How to write a scientific article
AcadWrit学术英语写作
2
Table of Contents
Advice for modern academic writing ............................................................................................. 3 General advice for non-native writers………………………………………………………... 3 Basic Methodology I: Process writing ........................................................................................... 4 Basic Methodology II: Passive vs. active voice ........................................................................... 10 Basic Methodology III: The end-focus technique .......................................................................... 12 Article sections: overview, content, order of creation .................................................................... 16 Case reports ...............................................................
科技论文写作 how to write a scientific research article for an academic journal
1. State the main findings emphasising the new contributions to the research area and the important conclusions that follow from them. 2. Get rid of bad news by outlining the weaknesses of the study 3. But on other hand… outline the strengths of evidence. 4. Put the findings in context. Compare and contrast the findings by detailing the results from previous studies on the same topic. 5. Unanswered questions and outline future research. 6. Implications and take home message referring to study objectives.
PLANNING
1. Decide on the target audience and the journal you plan to submit your manuscript to. Each journal has specific requirements for writing style and these preferences should be followed.
This article details step-by-step instructions on how to write a scientific paper for publication in a medical journal. These instructions are based on a method devised by Tim Albert, a UK-based medical writing specialist who conducts writing and editing work-shops for health professionals (see for details). This method is outlined in Tim Albert’s highly commended books on medical writing1, 2 and details he imparted at the BMJ short course for medical journal editors in Christchurch August 5-6 2004. Relevant details from other writing guidelines compiled by the University of Otago Student Learning Centre3, the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors4 and the Cochrane Organisation5 have also been included where appropriate.
Elsevier(SCI) 投稿要求翻译总结
22.资助来源的作用：
23.参考文献要求1：在文中引用文章必须在文中进行标注，并在参考文献中列写出来；摘要中的参考文献必须全部列写出来；未公布的研究成果及个人通讯不建议在参考文献中列写出来，但可以在文中提及；参考文献应该遵循该刊物标准参考文献的风格，对尚未出版的文章或“个人通信”作为参考文献，标上“in press”意味着该文章已被接受等待发表；
（5）当制表时，不要画竖线，每列只有一个横线隔断（应该就是我们常用的三横线表格）；
（6）一般是双倍行距，font11或12也就是小四号字。图和表单独放在文尾的位置（来自其他网络）
3. 结构安排：表1.1 ；1.1.1；1.1.2等等。使用这个编码也是为了内部的交叉参考，如见“1.2”而不能写成“见本文”。任何的次级部分都要有一个简短的标题；每个标题都应当单独起行。
18.理论部分：应该为对已介绍的其他文章中理论进行进一步延伸和发展，而不是重复。并为要开展的工作奠定理论基础。计算部分为根据理论依据进行的实际发展。
19.讨论：应该探讨的工作结果的重要性，而不是讲述工作的结果。通常可以将结果和讨论部分合并。避免就已引用和发表的文献进行讨论。
20.结论：结论部分应该将研究的主要结论进行展示，该部分可以单独为文章的一个部分，也可以和讨论及结果部分合并。
（1）单栏格式。文本布局尽可能简单；
（2）不要使用文字处理软件的自带选项来调整文本或者断字功能（应该就是对齐和换行的时候的设定问题）；
如何写一篇科学文献(英文)
Whom Writing For?
• To please yourself? • Referees - to persuade the toughest one • Journal - Choose before writing - General vs. subespecialty journal
Introduction
2-3 paragraphs, <450 words • First paragraph - Introduce broad area • Second paragraph
- Explicit rationale
• Last paragraph - Hypothesis
Discussion Section
HOW TO WRITE A SCIENTIFIC PAPER
What is a Scientific Paper ?
A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results
Writing a Research Paper
Discussion Section
• Middle paragraphs - Base each on a major result • Always focus on your results • Never discuss prior work without reference to your work • Refer Tables and Figures
Of Writing
• At assigned time: write (not read)
• Don’t wait for the muses • A craft, not an art: practice • Ideas come while writing • Read good writers, especially non-medical
科技写作 Scientific Writng
y The Scope of Scientific Writing:
◦ Scientific papers ◦ Review papers ◦ Grant proposals ◦ Oral presentations ◦ Poster presentations
Scientific Writing Zhengzhou University
Scientific Writing Zhengzhou University
9
Approaching a Writing Project
y Doing the Writing
◦ Block out times to write Indicate on your calendar or in your personal organizer the times you have reserved for given writing projects
Scientific Writing Zhengzhou University
11
Approaching a Writing Project
y Follow the Instructions to Authors
◦ If instructions are lቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱng, underline or highlight the key points to remember
feedback, revise your writing some more
x Expert in your research specialty – technical problems
x Someone in your general field – note items that may unclear to readers
How to write an abstract 怎么写摘要 英语作文论文 写作技巧
How to write an abstract如何写摘要Hey guys, welcome! In this article we are going to know how to write an abstract and complete a written text perfectly. Stay connected if you want to write the best abstract.If you need to know how to write an abstract for an academic or scientific paper, don’t panic! Your abstract is simply a short, stand-alone summary of the work or paper that others can use as an overview. You can get the ideas and gather information by experts to make it concise yet effective through assignment help. As far asthe other specifics are concerned, we will discuss them here.Before moving further let’s have an overview of this article to see what you are going to know:-What is an abstract?-How to write an abstract?-Why is it important to write an abstract?-How to write an abstract quickly?-The way to write an abstract for science?What is an abstract?Before moving to how to write an abstract, you should know the abstract meaning. An abstract describes what you do in your essay, whether it’s a scientific experiment or a literary analysis paper. It should help your reader understand the paper and help people searching for this paper decide whether it suits their purposes prior to reading.To write an abstract, finish your paper first, then type a summary that identifies the purpose, problem, methods, results, and conclusion of your work. After you get the details down, all that’s left is to format it correctly. Since an abstract is only a summary of the work you’ve already done, it’s e asy to accomplish!Majorly, there are three types of abstract:-Informative-Descriptive-CriticalHow to write an abstract?1. Write down the paper firstlyThe first thing to know how to write an abstract is : Even though an abstract goes at the beginning of the work, it acts as a summary of your entire paper. Rather than introducing your topic, it will be an overview of everything youwrite about in your paper. Save writing your abstract for last, after you have already finished your paper.-A thesis and an abstract are entirely different things. The thesis of a paper introduces the main idea or question, while the abstract works to review the entirety of the paper, including the methods and results.-Even if you think that you know what your paper is going to be about, always save the abstract for last. You will be able to give a much more accurate summary if you do just that –summarise what you’ve already written. Let’s move to the next step to know how to write an abstract.2. Review and understand any requirements for writing your abstractThe paper you’re writing probably has specific guidelines and requirements, whether it’s for publication in a journal, submission in a class, or part of a work project. Before you start writing, refer to the rubric or guidelines you were presented with to identify important issues to keep in mind. Answer the following questions before knowing how to write an abstract.-Is there a maximum or minimum length?-Are there style requirements?-re you writing for an instructor or a publication?3. Consider your targeted audienceAbstracts are written to help readers find your work. For example, in scientific journals, abstracts allow readers to quickly decide whether the research discussed is relevant to their own interests. Abstracts also help your readers get at your main argument quickly. Keep the needs of your readers in mind this is the best thing to know for how to write an abstract.-Will other academics in your field read this abstract?-Should it be accessible to a lay reader or somebody from another field?4. Determine the type of abstractBefore moving to the question how to write an abstract, focus on which type of abstract do you want to write. Although all abstracts accomplish essentially the same goal, there are two primary styles of abstract: descriptive and informative. You may have been assigned a specific style, but if you weren’t, you will have to determine which is right for you. Typically, informative abstracts are used for much longer and technical research while descriptive abstracts are best for shorter papers.Have a look at the types of abstracts againDescriptive abstracts explain the purpose, goal, and methods of your research but leave out theresults section. These are typically only 100-200 words.Informative abstracts are like a condensed version of your paper, giving an overview of everything in your research including the results. These are much longer than descriptive abstracts, and can be anywhere from a single paragraph to a whole page long.The basic information included in both styles of abstract is the same, with the main difference being that the results are only included in an informative abstract, and an informative abstract is much longer than a descriptive one.A critical abstract is not often used, but it may be required in some courses. A critical abstract accomplishes the same goals as the other typesof abstract, but will also relate the study or work being discussed to the writer’s own research. It may critique the research design or methods.5. Identify your motive of writing an abstractYou’re writing about a correlation between lack of lunches in schools and poor grades. So what? Why does this matter? The reader wants to know why your research is important, and what the purpose of it is. Start off your descriptive abstract by considering the following questions:How did you conduct your research?What did you find?Why is this research and your findings important?Why should someone read your entire essay? How to write an abstract6. Describe the problemAbstracts is something that expresses the “problem” behind your work. Think of this as the particular issue that your project addresses. You can sometimes combine the problem with your motivation, but it is best to be clear and separate the two.7. Describe your methodsMotivation – check. Problem – check. Methods? Now is the part where you give an overview of how you accomplished your study. If you didyour own work, include a description of it here. If you reviewed the work of others, it can be briefly explained.-Discuss your own research including the variables and your approach-Describe the evidence you have to support your claim-Give an overview of your most important sources.8. Describe your resultsThis is where you begin to make difference between your abstract between a descriptive and an informative abstract. You want to know how to write an abstract and this is somethingwhich should be in your priority list. In an informative abstract, you will be asked to provide the results of your study. What is it that you found?-What answer did you reach from your research or study?-Was your hypothesis or argument supported?-What are the general findings?9. Give the conclusion of abstractYou must finish up your summary and provide a closure to your abstract. In it, address the meaning of your findings as well as the importance of your overall paper. This format of having a conclusion can be used in bothdescriptive and informative abstracts, but you will only address some questions in an informative abstract.10. Keep the format rightIn the run to know how to write an abstract, format is a vital factor to consider. There are specific questions your abstract must provide answers for, but the answers must be kept in order as well. Ideally, it should be according to the overall format of your essay, with a general ‘introduction, ‘body,’ and ‘conclusion.’ Many journals have specific style guides for abstracts. If you’ve been given a set of rules or guidelines, follow them to the letter11. Provide helpful informationUnlike a topic paragraph, which may be intentionally vague, an abstract should provide a helpful explanation of your paper and your research. Word your abstract so that the reader knows exactly what you’re t alking about, and isn’t left hanging with ambiguous references or phrases.-Avoid using direct acronyms or abbreviations in the abstract, as these will need to be explained in order to make sense to the reader. That uses up precious writing room, and should generally be avoided.-If your topic is about something well-known enough, you can reference the names of people or places that your paper focuses on.-Don’t include tables, figures, sources, or long quotations in your abstract. These take up too much ro om and usually aren’t what your readers want from an abstract anyway. For making your abstract even better you gather relevant ideas, for doing so you can go to the expert writes through assignment help online12. Write it down from scratchA abstract is a summary of the main paper, yes, but it should be written completely separate from your paper. Don’t copy and paste direct quotes from yourself, and avoid simply paraphrasing your own sentences from elsewhere in your writing. Write your abstract using completely new vocabulary and phrases to keep itinteresting and redundancy-free. So, far we have gone through detailed information and steps to know how to write an abstract. But, what if someone is in a hurry and yet has to come up with a perfect abstract? Well, I have tips such people as well, continue to read and know how to write an abstract in lesser time.How to write an abstract quickly?Simply ace your abstract.An abstract is like a movie trailer. It offers a preview, highlights key points, and helps the audience decide whether to view the entire work. Abstracts are the pivot of a research paperbecause many journal editorial boards screen manuscripts only on the basis of the abstract.If your abstract doesn’t grab their attention and make a good fi rst impression, there’s a good chance your research paper will be rejected at the outset. Moreover, even after your research paper is published, your abstract will be the first, and possibly only, thing readers will access through electronic searches. They will only consider reading the rest of the manuscript if they find your abstract interesting.For studies in the humanities and social sciences, the abstract is typically descriptive. That is, it describes the topic of research and its findings but usuall y doesn’t give specific information about methods and results. These abstracts may also be seen in review articles orconference proceedings. In scientific writing, on the other hand, abstracts are usually structured to describe the background, methods, results, and conclusions, with or without subheadings.Make sure that your abstract does not constitutes the following-New information that is not present in the paper -Undefined abbreviations or group names-A discussion of previous literature or reference citations-Unnecessary details about the methods usedFollow these 10 steps to know how to write an abstract quicklyNow how do you go about fitting the essential points from your entire paper—why the research was conducted, what the aims were, how these were met, and what the main findings were—into a paragraph of just 200-300 words? It’s not an easy task, but here’s a 10-step guide that should make it easier:1. Begin writing the abstract after you have finished writing your paper.2. Pick out the major objectives/hypotheses and conclusions from your Introduction and Conclusion sections3. Select key sentences and phrases from your Methods section.4. Identify the major results from yourResults section.5. Now, arrange the sentences and phrases selected in all steps into a single paragraph in the following sequence: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Conclusions.6. Confirm that there is consistency between the information presented in the abstract and in the paper.7. Ask a colleague to review your abstract and check if the purpose, aim, methods, and conclusions of the study are clearly stated.8. Check to see if the final abstract meets the guidelines of the target journal (word limit, type of abstract, recommended subheadings, etc.9. Remove all extra information and then link your sentences to ensure that the information flows well, preferably in the following order: purpose; basic study design, methodology and techniques used; major findings; summary of your interpretations, conclusions, and implications.10. Now revisit your abstract with these steps in mind, and I’m sure you’ll be able to revise it and make it more attractive.How to write an abstract for science?So, here is something for science buffs. We know that science students are less into writing and formatting. But, they are one of the students who are indulged in research papers to the most. So, here is a collection of vital information for all the students who are going to write down a scientific research paper. Want to know how to write an abstract for science? Continue to read..An abstract should be the shortest part of the abstract and should very briefly outline the following information:What is already known about the subject, related to the paper in questionWhat is not known about the subject and hence what the study intended to examine (or what the paper seeks to present)Things you should rememberIn most cases, the background can be framed in just 2–3 sentences, with each sentence describing a different aspect of the information referred to above; sometimes, even a single sentence may suffice. The purpose of the background, as the word itself indicates, is to provide the reader with a background to the study, and hence to smoothly lead into a description of the methods employed in the investigation.Usually authors publish papers the abstracts of which contain a lengthy background section.There are some situations, perhaps, where this may be justified. In most cases, however, a longer background section means that less space remains for the presentation of the results. This is unfortunate because the reader is interested in the paper because of its findings, and not because of its background.Why an abstract is needed?Most journals require authors to submit abstracts along with their articles, This requirement has two main needs-An abstract offers readers a helpful, succinct summary of the longer argument developed in the essay.-It identifies keywords that will make it easier for search engines to find the essay.Apart from these two main reasons it serves two other needs as well. They are:Showcases the perspectiveNotice that these rationales presuppose the publication of both abstract and essay and, in so doing, assume that the main audience for the abstract is prospective readers of the publishedessay. However, from the perspective of an author submitting work to a journal, there is another important audience to consider: the journal editor and the external reviewers to whom the editor send it.Keep the audience connectedThis audience looks at your abstract with their most pressing question in mind: is this article publishable in this journal? A good abstract tilts them toward an affirmative answer by leaving them well-disposed toward the longer argument in th e article. A bad abstract won’t by itself cause this audience to reject an article, but it does incline the audience toward an initial negative answer. In that way, an ineffectiveabstract becomes an obstacle that your article needs to overcome.ConclusionHope, you guys have understood each and every aspect of writing an abstract. In this article, we went into the detailed discussion to know how to write an abstract. We started with abstract meaning and then moved to the steps which essayed the right way to write down one. Next, we studied points on how to write an abstract quickly. So, that those who are in a hurry to prepare a written text can write aptly. Thereafter, we went to know how to write an abstract for science and ended up in knowing why an abstract is vital.。
民族药理学作者须知
JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGYAn Interdisciplinary Journal Devoted to Indigenous DrugsAUTHOR INFORMATION PACK TABLE OF CONTENTS• Description• Audience• Impact Factor• Abstracting and Indexing • Editorial Board• Guide for Authors p.1p.2p.2p.2p.2p.4ISSN: 0378-8741DESCRIPTIONThe Journal of Ethnopharmacology is dedicated to the exchange of information and understandings about people's use of plants, fungi, animals, microorganisms and minerals and their biological and pharmacological effects based on the principles established through international conventions. Early people confronted with illness and disease, discovered a wealth of useful therapeutic agents in the plant and animal kingdoms. The empirical knowledge of these medicinal substances and their toxic potential was passed on by oral tradition and sometimes recorded in herbals and other texts on materia medica. Many valuable drugs of today (e.g., atropine, ephedrine, tubocurarine, digoxin, reserpine) came into use through the study of indigenous remedies. Chemists continue to use plant-derived drugs (e.g., morphine, taxol, physostigmine, quinidine, emetine) as prototypes in their attempts to develop more effective and less toxic medicinals.In recent years the preservation of local knowledge, the promotion of indigenous medical systems in primary health care, and the conservation of biodiversity have become even more of a concern to all scientists working at the interface of social and natural sciences but especially to ethnopharmacologists. Recognizing the sovereign rights of States over their natural resources, ethnopharmacologists are particularly concerned with local people's rights to further use and develop their autochthonous resources.Accordingly, today's ethnopharmacological research embraces the multidisciplinary effort in the:• documentation of indigenous medical knowledge,• scientific study of indigenous medicines in order to contribute in the long-run to improved health care in the regions of study, as well as• search for pharmacologically unique principles from existing indigenous remedies.The Journal of Ethnopharmacology publishes original articles concerned with the observation and experimental investigation of the biological activities of plant and animal substances used in the traditional medicine of past and present cultures. The journal will particularly welcome interdisciplinary papers with an ethnopharmacological, an ethnobotanical or an ethnochemical approach to the study of indigenous drugs. Reports of anthropological and ethnobotanical field studies fall within the journal's scope. Studies involving pharmacological and toxicological mechanisms of action are especially welcome. Clinical studies on efficacy will be considered if contributing to the understanding of specific ethnopharmacological problems. The journal welcomes review articles in the above mentioned fields especially those highlighting the multi-disciplinary nature of ethnopharmacology. Commentaries are by invitation only.AUDIENCEEthnopharmacologists, Medicinal Chemists, Pharmacologists, Toxicologists, Anthropologists, Pharmacognosists, Ethnobotanists, Economic Botanists, EthnobiologistsIMPACT FACTOR2014: 2.998 © Thomson Reuters Journal Citation Reports 2015ABSTRACTING AND INDEXINGAGRICOLABIOSISCambridge Scientific AbstractsChemical AbstractsCurrent Contents/Life SciencesMEDLINE®International Pharmaceutical AbstractsEMBASENAPRALERT (Natural Products Alert)Science Citation IndexCAB AbstractsScopusEMBiologyEDITORIAL BOARDEditor-in-Chief:R. Verpoorte, Gorlaeus Lab., Universiteit Leiden, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, NetherlandsDeputy Editor-in-ChiefA.M. Viljoen, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South AfricaAssociate Editor:D. Guo, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, ChinaA.K. Jäger, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen O, DenmarkG. Lin, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong KongP.K. Mukherjee, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, IndiaG. Schmeda Hirschmann, Universidad de Talca, Talca, ChileA. Shikov, Saint Petersburg Institute of Pharmacy, Kuzmolovo P 245, Russian FederationE. Yesilada, Yeditepe University, Erenkoy-Istanbul, TurkeyReviews Editor (including Commentaries and Book Reviews):M. Heinrich, The School of Pharmacy, University of London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London, WC1N 1AX, UK If you want to suggest a review, please provide a structured abstract and include an annotated table of contents and a short CV of the lead author(s).Managing Editor:B. Pomahacova, Leiden University, Leiden, NetherlandsI. Vermaak, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South AfricaM. Sandasi, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South AfricaL.J. McGaw, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South AfricaEditorial Board:S. Alban, Kiel, GermanyM.J. Balick, Bronx, New York, USAR. BauerG. Bourdy, Cayenne, French GuianaJ.B. Calixto, Florianópolis, BrazilC-T. Che, Hong Kong, Hong KongG.A. Cordell, Evanston, Illinois, USAV.S. da Silva Bolzani, Araraquara, BrazilJ. Ding, Shanghai, ChinaV.M. Dirsch, Vienna, AustriaE. Elisabetsky, Porto Alegre, BrazilJ. Fleurentin, Metz, FranceB.L. Furman, Glasgow, UKM.P. Germano, Messina, ItalyJ. Gertsch, Bern, SwitzerlandA.H. Gilani, Karachi, PakistanM.P. Gupta, Panama City, PanamaA. Hensel, Münster, GermanyP.J. Houghton, London, UKZ. Ismail, Penang, MalaysiaW. Jia, Kannapolis, North Carolina, USAT. Johns, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada A.K. Jäger, Copenhagen O, DenmarkG. Kavalali, Istanbul, TurkeyH-S. Kim, Cheongju, South KoreaJ. Kim, Seoul, South KoreaY. Kimura, Ehime, JapanM.A. Lacaille-Dubois, Dijon, FranceM. Leonti, Cagliari, ItalyE. Matteucci, Pisa, ItalyI. Merfort, Freiburg, GermanyJ.J.M. Meyer, Pretoria, South AfricaD.E. MoermanD.A. Mulholland, Guildford, England, UKA. Panthong, Chiang Mai, ThailandX. Peigen, Beijing, ChinaA. Pieroni, Pollenzo/Bra, ItalyD.D. Soejarto, Chicago, Illinois, USAE. Speroni, Bologna, ItalyA.J. Vlietinck, Antwerpen, BelgiumH. Wagner, München, GermanyC.S. Weckerle, Zurich, SwitzerlandC.W. Wright, Bradford, UKS. Zacchino, Rosario, ArgentinaFounding Editors:J.G. BruhnL. Rivier, Lausanne, SwitzerlandGUIDE FOR AUTHORSINTRODUCTIONThe Journal of Ethnopharmacology is dedicated to the exchange of information and understandings about people's use of plants, fungi, animals, microorganisms and minerals and their biological and pharmacological effects based on the principles established through international conventions. Early people, confronted with illness and disease, discovered a wealth of useful therapeutic agents in the plant and animal kingdoms. The empirical knowledge of these medicinal substances and their toxic potential was passed on by oral tradition and sometimes recorded in herbals and other texts on materia medica. Many valuable drugs of today (e.g., atropine, ephedrine, tubocurarine, digoxin, reserpine) came into use through the study of indigenous remedies. Chemists continue to use plant-derived drugs (e.g., morphine, taxol, physostigmine, quinidine, emetine) as prototypes in their attempts to develop more effective and less toxic medicinals.Please note that figures and tables should be embedded in the text as close as possible to where they are initially cited. It is also mandatory to upload separate graphic and table files as these will be required if your manuscript is accepted for publication.Classification of your paperPlease note that upon submitting your article you will have to select at least one classification and at least three of the given keywords. You can preview the list of classifications and keywords (here). This information is needed by the Editors to more quickly process your article. In addition to this, you can submit free keywords as described below under "Keywords".The "rules of 5"The Editors and Editorial Board have developed the "Rules of 5" for publishing in JEP. We have produced five clear criteria that each author needs to think about before submitting a manuscript and setting the whole process of editing and reviewing at work. Click here.For more details on how to write a world class paper, please visit our Pharmacology Author Resources page.Authors are encouraged to submit video material or animation sequences to support and enhance your scientific research. For more information please see the paragraph on video data below. Types of paperThe Journal of Ethnopharmacology will accept the following contributions:1. Original research articles - whose length is not limited and should include Title, Abstract, Methods and Materials, Results, Discussion, Conclusions, Acknowledgements and References. As a guideline, a full length paper normally occupies no more than 10 printed pages of the journal, including tables and illustrations.2. Short Communications - whose average length is not more than 4 pages in print (approx. 2000-2300 words, including abstract and references). A maximum of 2 illustrations (figures or tables) is allowed. See paragraph below for description and format.3. Letters to the Editors.4. Reviews - Authors intending to write review articles should consult and send an outline to the Reviews Editor (see inside front cover for contact information) before preparing their manuscripts. The organization and subdivision of review articles can be arranged at the author's discretion. Authors should keep in mind that a good review sets the trend and direction of future research on the subject matter being reviewed. Tables, figures and references are to be arranged in the same way as research articles in the journal. Reviews on topics that address cutting-edge problems are particularly welcome. Outlines for potential reviews need to include: A detailed abstract using the structure provided in the guidelines An annotated table of contents A short CV of the lead author5. Book reviews - Books for review should be sent to the Reviews Editor.6. Commentaries - invited, peer-reviewed, critical discussion about crucial aspects of the field but most importantly methodological and conceptual-theoretical developments in the field and should also provide a standard, for example, for pharmacological methods to be used in papers in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology. The scientific dialogue differs greatly in the social / cultural and natural sciences, the discussions about the common foundations of the field are ongoing and thepapers published should contribute to a transdisciplinary and multidisciplinary discussion. The length should be a maximum of 2-3 printed pages or 2500 words. Please contact the Reviews Editor j.ethnopharmacol@ with an outline.7. Conference announcements and news.BEFORE YOU BEGINEthics in publishingFor information on Ethics in publishing and Ethical guidelines for journal publication see /publishingethics and /journal-authors/ethics. Policy and ethicsIn the covering letter, the author must also declare that the study was performed according to the international, national and institutional rules considering animal experiments, clinical studies and biodiversity rights. See below for further information. The ethnopharmacological importance of the study must also be explained in the cover letter.Animal and clinical studies - Investigations using experimental animals must state in the Methods section that the research was conducted in accordance with the internationally accepted principles for laboratory animal use and care as found in for example the European Community guidelines (EEC Directive of 1986; 86/609/EEC) or the US guidelines (NIH publication #85-23, revised in 1985). Investigations with human subjects must state in the Methods section that the research followed guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and Tokyo for humans, and was approved by the institutional human experimentation committee or equivalent, and that informed consent was obtained. The Editors will reject papers if there is any doubt about the suitability of the animal or human procedures used.Biodiversity rights - Each country has its own rights on its biodiversity. Consequently for studying plants one needs to follow the international, national and institutional rules concerning the biodiversity rights.Author contributionsFor each author the contribution to the publication should be mentioned.Conflict of interestAll authors are requested to disclose any actual or potential conflict of interest including any financial, personal or other relationships with other people or organizations within three years of beginning the submitted work that could inappropriately influence, or be perceived to influence, their work. See also /conflictsofinterest. Further information and an example of a Conflict of Interest form can be found at: /app/answers/detail/a_id/286/supporthub/publishing.Submission declaration and verificationSubmission of an article implies that the work described has not been published previously (except in the form of an abstract or as part of a published lecture or academic thesis or as an electronic preprint, see /sharingpolicy), that it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere, that its publication is approved by all authors and tacitly or explicitly by the responsible authorities where the work was carried out, and that, if accepted, it will not be published elsewhere in the same form, in English or in any other language, including electronically without the written consent of the copyright-holder. To verify originality, your article may be checked by the originality detection service CrossCheck /editors/plagdetect.Changes to authorshipAuthors are expected to consider carefully the list and order of authors before submitting their manuscript and provide the definitive list of authors at the time of the original submission. Any addition, deletion or rearrangement of author names in the authorship list should be made only before the manuscript has been accepted and only if approved by the journal Editor. To request such a change, the Editor must receive the following from the corresponding author: (a) the reason for the change in author list and (b) written confirmation (e-mail, letter) from all authors that they agree with the addition, removal or rearrangement. 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Authors must include the following contact details on the title page of their submitted manuscript: full postal address; fax; e-mail. All manuscripts submitted are subject to peer review. The minimum requirements for a manuscript to qualify for peer review are that it has been prepared by strictly following the format and style of the journal as mentioned, that it is written in good English, and that it is complete. Manuscripts that have not fulfilled these requirements will be returned to the author(s).In addition, you are recommended to adhere to the research standards described in the following articles:Cos P., Vlietinck A.J., Berghe D.V., et al. (2006) Anti-infective potential of natural products: how to develop a stronger in vitro 'proof-of-concept'. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 106: 290-302.Matteucci, E., Giampietro, O. (2008) Proposal open for discussion: defining agreed diagnostic procedures in experimental diabetes research. Journal of Ethnopharmacology,115: 163-172.Froede, T.SA. and Y.S. Medeiros, Y.S. (2008) Animal models to test drugs with potential antidiabetic activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115: 173-183. Gertsch J. (2009) How scientific is the science in ethnopharmacology? Historical perspectives and epistemological problems. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 122: 177-183.Chan K., et al. (2012) Good practice in reviewing and publishing studies on herbal medicine, with special emphasis on traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese Materia Medica. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140: 469-475.Heinrich, M., Edwards. S., Moerman. D.E.. and Leonti. M. (2009), Ethnopharmacological field studies: a critical assessment of their conceptual basis and methods. J. Ethnopharmacol, 124: 1-17. PREPARATIONUse of word processing softwareIt is important that the file be saved in the native format of the word processor used. The text should be in single-column format. Keep the layout of the text as simple as possible. 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Please position the list of compounds immediately below the 'Keywords' section. It is strongly recommended to follow the exact text formatting as in the example below:。
英文科研论文写作技巧
英文科研论文写作简介1. 引言英文论文写作的前提是有创新研究成果，创新研究成果的关键是选题。
“An acceptable primary scientific publication” must be “the first disclosure”.科研论文写作常出现的一个误区是：以为好论文是“写”出来的，只要会写，论文总能被接受发表。
其实，论文被发表只是结果，这个结果是和一系列科研环节密切相关的，论文写作只是其最后一个环节。
在选择科研课题和工作切入点时，就需特别注意，一定要有创新内容，科学研究的灵魂是创新，重复别人的工作，从科研的角度来说，是没有意义的。
值得注意的是，阅读有关英文科技论文，不仅可以了解研究进展和动态，而且，可以学会科技英文表达。
同样，选题很好，研究工作做得不够细致、深入，也难有说服力，难以成为有价值的研究工作。
由于本书只介绍英文科研论文的写作，不讲如何做研究，因此只介绍有了好的研究成果后如何写成合格的科研文章。
The goal of scientific research is publication. Scientists, starting as graduate students, are measured primarily not by their dexterity in laboratory manipulations, not by their innate knowledge of either broad or narrow scientific subjects, and certainly not by their wit or charm; they are measured, and become known (or remain unknown) by their publications.A scientific experiment, no matter how spectacular the results, is not completed until the results are published.Thus, the scientists must not only “do” the science but must “write” science. Bad writing can and often does prevent or delay the publication of good science.2.科研论文的一般格式。
Outline&Abstract
How to write an Outline for a Scientific Paper?1. A brief idea of scientific writingA scientific paper usually consists of (a) a report of facts, (b) an interpretations of The facts. A scientific paper is intended to be studied and used as a reference; it is not merely to be read. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare a scientific paper concisely, purposefully, and informatively though all nonessential information should be cut off without reservation.2. General outlineAn examination of the papers published in the journals may reveal some kind of general patterns of an outline. Most outlines have to include the following constituents:A. Title. The title should consist of, usually, few words, indicative of the contents that are most emphasized. Brevity and comprehensiveness should be stressed so as to be made easy and accurate indexing.B. Abstract. An abstract is a brief condensation of the whole paper.C. A general introduction.a. Nature of the problem; it’s state at the beginning of the investigation.b. Purpose, scope, and method of the investigation.c. Most significant outcome of the investigation; the stare of the problem at the end of theinvestigation.D. Materials and methods.a. Description of the equipment and materials employed.b. Description of the way in which the work was done (Sufficient details and data provided toenable a competent worker to repeat the experiments herein described. New features are to be stressed)E. Experiments and results.a. Description of the experiments.b. Description and explanation of the results (give in tables and graphs where necessary).F. Discussion of the results.a. Main principles, casual relations, or generalizations that are shown by the results (just one ortwo main conclusions to be included to prove the new features of the work).b. Evidence (often given in the data form) for each of the main conclusions.c. Exceptions and opposing theories, and explanations of these.d. Comparison of the results and interpretations of the paper with those of the other comparableworkers.How to write an Abstract for a paper1. Position and Designation.The abstract (usually presented in distinctive type and without heading) of a paper has to be printed at the beginning of a paper, just below the title, where it is most convenient for the readers to cover. The modern, trend in scientific and technical journals is towards the adoption of this method. Abstracts of important articles are usually to be collected and published particularly in special forms annually for special branches of sciences.The abstract as a form of abridgement should be the same in content as the whole paper.2. PurposeIn preparing a title and an abstract for a paper» it is important to realize that the reader has to glance over many more papers than he has time to read. An abstract is there to help him by telling him more precisely what the paper covers. Also, if he is interested only in the main results and conclusions, the abstract gives him this information in brief form and saves him the difficulty for reading the whole paper. Incidently, if the abstract is well prepared by the author, it will be suitable for reprinting in an abstract journal.3. Nature and kinds of abstracts.To serve its purpose, an abstract should indicate clearly all the subjects dealt with in the paper, so that no reader interested in only one of these subjects will fail to have his attention directed to it. The abstract should also summarize briefly but clearly the principal new results and conclusions, especially all new information likely to be of interest to readers who are not specialists in the field. The abstract should be well arranged and expressed* so as to be easily read and understood, and also be self-explanatory , complete and clear in itself.4. PreparationKeeping in mind the dual purpose of the abstract, the abstractor should read his manuscript carefully, making notes (a) as to the subjects dealt with, particularly subjects concerning which new information is given incidently, and (b) as to the new results and conclusions reported. Material relating to each subject should then be gathered together; sentences summarising the material should be put together as to make a well-written abstract--brief, condensed, complete, yet readable.5. Sample abstractsA. A descriptive abstracts.Earth Satellite CommunicationsA giant step forward in the art or telecommunicationis now in the making. Unlike such advances in thepast, this one results not so much from new discoveriesin electronics or communications technique, but from man's rapidly increasing ability to overcome the raw forces of nature.Artificial earth satellites are the most recentbenefit from this growing power, and now enable manto place television 'weather eyes', radio repeaterstation and even communications switching centreshigh above the earth where they can serve very largeareas. This article surveys some of the fundamentalsof earth satellites and how they can be used fortele-communications. topicparticular nature benefits&. advantagessummary of the paperB. An informative abstractA proposal for Electrically Levitating MicromotorsMicromachined actuators and motors, occupying an area less than 1 mm2, have great potential in diverse applications. At presents however, the abilityof these micromotors to reach their full potentialis hampered by the presence of large frictionforces that play a dominant role in the dynamicbehavior. A novel design for substantiallyreducing or eliminating this friction by levitatingthe rotating disc of a variable-capacitanceelectric micromotor is proposed here.This design utilizes a resonant circuit drivenby a radio-frequency a.c. voltage source toachive stable levitation. The advantages ofthe proposed method include stable levitationwithout requiring a feed-back signal and itsability to produce torque and motion using identicaldesign components of micromotor. This paperanalyses the stability conditions necessary forthe levitation circuit to achieve open-loopstable levitation and presents the dynamic analysisof a micromotors with a levitated motor.The analysis is supported by digital simulationstudies. The proposed levitation methodcan be used in many microdevices that requirebearings and suspensions to enhance performance. topicproblem to solvednovel designor solutionto the problemadvantages of the novel designanalysis ofthe novel designprospect ofthe possible applications。
How to Write a Paper
第一印象：吸引读者 Need to be accurate and informative for effective indexing and searching
写作就是把你的工作成果推销给其他的科学家！
顾客需要什么？
读者的期望：在最短时间内找到最重要的信息。 典型的情况： 1.标题吸引人读者才会感兴趣 2.摘要要包含重要的新方法或新结果，读者才会读这篇文章。 3.对于读的论文，读者也会直接去找自己最感兴趣的东西。 明晰的文章结构可以帮助读者很快找到所需的信息。 文章的结构很关键，结构问题很常见！ 想要读者不费力，必须自己先费力！ 审稿人的期望：文章必须写得理由充分。没理由要找理由，有理由要强调！ 文章在发表前必须经过审稿人的评审。 审稿人一般是相关领域的专家甚至是竞争者。 审稿是无偿的，无偿审稿使审稿人只审批感兴趣的论文。 审稿人的眼光挑剔，会尽力找文章中的毛病，甚至试图阻止文章发表。 在被别人挑剔之前，自己必须先鸡蛋里挑骨头，预先回答审稿人的可能质疑。
庖丁解牛，出自《庄子》，比喻经过反复实践，掌握了事物的客观规律，做事得心应手，运用自如。
Publish or Perish
Publish or Perish
发表或灭亡！ 不发表文章就走人！ 不发表文章就毕不了业！ 研究工作不发表就没有意义！
What is a Scientific Paper？
A paper is an organized description of hypotheses, data and conclusions, intended to instruct the reader. Papers are a central part of research. If your research does not generate papers, it might just as well not have been done. “Interesting and unpublished” is equivalent to “non-existent”. Well-written papers are read, remembered, cited. Poorly written papers are not. 科技论文是集假说、数据和结论为一体的概括性描述，以此向 读者论述。 论文是研究工作的中心部分。 研究目的不是简单的收集数据。 研究工作没有写成论文就等同于没有做研究。 研究工作有意义但没有发表就等同于没意义。 好的论文可读，能被记住，被引用，反之亦然。
高分子专业英语 曹同玉 第七节
There are two important classes of plastics: 有两种重要类别的塑料： 1) Thermoplastic materials. In a thermoplastic material the long chain-like molecules are held together by relatively weak Van der Waals forces. …. Examples of thermoplastics are polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, nylon, cellulose acetate, acetal, polycarbonate, polymethyl methacrylate and polypropylene. 热塑性塑料的例子是聚乙烯、聚氯乙烯、聚苯乙烯、尼龙、醋酸纤维素、聚甲醛、聚碳酸 酯、聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯和聚丙烯。 2) Thermosetting materials. A thermosetting material is produced by a chemical reaction which has two stages…. Since the cross-linking of the molecules is by strong chemical bonds thermosetting materials are characteristically quite rigid materials and their mechanical properties are not heat sensitive. Examples of thermosets are phenol formaldehyed, melamine formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde, epoxies and some polyesters.
How to write a journal article 如何写期刊文章 英语作文
How to write a journal article如何写期刊文章Today, In this article I am going to tell you about how to write a journal article. In academics writing the journal articles is essential if you wish to pursue an academic career. Today, in this technology life academic careers are dependent on publication. The much high your publication is the more it helps you in your academics. This article helps you to know what is Journal article and show you some features of the journal article. So, first, it is important to know what is a journal article?What is a journal article?Journal articles are a bit different from the magazine’s articles. Journal articles are the type of articles that generally focus on research. They are written by professional experts. A journal article is sometimes called a peer-reviewed article, a scientific article or a scholarly research article.Journal articles are most often known as primary research articles. Reading a journal article may lead you to a number of other journal articles on closely related topics.Main elements to writing a journal articleTo write an article analysis essay it is important to follow some elements to make it more valuable. Below are some points to writing a research article:</figure></figure>1 Title and SubtitleThe title is the most important part of the journal article. It indicates the article’s theme to the readers. A subtitle helps your readers to get some indication of the article’s objective or major theme. Make sure that the title you’ll choose for your journal article is more straightforward. So that the readers can immediately identify if the article is relevant to them.2 KeywordsKeywords play an important role in writing a journal article. When you write a journal you have to insert keywords that can be used in search engines. These keywords help you torank your journal. These keywords are searched by the many students and researchers for the information on google.3 AbstractA well-written abstract is essential for your article review assignment. Your audience will first go to your abstract to determine if your article is worth reading. Abstract writing is a particular skill that requires practice and also you should be familiar with your article.4 AcknowledgmentsA brief acknowledgment is important for your article analysis essay. It helps in producing your article.Structure to writing a journal articleOne should follow a good structure while writing a research article. So basically in writing a structure, you should follow these steps:IntroductionMain bodyConclusionIntroductionAn introduction is the most important part of any article because it is the first paragraph for which your audience goes. Make sure that your introduction introduces your topic, outlines your general approach, and places your article withinthe context of a larger academic field. It would be better if you first write the main body of your article and then write the introduction so that you can be more clear that what in which direction your article is going.Main bodyIn your main body, you have to give proper detail, main arguments, and proper evidence and clear writing. The paragraph is the main part of your article. In each paragraph, your body uses different ideas and make sure that you provide at least four or five paragraphs in your body and a logical flow should exist between your paragraphs. It would be useful if you use transition sentences in your paragraphs.ConclusionIn your conclusion, you must complete your arguments by referring to what you have written. Make sure that you write a good ending. The conclusion may be the most difficult part of the journal article but make sure that you end it strongly. One important t hing is that don’t go for the new topic in your conclusion.References and citationsAfter completing your journal article it is important that you write references and citations correctly so that your audience will not get confused from it. Using citations is good for especially journal articles.Tips to write a journal articleWriting a journal article is not an easy task. It would be better if you read some other journal articles before you write yours. Here are some tips which can help you in writing a journal article. They are:1 Stick to your flow and explain your pointsWhen you write a journal article make sure that you stick to your flow. Whenever you write a point back it up with the evidence. Many times you’ll find some points which may seem obv ious to you, but it may not obvious for your reader. So always explain your point which will help your readers. Planning is very essential for your journal article. You can use mindmaps to contain a central theme, argument or premise. Mindmaps are like brainstorming sessions, inwhich you allow a free flow of ideas from your mind.2 Make your references relevantIt is important that you provide the references which are clear and relevant so that your reader will not confuse from it. For example- Don’t talk about “recent research” if you’re giving citations from the ’90s.3 Be original and uniqueWhen you writing your journal paper make sure that you write an original and unique paper because maybe you write on the topic which is already in existence the only thing that makes you different from them when you write your own ideas.4 Consult the figures and tablesCreating a table and figures before writing prevents you from confusion. You may be also able to determine if you have all the data you need. Your entire paper will be organized and you will be able to write all the facts if you use figures and tables before writing your journal article.5 Outline the paperAn outline helps you to take the most direct and logical route. Whenever you start writing your journal article first make an outline it will help you to understand how you will go from here and there in your content and also you will be cleared what you need to write point after point.6 Revise the manuscriptMake major alterations like fill in all the gaps, restructure the document and make them in the most logical order and also refine your text, and correct all the spelling and grammatical issues. You can take help from Grammarly. It will help you to correct all the grammatical, spelling and punctuation errors.Uses of online research journals websites</figure></figure>Writing a journal paper is not an easy task as it requires a lot of research and effort. It is not easy for all the students to write the journal article by themselves so they need is to get an insight into the world of academia just on a click. Below are the websites which can easily help you to write your journal article.1 is one of the best websites for writing a research article. It is primarily used to share the papers for free, and you can also publish here.2 ElsevierElsevier is the best online research journals available on the internet. You can easily get the information on any topic from this website which is an interesting part of this website. If you doing hardcore research this website helps you the best.3 Microsoft academiaMicrosoft academia is the best and reliable comprehensive research tool. The search engine pulls content from over 120 million publications conferences and journals. It uses new technologies like machine learning and knowledge discovery for the searching capability.4 is an online directory of open access research journals and papers. You can take high-quality research help from this website. It can help the users to search within multiple areas of science in its overwhelming database.Writing a journal article is not like writing any normal article. When you write a journal article you have to plan first and understand how youwill incorporate evidence, your article is more likely to be cohesive and well-written.I hope this article helped you to understand how to write a journal article.Thank you for reading!。
医学英语写作
医学英文摘要写作How to write a medical English abstract第一章概述一、摘要的定义、用途、和长度二、摘要的内容三、摘要的类型四、摘要的写作格式五、摘要写作的注意事项What is an abstract?An abstract is a brief summary of the most important points in a scientific paper.摘要是作者研究过程、研究目的、研究方法和研究结果的简要陈述和概括。
Purposes for AbstractsAbstracts typically serve five main goals:Help readers decide if they should read an entire articleHelp readers and researchers remember key findings on a topicHelp readers understand a text by acting as a pre-reading outline of key points Index articles for quick recovery and cross-referencingAllow supervisors to review technical work without becoming bogged down in details二、摘要的内容Contents1. Title2. Name of the author3. Unit of the author/address4. Text of the abstract5. Keywords1）目的2）方法3）结果4）结果的分析、比较、评价以及应用，提出的问题以及建议5）其他三、摘要的类型1. descriptive abstract ——描述性摘要2. informative abstract——资料性摘要3. descriptive-informative abstract——描述-资料性摘要1. Non-structured abstract （非结构式摘要）2. Structured abstract （结构式摘要）full-structuredsemi-structured1.描述性摘要Descriptive Abstract/ Indicative AbstractThe descriptive abstracts tell what topics are taken up in the paper. They contain indicative information on purpose, scope, or methodology in the original documents, but mention little or nothing about details of results, conclusions or recommendations. The advantages of a descriptive abstract are that it is easy to write and is usually short; a serious disadvantage is that it contains little information.一般只用两三句话概括论文或报道的主题，而不涉及具体的数据和结论，通常用于综述、会议报告等。
Writing_Scientific_Papers科技论文写作技巧
Writing Scientific PapersIn science, one of the most basic goals is the development and application of new knowledge. Writing reports and papers is the easiest and most effective way to share the information with the scientific community. However, scientific papers come under great scrutiny as they are reviewed, tested, and retested time and time again. These published papers act as persuasion vessels in an attempt to validate the researcher’s data and interpretations. If the paper withstands the critiquing, in time the results may become accepted as scientific fact.Learning to write a good scientific paper or lab report is a skill requiring much practice. One must understand the experiment, concepts and why it is being performed, be able to collect and record data, and interpret the results and develop logical conclusions based on the findings. Last but not least it is important to be able to write clearly and concisely to convey ideas and persuade an audience. All scientific papers follow the same general structure:1. Title2. Introductiona. Hypothesisb. Predicted Results3. Materials and Methods4. Observed Results5. Discussiona. Conclusionsb. Implications6. Literature CitedTitleKeep titles under 10 words long. The title should be to-the-point, but descriptive, letting the reader know exactly what the paper is about.IntroductionThe introduction sets the stage for the rest of the paper. This is where the hypothesis and purpose for the experiment is presented. It is important to include and cite any form of background information relevant to understanding the experiment. Researchers also often include their own predictions in this section. A strong introduction answers (but is not limited to) several important questions:1. Why was this study performed?- Usually this stems from a previous experiment or some observation of nature.2. What is the hypothesis?- A hypothesis is a general, testable statement about a phenomenon or behavior.- Ex. Question: Why are mature chiles red?Hypothesis: Mature chiles are red to attract birds.3. What information already exists on this topic?- Ex. The hypothesis was developed out of the knowledge that manyother plants produce bright red colored fruits with seeds that birds areattracted to and eat, thus allowing for dispersal of the seeds.4. What is the experimental design?- Ex. Birds were allowed to select between red and green mature chiles.5. What are the predicted results?- A prediction is what one expects to see when the experiment is performed if thehypothesis is correct.- Ex. It was predicted that the birds would select the red chiles over thegreen chiles.Materials and MethodsIn this section, all materials used and methods followed throughout the experiment are reported. This allows the reader to visualize the set up of the experiment and duplicate the experiment, should they wish. However, it is easy to overpower the reader with too much detail. Keep in mind what information is important to the results obtained and for reproducing the experiment. This includes details such as concentrations, temperatures, measurements, units, timing, calculations, etc. Irrelevant details like “A wax pencil was used to label the test tube,” can be left out!! When following a procedure from a lab manual or published paper, simply describe how you conducted your experiments (there should be enough detail such that the reader could easily duplicate your experiments – no lists!). However, it is still necessary to describe, in detail, any changes to the procedure or special equipment used.Materials and Methods usually answer the following questions:1. What materials were used?2. How were they used?3. When and where was the experiment performed and data collected?- Most important in field studiesResults“A picture is worth a thousand words.” The results section of a scientific paper is for reporting the data collected without discussing any conclusions. Data should be organized into tables, figures, graphs, photos, etc (Do not put the same info in both a table and a graph). Emphasize key points or unusual trends with an objectively written summary. In many cases, the actual figures and graphs are included at the end of the paper, after the Literature Cited section. Each figure or graph has its own separate page and is introduced in the results summary. All figures and graphs must be properly labeled. This includes titles, legends (if necessary), axis and column labels, units and numbered figure headings. Figure headings appear at the top of tables and the bottom of figures, graphs and photos.Ex.When referring to a graph or figure in the text, refer to the figure number.Ex. Figure 1 shows a normal distribution of the original population. However after selection occurred, the remaining population appeared to begin to separate into2 potentially different populations based on color.OrEx. The original population shows a normal distribution before selection occurred (Figure 1).Figures should be able to stand alone, allowing the reader to understand your results without having to dig through your paper.DiscussionDiscussion sections are two fold: 1) conclusions and 2) implications. The conclusion portion restates the primary goal of the research, the hypothesis and whether the data and results collected support or reject that hypothesis. This is the primary argument for a scientific paper to convince readers of the experiment’s validity. Remember scientists never claim that a hypothesis is true, correct or proven; it is only supported or rejected. Make sure to interpret the data collected and try and relate the findings to existing scientific knowledge. The second part of the discussion section helps to take the findings of the experiment to the next level. Speculation and suggestions for improvement or further studies are appropriate here. This is also the only spot in the paper where personal opinion is acceptable. A strong discussion answers (but is not limited to) several important questions:1. Did the experiment support or reject the hypothesis? Why? How?If rejected, was there some sort of error or bias that affected the outcome?2. What analyzed evidence produced that conclusion?3. What is the significance of those conclusions?How does this experiment apply to the “bigger picture?”4. What improvements could be made in the future?5. What other experiments could be developed from these results?6. What is your opinion about the outcome of the experiment and what are yourthoughts about the implications of the experiment?Literature CitedThis section is two fold: 1) reference cites within the paper and 2) a list at the end of the paper of all reference materials cited in the paper.Cites within the paperAny information that was gathered from a secondary source (a published article, a university lecture class, the internet, etc.), MUST be cited both in the paper and at the end. When a reference is cited in the paper it is appropriate to list the primary author’s last name and the publication year in parenthesis after the SUMMARIZED referenced information. Scientific writing does not favor quoted information. The researcher must BOTH restate the referenced material in their OWN words and cite the reference.Ex. The snow leopard is a difficult animal to study because of its camouflage coloring andloner mentality. In an attempt to track, photograph, and research these elusive phantoms of theanimal kingdom, a team of wildlife biologists traveled to the Himalayas in Tibet, one of the few remaining habitats of the snow leopard (Jackson and Hillard, 1986).**If the reference only has one author: (Wexler, 1994)**If the reference has two authors: (Jackson and Hillard, 1986)**If the reference has multiple authors: (Jongmans et al., 1997)Cites at the end of the paperIn the end list, all information is given about the referenced material so that a reader can refer back to the secondary sources if they are interested in learning more about that topic. Keep in mind that every journal requires a different format. A good format that includes all the necessary information is shown in the following examples:Articles:One Author (author format can be used for book, chapter or website as well)Wexler, M. 1994. The art of growing giants. National Wildlife. Vol 32, No. 6: 20-26.Two Authors (author format can be used for book, chapter or website as well)Jackson, R. and Hillard, D. 1986. Tracking the elusive snow leopard. National Geographic. Vol 169, No. 6: 793-809.Multiple Authors (author format can be used for book, chapter or website as well)Jongmans, A.G., van Breemen, N., Lundstrom, U., van Hees, P.A.W., Finlay, R.D., Srinivasan, M., Unestam, T., Giesler, R., Melkerud, P-A., and Olsson, M. 1997. Rock-eating fungi.Nature. Vol 389, No. 6652: 682.Books:Bird, W.Z. 1990. Ecological aspects of fox reproduction. Berlin: Guttenberg Press.Book Chapters:Campbell, N.A and Reece, J.B. 2002. The darwinian revolution. In Biology 6th Ed, ed. B. Wilbur, pp.432-444. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.Websites:Council-Garcia, C.L. 2003. Biology 122 Laboratory Syllabus, Room 109. Retrieved June 12, 2003 from </~ccouncil/>.**If you have found a reference on the web that is a journal article, newspaper article, book, etc., this CAN NOT be used as a website cite, because a published hardcopy exists. You must find all the information about the actual, hardcopy reference and then cite it as a book or journal article.** General Style Comments1. All scientific names (genus and species) must be italicized. (Underlining indicates italics in atyped paper.)2. When taking and recording measurements, make sure to use the metric system and do not forgetto include the units.3. Be sure to divide paragraphs correctly and to use beginning and ending sentences that relate tothe purpose of that paragraph. A paper should never be one long paragraph.4. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb. SO PROOFREAD, PROOFREAD,PROOFREAD!!5. Scientific writing is often written in third person; avoid using the pronouns, I and we.6. Avoid slang, the use of contractions, and quotations, but do try to incorporate vocabulary relevantto the subject.7. Be wary of switching verb tense in a paper from present to past. Try to keep the entire paper inthe past tense; after all you already conducted the experiment.8. Make sure to label the sections correctly (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results,Discussion, Literature Cited)9. PROOFREAD your paper multiple times – it helps to have a friend proofread it as well.10. Remember, this is a FORMAL paper. DO NOT include comments like “I did not like…,I learned a lot…,” etc. They are inappropriate and irrelevant.。
How to write and publish a scientific paper[1]
![How to write and publish a scientific paper[1]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/eeac2ac789eb172ded63b782.png)
GENERAL STYLE
To make a paper readable: • Print or type using a 12 point standard font (Times, Geneva, Bookman, Helvetica, etc.) • Text should be double spaced with 1 inch margins, single sided • Number pages consecutively (preferably also lines...easier for reviewer) • Start each new section on a new page • Adhere to recommended page limits Mistakes to avoid: • Placing a heading at the bottom of a page with the following text on the next page (insert a page break) • Dividing a table or figure – confine each one to a single page • Submitting a paper with pages out of order
CHOOSING A TARGET JOURNAL
Consider: • Appropriateness for your message • Type and length of articles published • Impact factor (Thomson Scientific, Journal Citation Reports: /) • Likelyhood of publication • Journal circulation
How to Read a Scientific Paper (如何阅读科学性论文)
How to Read a Scientific PaperThe main purpose of a scientific paper is to report new results, usually experimental, and to relate these results to previous knowledge in the field. Papers are one of the most important ways that we communicate with one another.In understanding how to read a paper, we need to start at the beginning with a few preliminaries. We then address the main questions that will enable you to understand and evaluate the paper.1. How are papers organized?2. How do I prepare to read a paper, particularly in an area not so familiar to me?3. What difficulties can I expect?4. How do I understand and evaluate the contents of the paper?1. Organization of a paperIn most scientific journals, scientific papers follow a standard format. They are divided into several sections, and each section serves a specific purpose in the paper. We first describe the standard format, then some variations on that format.A paper begins with a short Summary or Abstract. Generally, it gives a brief background to the topic; describes concisely the major findings of the paper; and relates these findings to the field of study. As will be seen, this logical order is also that of the paper as a whole.The next section of the paper is the Introduction. In many journals this section is not given a title. As its name implies, this section presents the background knowledge necessary for the reader to understand why the findings of the paper are an advance on the knowledge in the field. Typically, the Introduction describes first the accepted state of knowledge in a specialized field; then it focuses more specifically on a particular aspect, usually describing a finding or set of findings that led directly to the work described in the paper. If the authors are testing a hypothesis, the source of that hypothesis is spelled out, findings are given with which it is consistent, and one or more predictions are given. In many papers, one or several major conclusions of the paper are presented at the end of this section, so that the reader knows the major answers to the questions just posed. Papers more descriptive or comparative in nature may begin with an introduction to an area which interests the authors, or the need for a broader database.The next section of most papers is the Materials and Methods. In some journals this section is the last one. Its purpose is to describe the materials used in the experiments and the methods by which the experiments were carried out. In principle, this description should be detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the work. In practice, these descriptions are often highly compressed, and they often refer back to previous papers by the authors.The third section is usually Results. This section describes the experiments and the reasons they were done. Generally, the logic of the Results section follows directly from that of the Introduction. That is, the Introduction poses the questions addressed in the early part of Results. Beyond this point, the organization of Results differs from one paper to another. In some papers, the results are presented without extensive discussion, which is reserved for the following section. This is appropriate when the data in the early parts do not need to be interpreted extensively to understand why the later experiments were done. In other papers, results are given, and then they are interpreted, perhaps taken together with other findings not in the paper, so as to give the logical basis for later experiments.The fourth section is the Discussion. This section serves several purposes. First, the data in the paper are interpreted; that is, they are analyzed to show what the authors believe the data show. Any limitations to the interpretations should be acknowledged, and fact should clearly be separated from speculation. Second, the findings of the paper are related to other findings in the field. This serves to show how the findings contribute to knowledge, or correct the errors of previous work. As stated, some of these logical arguments are often found in the Results when it is necessary to clarify why later experiments were carried out. Although you might argue that in this case the discussion material should be presented in the Introduction, more often you cannot grasp its significance until the first part of Results is given.Finally, papers usually have a short Acknowledgements section, in which various contributions of other workers are recognized, followed by a Reference list giving references to papers and other works cited in the text.Papers also contain several Figures and Tables. These contain data described in the paper. The figures and tables also have legends, whose purpose is to give details of the particular experiment or experiments shown there. Typically, if a procedure is used only once in a paper, these details are described in Materials and Methods, and the Figure or Table legend refers back to that description. If a procedure is used repeatedly, however, a general description is given in Materials and Methods, and the details for a particular experiment are given in the Table or Figure legend.Variations on the organization of a paperIn most scientific journals, the above format is followed. Occasionally, the Results and Discussion are combined, in cases in which the data need extensive discussion toallow the reader to follow the train of logic developed in the course of the research.As stated, in some journals, Materials and Methods follows the Discussion. In certain older papers, the Summary was given at the end of the paper.The formats for two widely-read journals, Science and Nature, differ markedly from the above outline. These journals reach a wide audience, and many authors wish to publish in them; accordingly, the space limitations on the papers are severe, and the prose is usually highly compressed. In both journals, there are no discrete sections, except for a short abstract and a reference list. In Science, the abstract is self-contained; in Nature, the abstract also serves as a brief introduction to the paper. Experimental details are usually given either in endnotes (for Science) or Figure and Table legends and a short Methods section (in Nature). Authors often try to circumvent length limitations by putting as much material as possible in these places. In addition, an increasingly common practice is to put a substantial fraction of the less-important material, and much of the methodology, into Supplemental Data that can be accessed online.Many other journals also have length limitations, which similarly lead to a need for conciseness. For example, the Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences (PNAS) has a six-page limit;Cell severely edits many papers to shorten them, and has a short word limit in the abstract; and so on.In response to the pressure to edit and make the paper concise, many authors chooseto condense or, more typically, omit the logical connections that would make the flow of the paper easy. In addition, much of the background that would make the paper accessible to a wider audience is condensed or omitted, so that the less-informed reader has to consult a review article or previous papers to make sense of what the issues are and why they are important. Finally, again, authors often circumvent page limitations by putting crucial details into the Figure and Table legends, especially when (as in PNAS) these are set in smaller type. Fortunately, the recent widespread practice of putting less-critical material into online supplemental material has lessened the pressure to compress content so drastically, but it is still a problem for older papers.Back to outline2. Reading a scientific paperAlthough it is tempting to read the paper straight through as you would do with most text, it is more efficient to organize the way you read. Generally, you first read the Abstract in order to understand the major points of the work. The extent of background assumed by different authors, and allowed by the journal, also varies as just discussed.One extremely useful habit in reading a paper is to read the Title and the Abstract and, before going on, review in your mind what you know about the topic. This serves several purposes. First, it clarifies whether you in fact know enough background to appreciate the paper. If not, you might choose to read the background in a review or textbook, as appropriate.Second, it refreshes your memory about the topic. Third, and perhaps most importantly, it helps you as the reader integrate the new information into your previous knowledge about the topic. That is, it is used as a part of the self-education process that any professional must continue throughout his/her career.If you are very familiar with the field, the Introduction can be skimmed or even skipped. As stated above, the logical flow of most papers goes straight from the Introduction to Results; accordingly, the paper should be read in that way as well, skipping Materials and Methods and referring back to this section as needed to clarify what was actually done. A reader familiar with the field who is interested in a particular point given in the Abstract often skips directly to the relevant section of the Results, and from there to the Discussion for interpretation of the findings. This is only easy to do if the paper is organized properly.CodewordsMany papers contain shorthand phrases that we might term 'codewords', since they have connotations that are generally not explicit. In many papers, not all the experimental data are shown, but referred to by "(data not shown)". This is often for reasons of space; the practice is accepted when the authors have documented their competence to do the experiments properly (usually in previous papers). Two other codewords are "unpublished data" and "preliminary data". The former can either mean that the data are not of publishable quality or that the work is part of a larger story that will one day be published. The latter means different things to different people, but one connotation is that the experiment was done only once.Back to outline3. Difficulties in reading a paperSeveral difficulties confront the reader, particularly one who is not familiar with the field. As discussed above, it may be necessary to bring yourself up to speed before beginning a paper, no matter how well written it is. Be aware, however, that although some problems may lie in the reader, many are the fault of the writer.One major problem is that many papers are poorly written. Some scientists are poor writers. Many others do not enjoy writing, and do not take the time or effort to ensure that the prose is clear and logical. Also, the author is typically so familiar with the material that it is difficult to step back and see it from the point of view of a reader notfamiliar with the topic and for whom the paper is just another of a large stack of papers that need to be read.Bad writing has several consequences for the reader. First, the logical connections are often left out. Instead of saying why an experiment was done, or what ideas were being tested, the experiment is simply described. Second, papers are often cluttered with a great deal of jargon. Third, the authors often do not provide a clear road-map through the paper; side issues and fine points are given equal air time with the main logical thread, and the reader loses this thread. In better writing, these side issues are relegated to Figure legends, Materials and Methods, or online Supplemental Material, or else clearly identified as side issues, so as not to distract the reader.Another major difficulty arises when the reader seeks to understand just what the experiment was. All too often, authors refer back to previous papers; these refer in turn to previous papers in a long chain. Often that chain ends in a paper that describes several methods, and it is unclear which was used. Or the chain ends in a journal with severe space limitations, and the description is so compressed as to be unclear. More often, the descriptions are simply not well-written, so that it is ambiguous what was done.Other difficulties arise when the authors are uncritical about their experiments; if they firmly believe a particular model, they may not be open-minded about other possibilities. These may not be tested experimentally, and may even go unmentioned in the Discussion. Still another, related problem is that many authors do not clearly distinguish between fact and speculation, especially in the Discussion. This makes it difficult for the reader to know how well-established are the "facts" under discussion.One final problem arises from the sociology of science. Many authors are ambitious and wish to publish in trendy journals. As a consequence, they overstate the importance of their findings, or put a speculation into the title in a way that makes it sound like a well-established finding. Another example of this approach is the "Assertive Sentence Title", which presents a major conclusion of the paper as a declarative sentence (such as "LexA is a repressor of the recA and lexA genes"). This trend is becoming prevalent; look at recent issues of Cell for examples. It's not so bad when the assertive sentence is well-documented (as it was in the example given), but all too often the assertive sentence is nothing more than a speculation, and the hasty reader may well conclude that the issue is settled when it isn't.These last factors represent the public relations side of a competitive field. This behavior is understandable, if not praiseworthy. But when the authors mislead the reader as to what is firmly established and what is speculation, it is hard, especially for the novice, to know what is settled and what is not. A careful evaluation is necessary, as we now discuss.Back to outline4. Evaluating a paperA thorough understanding and evaluation of a paper involves answering several questions:a. What questions does the paper address?b. What are the main conclusions of the paper?c. What evidence supports those conclusions?d. Do the data actually support the conclusions?e. What is the quality of the evidence?f. Why are the conclusions important?a. What questions does the paper address?Before addressing this question, we need to be aware that research in biochemistry and molecular biology can be of several different types:Type of research Question asked:Descriptive What is there? What do we see?ComparativeHow does it compare to other organisms? Are our findings general?Analytical How does it work? What is themechanism?Descriptive research often takes place in the early stages of our understanding of a system. We can't formulate hypotheses about how a system works, or what its interconnections are, until we know what is there. Typical descriptive approaches in molecular biology are DNA sequencing and DNA microarray approaches. In biochemistry, one could regard x-ray crystallography as a descriptive endeavor. Comparative research often takes place when we are asking how general a finding is. Is it specific to my particular organism, or is it broadly applicable? A typicalcomparative approach would be comparing the sequence of a gene from one organism with that from the other organisms in which that gene is found. One example of this is the observation that the actin genes from humans and budding yeast are 89% identical and 96% similar.Analytical research generally takes place when we know enough to begin formulating hypotheses about how a system works, about how the parts are interconnected, and what the causal connections are. A typical analytical approach would be to devise two (or more) alternative hypotheses about how a system operates. These hypotheses would all be consistent with current knowledge about the system. Ideally, the approach would devise a set of experiments todistinguish among these hypotheses. A classic example is the Meselson-Stahl experiment.Of course, many papers are a combination of these approaches. For instance, researchers might sequence a gene from their model organism; compare its sequence to homologous genes from other organisms; use this comparison to devise a hypothesis for the function of the gene product; and test this hypothesis by making a site-directed change in the gene and asking how that affects the phenotype of the organism and/or the biochemical function of the gene product.Being aware that not all papers have the same approach can orient you towards recognizing the major questions that a paper addresses.What are these questions? In a well-written paper, as described above, the Introduction generally goes from the general to the specific, eventually framing a question or set of questions. This is a good starting place. In addition, the results of experiments usually raise additional questions, which the authors may attempt to answer. These questions usually become evident only in the Results section.Back to Evaluating a paperb. What are the main conclusions of the paper?This question can often be answered in a preliminary way by studying the abstract of the paper. Here the authors highlight what they think are the key points. This is not enough, because abstracts often have severe space constraints, but it can serve as a starting point. Still, you need to read the paper with this question in mind.Back to Evaluating a paperc. What evidence supports those conclusions?Generally, you can get a pretty good idea about this from the Results section. The description of the findings points to the relevant tables and figures. This is easiest when there is one primary experiment to support a point. However, it is often the casethat several different experiments or approaches combine to support a particular conclusion. For example, the first experiment might have several possible interpretations, and the later ones are designed to distinguish among these.In the ideal case, the Discussion begins with a section of the form "Three lines of evidence provide support for the conclusion that... First, ...Second,... etc." However, difficulties can arise when the paper is poorly written (see above). The authors often do not present a concise summary of this type, leaving you to make it yourself. A skeptic might argue that in such cases the logical structure of the argument is weak and is omitted on purpose! In any case, you need to be sure that you understand the relationship between the data and the conclusions.Back to Evaluating a paperd. Do the data actually support the conclusions?One major advantage of doing this is that it helps you to evaluate whether the conclusion is sound. If we assume for the moment that the data are believable (see next section), it still might be the case that the data do not actually support the conclusion the authors wish to reach. There are at least two different ways this can happen:i. The logical connection between the data and the interpretation is not soundii. There might be other interpretations that might be consistent with the data.One important aspect to look for is whether the authors take multiple approaches to answering a question. Do they have multiple lines of evidence, from different directions, supporting their conclusions? If there is only one line of evidence, it is more likely that it could be interpreted in a different way; multiple approaches make the argument more persuasive.Another thing to look for is implicit or hidden assumptions used by the authors in interpreting their data. This can be hard to do, unless you understand the field thoroughly.Back to Evaluating a papere. What is the quality of that evidence?This is the hardest question to answer, for novices and experts alike. At the same time, it is one of the most important skills to learn as a young scientist. It involves a major reorientation from being a relatively passive consumer of information and ideas to an active producer and critical evaluator of them. This is not easy and takes years to master. Beginning scientists often wonder, "Who am I to question these authorities?After all the paper was published in a top journal, so the authors must have a high standing, and the work must have received a critical review by experts." Unfortunately, that's not always the case. In any case, developing your ability to evaluate evidence is one of the hardest and most important aspects of learning to be a critical scientist and reader.How can you evaluate the evidence?First, you need to understand thoroughly the methods used in the experiments. Often these are described poorly or not at all (see above). The details are often missing, but more importantly the authors usually assume that the reader has a general knowledge of common methods in the field (such as immunoblotting, cloning, genetic methods, or DNase I footprinting). If you lack this knowledge, as discussed above you have to make the extra effort to inform yourself about the basic methodology before you can evaluate the data.Sometimes you have to trace back the details of the methods if they are important. The increasing availability of journals on the Web has made this easier by obviating the need to find a hard-copy issue, e.g. in the library. A comprehensive listing of journals relevant to this course, developed by the Science Library, allows access to most of the listed volumes from any computer at the University; a second list at the Arizona Health Sciences Library includes some other journals, again from University computers.Second, you need to know the limitations of the methodology. Every method has limitations, and if the experiments are not done correctly they can't be interpreted.For instance, an immunoblot is not a very quantitative method. Moreover, in a certain range of protein the signal increases (that is, the signal is at least roughly "linear"), but above a certain amount of protein the signal no longer increases. Therefore, to use this method correctly one needs a standard curve that shows that the experimental lanes are in a linear range. Often, the authors will not show this standard curve, but they should state that such curves were done. If you don't see such an assertion, it could of course result from bad writing, but it might also not have been done. If it wasn't done, a dark band might mean "there is this much protein or an indefinite amount more".Third, importantly, you need to distinguish between what the data show and what the authors say they show. The latter is really an interpretation on the authors' part, though it is generally not stated to be an interpretation. Papers usually state something like "the data in Fig. x show that ...". This is the authors' interpretation of the data. Do you interpret it the same way? You need to look carefully at the data to ensure that they really do show what the authors say they do. You can only do this effectively if you understand the methods and their limitations.Fourth, it is often helpful to look at the original journal, or its electronic counterpart, instead of a photocopy. Particularly for half-tone figures such as photos of gels or autoradiograms, the contrast is distorted, usually increased, by photocopying, so that the data are misrepresented.Fifth, you should ask if the proper controls are present. Controls tell us that nature is behaving the way we expect it to under the conditions of the experiment (see here for more details). If the controls are missing, it is harder to be confident that the results really show what is happening in the experiment. You should try to develop the habit of asking "where are the controls?" and looking for them.Back to Evaluating a paperf. Why are the conclusions important?Do the conclusions make a significant advance in our knowledge? Do they lead to new insights, or even new research directions?Again, answering these questions requires that you understand the field relatively well.。
科学实验 英语
科学实验英语以下是关于“写科学实验”的相关英语内容：**单词**：1. "experiment" ：实验；试验2. "science" ：科学3. "write" ：写；书写4. "conduct" ：实施；进行5. "observe" ：观察；观测6. "record" ：记录；记载7. "data" ：数据；资料8. "result" ：结果；成果9. "procedure" ：程序；步骤10. "hypothesis" ：假设；假说**短语**：1. "write about a science experiment" ：写关于一个科学实验2. "conduct a scientific experiment" ：进行一个科学实验3. "observe the experiment" ：观察实验4. "record the data" ：记录数据5. "analyze the results" ：分析结果6. "describe the procedure" ：描述步骤7. "form a hypothesis" ：形成假设8. "test the hypothesis" ：检验假设9. "collect data" ：收集数据10. "present the experiment" ：展示实验**英语释义**：1. "Experiment" : A scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact.2. "Science" : The intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.3. "Write" : To mark (letters, words, etc.) on a surface, especially with a pen or pencil, in order to communicate.4. "Conduct" : To organize and carry out (an activity or operation).5. "Observe" : To watch carefully and attentively.6. "Record" : To set down in writing or some other permanent form for later reference.7. "Data" : Facts and statistics collected together for reference or analysis.8. "Result" : Something that follows as a consequence or effect.9. "Procedure" : A series of actions or steps taken in order to achieve a particular end.10. "Hypothesis" : A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.**用法**：1. "experiment" 常用作名词，如："The experiment was successful."（这个实验成功了。
英语科技论文写作方法与教程(南开大学)-7
Writing for non-native English speakers
• If a paper is considered suitably
interesting to be sent for peer review:
• Editors and referees will provide
plenty of help and advice.
?thinkclearlyaboutyouraudienceclearthinking?toknowtheroadaheadaskthosecomingback?要知道前方的路问问那些曾经走过的人?scientificwritinggetseasierwithmoreexperience
Scientific writing and presentation
your research problem.
• Think clearly about the implications. • Think clearly about your audience.
• “To know the road ahead, ask
those coming back”
经走过的人”
Writing for non-native English speakers
• Scientific writing in English is easier
than it looks.
• The structure and language of scientific
writing are conventional.
Acknowledgements References Supplementary information
如何进行学术研究创新英语作文
如何进行学术研究创新英语作文关于”有关创新“的英语作文范文5篇，作文题目：About innovation。
以下是关于有关创新的六级英语范文，每篇作文均为真题范文带翻译。
高分英语作文1：About innovationAs for academic integrity,in recent years,the problem of academic fraud has become increasingly serious in university campuses.More and more people have expressed more and more strong concern about it.This phenomenon has brought many adverse consequences at the beginning.Undoubtedly,it hinders the development of national science.Secondly,it confesses some famous professors to plagiarize others'works,which seriously damages the public's academic integrity st but not least,the lack of professional ethics of scholars has had a negative impact on young students.They follow the trend and do not seek innovation.All relevant departments should work together to combat this notorious phenomenon.For the relevant administrative departments,it is time to take effective measures to curb academic misconduct and encourage academic innovation.The government's supervision over the work of scientificresearchers is of great importance.Only when every member of society is aware of the harm brought about by academic dishonesty,can we stop this abominable practice.中文翻译：关于学术诚信，近年来，学术造假问题在大学校园中日益严重，越来越多的人对其表达了越来越强烈的关注，这样的现象一开始就带来了许多不利的后果，毫无疑问，它阻碍了国家科学发展的第二，招供一些有名气的教授剽窃他人著作，严重损害了公众对学术诚信的信任。
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Published August 2008 Author PackA guide to publishing in scholarly journalsHow to write a scientific articleIntroductionThe task of writing a research article can be daunting. You may have completed groundbreaking research, but unless the article is correctly written, at best publication will be delayed and at worst will never be published.The purpose of this article is to try and give the reader an overview of how to write a well-structured research article for publication. It is principally aimed at new authors and is generic enough to encompass all disciplines.Do I need to write a research article?This might seem like an obvious question, but it is one worth asking yourself. Editors and reviewers are looking for original and innovative research that will add to the field of study. Ensure that you have enough numbers to justify sound statistical conclusions. If the research you are going to report relates to a larger study, perhaps it is better to produce one important research article, rather than a number of average incremental articles.In deciding where to send your article, consider the reader. Does your article address a question of international or mainly local interest? If the latter is true, it may be better placed in a national journal than in an international one. The structure of an articleScientific writing follows a rigid structure. A format developed over hundreds of years and considered to be the most efficient means for communicating scientific findings to the broader research community. Moreover, the format has the advantage that it allows the article to be read at several levels. Some people will refer to just the title, others may read only the title and abstract, while those who want a deeper understanding will read most, if not all, of the article.Most disciplines use the format of title, authors, abstract, keywords, introduction, methods, results, discussion, acknowledgments, references and supplementary material. Though the headings are standard for most journals, there is some variation, so it is essential to read the guide for authors of the journal you intend to submit your article to prior to writing.Section PurposeTitle Clearly describes contentsAuthors Ensures recognition for the writer/sAbstract Describes succinctly what was doneKeywords Ensures the article is correctly identified in abstracting and indexing services Main textIntroduction Explains the hypothesisMethods Explains how the data were collectedResults Describes what was discoveredDiscussion Discusses the implications of the findingsAcknowledgments Ensures those who helped in the research are recognizedReferences Ensures previously published work is recognizedSupplementary material Provides supplementary data for the expert readerStyle and languageIt is important to refer to the journal’s guide for authors’ notes on style. Some authors write their article with a specific journal in mind, while others write the article and then adapt it to fit the style of a journal they subsequently choose. Regardless of your preference, some fundamentals remain true throughout the process of writing a scientific article. The object is to report your findings and conclusions clearly, and as concisely as possible; try to avoid embellishment with unnecessary words or phrases. The use of the active voice will shorten sentence length. For example, carbon dioxide was consumed by the plant...is in the passive voice. By changing to the active voice it can be shortened to the plant consumed carbon dioxide...The following shows how tenses are most often used in science writing: For known facts and hypotheses, the present tense should be used.The average life expectancy of a honey bee is 6 weeks.When you refer to experiments you have conducted, the past tense should be used.All the honey bees were maintained in an environment with a consistent temperature of 23 o C.When you describe the results of an experiment, the past tense should be used.The average life span of bees in our contained environment was 8 weeks.If English is not your first language it is recommended that you ask a native English speaker to review the article before you submit it for publication. Alternatively you could use a language editing agency. Visit/languagepolishingAuthorsThe listing of authors should only include those who have made an intellectual contribution to the research, who will publicly defend the data and conclusions, and who have approved the final version. The order in which the names of the authors appear can vary from discipline to discipline. In some fields the corresponding author’s name appears first. TitleA title should describe the article’s content clearly and precisely, and allow the reader to decide whether it would be appropriate to consult the article further. The title is the advertisement for the article –a poorly titled article may never reach its target audience, so be specific. Omit unnecessary words such as ‘A study of’, ‘Investigations of’, ‘Observations on’, etc. Do not use abbreviations and jargon. Indexing and abstracting services depend on the accuracy of the title, extracting keywords from it that are used in cross-referencing.Keyword listSome journals request a keyword list; this list provides the inclusion of important words, in addition to those already present in the title. Appropriate choice of keywords will increase the likelihood of your article being located by other researchers. These words are used by the indexing and abstracting services.Many Elsevier journals will also require authors to choose a subject classification during the online submission process. This classification helps editors to select appropriate reviewers.AbstractThe abstract should summarize, in 50 to 300 words, the problem, the method, the results, and the conclusions. The title is the simplest statement about the content of your article. In contrast, the abstract allows you to elaborate on each major section of the article. The abstract should give sufficient detail so that the reader can decide whether or not to read the whole article. Together, the title and the abstract should be able to stand on their own, as they are processed further by abstracting services. For this reason it is advisable not to include references to figures or tables, or citationof the reference in the abstract. Many authors write the abstract last so that it accurately reflects the content ofthe article.Main textIntroductionThe introduction should be brief, ideally one to two paragraphs long. It should clearly state the problem being investigated, the background that explains the problem, and the reasons for conducting the research. You should summarize relevant research to provide context, state how your work differs from published work and importantly what questions you are answering. Explain what findings of others, if any, you are challenging or extending. Briefly describe your experiment, hypothesis(es), research question(s), and general experimental design or method. Lengthy interpretations should be left until the Discussion.Methods(Materials and Methods or Experimental Methods, etc.) The key purpose of this section is to provide the reader enough details so they can replicate your research. Explain how you studied the problem, identify the procedures you followed, and order these chronologically where possible. If your methods are new, they will need to be explained in detail; otherwise, name the method and cite the previously published work, unless you have modified the method, in which case refer to the original work and include the amendments. Identify the equipment and describe materials used and specify the source if there is variation in quality of materials. Include the frequency of observations, what types of data were recorded. Be precise in describing measurements and include errors of measurement. Name any statistical tests used so that your numerical results can be validated. It is advisable to use the past tense, and avoid using the first person, though this will vary from journal to journal.ResultsIn this section you objectively present your findings, and explain in words what was found. This is where you show that your new results are contributing to the body of scientific knowledge, so it is important to be clear and lay them out in a logical sequence. Raw data are rarely included in a scientific article; instead the data are analyzed and presented in the form of figures (graphs), tables, and/or descriptions of observations. It is important to clearly identify for the reader any significant trends. The results section should follow a logical sequence based on the table and figures that best presents the findings that answer the question or hypothesis being investigated. Tables and figures are assigned numbers separately, and should be in the sequence that you refer to them in the text. Figures should have a brief description (a legend), providing the reader sufficient information to know how the data were produced. It is important not to interpret your results - this should be done in the Discussion section.DiscussionIn this section you describe what your results mean, specifically in the context of what was already known about the subject of the investigation. You should link back to the introduction by way of the question(s) or hypotheses posed. You should indicate how the results relate to expectations and to the literature previously cited, whether they support or contradict previous theories. Most significantly, the discussion should explain how the research has moved the body of scientific knowledge forward. It is important not to extend your conclusions beyond what is directly supported by your results, so avoid undue speculation. It is advisable to suggest practical applications of your results, and outline whatwould be the next steps in your study.AcknowledgmentsThis section should be brief and include the names of individuals who have assisted with your study, including, contributors, reviewers, suppliers who may have provided materials free of charge, etc. Authors should also disclose in their article any financial or other substantive conflict of interest that might be construed to influence the results or interpretation of their article.ReferencesWhenever you draw upon previously published work, you must acknowledge the source. Any information not fromyour experiment and not "common knowledge" should be recognized with a citation. How citations are presented varies considerably from discipline to discipline and you should refer to the guide for authors for the specific journal. Quotes that appear in the article, if long, should have their own indented paragraph. Otherwise, if they are in the natural flow of the article they should be within quotation marks. In both cases they should include a reference.The references section that appears at the end of the article includes all references cited in your article. This section is in contrast to a bibliography, common in books, where works read but not necessarily cited in the text are listed. The manner in which references are presented also varies from journal to journal and you should consult the journal’s guide for authors.Supplementary materialTypically raw data are not included in a scientific article. However, if you believe the data would be useful, they can be included. Increasingly this is becoming more common as journals move to an online environment and the cost of including supplemental material is lowered. Supplementary material can include raw data tables, video footage, photographs, or complex 3D models. If you have more than one set of materials to include, give each a separate number e.g. Appendix 1, Appendix 2, etc. For full guidelines on supplementary material submission, please visit/artworkFurther readingDavis, M. (2005) Scientific Papers and Presentations, 2nd Edition, Academic PressGrossman, M. (2004) Writing and Presenting Scientific Papers, 2nd Edition, Nottingham University PressClare, J. and Hamilton, H. (2003) Writing Research Transforming Data into Text, Churchill Livingston。