied to words such as “and” ,”very” in English? F1. Sense is regarded as a kind of intra-linguistic relationship. T2. In most cases, “sense” and “meaning” are different terms for the same thing. T3. Every word has its own sense. F4. A word may have several different senses and several words may have the same sense. T5. Extension, like denotation, is a kind of relation between elements and the objective world. T6. A: He married a blonde heiress. B: He married a blondeThe relation between these two sentences is entailment. F?7. The relation between extension and intension is the same as that between connotation and denotation. T8. People of different cultures may choose different prototype for the same predicate, e.g. ‘bus’. T9. All the words in a language can be used to refer , but only some have sense. F10. Two synonymous words must be identical in sense in every dimension. F11. There are very few perfect synonyms in a language. T12. Entailment is more inclusive than paraphrase. T13. Almost every word in a dictionary is polysemic. T14. Dry and wet are a pair of gradable antonyms. T15. Innocent and guilt are a pair of relative antonyms. F16. The relationship between the Argument and Predicate is Subject to predicate. FVI. Fill in the blanks in the following passage by choosing the appropriate word.Semantics is the study of ______(1) of language. It is one of the three components of _______(2) . According to Chomsky’s theory , it is at the _______(3) level of language. Semantics concentrates on the _______(4) between languages, rather than on the _______(5).1. A. grammar B. structure C. phonetics D. meaning2. A. linguistics B. grammar C. morphology D. syntax3. A. surface structure B. deep structure C. linguistic D. philosophical4. A. form B. similarity C. differences D. meaning5. A. substance B. difference C. similarities D. grammarMost language utterances（话语）depend for their interpretation upon the ________(6) in which they are used, and the vast majority of them have a ________(7) range of meanings than first come to mind. It may seem to you that meaning is so vague, insubstantial, and elusive that it is impossible to come to any clear, concrete, or tangible conclusions about it. Although many kinds of behavior can be described as _______(8), the range, diversity and complexity of meaning expressed in language is unmatched in any other human or non-human communicative behavior. And linguistic________(9)6. A. words B. sentences C. structure D. context7. A. wider B. narrower C. more accurate D. clearer8. A. productive B. effective C. informative D. communicative9. A. stylistics B. philosophy C. semantics D. grammar--the study of meaning in language was neglected very largely in the past because meaning was felt to be inherently ______(10) and at least temporarily beyond the scope of ______(11) investigation. Largely as a result of Chomsky’s theory of ______ (12) grammar, and the technical advances made in linguistics, in logic and philosophy of _______(13) , linguistic semantics is currently enjoying a very considerable revival of interest.10. A. stable B. unstable C. social D. arbitrary11. A. independent B. philosophical C. linguistic D. human12. A. traditional B. transformational C. structural D. systemic13. A. language B. semantics C. the world D. human mind.词汇练习1. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are ______.A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. SynonymsD. co-hyponyms2. The semantic components of the word “woman” can be expressed as ______.A. +animate, +human, +male, -adultB. +animate, +human, -male, -adultC. +animate, +human, +male, +adultD. +animate, +human, -male, +adult3. What is the meaning relationship between the two words “desk and furniture”?A. PolysemyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. Antonymy4. The words “dog” and “read” are called ______because they can occur unattached.A. derivational morphemesB. bound morphemesC. inflectional morphemesD. free morphemes?9. Some morphemes have more than one invariable form , such as “dog→dogs”, “cat→cats”“mouse→mice”,which are called_____.A. bound morphemeB. allomorphC. free morphemeD. minimal morpheme10. In English n. v. a. and adv. make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are also called _____.A. closed class words B. conventional words C. open class words D. compounds11. ______ can be used independently without being combined with other morphemes.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. AffixesD. Roots12. The word “bookish” contains two _____.A. phonemesB. morphsC. morphemesD. allomorphs13. ____ morpheme are those that cannot be used independently but have tobe combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affix14. ______ modifies the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the partof speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SufficesC. RootsD. Affixes15. The words “make, bus” are called ______.A. derived morphemesB. inflected morph.C. bound morphD. free morpheme16. Which is variable word?A. fromB. untilC. workD. and17. Which processes of lexical change does the Chinese word “国务院”experienced?A. BlendingB. AbbreviationC. BorrowingD. Back-formation18. Which word is created through the process of acronym?A. adB. editC. AIDSD. Bobo19. The word “math” is formed through ___.A. back formationB. clippingC. BlendingD. derivation20. ______ is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. A. Affix B. Inflection C. Allomorph D. Morphologysyntax练习1. When we say that we can change the second word in the sentence “He is waiting outside” with “was”. We are taking about ____inside the sentence.A. Syntactic relationsB. paradigmatic relationsC. Linear relationsD. Government2. The part of the grammar that represents a speaker’s knowledge of the structure of phrases and sentences is called______ .A. Lexicon B. morphology C. Syntax D. semantics3. What does ‘IC’ stands for as a syntactic notion and analytical technique ?A. Inferential ConnectiveB. Inflectional ComponentC. Immediate ConstituentD. Implicative Communication4. If we are to use the technique of IC analysis to analyze the sentence “She broke the window with a stone yesterday”, where is the first cut?Draw a tree diagram of this sentence.A. between stone and yesterdayB. between she and brokeC. between broke and the windowD. between window and with5. ____ is the defining properties of units like noun (number, gender, case) and verb (tense, aspect, etc.).A. Phonology B. Word classes C. Grammatical categories D. Functions of words6. Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English ?A. genderB. numberC. caseD. voice7. ____ is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain categories.A. ConcordB. Immediate constituentC. Syntagmatic relationsD. Government8. ____ proposed to define sentence as the maximum free form.A. BloomfieldB. ChomskyC. HallidayD. Sussure9. The phrase “boys and girls ” is a(n) _____.A. subordinate endocentric constructionB. coordinate endocentric constructionC. subordinate exocentric constructionD. coordinate exocentric construction10. Chomsky holds that the major task of linguistics is to _____.A. study real ‘facts’ in daily settingsB. tells people how to speak appropriatelyC. tell people what is right in language useD. Look for ‘the universal grammar’11. What is the full form of LAD? B. Language acquisition device12. A speaker’s actual utterance in Chomsky’s terminology is called _____.A. deep structureB. linguistic universalsC. universal grammarD. surface structure13. Chomsky studies language from a psychological point of view, holding that language is a form of ____; while Halliday focuses on the social aspect of language, regarding language as a form of ____. A. knowing, doing B. knowing, thinking C. thinking, doing D. doing, knowing 14．F. de Saussure is a(n) _____ linguist .C. Swiss15. What is the construction of the sentence “The boy smiled”?A. ExocentricB. EndocentricC. CoordinateD. Subordinate16. “You sit down” is transformed into “Sit down”. Which transformational rule is used according to TG Grammar ? A. Copying B. Addition C. Reordering D. Deletion17. L. Bloomfield is a famous _____ structural linguist.C. American18. In ______ , Noam Chomsky published his famous book “Syntactic Structure”.B.195719. “A fish is swimming in the pond” is transformed into “There is a fish swimming in the pond”. Which transformational rule is used. A. Copying B. Reordering C. Addition D. Deletion20.The phrase “the man about whom I’ve been talking.” belong to the ______Construction.A. predicateB. endocentricC. subordinateD. exocentric1．Traditional grammar involves a great deal of gender, number and case. T2. “I’m a teacher.” “He studies English.” describe the form of gov ernment.3. “Langue” is much more stable than “parole”. T4. When we mentioned about the usage of a “树”，it is signified; and the sound /shu:/ is signifier, the relationship among them is arbitrary. T5. The sentence “ If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.” is settled at the base paradigmatic relation.F6. Sassure proposed the linguistic study considered in itself. T7. Rheme contributes much more great than theme. F8. IC analysis is used to analyze the semantic feature of the sentence. F12. “He came back very late last night.” The underlying structure is endocentric one. T13. Wh en we mention about “phonetic”and “lexicon components”, they belong to deep structure category. F14. The abstract meaning and ambiguity of the sentence can be analyzed by deep structure. T15. Systemic – functional grammar wanted to link the function with structure of the language.16.By synchrony we mean to study language change and development. F17. The open-class words include prepositions. F18. “The boy smiled” has an exocen tric structure. T19. The IC Analysis is not able to analyze split verbs like “do sb. in”. T20. Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.21. Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentence patterns of a language. F6语用练习1. According to C.Morris and R. Carnap, _____ studies the relationship between symbols and their interpreters of a listener.A. SyntaxB. SemanticsC. PragmaticsD. Sociolinguistics2. There are ______deixis in the sentence “ she has sold it here yesterday. ”.A. 3B. 4C. 5D. 63. We can do things with words ---- this is the main idea of ______.A. the Speech Act TheoryB. the Co-operative principlesC. the Polite principlesD. pragmatics4. _____refers to the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.A. Locutionary actB. Illocutionary actC. Perlocutionary actD. Speech act5. _____ may be used as an example of indirect speech act.A. “I’ll declare Mr. Williams election tomorrow.”B. “Good morning!”C. “could you open the window?”D. “I command you to report at 6 in the morning tomorrow. ”6. A: Let’s get something to kids. B: Okey , but not I-C-E C-R-E-A-M-S.In the conversation B violets the _____.A: Quantity Maxim B. Quality Maxim C. Relevance Maxim D. Clarity Maxim 7. A: I really like the dinner. B: I’m vegetarian. There is a _____ violation in the conversation.A. QuantityB. QualityC. RelevanceD. Clarity8. A: How are you? B: I’m dead. There is a _____ violation in the conversation.A. QuantityB. QualityC. RelevanceD. Clarity9. A: Would you like a cocktail? It’s my own invention.B: Well, m mm uh it’s not that we don’t drink. There is a _____ violation in the conversation.A. QuantityB. QualityC. RelevanceD. Clarity10. A: Are you going to Steve’s barbecue?B: A barbecue is an outdoor party.There is a _____ violation in the conversation.A. QuantityB. QualityC. RelevanceD. Clarity11. Pragmatics differs from traditional semantics in that it studies meaningnot in isolation, but in _____.A. relationshipB. dependenceC. sentenceD. context12. To analyze the following sentences ______ is Performative.A. You congratulate me.B. I envy you.C. I command you to put out that cigarette.D. I warned you not to go.13. _____ act expresses the intention of the speaker.A. LocutionaryB. IllocutionaryC. PerlocutionaryD. Speech act14. A: Do you know where Mr. Brown is? B: Somewhere in the suburbs of the city.Speaker B violates the maxim of _______.A. quantityB. qualityC. RelevanceD. Clarity15. A: The hostess is an awful bore. Do you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they? Speaker B violates the maxim of _____.A. qualityB. quantityC. RelevanceD. Clarity16. A: This bag is a little bit heavy. B: Let me help you. What is the illocutionary act of speaker A?A. This bag is heavy.B. I don’t want to carry it away.C. Could you help me with this bag?D. I’m very happy about it.17. A: The dress she is wearing is beautiful, isn’t it? B: The pattern is nice.What cooperative maxim does speaker B observe?A. QualityB. QuantityC. RelevanceD. Clarity18. Speech Act Theory was proposed by _____ in the late 50’s of the 20th century. A. John Austin19. One of the contributions ____ has made is his classification of illocutionary acts. John Austin20. Cooperative principle was found by _____. A. Paul Grice21. According to Austin’s Speech Act theory, the actual uttering of a sentence with a particular meaning is called ___ A. Perlocutionary B. locutionary C. illocutionary D. indirect speech. 22. A(n )”_____” means that some sentences, in the utterance and the seeming performance of a speech act, perform a certain illocutionary act indirectly.A. direct speech actB. indirect speech actC. illocutionary actD. utterance23. The _____ provided great philosophical insight into the nature of linguistic communication.A. speech act theoryB. CP theory.C. communicative competenceD. linguistic competence24. According to Austin, Speech Acts fall into ______ general categories.A. fourB. twoC. threeD. five25. _____ resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. A. Pragmatics B. pragmatism C. phonology D. Practicalism26. Once the notion of _______ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contentC. formD. context27. ____ act theory is an important in the pragmatic study of language.A. SpeakingB. SpokenC. SoundD. Speech28. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their _____ form.A. syntacticB. semanticC. grammaticalD. pragmatic29. Of the three acts, Pragmatists are more interested in the _______.A. locutionary actB. perlocutionary actC. illocutionary actD. none of the above30. The maxim of quality requires, do not say what you believe to be _____.A. falseB. trueC. briefD. orderly31. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to _____.A. utterance meaningB. speech act theoryC. conversational implicaturesD. all of the above32. Pragmatics is a study ofA. language learningB. language acquisitionC. language planningD. language in use33. The significance of Grice’s CP lies in the fact that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey ______ that which is literally said.A. more thanB. less thanC. the same asD. none of the above34. If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes ______.A. a sentenceB. an actC. a unitD. an utterance35. The part of the response to the speech acted by the hearer is _____.A. LocutionB. IllocutionC. PerlocutionD. Direct action36. _____ may perform an act but lay stress on describing the action.A. Speech Act TheoryB. PerlocutionC. PerformativeD. Constative37. A: Good luck to you! B: Thank you. What politeness principle does speaker A observe?A. Generosity maximB. Tact maximC. Modesty maximD. Agreement maxim38. “What a marvelous dinner you cooked!”What politeness maxim does the speaker of the utterance observe?A. Sympathy maximB. Approbation maximC. Modesty maximD. Agreement maxim39. “I swear I have never seen the man before.” This sentence is a ____.A. performativeB. ConstativeC. indirect speechD. procedure40. Conversational Implicature can be___.A. CalculabilityB. CancellabilityC. Non-ConventionalityD. all of above1. Speech act theory was proposed by Austin and has been developed by Grice. F2. Searle suggests 5 basic categories of illocutionary acts as follows: assertives, commissives, expressives, directive and declaratives. T3. “We can do things with words” ----this is the main idea of the Speech Act Theory. T4. “I hereby declare war ” is the typical utterance of “speech act theory”. T5. At first , Austin classifies utterances into two types: constatives and performatives. T6. “Locution” means the speaker’s intention. F7. “Perlocution” is used to bring effects on the hearer. T8. “Can you pass me the salt, please? ” is a question, but it is a direct speech act. F9. In a certain sense pragmatics studies how words influence the interpretation of utterances. T10. “Pragmatics “ is the study of meaning that is not accounted for in semantics. T11. “In Semantics” the sentence meaning should be studied. T12.“ In pragmatics ” the utterance meaning should be studied. T13. The CP Principle, put forward by P. Grice, has four maxims, for writing as well as speaking. F14. Deixis is a technical term for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. T15. “What’s that?” that is a location deixis. FPragmatics is concerned with the study of _16____ as communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener. It has consequently __17___ to do with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by __18__. __19___ is the study of speaker meaning.16. A. speech B. meaning C. utterance D. communication17. A. less B. impossible C. possible D. more18. A. itself B. himself C. themselves D. yourself19. A. Semantics B. Context C. Syntax D. PragmaticsIf semantics is the study of __1D__that comes from ‘purely linguistic knowledge’ pragmatics concerns all the ‘__2A__of meaning that cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and takes into account knowledge about the physical and __3_C_world’. So pragmatics is the study of meaning that is not accounted for in__4_B_.a) aspects b) semantics c) social d) meaningSemantics and __1_C_are complementary to__2A__ —hence ‘complementarism’. According to Morris’s trichotomy , __3__ is the study of ‘the formal relation of signs to one another’, __4__ is the study of ‘the relation of signs to the objects to which the signs are applicable ’,and pragmatics is the study of ‘the relation of signs to__D5__’.a) Each other b) Pragmatics c) semantics d) interpreters e) syntax。

语言学 Chapter4 课后练习答案教学文案

语言学C h a p t e r4课后练习答案Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→(Det) N (PP) ...VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determin e a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type ofthe elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposalsd) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdvThe man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPP NP P NPN NMary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPNYou know that I hate warb) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NAGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Roll-Royce d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellentSurface Structure: CPC SDeep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPNHerbert bought a house she loved thatSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNHerbert bought a house that she loved ec) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPC S P NPNP Infl VP NN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NP13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure: CPC SInfl NP Infl VPAux N Aux V AdvPb) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the party Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPc) Who broke the window?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the window。

《语言学》Chapter 6 Pragmatics习题兼答案

语言学Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication? 答：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had agood time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答： A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as asentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “M y bag is heavy”. How it is to be underst ood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”,he meant they couldn’t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person sai d, “The story ofthe movie is very moving”, so wh en the other person sai d, “The music of the movie is good”, he me ant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes bac k, so when he said, “you ha ve been keeping my notes for awhole wee k now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答：According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”,“door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is theillocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答：When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English usedby Chinese learners of English.答：The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure.Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)。

(完整版)语言学Chapter4Exercises含答案

Chapter 4 From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there isno limit to the number of sentencesnative speakers of thatlanguage are able to produce and comprehend.3. An endocentric construction is also known as headed constructionbecause it has just one head4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase,infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7. Word order plays an important role in the organization of Englishsentences.8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the directobject usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT )II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s _________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command2. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same timestructurally alone is known as an f _____________ clause3. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verbphrase and which says something about the subject isgrammatically called p _______ .4. A c __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause isnormally called an e ________ clause.6. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that newwords are constantly added.7. G ________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase and sentence8. A a __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s ___________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, questionor command.10. A s ___________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1. sentence2. finite3. predicate4. complex5. embedded6. open7. grammatical 8. simple 9. sentence 10. subjectIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Markthe choice that can best complete the statement :1 The head of the phrase “ the city Rome ” is ___________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city andRome2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to theintroductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. PrepositionD. subordinator3 Phrase structure rules have _____ properties.B. grammatical D. functionalA. recursiveC. social4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understandA. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.5 The phrase “ on the half ” belongs to _________constructionA endocentricB exocentricC subordinateD coordinate6 . The theory of case condition accounts for the fact thatA. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7 The sentence structure is _______ .A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8. The syntactic rules of any language are _____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9. The _______ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10 The sentence “ They were wanted to remain quiet and not toexposethemselves ” is a___________ s entenceA simpleB coordinateC compoundD complexAnswers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 AIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysis3. Hierarchical structureAnswers :1. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words arecombined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constitue nts -word groups (phrases), which are in turn an alyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.3. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups wordsinto structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V. Answer the following questions:1. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4. What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach? Illustrate them with examples ？Answers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complexsentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause whichcontains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its ownsentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for herhistory exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in acomplex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate tothe other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Maryshowed no interest in linguistics.2. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head.The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is definednegatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3. 略4. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause whichcontains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its ownsentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that iscalled coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". Forexample: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more,clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.。

语言学 Chapter4 课后练习答案

Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→(Det) N (PP) ...VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type ofthe elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (orS-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposalsd) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP N A huge moon hung in the black skyc) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdv The man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPP NP P NPN N Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPN You know that I hate warb) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NA Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Roll-Royce d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings 12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellent Surface Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was excellentb) Herbert bought a house that she loved.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house she loved thatSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house that loved ec) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPC S P NPNP Infl VP NN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NPNP Infl VP NN N Pre V NPNThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure:CPC SInfl NP Infl VPAux N Aux V AdvPAdvWould You e come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the partySurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPN PPP Det NPN What did Helen e bring e to the partyc) Who broke the window?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the windowSurface Structure: CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPDet N Who e broke the window。

语言学-Chapter4-课后练习答案

Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V , A or P.The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word ’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of aconjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1) there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP ) can be coordinated.3) coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elementsbeing conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposalsd) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black sky c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdv The man examined his car carefully yesterday d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPN NMary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPNYou know that I hate warb) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English examc) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Roll-Royced) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellent Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was excellent b) Herbert bought a house that she loved.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house she loved that Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house that she loved e c) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPS P NPN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NPNP Infl VP NN N Pre V NPNThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure: CPC SAux N Aux V AdvPAdvWould You e come tomorrow b) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the party Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPN PPP Det NPN What did Helen e bring e to the party c) Who broke the window?Deep Structure:C SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the window Surface Structure: CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPDet N Who e broke the window。

语言学课后答案4

1.syntax: the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.co-occurrence: It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For instance, what can precede a noun (dog) is usually the determiners and adjectives, and what can follow it when it takes the position of subject will be predicators such as bark, bite, run, etc. In short, co-occurrence is the syntactic environment in which a construction, with its relevant elements, can appear grammatically and conventionally. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.construction: it refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use construct contains. It can be further divided into the external and internal properties. Take sentence The boy kicked the ball as an example, we will determine the external syntax as an independentclause, whi le NP (―the boy‖), VP (―kicked‖) and NP (―the ball‖) will be assigned respectively to the different elements in this clause. constituent: Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence The boy ate the apple,S (A), the boy (B), ate the apple(C), each part is a constituent. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the boy) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (―S‖, here a sentence), then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A.endocentric: Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable Centre or Head. In the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the Centre or Head of this phrase or word group.exocentric: Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable "Centre" or "Head" inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, andconnective (be + complement) construction. In the sentence The boy smiled, neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.coordination: A common syntactic pattern in English and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. This phenomenon is known as coordination. In the construction the lady or the tiger, both NPs the lady and the tiger have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.subordination: Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the Head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. In the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head.category: The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, forexample, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, and so on.agreement: Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). For instance, the syntactic relationship between this pen and it in the following dialogue:--Whose is this pen?--Oh, it’s the one I lost.embedding: Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in another clause in syntactic subordination. E.g., I saw the man who had visited you last year.recursiveness: it mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within (i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. For example, ―I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new‖.grammatical subject & logical subject: Grammatical and logical subjects are two terms accounting for the case of subject in passive voice. Take the sentences a dog bit John and John was bitten by a dog as examples. Since the core object noun (John in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called grammatical subject, for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies; the core subject (a dog), now the object of a preposition (by a dog), is called a logical subject, since semantically the core subject still does what a subject normally does: it performs an action.cohesion: Cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. The cohesive devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. In the following example, the cohesive device is ―Reference‖, that is, ―it‖ refers back to the door: He couldn't open the door. It was locked tight.2.(1) The instructor told the students to study.[NP(det.+n.)+V+NP(det.+n.)+inf.](2) The customer requested for a cold beer.[NP(det+n.)+V+PP(prep.+det.+adj.+n.)](3) The pilot landed the jet. [NP(det+n)+V+NP(det+n.)](4) These dead trees must be removed. [NP(det+adj.+n.)+mv(modal verb)+be(auxiliary verb)+Past Participle](5) That glass suddenly broke. [NP(det+n)+adv.+V]3.(a) ((The) (boy)) ((was) (crying)).(b) (Shut) ((the) (door)).(c) ((Open) ((the) (door))) (quickly).(d) ((The) (((happy) (teacher)) ((in) ((that) (class))))) ((was) ((beaming) (away))).(e) (He) (((bought) ((an) ((old) (car)))) ((with) ((his) ((first) ((pay) (cheque)))))).4.(a) Ducks quack. (non-headed, independent clause)(b) The ladder in the shed is long enough. (non-headed, prepositional phrase)(c) I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair. (headed; headword—damaged; adjectival group)(d) Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries. (headed; headword—singing; gerundial phrase)(e) His handsome face appeared in the magazine. (headed; headword—face; nominal group)(f) A lady of great beauty came out. (non-headed; prepositional phrase)(g) He enjoys climbing high mountains. (headed; headword—climbing; gerundial phrase)(h)The man nodded patiently. (non-headed; a sentence)(i) A man roused by the insult drew his sword. (headed; headword—roused; adjectival phrase)5.a. Nb. Yc. Yd. Ye. Yf. Ng. Yh. N6.(a) The comet that Dr. Okada discovered appears every twenty years.(b) Everyone respected the quarterback who refused to give up.(c) The most valuable experiences that I had on my trip to Europe were small ones.(d) Children whose parents abuse alcohol will probably become abusers of drugs or alcohol.(e) Many nations are restricting emissions of noxious gases which threaten the atmosphere.7.In this chapter, several ways to extend syntactic constituents are brought under the category of recursiveness, including coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic and so on. Coordination and conjoining are the different names for the same linguistic phenomenon, that is, to use and, but or or to join together syntactic constituents with the same function. For instance, the sentence A man got into the car could be extended into a sentence like this "[NP A man, a woman, a boy, a car and a dog] got into the car". While subordination and embedding can be understood as the extension of any syntactic constituent by inserting one or moresyntactic elements with different functions into another. I saw the man who had visited you last year is an extended sentence by changing the independent clause The man had visited you last year into a dependent element (here a relative clause).However, hypotaxis and parataxis are the two traditional terms for the description of syntactic relations between sentences. In the examples below, the former is hypotactic, while the latter is paratactic:We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.He dictated the letter. She wrote it.8.(a) The best thing would be to leave early. (infinitive phrase)(b) It's great for a man to be free. (infinitive phrase)(c) Having finished their task, they came to help us. (past participial phrase)(d) Xiao Li being away, Xiao Wang had to do the work. (absolute phrase)(e) Filled with shame, he left the house. (past participial phrase)(f) All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs. (absolute phrase)(g) It's no use crying over spilt milk. (gerundial phrase)(h) Do you mind my opening the window? (gerundial phrase)9.The grammatical category ―subject‖ in different language possesses different characteristics. In English, ―subject‖ may have the following characteristics:A. Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in statement such as ―Sally collects stamps".B. Pronoun forms: The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject. This form is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:He loves me.I love him.We threw stones at them.They threw stones at us.C. Agreement with verb: In the simple present tense, an –s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular. However, the numberand person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:She angers him.They anger him.She angers them.D. Content questions: if the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in (b). But when any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject. If the basic sentence does not contain an auxiliary verb, we must insert did or do(es) immediately after the question word, as in (d, e)(a) John stole/would steal Mrs. Thatcher’s picture from the BritishCouncil.(b) Who stole/would steal Mrs. Thatcher’s picture from the Britishcouncil?(c) What would John steal, if he had the chance?(d) What did John steal from the British Council?(e) Where did John steal Mrs. Thatcher’s picture from?E. Tag question: A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence:John loves Mary, doesn’t he?。

语言学第四课后练习

8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and in some cases a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrases.a. rich in mineralsAPRich in mineralsb. often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA NOften read detective storiesc. the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalsPPQual P NPDet Nalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a. A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Infl P(S)NP Infl VPV NP PPDet AP N None pstDet N P NPAAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme cautionb. A huge moon hung in the black sky.Infl P (s)NP Infl VPDet AP N V PPP NPADet AP NAA huge moon hung in the black skyC. The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Infl P（S）NP infl VPDet N pst V NP Adv AdvDet NThe man examined his car carefully yesterdayd. A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Infl P (S)NP Infl VPDet AP N PP V PPP NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut neat the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of theNP ＶＰAux V NPNDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsorInflP(=S)NP ＶＰAux V NPNDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb. Helen put on her clothes and went out.InflP(=S)NP VPVP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPpstVP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc. Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.InflP(=S)NP VPVP CON VPNVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)InflNP VPnonpstVP CON VPNVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsa verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a.You know that I hate war.SNP VPN V CPC SNP VPNV NPNYou know that I hate watGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPNP CPV C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A NGerry believe the fact that Anna flunked the English examb.Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPN V A CPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce c.The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPDet N VP CPV P C SNP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12.a. The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep structureCPC SNP VPC S Deg PNP Infl VPV NPN NThe essay he wrote that was too long Surface structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPV NPN N NThe was too longb. Hebert bought a house that she loved.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN V NPNHebert bought a house she loved that Surface structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N V NPNHebert bought a housec. The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep structureCPC SDet N CP V PPC Infl S P NPNP VPNPN V NThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPC Infl S P NPNP NP VPNPN N V NThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13.a. Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPN Infl V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SInfl NP VPN Infl V AdvPAdvcome tomorrowb. What did Helen bring to the party?Deep structureCPC SNP VPInfl V NP PPNN P NPDet NHelen did bring what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SN InflNP VPInfl V NP PPNN P NPDet Nbring e to the partyc. Who broke the window?Deep structure。

语言学Chapter4Syntax参考答案

Chapter 4 Syntax（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A+ complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（蓝色为名词的修饰语，褐色为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) Y ou know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （褐色为深层结构，蓝色为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?Y ou would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?Y ou can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?Y ou eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.以下不用彩色而用斜体和划底线表示区别：Chapter 4 Syntax《教程》p.64（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A+ complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) Y ou know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?You would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?You can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?You eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.。

英语语言学练习题含答案

Ⅰ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other are as, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and me thods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaning ful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to fo rm words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only st udies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studiesmeaning not in isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descripti ve.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at s ome point in time.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not t he written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was propo sed by F. de Saussure.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins wi th the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language wh ich refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: alower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of me aningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for hu man communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of w ords into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the deta ils of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settleme nt of some practical problems. The study of such applications is gene rally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construc tion and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, th ey can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentenc es which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of languag e.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human languageA. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writi ng, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires h is mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky lo oks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract lingui stic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community. A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical conne ction between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the im mediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one gener ation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality56. Design Features57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. ParoleSuggested answers to supplementary exercises:Ⅰ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. T2. F3. F4. T5. T6. F7. T8. F9. T 10. F11. T 12. T 13. T 14. T 15. T 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. F 20. FⅡ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins wi th the letter given:21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 26. genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or sy stematic)Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. C 32. D 33. C 34. D 35. B 36. A 37. C 38. B 39. A 40. DⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used i n communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called prag matics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the wo rkings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic comm unication is called phonetics.48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arran ged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society i s called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teach ing and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second langu ages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic finding s to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined m atters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the i mmediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of com munication57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s kn owledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowle dge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conven tions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; pa role is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situ ation.11 / 1111 / 11。

语言学自测试题及答案

语言学自测试题及答案一、选择题1. 语言学研究的核心对象是什么？A. 语言B. 文学C. 历史D. 社会答案：A2. 以下哪个选项不属于语言学的分支？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 心理学D. 语义学答案：C3. 语言学中，"phoneme"指的是什么？A. 音素B. 音节C. 词D. 句答案：A4. 以下哪种语言属于汉藏语系？A. 英语B. 法语C. 汉语D. 俄语答案：C5. 语言学中的"morpheme"指的是什么？A. 词根B. 词缀C. 词D. 句子答案：C二、填空题1. 语言学的主要研究方法包括______、______和______。

答案：观察、实验、分析2. 语言的三个基本功能是______、______和______。

答案：表达、交流、思考3. 语言学中的"syntax"指的是______。

答案：句法4. "digraph"在语言学中指的是______。

答案：双字母组合代表一个音素5. 语言的______性指的是语言随着时间的流逝而发生的变化。

答案：历史三、简答题1. 简述语言学的主要研究领域。

答案：语言学的主要研究领域包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学、社会语言学、心理语言学、计算语言学等。

2. 描述一下什么是语言的方言。

答案：方言是语言在一定地理区域内形成的变体，它与标准语或官方语言在发音、词汇、语法等方面存在差异。

3. 语言学中的"pragmatics"指的是什么？答案：语用学是语言学的一个分支，它研究语言在实际使用中的意义，包括语境、交际意图、言语行为等。

四、论述题1. 论述语言和文化之间的关系。

答案：语言和文化是相互影响的。

一方面，语言是文化的载体，通过语言可以表达和传承文化；另一方面，文化也影响着语言的发展和使用，如特定文化背景下的词汇、表达方式等。

2. 讨论语言的多样性对全球化的影响。

AnswertoPragamatics语言学练习4

AnswertoPragamatics语言学练习4Suggested answers to PragmaticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is T rue or False:l. F 2. F 3.T 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.T 12.FII. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:13. Pragmatics 14. semantics 15. context 16. utterance 17. abstract 18.Constatives 19. Performatives 20. locutionary 21. illocutionary22. commissive 23. expressive 24. quantityIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A26. C 27. D 28. B 29. C 30. B31. A32. C 33. B 34. C 35. A36. DIV. Define the terms below:37. pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.38. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.39. utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in acontext.40. sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.41. Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifi-able ;42. Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:47. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning oflanguage was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e.a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.48. How does a sentence differ from an utterance?A sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a subject and predicate. An utterance is the unit of communication. It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itbecomes an utterance. Whether “Mary is beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance de pends on how we look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-contained unit in isolation, then it is a sentence. If we look at it as something uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then it is an utterance. Most utterances take the form of complete sentences, but some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterancemeaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. For example:Y ou have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully broughtabout the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully performed .51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.1) representatives: representatives are used to state, to describe, to report, etc.. The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. For example:(I swear) I have never seen the man before.(I state) the earth is a globe.2) directives: Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class.For example:Open the window!3) commissives: Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. When the speaker is speaking, he puts himself under obligation. For example:I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4) expressives: The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating. For example:I'm sorry for the mess I have made.5) declarations: Declarations have the characteristic that the successful performance of such an act brings about thecorrespondence between what is said and reality. For example:I now declare the meeting open.52. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle?The maxim of quantity1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of quality1. Do not say what you believe to be false.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of relationBe relevant.The maxim of manner1. A void obscurity of expression.2. A void ambiguity.3. Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .4. Be orderly.53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?A: Do you know where Mr. Smith lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.This is said when both A and B know that B does know Mr. Smith' s address. Thus B does not give enough information that is required, and he has flouted the maxim of quantity. Therefore, such conversational implicature as "I do not wish to tell you where Mr. Smith lives" is produced.A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I'm afraid I' m not feeling so well today.This is said when both A and B know that B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and he is violating the maxim of quality. The conversational implicature " I do not want to go to your party tonight" is then produced.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren't they?This is said when both A and B know that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and he has flouted themaxim of relation. The conversational implicature "I don't wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner" is produced.A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M.This is said when both A and B know that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word "ice-cream." Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The conversational implicature "I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream" is then produced.。

语言学第四章课后练习

语言学第四章课后练习8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and in some cases a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrases.a. rich in mineralsAPRich in mineralsb. often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA NOften read detective storiesc. the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalsPPQual P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a. A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Infl P(S)NP Infl VPV NP PPDet AP N None pstDet N P NPAAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme cautionb. A huge moon hung in the black sky.Infl P (s)NP Infl VPDet AP N V PPP NPADet AP NAA huge moon hung in the black skyC. The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Infl P（S）NP infl VPDet N pst V NP Adv AdvThe man examined his car carefully yesterdayd. A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Infl P (S)NP Infl VPDet AP N PP V PPP NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut neat the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of theNP ＶＰAux V NPNDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsorInflP(=S)NP ＶＰAux V NPNDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb. Helen put on her clothes and went out.InflP(=S)NP VPVP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPpstVP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc. Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.InflP(=S)NP VPVP CON VPNVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)InflNP VPnonpstVP CON VPNVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsa.You know that I hate war.SNP VPN V CPC SNP VPNV NPNYou know that I hate watORSNP Infl VPN Nonpst V CPC SNP VPNV NPNYou know that I hate wat b.Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPNP CPV C SDet N NP VPN V NPGerry believe the fact that Anna flunked the English examc.Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPN V A CPC SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce d.The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPDet N VP CPV P C SNP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12.a. The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPV NPN NThe essay he wrote that was too long Surface structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPV NPN N NThe was too longDeep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN V NPNHebert bought a house she loved that Surface structure CPC SNP VPN Infl V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N V NPNHebert bought a housec. The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep structureCPNP VPDet N CP V PPC Infl S P NPNP VPNPN V NThe girl he adores whom majors in linguistics Surface structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPC Infl S P NPNP NP VPNPN N V NThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13.a. Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPInfl NP VPN Infl V AdvPAdvcome tomorrowb. What did Helen bring to the party? Deep structureCPC SNP VPInfl V NP PPNN P NPDet NHelen did bring what to the party Surface structureCPNP C SN InflNP VPInfl V NP PPNN P NPDet Nbring e to the partyc. Who broke the window?Deep structure。

语言学第四单元课后答案syntax树状图thesrule

syntax1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a plement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NWhat will you e talk about eSNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will e and the snow will melt.SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux VCrusoe knows that spring will e and the snow will melt6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as plements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPNPN V NYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL AHe said that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A NGerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English exam d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was too longb) The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog that he keeps e bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNP N VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN NHerbert found the man (whom) she loved eDeep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl whom he often quarrels with e majors in linguistics8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you e tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would e tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advwould you e e tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaper?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det N Can you e pass me the newspaperDeep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det Nd) What did you eat for lunch?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NPN N Infl V PN Ne) Who should this be reported to ?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whomSurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNwhom should this e be reported to ef) What was Helen bringing to the party?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det Nwhat was Helen e bringing e to the party。

语言学Chapter4课后练习答案教学文案

语言学Chapter4课后练习答案教学文案语言学C h a p t e r4课后练习答案Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→(Det) N (PP) ...VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determin e a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type ofthe elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, anda specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposalsd) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdvThe man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics. SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPP NP P NPN NMary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPNYou know that I hate warb) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NAGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Roll-Royce d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellentSurface Structure: CPC SDeep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPNHerbert bought a house she loved that Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNHerbert bought a house that she loved ec) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics. Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPC S P NPNP Infl VP NN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NP13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure: CPC SInfl NP Infl VPAux N Aux V AdvPb) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the party Surface Structure: CP C SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPc) Who broke the window?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the window。

语言学练习（三,四）

语言学练习（三,四）Exercises of LinguisticsChapter 3Multiple choices (3*15=45’)1. Which of the following words is not a free morpheme?A. ableB. petC. changeD. dusty2. The term vaseline was originally created as a trade name for a product, but has become an ordinary English word. What is the technical term used to describe this process?_________.A. back formationB. conversionC. borrowingD. neologism3. In the following examples, which does not fall into the category of allomorphs of English plural form? ________.A. S’sB. classesC. spoonfulsD. suggests4. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified into _________ words.A. lexicalB. grammaticalC. functionD. form5. There are ______ morphemes in the wordinternationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six6. In English, -ally and –er are called ______.A. prefixesB. infixesC. affixesD. suffixes7. The word UNESCO is called a(n) ______.A. clipped wordB. acronymC. initialD. blended word8. The following words are all created by abbreviation EXCEPT______.A. profB. busC. fluD. edit9. Which of the following statement is NOT true about inflectional affixes? ( )A. They only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem.B. They do not change the word class of the word that they attach to.C. They are conditioned by non-semantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to.D. They are only suffixes, which are always word final.10. The word ______ is not a compound.A. sunflowerB. miniskirtC. morning gloryD. moonwalk11. A morpheme that must occur with at least one other morpheme to form a word is called a(n)______.A. free morphemeB. bound morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. stem12. The word like sitcom and comsat are formed by______.A. blendingB. clippingC. backformationD. acronymy13. Which of the following is not a pre-determiner? ( )A. three timesB. allC. halfD. that14. In the word carelessness, careless is ______.A. a suffixB. a rootC. a prefixD. a stem15. The different forms of a morpheme are called ______.A. morphsB. free formsC. rootsD. allomorphs List all the functional words you can find in the following paragraph. All the forms of be are identified as function words too. (15’)16. In Britain the day after Christmas is called Boxing Day. This is a great day for sports, and many go out to watch football matches, etc. But most people stay at home and have a lazy day.Functionalwords:_________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________True or false (T for true and F for false 1*10=10’)17. Actually the distinction between closed class words and open class words is clear-cut. ( )18. Not all monomorphemic words are free morphemes. ( )19. –’s is an inflectional affix indicating plurality of nouns. ( )20. Berry in words strawberry, blueberry is a free morpheme. ( )21. As sentences consist of words and are often analyzed into words, a word can be said the smallest unit of language. ( )22. Bound morphemes must be attached to free morphemes to form words. ( )23. The allomorphs of a certain morpheme should be in complementary distribution. ( )24. Inflection is a particular way of word-formation. ( )25. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the second element, while the second element receives a first stress. ( )26. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.( )Brief definitions (3*5=15’)27. morpheme28. allomorphs29. compoundingMatch-making (1*10=10’)30 haircut 31 Kodak 32 smog 33 to skin 34 FBI35 edit 36 worker 37 kung-fu 38 flu 39 NASAA blendingB initialismC compoundingD neologismE derivationF clippingG conversionH acronymyI back formationJ borrowing30 ( ) 31 ( ) 32 ( ) 33 ( ) 34 ( )35 ( ) 36 ( ) 37 ( ) 38 ( ) 39 ( )Exercises of LinguisticsChapter 4Multiple choices (3*15=45’)1.______ mainly deals with how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern theformation of sentencesA. PhoneticsB. SyntaxC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics2.The syntactic rules of any language are ______ in number./doc/151946970.html,rgeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3.The clauses in a ______ sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence.A.simpleB. complexC. subordinateD. coordinate4.Transformational rules do not change the basic ______ of sentences.A.meaningB. formC. positionD. structure5.TG [Transformational-Generative] Grammar studies the relationship between language and ______.A. societyB. cultureC. psychologyD. acquisition6.Which of the following item does not belong to the grammatical category? ( )A.SubjectB. GenderC. ComplementD. Case7.The head of the phrase in the city of Beijing is ______.A. cityB. ofC. BeijingD. in8.Phrase structure rules have ______ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. functionalD. social9.The sentence They think that I am stupid, but you know that is not true is a ______ sentence.A. c ompoundB. complexC. complex-compoundD. simple10.In the phrase structure rule S→NP VP, the arrow can be read as _______.A. hasB. generatesC. consists ofD. is equal to11. Which of the following statements is NOT correct about English phrases? ( )A. A phrase may contain at most five components.B. Any phrase structure rule is open-ended.C. Three kinds of lexical categories can be fit into the specifier position.D. Three kinds of elements can be fit into the complement position.12. Which of the following are correct about specifiers? ( )A. Specifiers have both semantic and syntactic roles.B. A noun phrase may take two determiners as its specifiers as in my first impression.C. Some degree words can be determiners of both adjective phrases and verb phrases.D. In a noun phrase, there is necessarily one head, but not necessarily a specifier.13. Which of the following are correct about complement? ( )A. The information about complement is included in the head.B. Subcategorization works for verb phrases, but not for adjective phrases.C. Complements, however many there are, must occur to the right of the head in any language.D. Complements must be phrases following the head.14. Which of the following is NOT correct about the relationship between deep structure and surface structure? A. Deep structure is a blueprint on which basis surface structure is generated.B. Deep structure is related to surface structure by transformational rules.C. One deep structure may correspond to more than one surface structure.D. Deep structure specifies the grammatical relations while surface structure the functions of the syntactic and phonological elements.15. What can be said about Wh movement? ( )A. Before wh movement, Do insertion must be involved.B. Wh movement involves head movement.C. We must move wh-phrase to the nearest specifier position.D. Wh movement also applies to relative clauses. True or false (T for true and F for fa lse) (1*5=5’)16. A complete sentence is also a kind of phrase. ( )17. Complementizers link matrix clauses and complement clauses. ( )18. A sentence must contain a noun, but other elements are optional. ( )19. There are only two genders in gender languages. ( )20. There are constraints on transformations. ( )Brief definitions (6'+6'+5'=17')21. phrase22. CP23. head movementFigure drawing (18’)According to what you have learnt, draw tree structures of the following three sentences to show how deep structures are transformed into surface structures. (You may refer to figures on page 57 for help)24. Will you come next Friday?25. What did they bring to the party?26. Who broke the window?Essay Question (15’)27. Explain and comment on the following sentences a andb.a. John is hard to please.b. John is eager to please.。

语言学第四单元课后答案syntax树状图thes

语⾔学第四单元课后答案syntax树状图thessyntax1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPe) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk aboutCPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NWhat will you e talk about ed) The apple might hit the man.SNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manNP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)P NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pants b) Helen put on her clothes and went out. SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in. SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt. SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux VCrusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPNPN V NYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPYou know that I hate warb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL AHe said that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A NGerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English exam d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too long Surface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNb) The dog that he keeps bites. Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bites Surface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog that he keeps e bitesC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NP N VN NDeep structureCPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguistics Surface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl whom he often quarrels with e majors in linguistics8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrowDeep structureNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advwould you e come tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaperDeep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPN Infl V N Det Nc) Should the students report the incident Deep structureCPC Sthe students should report the incident Surface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det Nd) What did you eat for lunchDeep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NPN N Infl V PN Nwhat did you e eat e for lunche) Who should this be reported to Deep structureCPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whom Surface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNf) What was Helen bringing to the party Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the party Surface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PP NP NP。

AnswertoMorphology语言学练习2

Suggested answers to Morphology I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.T 2.F 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T II. II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Morpheme 12. grammatical 13. Bound 14. derivative 15.Derivative 16. suffix 17. Compounding 18. morphological 19. derivation 19. derivation 20. stem III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.D 22.D 23.B 24.B 25.C 26. C 27. D 28. A 29. B 30. C IV IV. Define the following terms: . Define the following terms: 31. Morphology: Morphology: Morphology Morphology Morphology is is is a a a branch branch branch of of of grammar grammar grammar which which which studies studies studies the the the internal internal internal structure structure structure of of words and the rules by which words are formed. 32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections 33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation. 34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. 35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used indepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. 37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. 38. Affix: Affix: Affixes Affixes Affixes are are are of of of two two two types: types: types: inflectional inflectional inflectional and and and derivational. derivational. derivational. Inflectional Inflectional Inflectional affixes affixes affixes manifest manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. 39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. 40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. 42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words. V . Answer the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds? Orthographically Orthographically a a a compound compound compound can can can be be be written written written as as as one one one word, word, word, two two two separate separate separate words words words with with with or or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last last element. element. element. Semantically, Semantically, Semantically, the the the meaning meaning meaning of of of a a a compound compound compound is is is idiomatic, idiomatic, idiomatic, not not not calculable calculable calculable from from from the the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element. 44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples. Free Free morphemes: morphemes: morphemes: They They They are are are the the the independent independent independent units units units of of of meaning meaning meaning and and and can can can be be be used used used freely freely freely all all all by by themselves, for example, “book -” in the word “bookish”. Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene -” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical grammatical relations relations relations or or or grammatical grammatical grammatical categor categor categories ies ies such such such as as as ““-s” s” in in in the the the word word word “books” “books” “books” to to to indicate indicate plurality plurality of of of nouns. nouns. nouns. Derivational Derivational Derivational affixes affixes affixes are are are added added added to to to an an an existing existing existing form form form to to to create create create a a a word word word such such such as as “mis “mis--” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes Prefixes o o ccur ccur at at at the the the beginning beginning beginning of of of a a a word word word such such such as as as “dis “dis “dis- - - ” ” ” in in in the the the word word word “dislike”, “dislike”, “dislike”, while while while suffixes suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.。

语言学平时思考练习

语言学平时思考练习语言学平时思考练习1. Would you say that language is arbitrary? What would language be like if it was not arbitrary?No. Language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. It has features as follows: arbitrariness, duality, creativity and displacement.2. How has the TG grammar developed?From its birth to the present day, TG Grammar has seen five stages of development. The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science. The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory. The Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar. The Revised Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on government and building. The latest is the Minimalist Program, a further revision of the previous theory.3. In what ways do vowels differ from each other?As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The CARDINAL VOWELS, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowels qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.4. Why do we say that /t/ and /d/ are different phonemes?For instance, the word tin in English consists of three separate sounds, each of which can be given a symbol in a phonetic transcription, [tin]. If we replace [t] by [d], a different word results: din. [t] and [d] are thus important sounds in English, because they enable us to distinguish tin from din, tie from die, and many more word pairs.5. Is it true that the meaning of a compound is always predictable from the parts it contains? Illustrate with examples.No, to understand a sentence, we need also knowledge about its syntactic structure. For example: The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son.6. What is the IC analysis? Can you describe t he sentence “The tall men and women left “in terms of the analysis? What are the problems there?In linguistics, IC analysis is a system of grammatical analysis that divides sentences into successive layers, or constituents, until, in the final layer; each constituent consists of only a word or meaningful part of a word. (A constituent is any word or construction that enters into some larger construction.) In the sentence “The tall men and women left,” the first division into immediate constituents would b e between “the tall men and women” and “left.” The immediate constituents of “the tall men and women” are “the” and “tall men and women.” At the next level “tall men and women” is divided into “tall” and “men and women.There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents. But the main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis.7. What is entailment? And what is presupposition?“Entailment”can be illustrated by the following two sentences，with Sentence A entailing Sentence B：A：He married a blonde heiress.B：He married a blonde.In terms of truth value，the following relationships exist between these two sentences（1）When A is true，B is necessarily true；（2）When B is false，too；（3）when A is false，B may be true or false ；（4）When B is true，A may be true or false. Entailment is basically a semantic relation or logical implication，but we have to assume co-reference of“He”in sentence A and sentence B，before we have A entail B.Similar to entailment，“presupposition”is a semantic relationship or logical connection. The above-mentioned“When phrase No.1”is also true with presupposition. For example：A：The girl he married was an heiress.B：He married a girl.But there is an important difference： Presupposition is not subject to negation，i.e.，when A is false，B is still true. Other statements about the truth value in presupposition are（1）When B is true，A can either be true or false；（2）When B is false，A has no truth value at all. Presupposition does not have to be found between two propositions. An example in point is ：“ When did you stop beating your wife？”This presupposes that he has been beating his wife.8. What is an illocutionary act? Illustrate the act of expressing the spe aker’s intention, the act performed by saying something.The illocutionary act is an act performed in saying something.For example: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).9. What are the major features of the English language used by female native speakers?1. in the area of phonologyIn Gros Ventre, an Amerindian language of the northeast United States, women have palatalized velar stops where men have p alatalized dental stops, e.g., female kjatsa‘bread’ and male djatsa.2. in the area of morphology and vocabularyLakoff (1973) claims that women use color words like mauve, beige, aquamarine, lavender, and magenta but most men do not. She also maintains that adjectives such as adorable, charming, divine, lovely and sweet are commonly used by women but only very rarely by men. Women are also said to have their own vocabulary for emphasizing certain effects on them, words and expressions such as so good, such fun, exquisite, precious, darling, and fantastic.3. in the area of certain grammatical mattersLakoff says that women may answer a question with a statement that employs the rising intonation pattern usually associated with a question rather than the falling intonation pattern associated with making a firm statement. Women often add tag questions to statements, e.g., ‘They caught the robber last week, didn’t they?’4. Other gender-linked differences Women and men may have different paralinguistic systems and move and gesture differently. The suggestion has been made that these often require women to appear to be submissive to men. Women are said not to employ the profanities and obscenities men use, or, if they do, use them in different circumstances or are judged differently for using them. Women are also sometimes required to be silent in situations in whichmen may speak。

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Suggested answers to PragmaticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is T rue or False:l. F 2. F 3.T 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.T 12.FII. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:13. Pragmatics 14. semantics 15. context 16. utterance 17. abstract 18.Constatives 19. Performatives 20. locutionary 21. illocutionary22. commissive 23. expressive 24. quantityIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A26. C 27. D 28. B 29. C 30. B31. A32. C 33. B 34. C 35. A36. DIV. Define the terms below:37. pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.38. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.39. utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.40. sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.41. Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifi-able ;42. Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act. 43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:47. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.48. How does a sentence differ from an utterance?A sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a subject and predicate. An utterance is the unit of communication. It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itbecomes an utterance. Whether “Mary is beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance de pends on how we look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-contained unit in isolation, then it is a sentence. If we look at it as something uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then it is an utterance. Most utterances take the form of complete sentences, but some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. For example:Y ou have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully broughtabout the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully performed .51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.1) representatives: representatives are used to state, to describe, to report, etc.. The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. For example:(I swear) I have never seen the man before.(I state) the earth is a globe.2) directives: Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class.For example:Open the window!3) commissives: Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. When the speaker is speaking, he puts himself under obligation. For example:I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4) expressives: The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating. For example:I'm sorry for the mess I have made.5) declarations: Declarations have the characteristic that the successful performance of such an act brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. For example:I now declare the meeting open.52. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle?The maxim of quantity1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of quality1. Do not say what you believe to be false.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of relationBe relevant.The maxim of manner1. A void obscurity of expression.2. A void ambiguity.3. Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .4. Be orderly.53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?A: Do you know where Mr. Smith lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.This is said when both A and B know that B does know Mr. Smith' s address. Thus B does not give enough information that is required, and he has flouted the maxim of quantity. Therefore, such conversational implicature as "I do not wish to tell you where Mr. Smith lives" is produced.A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I'm afraid I' m not feeling so well today.This is said when both A and B know that B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and he is violating the maxim of quality. The conversational implicature " I do not want to go to your party tonight" is then produced.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren't they?This is said when both A and B know that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and he has flouted themaxim of relation. The conversational implicature "I don't wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner" is produced.A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M.This is said when both A and B know that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word "ice-cream." Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The conversational implicature "I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream" is then produced.。