Neurolinguistics and Language Function
Neurolinguistics
The Origin of Language
1
God's Gift to Mankind
2
Evolutionary Development
3
Language As a Human Invention
God's Gift To Mainkind ?
Language was given by different Gods in different cultures. Belief in the divine origin of language is interwined with the supernatural properties that have been associated with the spoken word.(岁岁平安) In many religions, only special languages may be used in prayers and rituals.
Language and Brain
付红杏：SY1112304
• Specific areas of the brain are devoted to language, and injury to these areas disrupts language. • Normal brain development depends on early and regular exposure to language. • Language and the brain are intimately connected.
Species-specific of The Critical Period
• Duckings, during the period from nine to twenty-one hours after hatching, will follow the first moving object they see, whether or not it looks or waddles like a duck, due to what appears to be a maturally determined schedule that is universal across the species. • Certain species of birds develop their bird song during a biologically determined window of time.
语言学名词解释和问答题答案(只供参考)
四、名词解释：1)Parole话语：①it refers to the realization of langue in actual use.②it is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.③it is concrete, refers to the naturally occurring language events.④it varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.2)Applied linguistics应用语言学：findings in linguistic studies can often beapplied to the solution of such practical problems as recovery of speech ability.The study of such applications is known as applied linguistics.3)Reference（所指）语义: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4)Illocutionary act言外行为：the act of expressing the speaker’s intention,it is th eact preformed in saying something.5)Regional dialect地域方言：it is a linguistic variety used by people living in thesame geographical region. It has been found that regional dialect boundaries often coincide with geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers and swamps.6)LAD(Language Acquisition Device)语言习得机制：It was described as animaginary "black box" existing somewhere in the human brain.7)CA（Contrastive Analysis）对比分析：starting with describing comparablefeatures of the native language and the target language, CA compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter.8)Neurolinguistics（神经语言学）：it is the study of two related areas：languagedisorders and the relationship between the brain and language. It includes research into how the brain is structured and what function each part of the brain performs, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.9)Predication analysis述谓结构分析：①It is proposed by the British Linguist G.Leech.②The basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.③This applies to all forms of a sentence.④ A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.10)Cross-cultural communication(intercultural communication)跨文化交流：itis communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.11)Cross-association互相联想：In English we sometimes may come across wordswhich are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the two leads to confusion. Such interference is often referred as cross-association.12)CPH（Critical Period Hypothesis）临界期假说：a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.①The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.②The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)13) Prescriptive（grammer）规定语法：if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard " behaviour in using language to ell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.14) Performance语言运用；言语行为：the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication .15)Duality双重性(double articulation)：language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower or basic level is of sounds, which are meaningless. The higher level can be meaningful.五、问答题：Chapter 11.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientificstudy of language?Linguistics studies not any particular language,but it studies languages in general.It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts,which are found to display some similarities ,and generalizations are made about them,then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure .But the hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.6. How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’sdistinction between competence and performance?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious studyThey are similar in two aspects: the definition and the content of study.On one hand, Saussure defines langue as the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community, and parole as the realization of langue in actual use.Chomsky d efines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. We can see that langue and competence both refer to the abstract issue, conventions and knowledge, and parole and performance both are their actual realization, the concrete use.On the other hand, in Saussure’s opinion, what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole as parole is too varied and confusing. And this is the same as Chomsky. He thinkslinguists should study the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockettto show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1)Arbitrariness:this means that there is no logical connection between meanings andsounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language.2)Productivity:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals of its users.3)Duality:language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. Atthe lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) Displacement: Language can be use to refer to things which are present or not present, realor imagined matters in the past ,present or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission:Language is passed on from one generation to next through teachingand learning rather than by instinct.Chapter 23.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sound [l]8.what’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?① A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].② A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].③Allophone—the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentsPhone is different from phoneme,The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/1.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?1)The naming theory命名论was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Thelinguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things. The semantic relationship holding between words and things is the relationship of naming.2)The conceptualist view概念论: This view holds that there is no direct link between alinguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the semantic triangle suggested by Ogden and Richards:3)Contextualism语境论: Representatively proposed by the British linguist J. R. Firthwho had been influenced by the Polish anthropologist Malinowski and the German philosopher Wittgenstein.It holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context-elements closely linked with language behavior. …the meaning of a word is its use in the language.4)Behaviourism行为主义论: Based on contextualist view by Bloomfield who drew onbehaviorist psychology in defining “meaning”.Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language from as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.6.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:"You have left the door wide open."The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity数量原则E.g. A: When is Susan's farewell party?B: Sometimes next month.It is flouting the maxim of quantity(2) The maxim of quality质量原则E.g. A: Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?B: I'm afraid I have got a class on Sunday.(3) The maxim of relation相关原则E.g. A: How did the math exam go today, Tom?B: We had a basketball match with the other class.(4) The maxim of manner方式准则E.g. A: Shall we got something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Chapter92.What do you think of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? Give examples or proof to support your point of view.Sapir-Whorf believe that language filters people's perception and the way they categorize their experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. There are mainly two different interpretations about Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that the former influences the later.I agree with the weak one. Here is an example, the word snow. For Eskimo snow is extremely important and so crucial to life that each of its various forms and conditions is named. In English-speaking cultures, snow is far less important and simple word snow usually suffices the need. When some needs become more specific, however, longer phrases can be made up to meet these needs: “corn snow”, “fine powder snow”, and “drifting snow”.Chapter102.Among the language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.1)Behaviourist view---language is behavior ,language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.In this theory,imitation and practice are preliminary(开始),discrimination （识别）and generalizaition are key to language development.2)An innatist (语法天生主义者)view----In the human brain, there is an imaginary “black box”called Language acquisition device which is said to contain principles that are universal to all language.Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language's structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular ter Chomsky prefer this innate endowment as UG and hold that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language make use of these principles and the variations in those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning.3) An interactionist(互动主义者)view----language develops as a result of the complex interplay,between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which child develops.In a word,Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects,the innatist accounts most reasonable in explaining children's acquiring complex system, and the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.Chapter111、To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experience?(please list your own experience.)The studies on the first language acquisition have influenced enormously those on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and pratical levels. Theoretically the new findings and advances in first language acquisition in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. Just as Littlewood summarizes, the first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and undrerstanding new facts about second language learning.2.Try to observe yourself and pay attention to your own learning experience, what conclusion can you reach about the role of Chinese in your English learning? On what occasions are you more likely to use or depend on Chinese in learning and using English? Chinese plays an inseparable role in our English learning and people can't afford to ignore it. Hence, the role of Chinese in our English learning is worth careful examination. In addition, English learning have been influnenced by Chinese learning at both theoretical and practical levels.(1)Theoretically, the new findings and advanced in Chinese acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminate (helping) in understanding English acquisition.(2)The techniques used to collect and analyze data in Chinese learning also provides insights and perspectives in the study of English learning.Occasion: Recent studies have discovered that there are three interacting factors in determining language transfer in second language learning:1)a learner's psychology, how a learner organizes his or her native language;2)a learner's perception of native-target language distance,3)a learner's actual knowledge of the target language.。
高二英语专业术语练习题40题
高二英语专业术语练习题40题1.The construction “be doing” indicates _____.A.present continuous tenseB.past perfect tenseC.future perfect tenseD.present perfect continuous tense答案：A。
“be doing”是现在进行时态的结构，表示正在进行的动作。
B 过去完成时结构是“had done”；C 将来完成时结构是“will have done”；D 现在完成进行时结构是“have/has been doing”。
2.The form “have/has done” represents _____.A.present continuous tenseB.past perfect tenseC.present perfect tenseD.past continuous tense答案：C。
“have/has done”是现在完成时态的结构，表示过去发生的动作对现在造成的影响。
A 现在进行时结构是“be doing”；B 过去完成时结构是“had done”；D 过去进行时结构是“was/were doing”。
3.The structure “had done” shows _____.A.present continuous tenseB.past perfect tenseC.present perfect tenseD.past continuous tense答案：B。
“had done”是过去完成时态的结构，表示在过去某个时间之前已经完成的动作。
A 现在进行时结构是“be doing”；C 现在完成时结构是“have/has done”；D 过去进行时结构是“was/were doing”。
4.The expression “was/were doing” indicates _____.A.present continuous tenseB.past perfect tenseC.present perfect tenseD.past continuous tense答案：D。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(1-6章)【圣才出品】
第1章导言1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3.The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4.Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。
(2)语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
2.有关语言的常考考点(1)语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2)语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3)语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。
)本章内容索引：I.Definition of linguisticsII.Linguistics vs.traditional grammarIII.Scope of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsIV.Definition of languageV.Origins of language1.Ding-Dong Theory2.Sing-Song Theory3.Pooh-Pooh Theory4.Yo-He-Ho Theory5.Ta-Ta Theory6.Bow-Wow TheoryVI.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Interchangeability5.Displacement6.Specialization7.Cultural transmissionVII.Functions of language1.Phatic function/communion2.Directive functionrmative function4.Interrogative function5.Expressive function6.Evocative function7.Performative functionVIII.Some major concepts in linguistics1.Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsngue and parolepetence and performance5.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6.Functionalism and formalismI.Definition of linguistics(语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language,which is always guided by the-three canons ofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。
语言学选择题
语言学A__ is the study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distributionand patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.A. PhonologyB. LexicographyC. LexicologyD. MorphologyC2. ___C_ is defined as the scientific study of language, studying language in general.A. PsycholinguisticsB. NeurolinguisticsC. LinguisticsD. PhoneticsB3. Which of the linguistic items listed below is best described as the smallest unit of meaning A. the word B. the morphemeC. the phonemeD. the clauseB4. A prefix is an affix which appears ____.A. after the stemB. before the stemC. in the middle of the stemD. below the stemC 5. Which of the following is true ____A. Phonetics is the study of pronunciation.B. Phonetics is the scientific study of the movement of sound waves.C. Phonetics is the scientific study of the sounds of language.D. Phonetics is the scientific study of the organs of speech.D6. “What’s in a name That which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweetSo Romeo would, were he not Romeo called,” (Romeo and Juliet, Act 2, Scene 2, 43~5)To what characteristic of language dose Shakespeare refer ___A. CreativityB. ProductivityC. DualityD. ArbitrarinessA7. Language, as a system, consists of two sets of structures or two levels, which is known as____, one of a design features of human language.A. DualityB. DisplacementC. ProductivityD. ArbitrarinessD8. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not makeone word different from another in meaning, are ____.A. phonemesB. phonesC. soundsD. allophonesA9. What is complementary distribution ____A. Different places of occurrence of allophones within a word.B. When a phone can only occur at the end of a word.C. When an allophone occurs at the beginning of a word.D. Contrastive distribution of allophonesD10. ___ deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations.A. MorphemeB. VocabularyC. RootD. LexiconB1. Cold and hot are called ____ antonyms.A. complementaryB. gradableC2. “I regret that I can’t help you.” This is an example of __ _.A. representativesB. directivesC. expressivesD. commissivesD. What is the duality of the language ____A. Letters and soundsB. Sounds and symbolsC. Symbols and meaningD. sounds and meaningA4. “I bought some roses” ___ “I bought some flowers”.A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous withC5. Of the following linguists, ____ should be grouped into Prague School.A. BloomfieldB. SaussureC. JakobsonD. FirthC6. Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is often referred to as acquired ____.A. diglossiaB. aphasiaC. dyslexiaD. dysgraphiaA7. ____ A Dictionary of the English Language established a uniform standard for the spelling and word use.A. Samuel Johnson’sB. Bishop Lowth’sC. Firth’sD. Samuel John’sB8. What is phonology ____A. The study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted and receivedB. The study of the function, behavior and organization of speech sounds as linguistic items.C. The study of the International Phonetic Alphabet.D. The study of all possible speech sounds.D9. The morpheme “cast” in the common word “telecast” is a (n) ____.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morphemeD10. A phoneme is ____.A. a set of different realization of a phoneB. a set of contrastive allophones in free variationC. a set of phones in complementary distributionD. a set of phonetically similar noncontrastive phonesA1. Firstly, to which of these language groups dose English belong ____A. GermanicB. SlavonicC. romanceD. BalticD2. What is defined as “the study of sentence structure” ___A. MorphologyB. SemanticsC. PhonologyD. SyntaxD3. According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A. learningB. competenceC4. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned”is known as a(n) ____.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free formC5. ____ studies the total stock of morphemes of a language, especially those items which have clear semantic references.A. PhonologyB. LexicologyC. MorphologyD. LexicographyA6. As a type of linguistic system in L2 learning, ____ is a product of L2 training, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner.A. interlanguageB. interferenceC. language transferD. linguistic relativityA7. ____ means the lack of a logical connection between the form of something and its expression in sounds.A. ArbitrarinessB. AbstractnessC. AmbiguityD. FuzzinessB8. The term ___ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparativeD9. When a speech sound changes and becomes more like another sound that follows or precedes it, it is said to be ____.A. nasalizedB. voicedC. aspiratedD. assimilatedC10. F. de Saussure is a (n) ____ linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. RussianA1. N. Chomsky is a (n) ____ linguist.A. AmericanB. CanadaC. SwissD. FrenchB2. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has two thrusts: ___ and ____.A. Linguistic description, Linguistic determinismB. Linguistic determinism, Linguistic relativityC. Linguistic relativity, Linguistic descriptionD. Linguistic determinism, Linguistic performanceA3. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and used by people who speak different language for restricted purpose is ____.A. pidiginB. creoleC. dialectD. blendsB4. By ____, we refer to word forms which differ from each other only by one sound, . “pin”and “bin”.A. complementally distributionB. minimal pairC. Adjacency pairD. code—switchingA5. When two sounds never occur in the same environment they said to be in ___.A. complementary distributionB. free variationC. co-occurrenceD. minimal pairD6. ___ century is considered to be the beginning of Modern English.A. 18thB. 17thC. 19thD. 16thB7. Conventionally a __ __ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phonemeC. phoneD. morphemeD8. __ __ is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that the only things valid enough to confirm or refute o scientific theory are interpersonally observable phenomena, rather than people’s introspections or intuitions.A. MentalismB. Functional grammarC. Case grammarD. BehaviorismC9. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called __C.A. expressivesB. directivesC. commisivesD. declaratives*C 10. A __ _ is often seen as part of a word, but it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning.A. morphemeB. wordC. rootD. phonemeD1. Linguistics is the scientific study of ___.A. a particular languageB. the English languageC. human language in generalD. the system of a particular languageA2. __ __ is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA.A. InterlanguageB. IdeologyC. DialectD. InterferenceB3. Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called __ _ rule.A. DeletionB. SequentialC. superasegmentalD. AssimilationB 4. “There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to”. This is the __ view concerning the study of meaning.A. naming theoryB. conceptualistC. contextualistD. behavioristA5. English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives, nasals, etc. , in terms of _.A. manner of articulationB. openness of mouthC. place of articulationD. voicingA6. According to Chomsky, _ __ is the ideal user’s internalized knowledge of his language.A. competenceB. paroleC. performanceD. langueA7. __ is not a suprasegmental feature.A. AspirationB. IntonationC. StressD. ToneA8 __ is a phenomenon that L2 learners subconsciously use their L1language in their learning process.A. Language transferB. BlendingC. InterferenceD. CooperativeC9. _ are affixes added to an existing form to create a new word, . in-,-er.A. inflectional morphemeB. free morphemeC. derivational morphemeD. rootB10. Writing is the secondary language form based on ___.A. soundB. speechC. gestureD. signC1. ____ covers the study of language use in relation to context, and in particular the study of linguistic communication.A. SemanticsB. SociolinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. LinguisticsA2. Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case” and so on are called ____ morphemes.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivationalC3. Which of the following is not a compound word ___A. clearwayB. rainbowC. scarcityD. withoutA4. The fact that ability to speak a language is transmitted from generation to generation by process of learning, and not genetically is referred to as ____.A. culture transmissionB. performanceC. competenceD. acquisitionC5. ____ is the language of Angles, Saxons and Jutes who invaded Britain after AD 450.A. Old NorseB. CleticC. Old EnglishD. Middle EnglishC6. A group of two or more consonants together in a syllable is called a (n) ____.A. arresting clusterB. releasing clusterC. consonant clusterD. syllableC7. The semantic features of the word “woman” can be expressed as ____.A. +ANIMATE, -- HUMAN, +ADULT, +MALEB. + ANIMATE, + HUMAN, -- ADULT, + MALEC. + ANIMATE, + HUMAN, + ADULT, -- MALED. + ANIMATE, -- HUMAN, -- ADULT, -- MALEA8. ____ is to refer to an auxiliary language used to enable routine communication to take place between groups of people who speak different native languages.A. Lingua francaB. DialectC. PidginD. Ethnic dialectA9. ____ is the study of the relationship between brain and language, including research intohow the structure of the brain influences language learning.A. NeurolinguisticsB. PsyhcholingisticsC. Applied LinguisticsD. SociolinguisticsB10. Modern synchronic linguistics traditionally dates from the ____ of Swiss scholar Ferdinandde Saussure.A. Syntactic structureB. Cours de Linguitique GeneralC. De Lingua LatinaD. Language and MindA1. According to the strong version of the ____ hypothesis, language determines speakers’perceptions and patterns their way of life.A. Sapir WhorfB. inputC. GrimD. InnatenessD2. Which of the following is true ____A. In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spokenform.B. A compound is the combination of only two words.C. The division of English into old English, Middle English, and Modern English isnonconventional and not arbitrary.D. If a child is deprived of linguistic environment, he or she is unlikely to learn a languagesuccessfully later on.D3. Which of the following statements is not true ____A. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.B. Language is human specificC. Language is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal andsituational constraintsfirst language was invented by Adam, the first man.B 4. A group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and whoshare not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes to- ward linguisticnorms are defined as ____.A. speech varietyB. speech communityC. registerD. sociolectC5. “Your money or your life” is an example of ___.A. representativeB. expressiveC. directivesD. commissivesD6. Which of the following distinctive features can be used to separate [p] and [b] __A. stopB. fricativesC. bilabialD. voicedD7. ____ studies the total stock of morphemes of a language particularly those items which haveclear semantic references.A. LexicographyB. PhonologyC. LexicologyD. MorphologyC8. ____ theorized that acquisition of language is an innate process determined by biologicalfactors which limit the important period for acquisition of a language from roughly two yearsof age to puberty.A. Input hypothesisB. Interaction hypothesisC. Critical period hypothesisD. Sapir-Whorf HypothesisC9. An example of ___ would be the change in meaning undergone by the OE word, docga, modern daydog. In OE docga referred to a particular breed of dog, while in modern usage it refers to theclass of dogs as a whole.A. semantic degradationsB. semantic reductionsC. semantic extensionsD. semantic elevationC10. According to Chomsky, the child is born with a built –in set of rules, which have the specificfunction of enabling her to construct the grammar of her mother tongue. This view is to be seenas ____.A. Input hypothesisB. X-theoryC. Language acquisition deviceD. Universal grammarD1. “Old” and “Young” are a pair of ____ opposites.A. complementaryB. relationalC. converseD. gradableB2. Systemic-Functional Grammar, one of the most influential linguistic theories in the 20thcentury, is put forward by ____.A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. FirthD. MalinowskiD3. Vowels that are produced between the positions for a front and back vowel are called ____vowel.A. backB. frontC. unroundedD. centralD4. From Halliday’s viewpoint, language is a form of realization of ____ rather than a form of realization of______.A. knowing, doingB. thinking, knowingC. doing, thinkingD. doing, knowingC5. ___ believes that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.A. The innatistB. The interactionistC. The behavioristD. The mentalistthe physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear.A. Articulatory phoneticsB. Physiological phoneticsC Acoustic phonetics D. Auditory phoneticsB7. Creativity refers to ____.A. the unconscious knowledge that language users have in their mindsB. the capacity of language users to produce and understand an indefinitely large number ofsentencesC. a property claimed to be characteristic of all languagesD. animals’ capacity to learn more than one human languageA8. Fossilization is a process _ _.A. in which incorrect linguistic features beca me a permanent part of a learner’s competenceB. in which incorrect as well as correct linguistic features became a permanent part of alearner’s competence, but the correct items gradually delete the incorrect items C. which can happen as a result of teachers’ disapproval of an incorrect itemand C are correctB9. “Competence” refers to ____.A. knowledge of meaning of words and sentencesB. a speaker’s unconscious knowledge about his/her languageC. the actual use of a speaker’s unconscious knowledge about his/her languageD. the laws that pertain to all languages throughout the worldA10. ___ refers to unintentionally deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker.A. An errorB. A mistakeC. A slip of the tongueD. FossilizationC1. ____ is a multiword construction that is a semantic unit whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituents.A. semantic componentB. collocationC. idiomD. referenceB2. The distinction between langue and parole is similar to that between ____.A. prescriptive and descriptiveB. competence and performanceC. speech and writingD. synchronic and diachronicA3. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as ____.A. open class wordsB. grammatical wordsC. closed class wordsD. function wordsB4. What is the meaning relationship between the two words “furniture/bed” ____A. polysemyB. hyponymyC. homonymyD. antonymyB5. Which description of componential analysis for the word “woman” is right ____A. +human,-adult, -maleB. +human, + adult, -maleC. +human, + adult, +maleD. +human, -adult, +maleB6. The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a ____.A. regional dialectB. registerC. fieldD. repertoireD7. In structural grammar, distributional analysis is used to define ____, which are taken as the basic building blocks.A. morphemesB. wordsC. syllableD. phonemesD8. “Speech Act Theory” was proposed by ____ in 1962.A. SaussureB. ChomskyC. Jane AustinD. John AustinD9. The major new development in linguistics in 20th century was ____ grammar.A. speculativeB. traditionalC. structuralD. transformational-generativeA10. ____ refers to the tendency of many learners to stop developing their inter-language grammar in the direction of the target language.A. FossilizationB. Error analysisC. OvergeneralizationD. InterferenceD1. The most recognizable difference between American English and British English are in ____ and vocabulary.A. structureB. grammarC. usageD. pronunciationC2. The study of how we do things with utterance is the study of ____, the nature of which isdetermined by context.A. contextB. pragmaticsC. speech actD. semanticsA3. A(n) ___ is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid more direct wording that might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive, . “pass away” for “die”.A. euphemismsB. deleteC. coinageD. tabooB4. In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak more than one language. As a characteristic of societies, ____ inevitably results from the coming into contact of people with different cultures and different languages.A. transferB. bilingualismC. diglossiaD. inter-languageD5. Pragmatics differs from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation, but in ____.A. relationshipB. dependenceC. sentenceD. contextis a design feature of human language that enables speakers to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and space.A. cultural transmissionB. dualityC. displacementD. productivityB7. Traditional grammarians begin with ____ definition of the sentence and components.A. structuralB. notionalC. descriptiveD. prescriptiveA8. ____ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. Speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A countryA9. ___ invasions established three major groups in England: Saxons, Angles and Jutes.A. GermanicB. NormanC. FrenchD. RomanD10. Japanese is the only major language that uses ___ writing system.A. a word-writingB. a logographicC. an alphabeticD. a syllabicC1. ____ is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constitu ents, . a word or group of words, which serves as a definable “center” or “head”.A. Exocentric constructionB. CoordinationC. Endocentric constructionD. CollocationA2. Of the following linguists, ____ should not be grouped into American school.A. FirthB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. BoasD3. When people learn a foreign language for external goals such as passing exams, financial rewards or furthering a career, we say they learn a foreign language with a (n) ___.A. intrinsic motivationB. resultative motivationC. integrative motivationD. instrumental motivationB4. What is the sense relation in the sentence “M y unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.”____A. PresupposeB. ContradictionC. EntailmentD. InconsistentB5. ---TRUTH.---Do not say what you believe to be false.---Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Those can be defined as the features of ____ of Gricean maxims.A. maxim of quantityB. maxim of qualityC. maxim of relationD. maxim of mannerC6. ____ caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords refers to the use of pitch in language to distinguish words.A. IntonationB. StressC. ToneD. AspirationC7. ____ is a socially prestigious dialect that is supported by institutions.A. Ethnic dialectB. IdeolectC. Standard dialectD. CreoleD8. Which of the following country are those loanwords “garage, champion, beauty, parliament”borrowed from ____.A. LatinB. DutchC. GermanD. FrenchB9. In the sentence “The angry man went furiously through the rooms.” The first division into immediate constitute should be between ____.A. angry and manB. man and wentC. furiously and throughD. The and angryC10. ____ refers to the effect of the utterance.A. Illocutionary actB. Locutionary actC. Perlocutionary actD. Speech actA1. The consonant sound /p/ is described as ___.A. voiceless bilabial stopB. voiceless alveolar stopC. voiced bilabial stopD. voiced alveolar stopC2. A new word created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part is referred to as ____.A. acronymB. borrowingC. clippingD. blendingC3. According to the author our brain is divided into two hemispheres. Language functions are mainly located in ____.A. right hemispheresB. front hemispheresC. left hemispheresD. back hemispheresC4. “A language pattern which occurs in all known language” is called ____.A. a phonemic representationB. a phonetic representationC. a language universalD. language changeC5. In the sentence-------“The child found the puppy”, ____ is not a constituent.A. The childB. found the puppyC. found theD. the puppyA6. A ____ is a word or phrase which people use in place of terms which they consider to be more disagreeable or offensive to themselves and /or to their audience.A. EuphemismB. metaphorC. denotationD. jargonC7. ____ is the learner’s process of adapting to the culture and value system of the targetlanguage community.A. AcquisitionB. AssimilationC. AcculturationD. ArticulationC8. What is the relationship between the two words “flower / rose” ____A. HomonymyB. AntonymyC. hyponymyD. PolysemyD9. The function of the sentence “How are you” ____A. directiveB. informativeC. performativeD. phaticC10. Homonyms ____.A. are words that share the same phonetic features and the same semantic featuresB. are words that share the same semantic features but have different sets of phonetic featuresC. are words that share the same phonetic features but have different sets of semantic featuresD. are two words that all but one of semantic features in commonB1. The distinction between language and parole is proposed by ____.A. HallidayB. SaussureC. ChomskyD. FirthC2. In the following dialogue, the maxim of ____ is not observed.A. What time is itB. It’s terribly cold in here.A. qualityB. quantityC. relevanceD. mannerB3. ____ are linguistic units larger than sentences.A. MovesB. DiscoursesC. TopicsD. TendenciesA4. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementarity __A. single/marriedB. big/smallC. hot / coldD. old /youngA5. Usually ____ refers to the use of linguistic research in language teaching, but linguisticsis used in other areas, as well.A. applied linguisticsB. theoretical linguisticsC. contextual linguisticsD. general linguisticsD6. Two words that are differentiated by one phoneme, such as “cat” and “rat”, are known asa ____.A. distinctive featureB. argumentC. codeD. minimal pairD7. ____ is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics.A. SaussureB. HallidayC. ChomskyD. LabovC8. ____ is the academic discipline concerned with the study of the processes by which peoplelearn languages in addition to their native tongue.A. IPAB. IC AnalysisC. SLAD. TGC9. The ____ is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspectsof semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents.A. bound morphemeB. affixC. rootD. prefixA10. In terms of S earle’s classification system of illocutionary acts, the sentence “Ten bucks say that The Yankee will win the game.” used to bet belongs to ____.A. representativeB. commissiveC. directiveD. declarationB1. Three factors involved in describing vowels are ____.A. place of articulation / part of the tongue raised / voicingB. tongue height / part of the tongue raised / lip roundingC. articulators / extreme vowel positions / tongue positionD. teeth position / alveolar ridge position / voicingC2. In ____ the structure of words is studied.A. phoneticsB. phonologyC. morphologyD. syntaxD3. Which one is not a source of error ____A the native language B. the target languageC. learner’s style of thinkingD. noneC4. “Love” and “hate” are ____.A. binary antonymsB. complementary pairsC. gradable antonymsD. relational oppositesA5. ___ refers to sentences not only describe or report information, but also help speakers accomplish things.A. Speech actB. DiscourseC. ContextD. CommunicationB6. The feature th at distinguishes “hotdog” and “hot dog” is ____.A. toneB. stressC. intonationD. aspirationA7. ____ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. NeurolinguistcsD. Anthropological linguisticsD8. The study of language at some point of time is generally termed as ____ linguistics.A. appliedB. diachronicC. comparativeD. synchronicA9. Of the following linguists, ____ should be grouped into London school.A. FirthB. BloomfieldC. BoasD. TrubetzkoyC10. ____ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard languageD1. The basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the short period from about age two to puberty, which is called the ____ period for the first language acquisition.A. initialB. one-word stageC. pubertyD. criticalA2. The study of the linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called ____.A. semanticsB. pragmaticsC. syntaxD. language changeD3. In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the ____ principle proposed by J. Grice.。
英语语言学 第十二章 language and brain
▪ 神经语言学研究两个相关领域:语言障碍和大脑与语言 之间的关系。包括大脑在语言发展和语言及存储方式、大脑受损对语言运 用能力的影响等。
The structure and function of the human brain
3. syntax syntacitc parser 句法解析 这个解析器被认为是一个利用语法知识的系统， 但它也包含一些特殊的过程和原则，这些过程和 原则指导句子元素的构成顺序和句法结构的构建 方式。 garden path sentences 花园路径句 e.g. The horse raced past the barn fell. sentence ambiguity 句子歧义 e.g. They all rose.
autopsy studies 尸体解剖研究
AST 阿米妥钠测试 CAT 计算机轴向分层造影 PET 正电子发射断层扫描术 MRI 磁共振成像 fMRI 机能性磁共振成像
Methods to examine the behavior associated with the brain
Dichotic listening 双耳分听实验 Split brain studies 裂脑实验
Psycholinguistic modeling
1. Broca's aphasia 2. Wernicke's aphasia
语言学知识
一、定义：什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.二、语言学研究的核心（下面的术语要尽量全都认识，不然做题时可能看不懂选项）1、Phonetics 语音学2、Phonology 音位学3、Morphology 形态学4、Syntax 句法学5、Semantics 语义学6、Pragmatics 语用学三、语言（Langue）和言语（Parole）这个考过的。
Parole这个概念是F. de Saussure（索绪尔）提出的。
Langue指语言系统的整体，“所有（语言使用）个体头脑中存储的词语-----形象之总和”，这个整体相对较为稳定；Parole指某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语，它是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的实体。
四、语言的功能Functions of Language（这个也考过的。
考过the informative function，就是高速公路指示牌的那道题）1、The instrumental function2、The regulatory function3、The heuristic function4、The interactional function5、The personal function6、The imaginative function7、The informative function五、语言的普遍特征Design Features这个也考过的，这五个特征由美国语言学家Charles Hockett提出。
弱弱地说一句：如果真的在临时抱佛脚，那就不要管这五个术语的具体含义了，只要能强行记下来应付考试就是了。
>_<1、Arbitrariness 任意性2、Productivity 多产性3、Duality 双层结构4、Displacement 移位性5、Cultural Transmission 文化传播性六、语音学和音位学（一）语音学Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language.1、三大分支（1）Articulatory Phonetics发音语音学（2）Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学（3）Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学2、辅音和元音（这个考过的，考过二者的区别）（二）音位学Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form pattern and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.1、三个术语（1）Phone音素（2）Phoneme音位（3）Allophone音位变体2、Suprasegmental Phonology超音段音位（考过的）包括Stress重音、Tone音调、Intonation语调七、形态学Morphology: refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.（一）两类词汇1、Closed class words封闭性词汇2、Open class words开放性词汇（二）Morpheme词素1、Free morpheme自由词素2、Bound morpheme粘着词素3、Stem词干4、Root词根（三）Word-formation构词法（四）Inflection屈折变化八、句法学Syntax: studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.九、语义学Semantics: is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.1、Synonymy同义关系2、Polysemy一词多义3、Homophones同音异义&Homogragh同形异义&Complete homonyms同形同音异义4、Hyponymy上下义关系5、Antonymy反义关系6、Analysis of meaning语义分析（1）Componential analysis成分分析（2）Predication analysis述谓分析7、 Two-place predicate二向谓词、one-place predicate一向谓词、no-place predicate 零向谓词8、 Sense relations between sentences（1）Entailment（2）Presupposition十、语用学1、Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. (Or it refers to the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.)2、区分语义学和语用学的最本质因素是：是否考虑了语言使用过程中的语境。
语言学复习重点 第一章
Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics(这一章主要探讨什么是语言，语言的功能是什么，语言的起源和分类，以及，什么是语言学，语言学的研究范围是什么)1.1 The nature of language---什么是语言？一句话总结，Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (systematic, symbolic, arbitrary, primarily vocal, human specific, used for communication)nguage is systematic 系统性（重点：语言的双重性duality）解释：language is systematic since element in it are arranged to certain rules.(e.g.only certain combination of sounds are possible in English)双重性duality: Each language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning.nguage is symbolic 符号性（重点：Icon, Index, Symbol 的区分）解释：there is no or little connection between the sounds that people use and objects to which the sounds refer.（这句话丝毫没重点，不过没办法，PPT上这么说，我觉得对符号性的理解应该是people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs 才有逻辑）因为：伟大的现代语言学之父Saussure: linguistics is a subdivision（分支）of semiology(符号学), dealing with language as a special means of human communication. （语言学是符号学的分支，是研究语言作为以一种特殊交流方法的学科。
Quizforlinguistics习题整理含答案
Quiz for linguistics:Chapter 1: Linguistics and Language语言和语言学1. Which of the following is the most important function of languagea. Interpersonal functionb. Performative functionc. Informative functiond. Recreational function2. ______ studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc..a. Phonologyb. Phoneticsc. Morphologyd. Pragmatics3. ______ function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.a. Performativeb. Interpersonalc. Phaticd. Metalingual4. ______ means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.a. Creativityb. Dualityc. Arbitrarinessd. Displacement5. By ______ it means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.a. arbitrarinessb. dualityc. creativityd. displacement6. ______ distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual production of speeches.a. Chomskyb. Saussurec. Gilmand. Brown7. ______ refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.a. Competenceb. Performancec. Eloquenced. Action8. ______ is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.a. Psycholinguisticsb. Sociolinguisticsc. Anthropological linguisticsd. Computational linguistics9. ______ studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.a. Pragmaticsb. Semanticsc. Syntaxd. Phonetics10. ______ is a branch of linguistics concerned in principle with the physical representation of language or linguistic processes in the brain.a. Anthropological linguisticsb. Psychological linguisticsc. Computational linguisticsd. Neurolinguistics11. The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is ______ (大纲样题)a. morphologyb. general linguisticsc. phonologyd. semantics12. Syntax is the study of ______. (2005年真题)a. language functionb. sentence structuresc. textual organizationd. word formation13. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language (2005年真题)a. arbitrarinessb. productivityc. cultural transmissiond. finiteness14. The distinction between parole and langue was made by ______. (2006年真题)a. Hallidayb. Chomskyc. Bloomfieldd. Saussure15. ______ refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. (2007年真题)a. Phonologyb. Morphologyc. Semanticsd. Sociolinguistics16. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language (2021年真题)a. Arbitrarinessb. Displacementc. Dualityd. Diachronicity17. The study of the mental processes of language comprehension and production is ______. (2021年真题)a. corpus linguisticsb. sociolinguisticsc. theoretical linguisticsd. pysholinguistics18. Language is a tool of communication. The symbol “Highway Closed〞on a highway serves ______. (2021年真题)a. an expressive function.b. an informative function.c. a performative function.d. a persuasive function.19. ______ is defined as the study of the relationship between language and mind. (2021年真题)a. Semanticsb. Pragmaticsc. Cognitive linguisticsd. Sociolinguistics20. Saussure distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker as ____a. paroleb. languagec. systemd. langue1. ______ is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.a. Acoustic phoneticsb. Articulatory phoneticsc. Auditory phoneticsd. Pragmatics2. When ______ is produced, complete closure of the articulators is involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth.a. fricativeb. stopc. affricated. lateral3. In the production of vowels, air is ______ as is the case with consonants.a. not obstructedb. obstructedc. semi-obstructedd. half-obstructed4. The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the ______ grammarian Otto Jespersen in 1886.a. Englishb. Americanc. Danishd. French5. The present system of the IPA derives mainly from one developed in the ______ by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones and his colleagues at University of London.a. 1910sb. 1920sc. 1930sd. 1940s6. To be specific, ______ deals with how speech sounds are produced.a. articulatory phoneticsb. acoustic phoneticsc. auditory phoneticsd. phonological phonetics7. All the following are the description of [P] EXCEPT ______.a. stopb. bilabialc. alveolard. consonant8. If a single movement from one element to a second element of the tongue is involved, the combine vowels are called ______.a. monophthongsb. triphthongsc. cardinal vowelsd. diphthongs9. The most famous cardinal vowel system put forward by Daniel Jones defines ______ primary cardinal vowels.a. 7b. 8c. 9d. 1010. The followings belong to affricates EXCEPT ______.a. [ts]b. [l]c. [D]d. [tr]11. According to the part of the tongue which is raised, the vowels can be divided into the following three kinds, EXCEPT for ______.a. frontb. middlec. centrald. back12. A vowel is different from a consonant in English because of _______. (2021年真题)a. absence of obstructionb. presence of obstructionc. manner of articulationd. place of articulation13. If the air stream meets with no obstruction when a sound is pronounced, it is a(n) ______.a. voiced consonantb. voiceless consonantc. voweld. explosive14. The internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is ______.a. b. c. d.1. ______ refers to two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning.a. Ahonemeb. A minimal pairc. Allophoned. Free variation2. Phonology is the study of ______.a. how speech sounds are madeb. the sound system of languagesc. speech sounds are transmittedd. how speech sounds are received3. The following are the principle suprasegmental features EXCEPT _______.a. syllableb. stressc. toned. phoneme4. Which aspect does NOT belong to the phonological processa. A set of sounds to undergo the processb. A set of sounds produced by the processc. The length of the sounds in the processd. A set of situations in which the process applies5. ______ refers to the sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of word from another in a given language.a. Phoneb. Allophonec. Phonemed. Morpheme6. The open syllable refers to the syllable that has no ______.a. codab. onsetc. nucleusd. rhyme7. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages. Which of the following is tone languagea. Englishb. Chinesec. both English and Chinesed. Neither English nor Chinese8. If two phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a ______.a. minimal pairb. complementary distributionc. phonemic contrastd. minimal set9. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature in English phonologya. aspirationb. plosivenessc. bilabialityd. voicelessness1. ______ is a unit that cannot be divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.a. Phonemeb. Morphemec. Lexemed. Phone2. The words such as dog, nation and close are ______.a. affixesb. free morphemesc. bound morphemesd. compounds3. The words such as “smog〞and 〞brunch〞are called ______.a. abbreviationb. acronymc. back-formationd. blending4. For example, the word bead originally means “prayer〞, but later it refers to “the prayer bead〞, and finally “small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood〞. It is called ______.a. meaning shiftb. broadeningc. narrowingd. borrowing5. “Kodak〞is a/an ______.a. acronymb. blendingc. coinaged. clipping6. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are ______.a. grammatical wordsb. lexical wordsc. both grammatical words and lexical wordsd. neither grammatical words nor lexical words7. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and articles are ______.a. open-class wordsb. closed-class wordsc. both open-class words and closed wordsd. neither open-class nor closed-class words8. In terms of ______, words can be divided into closed-class words and open-class words.a. meaningb. variabilityc. qualityd. membership9. _____ refers to any morphemes or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It can be equivalent to a root, or a root and a derivational affix.a. affixb. rootc. stemd. suffix10. In the following words foot/feet, goose/geese, the affixes belong to ______.a. suffixb. infixc. prefixd. root11. Which of the following is NOT a compound word 〔大纲样题〕a. Landladyb. Greenhousec. Upliftd. Unacceptable12. The word holiday originally meant “holy day〞; but now the word signifies “any day on which we don’t have to work〞. This is an example of ______. 〔大纲样题〕a. meaning shiftb. widening of meaningc. narrowing of meaningd. loss of meaning13. The word “motel〞comes from “motor + hotel〞. This is an example of ______ in morphology. (2021年全真)a. backformationb. conversionc. blendingd. acronym14. ______ refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. (2007年全真〕a. Phonologyb. Morphologyc. Semanticsd. Sociolinguistics1. ______ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentence.a. Morphologyb. Syntaxc. Phoneticsd. Semantics2. Which one of the following does NOT belong to English casesa. Nominativeb. Accusativec. Genitived. Dative3. When a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of category, it is referred to as _____.a. generationb. governmentc. transformationd. negation4. ______ refers to the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.a. C-commandb. Immediate constituent analysisc. Deep structured. Communicative dynamism5. ______ is a general term for verbal category that distinguish the status of events, etc. in relation to specific period of times, as opposed to their simple location in the present, past, or future.a. tenseb. timec. moodd. aspect6. The relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc., e.g. between s, p, and r in a form such as spring, or between a subject and a verb in constructions such as Bill hunts is called ______.a. syntagmatic relationb. paradigmatic relationb. positional relation d. relation of subsitutablity7. In English, theme and rheme are expressed by ______.a. subject and objectb. subject and predicatec. predicate and objectd. object and predicate8. Classical Creek and Arabic have a third number: ______, something like the English “both〞.a. singleb. pluralc. duald. trial9. Another method to analyze a sentence from the functional perspective is ______, which is proposed by J. Firbas.a. C-commandb. immediate constituent analysisc. deep structured. communicative dynamism10. Those constructions where there is only one head, with the head dominant and the other constituents being modifiers, are ______.a. endocentric constructionsb. exocentric constructionsc. deep structured. surface structure11. What type of sentence is “Mark likes fiction, but Tim is interested in poetry.〞(2021年真题)a. a simple sentenceb. a coordinate sentencec. a complex sentenced. none of the above12. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT ______. (2007年真题)a. lexicalb. syntacticc. phonologicald. psycholinguistic13. Syntax is the study of ______. (2005年全真)a. language functions.b. sentence structures.c. textual organization.d. word formation.1. More specifically, _____ is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.a. pragmaticsb. semanticsc. syntaxd. phonology2. In the semantic triangle by Ogden and Richards, the SYMBOL or FORM refers to ______.a. the linguistic elements (words, phrases)b. the object in the world of experienced. idea3. The words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects are called ______.a. dialectal synonymsb. collocational synonymsc. stylistic synonymsd. complementary antonymy4. The word “table〞has at least the six meanings such as “a piece of furniture〞, “all the people seated at a table〞, etc. It can be called ______.a. polysemyb. antonymyc. homonymyd. hyponymy5. The relation between “dog〞and “animal〞is that of _____.a. synonymyb. antonymyc. homonymyd. hyponymy6. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called _____. (2021年真题)a. dialectb. idiolectc. pidgind. register7. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called ______. (2021年真题)a. hyponymyb. synonymyc. polysemyd. homonymy8. The word tail once referred to the “tail of a horse〞, but now it is used to mean “the tail of any animal〞. This is an example of ______.(2007年真题)a. widening of meaningb. narrowing of meaningc. meaning shiftd. loss of meaning9. The word “kid, child, offspring〞are examples of ______. (2006年真题)a. dialectal synonymsb. stylistic synonymsc. emotive synonymsd. collocational synonyms10. The noun “tear〞and the verb “tear〞are ______.a. homophonesb. homographsc. complete homonymsd. allophones1. Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how ______ influences the interpretation of meanings.a. wordb. contextc. sentenced. language form2. Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use, which originated with the Oxford philosopher ______.a. Herbert Paul Griceb. Dan Sperberc. Deirdre Wilsond. John Langshaw Austin3. A(n) _____ is using a sentence to perform a function.a. Locutionary Actb. Illocutionary Actc. Perlocutionary Actd. In-locutionary Act4. The second major theory in pragmatics is the theory of conversational implicature, proposed by Oxford philosopher ______.a. J. Austinb. Hallidayc. Herbert Paul Griced. Saussure5. The following maxims are the Cooperative Principles Except ______.a. quantity maximb. quality maximc. distance maximd. relation maxim6. Which of the following is NOT the characteristic of Implicaturea. calculabilityb. cancellabilityc. non-detachabilityd. changeability7. Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of ______.a. relevanceb. coordinationc. agreementd. reciprocity8. The notion of ______ is essential to the pragmatic study of languagea. communicationb. contextc. speech act theoryd. words9. When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he is performing ______. (2021年真题)a. an illocutionary actb. a perlocutionary actc. a locutionary actd. none of the above10. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of ______. (2006年真题)a. referenceb. meaningc. antonymyd. context11. The speech act theory was first put forward by ______. (2005年真题)a. John Searleb. John Austinc. Noam Chomskyd. M.A.K Halliday12. The force of a/an ______ act is identical with the speaker’s intention.a. illocutionaryb. locutionaryc. perlocutionaryd. Prelocutionary1. The definition “the act of using, or promoting the use of several languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers〞refers to _____. (2021年全真)a. pidginb. creolec. multilingualismd. bilingualism2. ______ refers to the learning and development of a language. (2021年全真)a. Language acquisitionb. Language comprehensionc. Language productiond. Language instruction3. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called ______. (2021年全真)a. dialect.b. idiolect.c. pidgin.d. register.4. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT ______. (2007年全真)a. lexicalb. syntacticc. phonologicald. psycholinguistic5. With the ______, Latin words were added into the vocabulary of the language spoken in Britain.a. invasion of the Romansb. Christianization of Britainc. Scandinavian invasiond. Norman Conquest现代语言学理论和流派1. The Prague School is best known for its contribution to the distinction between phonetics and ______.a. soundb. phonemec. phonologyd. phone2. The founder of the London School is the British linguist ______.a. J. R. Firthb. Hallidayc. Bloomfieldd. Sapir3. Firth insisted that the object of linguistics is language ______.a. in oral useb. in actual usec. in booksd. in media4. The following function of adult’s language EXCEPT ______ are put forward by Halliday.a. the ideational functionb. the interpersonal functionc. the informative functiond. the textual function5. The principle representative of American descriptive linguistics is ______.a. L. Bloomfieldb. Chomskyc. Sapird. Saussure6. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics〞is ______.a. Firthb. Saussurec. Hallidayd. Chomsky7. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of ______.a. functionb. meaningc. signsd. system8. ______ is the founder of Transformational Generative Grammar.a. Noam Chomsky9. The structural approach to the analysis of language was started by the Swiss linguist ______ in the beginning of the 20th century.a. Chomskyb. Hallidayc. Saussured. Fillmore10. A representative of the Contextualism was ______, the leading British linguist of the period. He held the view that “We shall know a word by the company it keeps〞.a. Ogden and Richardsb. J. R. Firthc. Bloomfieldd. Leech11. Bloomfield further strengthened the contextualist view and drew on ______ when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.a. sociologyb. behaviorist psychologyc. anthropologyd. physiology12. ______ means that it is impossible for children to acquire some particular language knowledge resulting from the contrast of language data in the process of their L1 acquisition.a. Language facultyb. Language acquisition devicec. Universal grammard. Argument of poverty stimulus。
语言学专业术语
1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。
语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussurec. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
NLP (Neuro Linguistic Programming, 神经语言学编程) 读书笔记
读书笔记NLP (Neuro Linguistic Programming, 神经语言学编程)钱慧蛟NLP (Neuro Linguistic Programming, 神经语言学编程) 在语言学中存在的时间比我们意识到的时间要长。
如果教师把心理暗示法（suggestopedia），社区语言学习法（community language learning），音乐，戏剧和肢体语言（body language）与他们的授课结合起来，他就已经在授课中引用了NLP教学法了。
而这种提法在20年前才出现的。
NLP的起源The roots of NLP●NLP 和语言的学习NLP and language learning●NLP在教室NLP in the classroom●结论ConclusionNLP的起源（The roots of NLP）NLP，它起源于心理学和神经学，是关于大脑工作的方式和如何为改进其功能而进行大脑的训练。
它包含了“左右脑”的功能，“视觉/听觉/全身反应”学习法，多元智能和其他研究领域。
并与它们有很大的关系。
这些研究项目正在致力于识别学习者学习的模式并找出单个学习者作为个体的重要性。
许多人对NLP和相关的学科持怀疑态度，尤其在关于大班教学中的可行性方面和NLP作为一种自我提高的方法如何在商业方面的运做方面。
NLP常常被认为是一种“伪科学”。
而且被批评为缺少实际应用经验。
但是NLP为什么能与现代教育教学实践相容的原因已经有了非常多的证据了。
∙NLP is about recognising patterns. NLP 是有关认知能力模式的科学。
∙NLP is concerned with process rather than content. NLP 与过程有关而不是内容。
∙NLP provides a model of how we communicate with ourselves and others. NLP 为我们与自己和其他人交流提供了模式。
英语语言学名词解释
Chapter 12 : Language And Brain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.3. brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptive functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cognitive function.5. right ear advantage: The phenomenon that the right ear shows an advantage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage.6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cognition are called as split brain studies.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.8. non-fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus is called non-fluent aphasia.9. fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a type of aphasia called fluent aphasia.10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.11. phonological dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to have lost the ability to use spelling-to-sound rules.12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems unable to recognize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules.13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is called frequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.17. the priming experiment: An experiment that let subjects judge whether a string of letters is a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect. (06F) 19. bottom-up processing: an approach that makes use principally of information which is already present in the data.20. top-down processing: an approach that makes use of previous knowledge and experience of the readers in analyzing and processing information which is received.21. garden path sentences: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence.22. slip of the tongue: mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.7. contrastive analysis: a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: A hypothesis in second language acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.9. positive transfer: It refers to the transfer that occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form, thus making learning easier. (06F)10. negative transfer:the mistaken transfer of features of one’s native language into a second language.11. error analysis: the study and analysis of errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors or common difficulties in language learning.12. interlingual error: errors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.13. intralingual error: Errors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples are overgeneralization and cross-association.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary for the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said t o emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.22. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. (06F)24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation:motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc. (06C)27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes. (06F)29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.30. learning strategies:learning strategies are learners’ conscious goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.31. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what has been learned. (07C/ 06F)32. metacognitive strategies:the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.33. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acquisition:It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language. (03)3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.(05)5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly. (07C/ 06F/ 04)6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8. telegraphic speech:Children’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc. (07C)12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 9: Language And Culture1. culture : The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community.2. discourse community : It refers to the common ways that members of some social group use language to meet their needs.3. acculturation : A process in which changes on the language, culture and system of values of a group happen through interaction with another group with a different language, culture and a system of values.4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : The interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.5. linguistic relativity : A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language-----又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)6. linguistic determinism: It refers to the idea that the language we use, to some extent, determines the way in which we view and think about the world around us. (06C)7. denotative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a dictionary.8. connotative meaning: The association of a word, apart from its primary meaning.9. iconic meaning: The image of a word invoked to people.10. metaphors: A figure of speech, in which no function words like like, as are used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be compared.11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects, e.g. powder room for toilet.12. cultural overlap:The situation between two societies due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being13. cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion. (05/03)14. cultural imperialism: The situation of increasing cultural diffusion all over the world.(06C)15. linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language. (06C)16. linguistic nationalism: In order to protect the purity of their language, some countries have adopted special language policy. It is called linguistic nationalism.17. intercultural communication: It is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols are distinct enough to alter the communication event.18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems.Chapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms. (05)3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.7. idiolect : A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. (04)8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse. (04)1. historical linguistics: A subfield of linguistics that study language change.2. coinage: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose. (03)3. blending: A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.4. clipping: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.5. borrowing: When different culture come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called load words.6. back formation: New words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affix mistakenly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formation.7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context. (03)5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking. (05)7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. (06F)8. performatives:Performatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act:The act of expressing the speaker’s intention and performed in saying something. (06F)11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.14. commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.15. expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.16. declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.18. conversational implicature:The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used to express the same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, cold, and frozen. (06F)Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.(05/03)10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.23. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult].24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning.25. predication: In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.26. predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.28. selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. (04) 30. presequence: The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action. (05)Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.15. subcategorization:The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization. (07C)16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement,i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. moveα:a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense. (04)Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.。
语言学专业术语
1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。
语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussurec. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
胡壮麟的语言学术语英汉对照翻译-推荐下载
1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。
语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreational元语言功能metal lingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metal lingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussureA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).4. The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words. Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind. Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes. Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied, often with the aid of a computer. II. Phonetics(语音学）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调）in the process.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节）by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经）and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送）between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官）the producer of voice（声音发生器官）and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）3. Consonants(辅音）Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology（音韵学）1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的）sound in a language.2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）：word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment.6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质）of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节），stress,（重音）word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）.IV. Morphology（词法）1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程）of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系）They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.3. Morpheme(词素）：the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）：some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根）affix（词缀）and stem（词干）.6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.7. Closed-class words(封闭性）and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上）indefinite or unlimited.8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序）which is semantically（语义上）and often syntactically(句法上）restricted.（限制）11. Collocation(搭配）：the habitual(习惯的）co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.V. Syntax (句法）1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序）arrangement of words in a language.2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）：the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit .3. Syntactic function(句法功能）：the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语）complements（补语）, etc.4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought. VI. Semantics1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier（所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的）"associative" bond.（相关联系）2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德）for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定）that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviorists attempt to define (定义）the meaning ofa language form as "the situation(情景）in which the speaker utters（说话）it and the response（反应）it calls forth in the hearer."Compounding合成词）etymology.（词源变化）14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphitic level.。
脑语言功能区研究进展
脑语言功能区研究进展摘要]：语言是人类进行思想交流的重要工具，是人类特有的复杂认知心理活动。
随着功能磁共振成像（functional magnetic resonance imaging, fMRI）技术的出现，尤其是血氧依赖水平功能磁共振成像(BOLD-fMRI)在神经、精神学领域研究中的迅速发展，国内外学者对脑语言功能区进行了大量的研究，并取得了重大进展。
[关键词]：语言；功能磁共振成像；血氧依赖水平一、前言语言是人类特有的功能，是人们进行交流沟通的重要表达方式，是人类区别于其它动物的重要特征。
人们借助语言保存和传递人类文明的成果，它是民族的重要特征之一。
语言功能的损伤将会严重影响人们的生活质量，因此研究人类脑语言功能区具有重大意义。
随着经济全球化的发展和各国之间的文化交流，学习两种或多种语言的人越来越多。
双语或多语的习得对脑语言功能区有何影响引起了国内外学者的广泛关注，随着20世纪90年代fMRI技术被首次引进，它具有无创、无放射、可重复等优点，因而逐渐成为研究人体神经功能的重要工具。
二、BOLD-fMRI的机制目前临床上已普遍用于脑功能方面研究的功能磁共振成像技术包括:弥散加权成像（DWI）、灌注加权成像（PWI）、磁共振波普（MRS）、弥散张量成像（DTI）、血氧依赖水平功能磁共振成像（BOLD-fMRI）以及正电子发射计算机断层现象（PET-CT）。
BOLD-fMRI因具有较高的时间分辨率和空间分辨率、定位准确和实用性高等优点，是目前应用最广泛功能磁共振成像技术。
BOLD-fMRI是将血液中内源性血红蛋白作为一种对比剂，由相应的MRI敏感序列探测其在脑活动时的变化。
血液中的血红蛋白主要包括氧合血红蛋白和脱氧血红蛋白，两种血红蛋白对磁场有完全不同的影响。
氧合血红蛋白是抗磁性物质, 对质子驰豫没有影响, 脱氧血红蛋白属顺磁性物质, 其铁离子有4种不成对电子, 可产生横向驰豫时间(T2) 缩短效应( Preferential T2 Proton Relax-ation Effect , PT2 PRE )[1]。
深化设计英语
深化设计英语Deepening the Design of EnglishThe design of the English language has been an ongoing process, shaped by the evolution of human communication and the changing needs of society. As we delve deeper into the intricacies of the English language, we uncover a wealth of opportunities to refine and enhance its structure, semantics, and functionality. This essay explores the multifaceted aspects of deepening the design of English, addressing the challenges and potential solutions that can propel the language forward.One of the primary areas of focus in deepening the design of English is the refinement of its grammar and syntax. The English language has a rich and complex grammatical structure, with nuanced rules and exceptions that can pose challenges for both native and non-native speakers. By carefully examining the existing grammatical framework, linguists and language experts can identify areas for improvement, streamlining the rules and introducing more consistent patterns. This could involve simplifying sentence structures, clarifying ambiguous grammatical constructions, and introducing more intuitive mechanisms for tense, case, andagreement.Furthermore, the design of English can be enhanced by addressing the inconsistencies and irregularities that exist within the language. The English vocabulary, for instance, is renowned for its diversity and depth, but it is also plagued by a myriad of irregularities in spelling, pronunciation, and word derivation. Tackling these irregularities through systematic reforms could lead to a more coherent and user-friendly language, reducing the cognitive load for learners and facilitating more efficient communication.Another crucial aspect of deepening the design of English is the integration of technological advancements. As our world becomes increasingly digitized, the way we interact with language is rapidly evolving. The integration of artificial intelligence, natural language processing, and machine learning can revolutionize the way we use and interact with the English language. From intelligent language assistants to automated translation and text generation, these technologies hold the potential to enhance the accessibility, efficiency, and versatility of English.Alongside technological innovations, the design of English can also be enriched by incorporating diverse cultural and linguistic influences. English has long been a global language, shaped by the contributions of speakers from various cultural and linguisticbackgrounds. By embracing this diversity and actively incorporating elements from other languages, the design of English can become more inclusive, nuanced, and reflective of the multicultural world we inhabit. This could involve the integration of loanwords, the adoption of alternative grammatical structures, and the recognition of regional variations and dialects.Furthermore, the design of English can be deepened by addressing the evolving needs and preferences of language users. As societal norms and communication patterns change, the design of English must adapt to meet the emerging requirements of its speakers. This may involve the introduction of gender-neutral language, the incorporation of inclusive terminology, and the responsiveness to the shifting linguistic preferences of diverse communities.Moreover, the design of English can be enhanced by fostering a deeper understanding of the cognitive and psychological aspects of language acquisition and use. By drawing insights from fields such as psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, and cognitive science, language designers can develop more effective strategies for teaching, learning, and using English. This could lead to the creation of more intuitive learning materials, the optimization of language processing, and the enhancement of language-related skills.In conclusion, the deepening of the design of English is amultifaceted endeavor that requires a holistic and interdisciplinary approach. By addressing the grammatical, lexical, technological, cultural, and cognitive dimensions of the language, we can work towards a more refined, efficient, and inclusive English language that better serves the needs of its global users. This ongoing process of refinement and innovation will not only enhance the functionality of English but also contribute to the enrichment of human communication and the advancement of knowledge across diverse domains.。
认知语言学英语作文
认知语言学英语作文Title: Exploring the Intersection of Cognitive Linguistics and English Language。
Cognitive linguistics, as a field of study, delves into how language reflects and shapes human cognition. It investigates the relationship between language and thought, emphasizing the role of conceptual structures and mental processes in linguistic expression. In this essay, we will explore the application of cognitive linguistics principles to English language learning and usage.One fundamental concept in cognitive linguistics is the idea of conceptual metaphors. These metaphors provide a framework for understanding abstract concepts by mapping them onto more concrete domains. For example, in English, we often talk about time in terms of spatial metaphors, such as "looking forward to the future" or "reflecting on the past." Understanding these metaphors can aid language learners in grasping nuanced meanings and cultural nuancesembedded in language use.Another aspect of cognitive linguistics relevant to English language learning is the notion of linguistic relativity, also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that the structure of a language influences its speakers' perception and cognition. While the strong version of this hypothesis, claiming that language determines thought, has been largely discredited, there is evidence supporting the idea that language can influence certain cognitive processes. For instance, languages with grammatical gender, like Spanish or French, may influence speakers' perceptions of objects based on their gender assignment.Moreover, cognitive linguistics offers insights into the way language is embodied, meaning that linguistic structures often reflect bodily experiences and sensory perceptions. For English language learners, understanding this embodiment can enhance their comprehension and production of language. For instance, verbs like "grasp," "reach," or "understand" evoke physical actions,highlighting the embodied nature of language.Furthermore, cognitive linguistics emphasizes the role of cultural schemas and conceptual frames in shaping language use. These mental structures influence how speakers interpret and produce language in different contexts. For example, the cultural frame of politeness guides English speakers in choosing appropriate forms of address and expressions of gratitude. By understanding these cultural schemas, language learners can navigate social interactions more effectively.Additionally, cognitive linguistics offers valuable insights into the role of prototypes and categorization in language learning and usage. Concepts in language are often organized around prototype examples, which represent the most typical or central instances of a category. Understanding prototypes can aid language learners in forming categories and making sense of new vocabulary. For example, when learning English adjectives, learners often encounter prototype examples like "big" or "beautiful," which serve as anchors for understanding related terms.Incorporating cognitive linguistics principles into English language teaching can enrich learners' understanding and proficiency. By emphasizing conceptual metaphors, linguistic relativity, embodiment, cultural schemas, prototypes, and categorization, educators can help learners develop a more nuanced and contextually appropriate command of the language.In conclusion, cognitive linguistics provides a valuable framework for understanding the cognitive underpinnings of language learning and usage. By applying insights from cognitive linguistics to English language teaching, educators can empower learners to not only master the mechanics of the language but also to comprehend and produce language in diverse contexts effectively. As language learners engage with the intricacies of English through a cognitive linguistic lens, they deepen their appreciation of language as a dynamic reflection of human cognition and culture.。
语言学概述
语言学概述语言学概述这就就是综述一下,不过下面提到的名词的都就是考过的知识点。
一、定义:什么就是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language、二、语言学研究的核心(下面的术语要尽量全都认识,不然做题时可能瞧不懂选项)1、Phonetics 语音学2、Phonology 音位学3、Morphology 形态学4、Syntax 句法学5、Semantics 语义学6、Pragmatics 语用学三、语言(Langue)与言语(Parole)这个考过的。
Parole这个概念就是F、de Saussure(索绪尔)提出的。
Langue指语言系统的整体,“所有(语言使用)个体头脑中存储的词语-----形象之总与”,这个整体相对较为稳定;Parole 指某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语,它就是随时间与地点变化的一个动态的实体。
四、语言的功能Functions of Language(这个也考过的。
考过the informative function,就就是高速公路指示牌的那道题)1、The instrumental function2、The regulatory function3、The heuristic function4、The interactional function5、The personal function6、The imaginative function7、The informative function五、语言的普遍特征Design Features这个也考过的,这五个特征由美国语言学家Charles Hockett提出。
弱弱地说一句:如果真的在临时抱佛脚,那就不要管这五个术语的具体含义了,只要能强行记下来应付考试就就是了。
>_<1、Arbitrariness 任意性2、Productivity 多产性3、Duality 双层结构4、Displacement 移位性5、Cultural Transmission 文化传播性六、语音学与音位学(一) 语音学Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language、1、三大分支(1) Articulatory Phonetics发音语音学(2) Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学(3) Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学2、辅音与元音(这个考过的,考过二者的区别)(二) 音位学Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form pattern and how thesesounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication、1、三个术语(1) Phone音素(2) Phoneme音位(3) Allophone音位变体2、Suprasegmental Phonology超音段音位(考过的)包括Stress重音、T one音调、Intonation语调七、形态学Morphology: refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed、(一) 两类词汇1、Closed class words封闭性词汇2、Open class words开放性词汇(二) Morpheme词素1、Free morpheme自由词素2、Bound morpheme粘着词素3、Stem词干4、Root词根(三) Word-formation构词法(四) Inflection屈折变化八、句法学Syntax: studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences、九、语义学Semantics: is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language、1、Synonymy同义关系2、Polysemy一词多义3、Homophones同音异义&Homogragh同形异义&Complete homonyms同形同音异义4、Hyponymy上下义关系5、Antonymy反义关系6、Analysis of meaning语义分析(1) Componential analysis成分分析(2) Predication analysis述谓分析7、Two-place predicate二向谓词、one-place predicate一向谓词、no-place predicate 零向谓词8、Sense relations between sentences(1) Entailment(2) Presupposition十、语用学1、Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication、(Or it refers to the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings、)2、区分语义学与语用学的最本质因素就是:就是否考虑了语言使用过程中的语境。