Reasoning about Epistemic Actions and Knowledge in Multi-Agent Systems Using Coq
条件句逻辑与汉语条件句的解释
条件句逻辑与汉语条件句的解释条件命题 P → Q前件：antecedent后件：consequent条件连词：→（箭头）→真值表Conditional (where P is the antecedent and Q, the consequent; or P is the protasis and Q, the apodosis):P→Q111100011010Modus Ponendo Ponens (MPP) 肯定前件律A,A→B┝BModus Tollendo Tollens (MTT) 否定后件律~B, A→B┝~A(1)P → Q(2)~Q → ~P （contraposition 质位互换）充分条件同（1）必要条件：（3）Q → P对（3）作质位互换，得（4）（4）~P → ~Q （同（3）的必要条件关系）举例：（5）So long as we scatter it, thought force is of little use to us, but as soon as we are prepared to take the trouble necessary to harness it, all knowledge is ours.（6）只要使用这种洗涤剂，便可洗得干干净净。
(7) 只要把球传给队友，他们就能得分。
(8) 只要你脸蛋长得还算过得去，哪怕一个字也不认识，也照样能当演员。
以上充分条件句（9）Nothing terrible will befall if you eat a piece of pizza — only if you exist on a diet of nothing but pizza.(10) We all agree that small stores are important, but they can remain viableonly if they can carry out their trading on Sundays.(11) 有的人主张，扁桃体一发炎就把它切除，以免造成日后的麻烦。
笛卡尔的本体论之争
笛卡尔的本体论之争首先周一公布2001年6月18日;实质性修改太阳2006年10月15日笛卡尔的本体论（或先验）的论点，既是哲学的一个最迷人，他的理解方面的不足。
论据与魅力源于努力证明神的存在，从简单的处所，但功能强大。
存在是产生立即从清晰和明确的想法是一个无比完美。
讽刺的是，简单的说法也产生了一些误读，加剧了部分由笛卡尔没有一套单一版本。
该声明的论点主要出现在第五沉思。
这种说法因果来得早在接踵而至的一个神的存在，沉思在第三，不同的证据提出问题的两项之间的秩序和关系。
重复笛卡尔哲学原理，包括本体论争论的几个文本等中央。
他还辩解首先由一些主要的知识分子，他在一天，严厉打击反对第二次回复，和第五。
笛卡尔不是第一位哲学家，制订一个本体论的论点。
一个早期版本的说法已大力安瑟伦辩护圣在11世纪，然后圣托马斯阿奎那批评由当代），后来被命名为Gaunilo和尚（安瑟伦（尽管他的言论是针对然而，另一个版本参数）。
阿奎那的批评被视为如此具有破坏性，本体论的争论了数百年死亡。
它的出现，作为一个同时代的惊喜笛卡尔，他应该试图复活它。
虽然他声称没有被证明的熟悉安瑟伦的版本，笛卡尔似乎他自己的工艺参数，以阻止传统的反对。
尽管相似之处，笛卡尔的论点的版本不同于安瑟伦方式在重要的。
后者的版本被认为要从定义这个词的含义“上帝”，上帝是一个被一大于不能设想。
笛卡尔的观点相反，中，主要是基于两个他的哲学的中心原则-天生的思想理论和学说明确的印象和独特的。
他声称不依赖于上帝的任意定义，而是一种天生的想法，其内容是“的。
” 笛卡尔的版本也非常简单。
神的存在是直接从推断的事实，有必要存在的想法是包含在一个清晰而鲜明的超级完美的存在。
事实上，在一些场合，他建议，所谓的本体论“的论调”是不是一个正式的哲学偏见的证据，而是在所有不言而喻的公理直观地掌握了一个心灵的自由。
笛卡尔的本体论的争论相比往往以几何论证，认为有必要存在的想法不能排除再从神比事实平等的角度，其角度，例如两权，可以被排除在一个三角形的想法。
选择性必修四Unit1-Unit5拓展阅读汇总
选择性必修四拓展阅读选择性必修四Unit1 Science Fiction时文领读主题:人与社会--科学与技术背景导入:人工智能是一门基于计算机科学、生物学、心理学、神经科学、数学和哲学等学科的技术科学。
人工智能只是一种技术,就像任何技术一样,可以用来造福人类,也可能会给人类带来危害。
我们需要以负责和道德的方式使用人工智能,国际社会也需要应对人工智能带来的挑战。
体裁:说明文词数:401难度:中能带来的挑战。
阅读用时:8 分钟阅读技巧:训练学生理解文章细节的能力。
拓展阅读原文In the years ahead, AI will raise three big questions for bosses and governments. One is the effect on jobs. Although bosses publicly praise the broad benefits AI will bring very much, their main interest lies in cutting costs.One European bank asked a technology company to find a way of reducing the staff in its operations department from 50,000to 500.A special report has shown that AI-enhanced" tools can help reduce staff in departments such as customer service and human resources by a large amount. The McKinsey Global Institute finds that by 2030 up to 375 million people, or 14% of the global workers in companies or countries, could have their jobs automated away. Bosses will need to decide whether they are prepared to offer and pay for retraining, and whether they will give workers time off for it. Many companies say they are all for workers developing new skills, but not at employers' expense.The second important question is how to protect privacy as AI spreads. The Internet has already made it possible to track people's digital behaviour in extremely small detail.AI will provide even better tools for businesses to monitor consumers and workers, both online and in the physical world. Consumers are sometimes happy to go along with this if it results in personalised services. But AI probably brings privacy violations that are seen as shocking and morally unacceptable. In the wrong hands, useful technology could be against fair and equal treatment. The police around the world will use AI to spot criminals, but may also look on ordinary citizens secretly, in order to discover things or find out information about them. New rules will be needed to ensure agreement on what degree of monitoring is acceptable.The third question is about the effect of AI on competition in business. Today many firms are competing to provide AI-enhanced tools for companies. But a technology company that achieves artificial intelligence could be ahead of its competitors, put others out of business and lessen competition. This is unlikely to happen in the near future, but if it did, it would be of great concern.词汇拓展：①AI-enhanced adj.人工智能增强的②automate vt.使自动化③privacy n.隐私④personalised adj.个性化的⑤violation n.侵犯;违背;妨碍真题训练[全国新高考ⅡI2021 ·D篇] An Australian professor is developing a robot to monitor the health of grazing cattle, a development that could bring big changes to a profession that's relied largely on a low- tech approach for decades but is facing a labor shortage.Salah Sukkarieh, a professor at the University of Sydney, sees robots as necessary given how cattlemen are aging. He is building a four-wheeled robot that will run on solar and electric power. It will use cameras and sensors to monitor the animals. A computer system will analyze the video to determine whether a cow is sick. Radio tags(标签)on the animals will measure temperature changes. The quality of grassland will be tracked by monitoring the shape, color and texture (质地)of grass. That way, cattlemen will know whether they need to move their cattle to another field for nutrition purposes.Machines have largely taken over planting, watering and harvesting crops such as corn and wheat, but the monitoring of cattle has gone through fewer changes.For Texas cattleman Pete Bonds, it's increasingly difficult to find workers interested in watching cattle. But Bonds doesn't believe a robot is right for the job. Years of experience in the industry-and failed attempts to use technology- have convinced him that the best way to check cattle is with a man on a horse. Bonds, who bought his first cattle almost 50 years ago,still has each of his cowboys inspect 300 or 400 cattle daily and look for signs that an animal is getting sick.Other cattlemen see more promise in robots. Michael Kelsey,vice president of the Oklahoma Cattlemen's Association, said a robot could be extremely useful given rising concerns about cattle theft. Cattle tend to be kept in remote places and their value has risen , making them appealing targets.1.What is a problem with the cattle-raising industry?A.Soil pollution.B. Lack of workers.C.Aging machines.D. Low profitability.2. What will Sukkarieh's robot be able to do?A. Monitor the quality of grass.B.Cure the diseased cattle.C. Move cattle to another field.D. Predict weather changes.3. Why does Pete Bonds still hire cowboys to watch cattle?A.He wants to help them earn a living.B.He thinks men can do the job better.C.He is inexperienced in using robots.D. He enjoys the traditional way of life.4.How may robots help with cattle watching according to Michael Kelsey?A. Increase the value of cattle.B. Bring down the cost of labor.C. Make the job more appealing.D. Keep cattle from being stolen.选择性必修四Unit2 Iconic Attractions时文领读主题:人与社会--历史、社会与文化背景导入:我们的地球上大约有190个国家和70亿人口,因此必然有多种不同的文化存在。
西华师范大学学士学位英语考试真题
西华师范大学学士学位英语考试真题West China Normal University Bachelor Degree English ExamSection I: Reading Comprehension (40 points)Directions: There are 4 passages in this section. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C, and D. You should decide on the best choice and mark the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet.Passage 1Questions 1 to 5 are based on the following passage:Our product engineers are constantly striving to improve the performance and reliability of our products, so that our customers can have the best possible experience. By researching the latest technologies and trends in the industry, we are able to develop innovative solutions to meet the changing needs of our customers. One of our recent breakthroughs is the development of a new energy-saving technology that reduces energy consumption by 30%. This not only benefits our customers by saving them money on their utility bills, but also helps to protect the environment by reducing carbon emissions.Questions:1. What is the main goal of the product engineers at our company?A. To increase revenueB. To improve customer satisfactionC. To win industry awardsD. To reduce energy consumption2. How do the product engineers stay informed about the latest technologies and trends in the industry?A. By reading industry publicationsB. By attending trade shows and conferencesC. By conducting market researchD. All of the above3. What is one of the recent breakthroughs mentioned in the passage?A. A new marketing campaignB. A new energy-saving technologyC. A new office buildingD. A new CEO4. How does the new energy-saving technology benefit our customers?A. By reducing carbon emissionsB. By improving product performanceC. By saving them money on utility billsD. All of the above5. Why is it important to develop innovative solutions to meet the changing needs of our customers?A. To win industry awardsB. To increase revenueC. To protect the environmentD. To reduce energy consumptionPassage 2Questions 6 to 10 are based on the following passage:The history of cinema is a fascinating subject, full of drama, romance, and suspense. From the early days of silent films to the latest blockbusters, movies have played an importantrole in shaping our culture and society. Some of the greatest filmmakers of all time have left their mark on the industry, creating timeless classics that continue to inspire and entertain audiences around the world. Whether you prefer comedies, dramas, action films, or documentaries, there is something for everyone to enjoy at the cinema.Questions:6. What is the main subject of the passage?A. The history of cinemaB. The latest blockbustersC. The greatest filmmakers of all timeD. The role of movies in shaping culture and society7. What role have movies played in shaping culture and society?A. A minor roleB. A negative roleC. A positive roleD. No role at all8. What do some of the greatest filmmakers of all time have in common?A. They all prefer comediesB. They all create action filmsC. They have all left their mark on the industryD. They only make documentaries9. What type of film appeals to everyone?A. ComediesB. DramasC. Action filmsD. Documentaries10. The passage suggests that movies have the power to:A. Inspire and entertain audiencesB. Influence people in a negative wayC. Create drama and suspenseD. None of the abovePassage 3Questions 11 to 15 are based on the following passage:Social media has become an integral part of our daily lives, allowing us to connect with friends and family, share our thoughts and experiences, and stay informed about current events. However, it is important to be mindful of the potential dangers of social media, such as cyberbullying, privacy concerns, and misinformation. By being aware of these risks and taking steps to protect ourselves and our loved ones, we can continue to enjoy the benefits of social media while staying safe and secure.Questions:11. What is the main subject of the passage?A. The benefits of social mediaB. The dangers of social mediaC. How to connect with friends and familyD. The role of current events in social media12. What are some potential dangers of social media?A. Cyberbullying and privacy concernsB. Sharing thoughts and experiencesC. Connecting with friends and familyD. Misinformation and current events13. How can we protect ourselves and our loved ones from the dangers of social media?A. By ignoring the risksB. By being aware of the risks and taking steps to protect ourselvesC. By avoiding social media altogetherD. By sharing personal information online14. What is one of the benefits of social media mentioned in the passage?A. CyberbullyingB. Privacy concernsC. Connecting with friends and familyD. Misinformation15. According to the passage, how can we continue to enjoy the benefits of social media while staying safe and secure?A. By ignoring the risksB. By being aware of the risks and taking steps to protect ourselvesC. By sharing personal information onlineD. By avoiding social media altogetherPassage 4Questions 16 to 20 are based on the following passage:Climate change is one of the most pressing issues facing our planet today. The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrialization have all contributed to the increase in greenhouse gas emissions, leading to rising global temperatures and more extreme weather patterns. It is crucial that we take action now to reduce our carbon footprint and protect the environment for future generations. By investing in renewable energy sources, reducing waste, and promoting sustainable practices, we can make a positive impact on the planet and create a more sustainable future for all.Questions:16. What is one of the most pressing issues facing our planet today?A. DeforestationB. IndustrializationC. Climate changeD. Rising global temperatures17. What has contributed to the increase in greenhouse gas emissions?A. The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrializationB. Investing in renewable energy sourcesC. Reducing wasteD. Promoting sustainable practices18. Why is it crucial that we take action now to reduce our carbon footprint?A. To create more extreme weather patternsB. To protect the environment for future generationsC. To increase greenhouse gas emissionsD. To invest in renewable energy sources19. What can we do to make a positive impact on the planet and create a more sustainable future?A. Invest in renewable energy sourcesB. Reducing wasteC. Promoting sustainable practicesD. All of the above20. According to the passage, why is it important to reduce our carbon footprint?A. To create more extreme weather patternsB. To protect the environment for future generationsC. To increase greenhouse gas emissionsD. To invest in renewable energy sourcesSection II: Usage (20 points)Directions: There are 10 incomplete sentences in this section. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C, and D. Choose the one that best completes the sentence and mark your answer on the Answer Sheet.21. I have __________ my friend's birthday party tomorrow.A. forgottenB. forgetD. forgetting22. She __________ all day yesterday, so she's very tired today.A. was studyingB. studiedC. studyD. has studied23. If I __________ you were coming, I would have baked a cake.A. knewB. had knownC. knowD. knowing24. He asked me __________ I had seen his keys.A. whenB. thatC. if25. The book was so __________ that I couldn't put it down.A. interestingB. interestedC. interestD. interestedly26. If you __________ too fast, you'll get a speeding ticket.A. driveB. droveC. will driveD. driving27. My grandmother __________ when she heard the news.A. is cryingB. was cryingC. criedD. will cry28. We will go hiking this weekend, __________ the weather is good.A. ifB. whenC. providedD. unless29. I __________ a new phone, so I can't call you.A. didn't haveB. haven'tC. hasD. have30. He __________ his car since he got it fixed last week.A. has drivenB. droveC. drivingD. drivesSection III: Writing (40 points)Directions:Write an essay of 400 words on the following topic:"The importance of education in the 21st century"In your essay, discuss the role of education in preparing individuals for the challenges and opportunities of the modern world. What skills and knowledge are essential for success in the 21st century? How can education help to address issues such as poverty, inequality, and climate change? Provide examples and evidence to support your argument.Answer SheetName: ______________________________________ Date:___________________________Section I: Reading Comprehension (40 points)Passage 11. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______5. ______Passage 26. ______7. ______8. ______9. ______ 10. ______Passage 311. ______ 12. ______ 13. ______ 14. ______ 15. ______Passage 416. ______ 17. ______ 18. ______ 19. ______ 20. ______ Section II: Usage (20 points)21. ______ 22. ______ 23. ______ 24. ______ 25. ______ 26. ______ 27. ______ 28. ______ 29. ______ 30. ______ Section III: Writing (40 points)__________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Total Score: ______Good luck!。
CET4选词填空
Passage 3As the pace of life continues to increase, we are fast losing the art of relaxation. But relaxation is __1__ for a healthy mind and body.Stress is a natural part of everyday life and there is no way to __2__ it. In fact, it is not the bad thing as it is often supposed to be. A certain amount of stress is vital to provide motivation and give purpose to life. It is only when the stress gets out of __3__ that it can lead to poor performance and ill health.The amount of stress a person can withstand depends very much on the individual. Some people are not afraid of stress, and such __4__ are obviously prime material for managerial responsibilities. Others lose heart at the first sight of __5__ difficulties. When exposed to stress, in whatever form, we react both physically and __6__. In fact we make choice between “flight or fight” and in more __7__ days the choices made the difference between life or death. The crises we meet today are unlikely to be so extreme, but however little the stress, it involves the same __8__. It is when such a reaction lasts long, through continued __9__ to stress, that health becomes endangered. Since we cannot __10__ stress from our lives it would be unwise to do so even if we could, we need to find ways to deal with it.Passage 4As is known to all, the organization and management of wages and salaries are very complex. Generally speaking, the Accounts Department is __1__ for calculations of pay, while the Personnel Department is interested in discussions with the employees about pay.If a firm wants to __2__ a new wage and salary structure, it is essential that the firm should decide on a __3__ of job evaluation and ways of measuring the performance of its employees. In order to be __4__, that new pay structure will need agreement between Trade Unions and employers. In job evaluation, all of the requirements of each job are defined in a detailed job description. Each of thoserequirements is given a value, usually in “points”, which are __5__ together to give a total value for the job. For middle and higher management, a special method is used to evaluate managers on their knowledge of the job, their responsibility, and their __6__ to solve problems. Because of the difficulty in measuring management work, however, job grades for managers are often decided without __7__ to an evaluation system based on points.In attempting to design a pay system, the Personnel Department should __8__ the value of each job with these in the job market. __9__, payment for a job should vary with any differences in the way that the job is performed. Where it is simple to measure the work done, as in the works done with hands, monetary encouragement schemes are often chosen, for __10__ workers, where measurement is difficult, methods of additional payments are employed.Passage 5Americans are proud of their variety and individuality, yet they love and respect few things more than a uniform. Why are uniforms so __1__ in the United States?Among the arguments for uniforms, one of the first is that in the eyes of most people they look more __2__ than civilian（百姓的）clothes. People have become conditioned to __3__ superior quality from a man who wears a uniform.The television repairman who wears a uniform tends to __4__ more trust than one who appears in civilian clothes. Faith in the __5__ of a garage mechanic is increased by a uniform. What an easier way is there for a nurse, a policeman, a barber, or a waiter to __6__ professional identity（身份）than to step out of uniform? Uniforms also have many __7__ benefits. They save on other clothes. They save on laundry bills. They are often more comfortable and more durable than civilian clothes.Primary among the arguments against uniforms is their lack of variety and the consequent loss of __8__ experienced by people who must wear them. Though there are many types of uniforms, the wearer of any particular type is generally stuck with it,without __9__, until retirement. When people look alike, they tend to think, speak, and act __10__, o n the job at le a st.Passage 6Britain is not just one country and one people; even if some of its inhabitants think so. Britain is, in fact, a nation which can be divided into several __1__ parts, each part being an individual country with its own language, character and cultural __2__. Thus Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales do not claim to __3__ to “England” because their inhabitants are not __4__ “English”. They are Scottish, Irish or Welsh and many of them prefer to speak their own native tongue, which in turn is __5__ to the others.These cultural minorities(少数民族) have been Britain’s original inhabitants. In varying degrees they have managed to __6__ their national characteristics, and their particular customs and way of life. This is probably even truer of the __7__ areas where traditional life has not been so affected by the __8__ of industrialism as the border areas have been. The Celtic races are said to be more emotional by nature than the English. An Irish temper is legendary. The Scots could rather __9__ about their reputation for excessive thrift and prefer to be remembered for their folk songs and dances, while the Welsh are famous for their singing. The Celtic __10__ as a whole produces humorous writers and artists, such as the Irish Bernard Shaw, the ScottishPassage 8Psychologists take opposing views of how external rewards, from warm praise to cold cash, affect motivation and creativity. Behaviorists, who study the relation between actions and their consequences, argue that rewards can __1__ performance at work and school. Cognitive( 认识派的) researchers, who study various aspects of mental life, maintain that rewards often destroy creativity by encouraging dependence on __2__ and gifts from others.A coeducational(男女合校的) school offers children nothing less than a tree version of society in miniature(缩影). Boys and girls are given the 1 to get to know each other, to learn to live together from their earliest years. They are put in a position where they can compare themselves with each other in terms of 2 ability, athletic achievement and many of the extracurricular activities which are part of school life. What a practical 3 it is (to give just a small example) to be able to put on a school play in which the male parts will be taken by boys and the female parts by girls! What nonsense coeducation makes of the argument that boys are cleverer than girls or vice versa. When 4 , boys and girls are made to feel that they are a race apart. In a coeducational school, everything falls into its 5 place.The greatest contribution of coeducation is 6 the healthy attitude to life it encourages. Boys don’t grow up believing that women are 7 creatures. Girls don’t grow up imagining that men are romantic heroes. Years of living together at school remove illusions of this kind. The awkward stage of adolescence brings into sharp focus some of the physical and 8 problems involved in growing up. These can better be 9 in a coeducational environment. When the time comes for the pupils to leave school, they are fully prepared to 10 society as well-adjusted adults. They have already had years of experience in coping with many of the problems that face men and women.Passage 13The anthropologist (人类学家) Clifford Geertz defines culture as a “historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols by 1 of which men can communicate, perpetuate and develop their own knowledge about and attitudes towards life.”Why is it important that you 2 about other cultures? There are a number of reasons. Some may do it 3 because they find fascinating the different ways that people think, speak, act, evaluate, and communicate. But let me assume that you are a more pragmatic sort of person, and are 4 in the “cash value” of a course like this — apart, that is, from the grade you will receive at the end of it. What is a class like this good for? Let me make a couple of suggestions on how what you learn in this class may prove 5 to you in the future:Business: Geert Hofstede’s excellent book on culture is 6 not primarily out of academic theory, but out of his study of the practical problems faced by one particular modern corporation (IBM), which exists across national and cultural 7 . In the world we live in, understanding 8 in general and also specific individual cultures in particular can make the difference between success and failure in the global market and economy.Politics and Diplomacy: If your career goal involves anything that relates to international politics and diplomacy, then understanding other cultures is 9 .Neighbors: If none of these previous factors 10 you, then you can just look at this class as a lesson in good neighborliness in the global village.Passage 14A pioneering study into the effects of a mother’s fat intake during pregnancy on her child’s health when he or she grows up is being launched at the University of Southampton.The research will investigate whether the type and amount of fat a mother eats during pregnancy 1 the risk of heart disease, 2 high blood pressure, in her child when he or she reaches adulthood.Although the link between high fat diets and high blood pressure is well known, there has been 3 research into the connection between a woman’s diet and her child’s risk of hypertension (高血压).The study, which is 4 by the British Heart Foundation, is led by Dr Graham Burdge, British Heart Foundation Professor of Cardiovascular Science.The award of this 5 grant is part of a ￡3.5 million boost for heart research in the UK by the British Heart Foundation. The charity’s special grants are made to fund research into the causes, prevention, 6 and treatment of heart disease, the UK’s biggest killer.Dr Burdge says, “The type and amount of fat in our diet has 7 during the past 50 years. Pregnant women 8 the same diet as the rest of us, but we know very little about the 9 of these changes in dietary (饮食的) fat on the development and future health of their children. We hope that the 10 of this study will help to develop recommendations for pregnant women about how much fat they should eat and what types of fat they should avoid.”Passage 15Major retailers and car manufacturers have slashed (削减) their marketing budgets in the six months to October, 2008, as the financial crisis has taken its toll, while supermarkets have __1__advertising spending in a battle to prove that they offer the most ___2__ prices.According to new research undertaken for The Daily Telegraph by Nielsen Media Research, in the six months to September 30, 2008, Marks & Spencer’s advertising spend fell 20.3 pc to ￡25.3 m, __3___ with the same period in 2007.While the retailer has spent heavily on a campaign __4__ celebrities in the past two years, it is understood to be cutting back on celebrity spending in 2009. The retailer is, however, still the UK’s 25th largest spender on advertising, __5__ being at 17th place in the six months to September 30, 2007.Car manufacturers have also significantly ___6__ back on marketing spending, believed to be a result of the financial crisis. According to Nielsen, Ford spent ￡26.6m in the six months to September 30, 2008, down 21pc from the same period last year. Vauxhall also ___7__ spending by 15.6pc in the period to ￡26.5m.For supermarkets, however, a significant increase in advertising spending, it appears, is a ___8___ as they seek to woo (追求) increasingly price __9__ customers. The leading supermarkets have __10__ an aggressive price war in the past six months as consumers have been faced with news of higher food prices.Passage 16Teddy bears have been around since 1902. The teddy bear came to being when President Theodore Roosevelt refused to 1 a black bear held captive by his hunting party. Also worth noting is that President Roosevelt’s refusal to shoot this captive bear became a very popular political cartoon by Cliff Barryman.A Brooklyn shopkeeper was 2 by the cartoon. The shopkeeper then asked President Rosevelt for 3 to name a toy bear “Teddy”. Thus became the creation of the teddy bear.It is also worth 4 that the teddy bear was born in Germany between 1902 and 1903.The first teddy bears did not have cuddly faces or smiles, in fact, the first teddy bears had expressions which could best be described as 5 . Teddy bears were also quite stiff, the 6 arms and legs and soft, plush bodies came much later.Now teddy bears are still the number one item to give babies as their first toy, the prize to win your girl on your first date, and most 7 , the toy of choice for law enforcement to give to children in sad, unsafe situations to help them calm down and feel safe.The market for collectible teddy bears has seen significant 8 in the last several years. A collectible teddy bear is very different than the typical store bought teddy that you might give a child. The industry 9 collectible teddy bears as hard, not floppy, and fully jointed (meaning arms, legs, and head are moveable). The artists however, also determine collectibles. Steiff teddy bears and others have a very high collectible 10 .Passage 17Hungry prehistoric hunters, not climate change, drove elephants to extinction during the Pleistocene era, new research suggests.At least 12 kinds of elephants 1 to roam the African, Eurasian, and American continents. Today, only two 2 of elephants are left in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. One theory for this dramatic demise holds that rapid climate shifts at the end of the most recent major ice age, some 10,000 years ago, 3 vegetation and broke up habitats, causing the death of those unable to adapt to the new conditions. Another 4 blames prehistoric humans, whose improved weapons and hunting techniques allowed them to wipe out whole herds of elephants.To help 5 the debate, archaeologist Todd Surovell of the University of Wyoming, Laramie, and colleagues tested two assumptions. If humans caused the elephant and mammoth extinctions, Surovell reasoned, the timing of the die-offs in 6 regions should match human expansion into those regions. On the contrary, if the extinction was 7 to climate change, elephants should remain in regions 8 colonized by humans and would only begin to die off once climate change occurred.The team tested both theories by analyzing where and when elephants were killed. In all, the study included 41 archaeological sites on five continents. The researchers found that, as humans 9 out of Africa, they left a trail of dead elephants behind them. The creatures disappear from the fossil record of a region once it became colonized by humans. Modern elephants survived in refuges 10 to humans, such as tropical forests, says Surovell.Passage 18There have been claims that warming on Mars and Pluto are proof that the recent warming on Earth is caused by an increase in solar activity, and not by greenhouses gases. But we can say with 1 that, even if Mars, Pluto or any other planets have warmed in recent years, it is not due to 2 in solar activity.The Sun's energy output has not increased since direct 3 began in 1978. If increased solar output really was 4 , we should be seeing warming on all the planets and their moons, not just Mars and Pluto.Our solar system has eight planets, three dwarf planets and quite a few moons with at least a 5 atmosphere, and thus a climate of sorts. Their climates will be 6 by local factors such as orbital variations, changes in reflectance (反射率) and even 7 eruptions, so it would not be surprising if several planets and moons turn out to be warming at any one time.However, given that a year on Mars is 8 two Earth years long, and that a year on Pluto lasts for 248 Earth years, it is rather early to start 9 conclusions about long-term climate trends on the outer bodies of the Solar System.What do we know? Images of Mars suggest that between 1999 and 2005, some of the frozen carbon dioxide that 10 the south polar region turned into gas. This may be the result of the whole planet warming.。
知识与真理英语作文
知识与真理英语作文Title: The Intersection of Knowledge and Truth。
Knowledge and truth are two concepts that have fascinated philosophers, scientists, and thinkers throughout history. While often used interchangeably, they represent distinct yet interconnected aspects of human understanding. In this essay, we will delve into the complex relationship between knowledge and truth, exploring how they influence each other and shape our perceptions of the world.Firstly, it is essential to define these terms. Knowledge can be understood as the information, skills, and understanding acquired through experience or education. It encompasses facts, theories, and beliefs that are accepted as true within a particular context or community. On the other hand, truth refers to the correspondence between a statement or belief and objective reality. It is the accuracy or correctness of a claim, independent of humanperception or interpretation.One of the fundamental questions concerning knowledge and truth is whether knowledge can exist without truth or vice versa. Some argue that knowledge can be valid even if it does not align with objective truth. For example, scientific theories are constantly evolving, and what was once considered true may be revised or disproven in light of new evidence. However, proponents of this view contend that knowledge still serves a practical purpose in guiding human actions and understanding the world, even if it is subject to change.Conversely, others assert that genuine knowledge must be grounded in truth. They argue that knowledge divorced from truth is merely belief or opinion, lacking the reliability and validity necessary for genuine understanding. In this view, the pursuit of knowledge is inherently linked to the quest for truth, as seeking to understand the world requires aligning our beliefs with reality as closely as possible.Moreover, the nature of truth itself is a subject of philosophical inquiry. Some philosophies, such as pragmatism, emphasize the practical consequences of beliefs rather than their correspondence with an objective reality. According to this perspective, truth is what works, what proves useful or beneficial in achieving our goals, rather than an absolute, unchanging reality.In the realm of science, the pursuit of truth is often characterized by the scientific method, a systematic approach to inquiry based on empirical evidence and logical reasoning. Scientists formulate hypotheses, conduct experiments, and analyze data to test the validity of their theories. While scientific knowledge is provisional and subject to revision, it is continually refined in pursuit of a more accurate understanding of the natural world.However, even within the scientific community, debates persist about the nature of truth and the reliability of knowledge. The replication crisis, for instance, has raised concerns about the reproducibility of scientific findings and the prevalence of bias in research. Despite thesechallenges, the scientific method remains one of the most effective tools for uncovering truths about the universe.In addition to empirical evidence, other forms of knowledge, such as moral and aesthetic judgments, also play a role in shaping our understanding of the world. While these domains may not always lend themselves to empirical verification, they nevertheless influence our perceptions and actions.Furthermore, the social and cultural contexts in which knowledge is produced and disseminated cannot be overlooked. Power dynamics, ideological biases, and social norms canall shape the construction of knowledge and influence whatis accepted as truth within a given society. Recognizing these factors is crucial for fostering critical thinkingand promoting epistemic humility, the acknowledgment of the limits of our knowledge.In conclusion, the relationship between knowledge and truth is intricate and multifaceted. While knowledge serves as a means of understanding the world, its validity isultimately determined by its correspondence with truth. The pursuit of truth, whether through scientific inquiry, philosophical reflection, or everyday experience, is a fundamental aspect of human existence. By interrogating the intersection of knowledge and truth, we can deepen our understanding of the world and our place within it.。
广西省成人高等教育学士学位英语考试真题
广西省成人高等教育学士学位英语考试真题全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1广西省成人高等教育学士学位英语考试真题Section A: Vocabulary and Structure (10 points)Directions: There are 20 incomplete sentences in this section. For each sentence there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the ONE that best completes the sentence.1. The new manager has ______________ in fostering team spirit among the staff.A. been very successfulB. been very successfulC. very successfulD. successful very2. The immediate result of cutting down trees ______________ the number of birds in this forest.A. is that decreasingB. is the decreasing ofC. that is the decrease ofD. is the decrease in3. English, spoken fluently but with a foreign accent, is__________ an advantage in the job market as a whole.A. asB. soC. lessD. of4. They ______________ three hours discussing the problem yesterday.A. spentB. costC. tookD. paid5. Jimmy has changed so much that we can hardly recognize _______________.A. himB. heC. hisD. himselfSection B: Reading Comprehension (30 points)Directions: There are four readings in this section. After each reading, there are ten multiple-choice questions. Select the BEST answer for each question.Reading 1Have you ever heard of the concept of emotional intelligence? According to psychologist Daniel Goleman, emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and manage your own emotions, as well as to understand and influence the emotions of others. This concept has gained increasing attention in recent years, as researchers have found that emotional intelligence is a better predictor of success in life than IQ.1. The main idea of the passage is that emotional intelligence ______________.A. is more important than IQB. is a new conceptC. was developed by Daniel GolemanD. is difficult to measure2. What does the author mean by "understand and manage your own emotions"?A. Ignoring your emotionsB. Embracing your emotionsC. Controlling your emotionsD. Being unaffected by your emotionsReading 2In the 21st century, technology is advancing at an unprecedented rate. With the rise of artificial intelligence, robotics, and automation, many jobs that were once done by humans are now being done by machines. While this technology has the potential to make our lives easier, it also raises concerns about the future of work and the impact on employment.3. What is the main concern raised in the passage?A. The rise of artificial intelligenceB. The impact on employmentC. The potential of technologyD. The ease of our lives4. According to the passage, what jobs are now being done by machines?A. Jobs that require emotional intelligenceB. Jobs that require physical laborC. Jobs that require creativityD. Jobs that require social skillsReading 3Climate change is one of the most pressing issues of our time. The Earth's climate is rapidly changing due to human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation. This has led to rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and threats to ecosystems and biodiversity. It is crucial that we take action now to mitigate the effects of climate change.5. What is the main idea of the passage?A. Climate change is caused by human activitiesB. Climate change is a natural phenomenonC. Climate change is not a serious issueD. Climate change is irreversible6. According to the passage, what has led to rising temperatures?A. DeforestationB. Burning fossil fuelsC. Advances in technologyD. Protecting ecosystemsReading 4The world is becoming increasingly connected through globalization and the internet. This has led to greater cultural exchange, economic interconnectedness, and instant communication across borders. While globalization has brought many benefits, it has also raised concerns about the loss of cultural identity and the exploitation of developing countries.7. What is the main point of the passage?A. Globalization has led to greater cultural exchangeB. Globalization has raised concerns about cultural identityC. Globalization has only brought benefitsD. Globalization has led to instant communication8. According to the passage, what has globalization led to?A. Economic interconnectednessB. Loss of cultural identityC. Instant communicationD. Exploitation of developing countriesSection C: Cloze Test (10 points)Directions: There are ten blanks in the following passage. Fill in each blank with the word you think fits best.Climate change is a ________(9) issue that affects everyone on the planet. Rising temperatures, ________(10) weather events, and sea level rise are just some of the ________(11) of climate change. To ________(12) the effects of climate change, we need to reduce our carbon emissions and switch to renewable energy sources. Otherwise, the consequences ________(13) be severe for future ________(14).Section D: Writing (30 points)Directions: Write an essay of 300-400 words on the following topic.Topic: The Importance of Education in the 21st CenturyIn today's rapidly changing world, education plays a crucial role in shaping the future of individuals and societies. With technological advancements and globalization, the skills needed to succeed in the 21st century are constantly evolving. Education provides individuals with the knowledge, critical thinking skills, and adaptability needed to thrive in a rapidly changing world. Furthermore, education promotes social equality and economic development by providing individuals with opportunities for personal growth and advancement.In conclusion, education is essential for navigating the challenges of the 21st century and creating a more sustainable and inclusive society. It is through education that individuals can develop the skills and knowledge needed to address global issues, embrace diversity, and contribute to the betterment of society as a whole.篇2Adult Higher Education Bachelor's Degree English Examination in Guangxi ProvinceName: ____________________Date: __________________Part I Listening Comprehension (30 points)Section ADirections: In this section, you will hear ten short conversations between two speakers. At the end of each conversation, a question will be asked about what was said. The conversations and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a conversation and the question about it, read the four possible answers on your paper, and decide which one is the best answer to the question you have heard.1. A. She doesn't feel well. B. She likes the weather. C. She forgot her umbrella. D. She doesn't mind the rain.2. A. At 3:00. B. At 4:00. C. At 5:00. D. At 6:00.3. A. A computer. B. An e-book. C. A tablet. D. A smartphone.4. A. He’s busy. B. He’s thirsty. C. He’s confused. D. He’s tired.5. A. He likes both shirts. B. He prefers the green one. C. He doesn't like either shirt. D. He wants to buy both shirts.6. A. At a hotel. B. At a restaurant. C. At a bus stop. D. At a train station.7. A. In a library. B. In a bookstore. C. In a supermarket. D. In a cinema.8. A. Be less critical. B. Work harder. C. Be more patient. D. Have more fun.9. A. Two. B. Three. C. Four. D. Five.10. A. It's too expensive. B. It's too small. C. It's too far. D. It's too old.Section BDirections: In this section, you will hear two long conversations. At the end of each conversation, you will hear four questions. After you hear the conversation and the questions, read the four possible answers on your paper, and decide which one is the best answer to each question you have heard.Conversation One11. A. She’s moving out. B. She’s redecorating. C. She’s visiting a friend. D. She’s having a party.12. A. Four. B. Five. C. Six. D. Seven.13. A. English. B. Mathematics. C. History. D. Science.14. A. A journalist. B. A teacher. C. A doctor. D. A businessperson.Conversation Two15. A. At a cafe. B. At a library. C. At a bookstore. D. At a concert.16. A. Buying a book. B. Renting a movie. C. Borrowing a magazine. D. Returning a CD.17. A. Going to the theatre. B. Going to a museum. C. Going to the cinema. D. Going to a gallery.18. A. She’s busy. B. She’s tired. C. She’s excited. D. She’s nervous.Part II Vocabulary and Structure (30 points)Directions: There are thirty incomplete sentences in this part. For each sentence, there are four possible answers marked A, B, C, and D. Choose the one that best completes the sentence.19. The new library, ____ is reported to have cost several million dollars, has been a subject of much debate.A. thatB. itC. whatD. which20. I’d rather you ____ me about the decision earlier.A. have toldB. toldC. tellD. telling21. I am looking for a book ____ was published by Penguin Classics.A. whichB. thatC. whoD. whom22. I am not sure whether I’ll be able ____ attend the party next week.A. toB. onC. inD. at23. The young boy ____ in the corner is my neighbor’s son.A. standingB. standsC. to standD. stoodPart III Reading Comprehension (40 points)Directions: There are four passages in this part. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them, there are four choices. Choose the one that you think is the correct answer.Passage OneQuestions 24-27 are based on the following passage.There is a growing trend in the workplace in which more employees are working remotely from home. This shift in work culture is largely due to advances in technology and theavailability of tools that enable communication and collaboration from anywhere. Companies are finding that allowing employees to work from home can result in increased productivity and happier employees. This flexibility is particularly attractive to parents who are choosing to work remotely to better balance work and family life.24. According to the passage, why are more employees working remotely from home?A. Due to a lack of jobs in the market.B. Because companies are forcing them to.C. Because of technological advancements.D. Because they prefer working from home.25. What does the passage say is a result of allowing employees to work from home?A. Decreased productivity.B. Unhappy employees.C. Increased productivity.D. Unbalanced work-life.26. Who does the passage mention as finding remote work particularly attractive?A. Managers.B. Single people.C. Parents.D. Students.27. What is the main idea of the passage?A. The benefits of working from home.B. The disadvantages of remote work.C. The challenges of balancing work and family life.D. The history of remote work.Passage TwoQuestions 28-31 are based on the following passage.Traveling is often seen as a way to escape the stresses of everyday life, but it can also be a source of stress for some people. The challenges of navigating a new place, dealing with language barriers, and adapting to different cultural norms can be overwhelming. However, the benefits of traveling are numerous, including the opportunity to learn about differentcultures, try new foods, and meet new people. It’s important to find a balance between embracing the unknown and taking care of your mental and physical well-being when traveling.28. According to the passage, what are the challenges of traveling?A. Trying new foods.B. Meeting new people.C. Language barriers.D. Adapting to different cultural norms.29. What are the benefits of traveling mentioned in the passage?A. Navigating a new place.B. Dealing with language barriers.C. Trying new foods.D. Learning about different cultures.30. What does the passage recommend when traveling?A. Avoiding new places.B. Sticking to your comfort zone.C. Embracing the unknown.D. Ignoring cultural norms.31. What is the main idea of the passage?A. The challenges of traveling.B. The benefits of traveling.C. How to navigate a new place.D. How to deal with language barriers.Passage ThreeQuestions 32-35 are based on the following passage.The tourism industry has seen a significant growth in recent years, with more people choosing to travel for leisure and recreation. This increase in travel has had both positive and negative impacts on destinations. While tourism can bring economic benefits to local communities, it can also lead to issues such as overcrowding, pollution, and cultural commodification. Sustainable tourism practices aim to minimize the negative impacts of tourism on the environment and local communities, while still providing enjoyable and authentic experiences for travelers.32. What has seen significant growth in recent years?A. The airline industry.B. The tourism industry.C. The technology industry.D. The fashion industry.33. What are some negative impacts of tourism mentioned in the passage?A. Economic benefits.B. Overcrowding.C. Pollution.D. Cultural commodification.34. What do sustainable tourism practices aim to do?A. Maximize negative impacts.B. Minimize negative impacts.C. Encourage overcrowding.D. Promote pollution.35. What is the main idea of the passage?A. The economic benefits of tourism.B. The negative impacts of tourism.C. Sustainable tourism practices.D. The growth of the tourism industry.Passage FourQuestions 36-40 are based on the following passage.Climate change is a pressing issue that affects people all over the world. Increased temperatures, more frequent natural disasters, and rising sea levels are just some of the impacts of climate change. While individual actions can help mitigate the eff ects of climate change, it’s important for governments and industries to take action as well. Implementing policies to reduce carbon emissions, investing in renewable energy sources, and protecting natural habitats are all crucial steps in combating climate change.36. What is a pressing issue that affects people all over the world?A. Climate change.B. Economic inequality.C. Political unrest.D. Technological advancements.37. What are some impacts of climate change mentioned in the passage?A. Decreased temperatures.B. Less frequent natural disasters.C. Rising sea levels.D. Increased rainfall.38. What is important for governments and industries to do in the fight against climate change?A. Nothing.B. Take individual actions.C. Implement policies to reduce carbon emissions.D. Embrace natural habitats.39. What are crucial steps in combating climate change listed in the passage?A. Investing in fossil fuels.B. Protecting natural habitats.C. Increasing carbon emissions.D. Ignoring climate change.40. What is the main idea of the passage?A. The impacts of climate change.B. The causes of climate change.C. Solutions to climate change.D. The history of climate change.Part IV Writing (20 points)Directions: For this part, you are required to write an essay on the topic of "The Importance of Education in Today's Society". In your essay, you should discuss the role of education in personal growth, career development, and societal progress. Your essay should be around 300 words.--This is a sample question paper for the Adult Higher Education Bachelor's Degree English Examination in Guangxi Province. The paper covers various skills such as listening comprehension, vocabulary and structure, readingcomprehension, and writing. Good luck with your studies and preparation for the exam!篇3Title: Sample Questions for Adult Higher Education Bachelor's Degree English Exam in Guangxi ProvinceIntroduction:The adult higher education bachelor's degree English exam in Guangxi Province is an important assessment for students pursuing further education or career advancement. In this document, we will provide a series of sample questions to help students prepare for the exam.Sample Questions:Part 1: Reading ComprehensionRead the following passage and answer the questions that follow:Passage:Global warming is a serious environmental issue that is impacting our planet in various ways. The Earth's temperature is rising at an alarming rate due to human activities such asdeforestation and the burning of fossil fuels. This has led to more frequent and severe weather events, melting ice caps, and rising sea levels.Questions:1. What is global warming?2. What are the two main causes of global warming mentioned in the passage?3. List two consequences of global warming.Part 2: Listening ComprehensionListen to the following audio clip and answer the questions:Audio clip:You will hear a conversation between two students discussing their plans for the upcoming holiday break.Questions:1. Where does the girl plan to go for the holiday break?2. What does the boy plan to do during the holiday break?Part 3: WritingWrite a 200-word essay on the following topic: "The Importance of Education in Today's Society." In your essay, discuss why education is important, how it benefits individuals and society as a whole, and what role it plays in shaping the future.Part 4: SpeakingIn this section, you will be given a topic to discuss with the examiner. Prepare a short speech on the topic "The Impact of Technology on Modern Society." You will have 2 minutes to prepare your speech and 3 minutes to present it to the examiner.Conclusion:These sample questions are designed to help students prepare for the adult higher education bachelor's degree English exam in Guangxi Province. By practicing these types of questions, students can improve their reading, listening, writing, and speaking skills and increase their chances of success on the exam. Good luck!。
2024年四月00015英语二内部押题
2024年四月00015英语二内部押题全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1【2024 April 00015 English II Internal Prediction】Introduction:As we enter the year 2024, students across the country are preparing for the English II exam in April. To help you better understand the potential topics and questions that may appear on the exam, we have compiled a list of internal predictions for the upcoming test. By reviewing these predictions and familiarizing yourself with the key themes and concepts, you can enhance your chances of success on exam day.1. Literature Analysis:One of the most common question types on the English II exam is the analysis of literature excerpts. Therefore, it is essential to review key literary works and familiarize yourself with the techniques and themes commonly used in literature. Some potential works that may appear on the exam include Shakespeare's plays, classic novels such as "Pride and Prejudice," and modern works like "To Kill a Mockingbird."2. Argumentative Writing:Another key component of the English II exam is argumentative writing. It is crucial to practice constructingwell-reasoned arguments and supporting them with evidence from the text. Topics for argumentative essays may revolve around social issues, current events, or ethical dilemmas. Be prepared to take a stance on a controversial topic and defend your position with strong evidence and logical reasoning.3. Vocabulary and Grammar:In addition to literary analysis and argumentative writing, the English II exam also tests students on their vocabulary and grammar skills. Be sure to review common vocabulary words, idiomatic expressions, and grammatical rules to ensure that you can effectively communicate your ideas in writing. Pay special attention to commonly confused words and punctuation rules to avoid errors in your essays.4. Reading Comprehension:Finally, the English II exam will assess your ability to understand and interpret complex texts. Practice reading passages from a variety of genres and disciplines to improve your reading comprehension skills. Be prepared to answerquestions about the main ideas, details, and themes of the text, as well as analyze the author's purpose and tone.Conclusion:By focusing on these key areas of study, you can enhance your preparation for the 2024 April 00015 English II exam. Remember to practice writing essays, analyzing literature, and improving your vocabulary and grammar skills to maximize your chances of success on exam day. Good luck!篇2Internal Predicted Questions for April 00015 English II in 2024Introduction:As educators continue to innovate and improve standardized testing, the importance of preparing students for these assessments has become increasingly evident. To assist students in reaching their full potential on the English II exam in April 00015, the following predicted questions have been compiled based on historical trends and common themes in English language arts curriculum.Section 1: Reading Comprehension1. What is the central idea of the passage "The Effects of Climate Change on Polar Bear Populations"?2. In "The Glass Menagerie," how does the character of Laura embody the theme of isolation and loneliness?3. Explain the use of symbolism in the poem "The Road Not Taken" by Robert Frost.4. Analyze the author's use of figurative language in the excerpt from "To Kill a Mockingbird."5. How does the setting of a story influence the characters' actions and motivations in "The Great Gatsby"?Section 2: Writing Skills1. Describe a time when you had to overcome a difficult obstacle and how it shaped your character.2. Write an argumentative essay discussing the impact of technology on interpersonal relationships.3. Create a persuasive speech advocating for stricter environmental policies to combat climate change.4. Write a narrative essay recounting a memorable experience that taught you an important life lesson.5. Compose an expository essay analyzing the role of education in shaping society's values and beliefs.Conclusion:By familiarizing themselves with the types of questions they may encounter on the English II exam in April 00015, students can better prepare for success. These predicted questions cover a range of literary genres and writing styles, allowing students to hone their reading comprehension skills and writing abilities. Good luck to all students as they prepare for this important assessment!篇3【2024年四月00015英语二内部押题】The English Language Proficiency Test (ELPT) is a standardized test used to assess the English language skills of non-native English speakers. It is administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS) and is used by colleges, universities, and employers as a measure of an individual's English language proficiency.The ELPT consists of four sections: Reading, Writing, Listening, and Speaking. Each section is designed to assess a different aspect of the test-taker's English language skills. TheReading section evaluates the test-taker's ability to understand written English, while the Writing section assesses their ability to write in English. The Listening section tests the test-taker's ability to understand spoken English, and the Speaking section evaluates their ability to speak English fluently and coherently.In order to prepare for the ELPT, test-takers should practice reading and writing in English, listen to English language podcasts and music, and engage in conversations with native English speakers. They should also familiarize themselves with the format of the test and take practice tests to build their confidence and improve their performance.Taking the ELPT can open up a world of opportunities for non-native English speakers. It can help them gain admission to English-speaking universities, qualify for English-speaking jobs, and improve their overall communication skills. By mastering the English language, individuals can enhance their academic and professional prospects and connect with people from all around the world.In conclusion, the ELPT is an essential tool for non-native English speakers looking to improve their English language skills. By preparing diligently and taking the test seriously, individualscan showcase their proficiency in English and unlock a myriad of opportunities for personal and professional growth.。
On Certainty
On Certainty*Wolfgang SpohnCertainty is an epistemic quality or, as philosophers are used to say, an epistemic modality. It is not easily accounted for as such; but things get even more complicated due to the fact that certainty is often confused with other epistemic modalities. Since I cannot discuss here the quite sophisticated technical treatments of certainty, I focus on disentangling certainty from and relating it to other epistemic modalities; this is the more important business for getting a hold on certainty. In doing so, I am not presenting any original view or thesis; my view or evaluation implicitly shows just in my selection from material which is familiar in more formally orientied analytic philosophy, but is less known, I think, outside philosophy (and AI).1Certainty is most appropriately equated with unrevisability or infallibility. This relation will be one main focus of my talk. But a more important role in the history of philosophy was played by two other modalities, apriority and analyticity, the first of which is clearly epistemic and the second of which may be so taken. Certainty must be strictly distinguished from both which in turn only partly capture the various uses of the notion of necessity. A prominent instance of confusion is Quine's famous attack on the notion of analyticity which ended up with the conclusion, and confusion in my view, that the only feasible sense which can be given to it is centrality, meaning something like "hardly revisable".2So, my other main focus is to address these distinctions.* Vortrag auf dem 13. Weltkongreß für Soziologie …Contested Boundaries and Shifting Solidarities“ in Bielefeld im Juli 1994.1 In Artificial Intelligence as well great efforts are devoted to the modelling of epistemic states; some references are given below. In fact, philosophy has one of its most fruitful interdisciplinary exchanges in this area.2 Cf. Quine (1951), p. 39ff.Let me start with two basic observations. First, the logical form of the notion of certainty is that it is at least a three-place relation: a is certain of p at t - where a is a subject capable of epistemic atttitudes, t is a time, and p is a proposition or whatever you prefer to take as an object of belief; the nature of these objects is utterly problematic and beyond the scope of my talk.3Secondly, certainty obviously comes in degrees; people are more or less certain and more certain of some things than of others. Thus, certainty is in fact a four-place relation: a is certain of p at t to the degree r. Thus stated, it is tantamount to the most basic epistemological notion, namely: a believes p at t to the degree r. If "certain" behaves like most adjectives, then p is plainly certain for a subject if p is more certain than most other things; compare this with "x is a tall elephant just if x is an elephant taller than most elephants". However, this is not the plain certainty philosophers always talk about; their interest was in absolute certainty, as it was usually emphasized, or in maximal certainty, to express it in terms of degrees.So, the primary theoretical task is to account for these degrees of certainty and belief. One important theoretical connection is that these degrees manifest themselves in our decisions and actions; we base our actions more firmly on our firmer beliefs and less on our lesser certainties. For our present concern, however, this is the less important connection. One reason for this is that this is, so to speak, an impure manifestation of the degrees of belief; they therein mesh with the degrees of our desires or volitional attitudes in general in a very complicated fashion. The other reason is that the only well-working theoretical model of this complicated meshing is decision theory according to which degrees of belief are probabilities.4 Other models of degrees of belief thus drop out of focus because they are not well embedded in the theory of practical reasoning.But such other models exist, as will become clear when we look at the other theoretical connection: degrees of belief play a crucial role in the dynamics of belief. We continuously revise our beliefs or, more generally, change our epistemic state in the light of new evidence or information; this continuous change is described in the3 Philosophers have burdened propositions with multiple roles, as truth bearers, as sentence meanings, as objects of propositional attitudes. The clearer it became that no entity can play all these roles, the unclearer it became how to characterize for each role the approriate entities.4 The most widely used version of decision theory was developed by Savage (1954). Philosophers became acquainted to decision theory by Jeffrey (1965). For a brief comparison of basic decision theoretic models cf. Spohn (1978), ch. 2.dynamics of belief. However, there is no workable account of this dynamics in terms of ungraded belief5; only if one takes belief as graded, one can state reasonable general laws of epistemic change. So, what is changed in the light of evidence is in fact the assignment of degrees of belief or certainty to the various propositions.The most prominent model of epistemic change, of course, is the probabilistic one. Here, epistemic states are represented as probability measures (in the mathematical sense).The crucial point is that conditional probabilities can be defined relative to a probability measure. The dynamic law then basically takes the form of a rule of conditionalization: my new probability for a given proposition is just my old probability for it conditional on the evidence gathered in between.6 Indeed, each account of epistemic change must provide analogous notions of conditional epistemic states and of conditionalization.In the meantime, there exist various alternatives to the probabilistic model and a vast amount of literature about them. The so-called AGM approach to belief revision is perhaps the most carefully worked out one7; there only ordinal degrees of belief are assumed. A bolder and more powerful approach is given by the theory of so-called ranking functions or natural (or ordinal) conditional functions.8In AI two other theories are even more prominent: the Dempster-Shafer theory of belief functions9and fuzzy logic10 (though the latter is in my view misapplied to the epistemic matters under discussion). And more could be mentioned; the field is, despite the enormous amount of work, still in an experimental state, so to speak.115 Cf. Spohn (1988), sect. 2.6 More general rules of probabilistic belief change have been developed. The two most prominent ones are Jeffrey's generalized conditionalization (cf. Jeffrey 1965, ch. 11) and the rule of maximizing entropy or of minimizing relative entropy (cf. Hunter 1991).7 Cf. Alchourrón et al. (1985), Gärdenfors (1988), and Gärdenfors and Rott (1994).8 Cf. Spohn (1988) and (1990) and Goldszmidt and Pearl (1992).9 Cf. Shafer (1976), (1990), and (1992).10 Cf. Dubois and Prade (1988).11 There have been predecessors, of course. Dempster (1967), Shackle (1969), Rescher (1976), and Cohen (1977) perhaps deserve most to be mentioned. Shafer (1978) even mentions J. Bernoulli and J.H. Lambert as early predecessors in the 18th century.Revisability or fallibility12are clearly dynamical notions which are explicable precisely by such theories. Certainty, however, is no less a dynamical notion. A belief is the more certain, the harder it is to revise; it is certain in the vague and loose everyday sense if it is hard to revise; and it is certain in the strict philosophical sense if it is not revisable at all. All these explanations adopt a precise meaning only within the theories of epistemic change referred to, and a different meaning, at that, in different theories. The vague notion of hard revisability allows of a spectrum of exactifications; but the strict notion of unrevisability or absolute certainty receives a unique explication in each theory of epistemic change. Consider the most familiar theory, probability theory: there, a proposition is absolutely certain or unrevisable if and only if it has probability 1, because according to each probabilistic rule of epistemic change a proposition keeps probability 1 forever once it has received probability 1. Thus, a theory of certainty can be developed within probability theory; it is in fact quite simple. Analogous assertions hold for the other theories of epistemic change.So, which propositions are certain? Well, I said that certainty is a subject-relative notion; propositions which are certain for you may be uncertain for me and vice versa; this depends on the subjective epistemic states and their dynamics. So far, the only propositions which turn out to be certain for everyone according to the above-mentioned theories of epistemic change are the logically true ones. Therefore the question arises whether there are more propositions which everyone should or may reasonably take as certain. But note that we are entering a new field with this question. We are no longer explicating certainty, as we have done so far, but we are looking for further rationality constraints on certainty.A first attempt to answer the question may be to say that the propositions to be taken as certain are the necessary propositions. But this answer is not good enough, since there are many kinds of necessity. There is logical necessity, the strictest kind of necessity, for which the answer is true. There is mathematical necessity the nature of which is much discussed - does it reduce to logical necessity, is it a kind of linguistic necessity or a kind of necessity sui generis? - to which the answer applies as well.13 But there are also various kinds of material necessity: causal necessity,12 Here I would like to mention the markedly different approach by Levi (1980) who strictly di-stinguishes between fallibility and revisability.13 By thus declaring mathematical propositions as certain or indubitable, I do not want to deny that there is mathematical doubt. But mathematical doubt is not only beyond the scope of thephysical necessity, historical necessity14,and so on, and the strictest of them, metaphysical necessity15. For each of them the answer is certainly not true. We may doubt or even disbelieve propositions which are necessary in one of these senses, we may discover them, we may find reasons for rejecting them again, and so on. So, these kinds of necessary propositions should not be taken as certain.Hence, the first attempt was not yet specific enough. But it headed into the right direction. Certainty itself may be viewed as a kind of epistemic necessity; thus the kind of necessity which is characteristic of propositions reasonably to be held to be certain is presumably an epistemic one as well. Which kinds of epistemic necessity are there?There are mainly two candidates. Since Kant has made vital use of the analy-tic/synthetic and of the a priori/a posteriori distinction in his epistemological turn of metaphysics, these distinctions have remained in the center of theoretical philosophy and have caused a lot of concern and confusion.To take up analyticity first: The common explanation is that analytic sentences are sentences which are true only by virtue of the meaning of the expressions and the syntactic constructions from which they are built. Analytic truths are thus known by fully competent speakers simply in virtue of their knowledge of language. And come what may, they cannot turn out false. The meanings may change, of course, and the syntactic forms when associated with the new meanings may yield falsehoods. But then you have, in a way, different sentences in a new language; it is not the old analyticities which would thereby turn false. In this sense, analytic sentences are epistemically necessary.The explanation given is so common because it is vague. What is truth in virtue of meaning alone? In order to render this precise, nothing less than a fulltheories I am referring to; I know of no theory at all which would be able to adequately cope with it.14 The simplest account fo these necessities is this: Something is causally (physically, historically) necessary just if it is logically entailed by the causal (physical, historic) laws. Thus, insofar there are no historic laws, there are no historical necessities (except the logical ones). Whether this simple account is adequate in each case is doubtful. It may be better, for instance, to proceed conversely and explain causal laws in terms of causal necessity; cf., e.g., von Fraassen (1989) and Spohn (1993).15 Which has been forcefully reintroduced into the current philosophical discussion by Kripke (1972), among others.meaning theory is required. Indeed, the search for an explication of analyticity was an important motive in developing various and ever more sophisticated meaning theories. Thus, in a way, there are today as many concepts of analyticity as there are theories of meaning.16The state of the notion of apriority is still worse. The common explanation is that a proposition is a priori known by a subject if the subject knows it prior to any experience. From this cautious, subject-relative explanation it needs a substantive step to argue that the same propositions are a priori known by all subjects; these propositions may then be called a priori by themselves. If propositions a priori are known prior to any experience, then no experience can prove them to be false; they are to be believed come what may. In this sense, propositions a priori are again epistemically necessary.This explanation of apriority is still vaguer than that of analyticity. Certainly, the philosophical community was also misled by the logical empiricists' forcefully doing away with apriority by simply identifying it, contra Kant, with analyticity. This misunderstanding has been cleared up cleared up for over 20 years17, and since the notion of apriority is widely and freely used again. However, its use is, to my knowledge, hardly backed up by any theory and stays on a rather insecure informal level.18This is why I said it would be worse off than the notion of analyticity.There is, however, a theoretical framework which in my view improves upon the situation. The part of the theory of meaning which is relevant to an account of analyticity is referential semantics, i.e. that part which is concerned with reference and truth. It has received its most powerful and up-to-date format in the so-called character theory of David Kaplan.19 Kaplan wanted it to keep separate from epistemology, but Robert Stalnaker has given it an explicitly epistemological16 Quine (1960) tries to satisfy us with ersatz concepts like stimulus meaning and stimulus analyticity. Putnam had influential, though changing views on the matter; see Putnam (1975), ch.2 and 12. Lewis (1969) is ultimately an attempt to reestablish the notion of analyticity. And so on; the list could be continued almost indefinitely.17 Due to Kripke (1972) who made very clear that analyticity, metaphysical necessity, and apriority are three different notions and that the latter two are in fact independent, since there are clear cases of necessities a posteriori and of contingencies a priori.18 Cf., e.g., Putnam (1983), ch. 6 and 7, Kitcher (1980) or Casullo (1988).19 Cf. Kaplan (1977) and (1989) and Lewis (1980).reinterpretation.20Given this reinterpretation, the theory is capable not only of explicating metaphysical necessity and analyticity, but also of analyzing apriority.21 It thus provides a framework for studying not only apriority, but also its relation to other central modal notions. In this it is unrivaled, as far as I know, and that is why I am mentioning it here.According to these explications, analyticity is a stronger notion than apriority.22There is, however, a further difference. Analyticity is a communal notion applying to a given language as spoken by a given linguistic community, whereas apriority is rather a subjective notion applying to the propositions or thought contents entertained by a given epistemic subject.23 This difference is relevant here because the truths which are analytic on the communal level need not be a priori known on the subjective level. This is so because knowledge of analytic truths requires full semantic competence in a strong sense which we may well fail to satisfy without ceasing to count as members of our linguistic community.24Thus, analytic truths are not necessarily subjectively certain; only a priori truths taken at the subjective level are certain.This brings us back to our topic. I said which propositions a subject takes as certain is up to her or him and depends on her or his dynamics of epistemic states. But it is certainly a rationality postulate on this dynamics that all and only propositions a priori are taken to be certain, i.e.unrevisable. On the one hand, there will never arise a need to revise the belief in an a priori proposition because it is20 Cf. Stalnaker (1978) and (1987). However, Stalnaker did not conceive of himself as reinterpreting Kaplan; he intended just different things with a formal apparatus similar to Kaplan's. The relation between Kaplan and Stalnaker is reconstructed in Haas-Spohn (1994).21 Technically speaking, metaphysical necessity is truth at the actual context and all indices, apriority is truth at all contexts, and analyticity is truth at all contexts and indices. Thus, analyticity is the strongest notion and comes to a priori necessity, as Kripke (1972), p. 264, has already claimed. The significance of these explications is, however, revealed only by studying the whole framework. Cf. Haas-Spohn (1994), sect. 1.2.22 The standard example for a sentence which is a priori, but not analytic is "I exist now". Whether any of Kant's arguments for his synthetic truths a priori can be made good is questionable.23 One may also make sense of a linguistic or communal a priori, but the subjective one is certainly the primary notion. For a way to account for the communal as well as for the subjective level within the framework of Kaplan and Stalnaker see Haas-Spohn (1994), section 3.9. Of course, my earlier claim about the relative strength of analyticity and apriority holds only when both notions are taken at the same level.24 This is forcefully argued by Burge (1979) who builds his far-reaching doctrine of anti-individualism on this fact.independent from any information, evidence, or experience. On the other hand, there may always arise the need to revise the belief in an a posteriori proposition because it is dependent on information and adopted only after some experience which may have been misleading, which may be amended or superseded by further evidence; it may therefore be disadvantageous to stick to it come what may. Indeed, this postulate is just a generalized version of the regularity axiom of Carnap's inductive logic25 which is widely held to be reasonable. But note that it is only this rationality postulate which positively connects the two parts of my talk. As far as the analysis of certainty is concerned, the second part was only negatively connected with the first part, namely by the warning that the notions discussed in the second part be not confused with certainty.Much more could be said about certainty, but hardly more in 20 minutes. I hope what I said was not already too dense for this brief time. Thank you for your attention!ReferencesAlchourrón, C.E., P. Gärdenfors, D. Makinson (1985), "On the Logic of Theory Change: Partial Meet Functions for Contraction and Revision", Journal of Symbolic Logic 50, 510-530 Burge, T. (1979), "Individualism and the Mental", in: P.A. French, T.E. Uehling jr., H.K.Wettstein (eds.), Midwest Studies in Philosophy IV, Metaphysics, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp. 73-121Carnap, R. (1971), "A Basic System of Inductive Logic, Part I", in: R. Carnap, R.C. Jeffrey (eds.), Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability , Vol. I, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 33-165Casullo, A. (1988), "Revisability, Reliabilism, and A Priori Knowledge", Philosophy and Penomenological Research 49, 187-213Cohen, L.J., (1977), The Probable and the Provable, Clarendon Press, OxfordDempster, A.P. (1967), "Upper and Lower Probabilities Induced by a Multivalued Mapping", Annals of Mathematical Statistics 38,325-33925 Cf. Carnap (1971), sect. 7. Since Carnap's axiom referred to logically true or analytic propositions, whereas my postulate refers only to a priori propositions, I have slightly generalized Carnap's axiom, in a way Carnap would have agreed to if he had had an independent notion of apriority.Dubois, D., H. Prade (1988), Possibility Theory. An Approach to the Computerized Processing of Uncertainty, Plenum Press, New Yorkvan Fraassen, B.C. (1989), Laws and Symmetry, Oxford University Press, OxfordGärdenfors, P. (1988), Knowledge in Flux, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.Gärdenfors, P., H. Rott (1994), "Belief Revision", in: D.M. Gabbay, C.J. Hogger, J.A. Robinson (eds.), Handbook of Logic in AI and Logic Programming. Vol. IV: Epistemic and Temproal Reasoning, Oxford University Press, forthcomingGoldszmidt, M., J. Pearl (1992), "Rank-Based Systems: A Simple Approach to Belief Revision, Belief Update, and Reasoning About Evidence and Actions", Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Cambridge, Mass.Haas-Spohn, U. (1994), Versteckte Indexikalität und subjektive Bedeutung, Dissertation, TübingenHunter, D. (1991), "Maximum Entropy Updating and Conditionalization", in: W. Spohn, B.C. van Fraassen, B. Skyrms (eds.), Existence and Explanation. Essays in Honor of Karel Lambert, Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 45-57Jeffrey, R.C. (1965), The Logic of Decision, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2. Aufl. 1983Kaplan, D. (1977), "Demonstratives", in: J. Almog, J. Perry, H. Wettstein (eds.), Themes from Kaplan, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1989, pp. 481-563Kaplan, D. (1989), "Afterthoughts", in: J. Almog, J. Perry, H. Wettstein (eds.), Themes from Kaplan, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 565-614Kitcher, P. (1980), "A Priori Knowledge", The Philosophical Review 89, 3-23Kripke, S.A. (1972), "Naming and Necessity", in: D. Davidson, G. Harman (eds.), Semantics of Natural Language, Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 253-355, 763-769Levi, I. (1980), The Enterprise of Knowledge. An Essay on Knowledge, Credal Probability, and Chance, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.Lewis, D. (1969), Convention: A Philosophical Study, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.Lewis, D. (1980), "A Subjectivist's Guide to Objective Chance", in R.C. Jeffrey (ed.), Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability, Vol. II, University of California Press,Los Angeles, pp. 263-293Putnam, H. (1975), Mind, Language, and Reality. Philosophical Papers, Vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, CambridgePutnam, H. (1983), Realism and Reason. Philosophical Papers, Vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, CambridgeQuine, W.V.O. (1951), "Two Dogmas of Empiricism", Philosophical Review 60, 20-43Quine, W.V.O. (1960), Word and Object, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.Rescher, N. (1976), Plausible Reasoning, Van Gorcum, AssenSavage, L.J. (1954), The Foundations of Statistics, Wiley, New York10Shackle, G.L.S. (1969), Decision, Order, and Time in Human Affairs, Cambridge University Press, CambridgeShafer, G. (1976), A Mathematical Theory of Evidence, Princeton University Press, Princeton: Shafer, G. (1978), "Non-Additive Probabilities in the Work of Bernoulli and Lambert", Archive for the History of Exact Sciences 19, 309-370Shafer, G. (1990), "Perspectives on the Theory and Practice of Belief Functions", International Journal of Approximate Reasoning 4, 323-362Shafer, G. (1992), "Rejoinders to Comments on 'Perspectives on the Theory and Practice of Belief Functions'", International Journal of Approximate Reasoning 6, 445-480Spohn, W. (1978), Grundlagen der Entscheidungstheorie, Scriptor, Kronberg/Ts.Spohn, W. (1988), "Ordinal Conditional Functions. A Dynamic Theory of Epistemic States", in: W.L. Harper, B. Skyrms (eds.), Causation in Decision, Belief Change, and Statistics, Vol.II, Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 105-134Spohn, W. (1990), "A General Non-Probabilistic Theory of Inductive Reasoning", in: R.D.Shachter, T.S. Levitt, J. Lemmer, L.N. Kanal (eds..), Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence 4, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 149-158Spohn, W. (1993), "Causal Laws are Objectifications of Inductive Schemes", in: J. Dubucs (Hg.), Philosophy of Probability, Kluwer, Dordrecht 1993, pp. 223-252Stalnaker, R.C. (1978), "Assertion", in: P. Cole (ed.), Syntax and Semantics Vol. 9: Pragmatics, Academic Press, New York, pp. 315-332Stalnaker, Robert C. (1987), "Belief Attribution and Context", in: R. Grimm, D. Merrill (eds.), Contents of Thought, Tucson, pp. 140-156。
证据的本质英语作文
证据的本质英语作文Title: The Essence of Evidence。
Evidence is the cornerstone of rational inquiry and the foundation upon which justice and truth are established.Its essence lies in its ability to provide support or justification for beliefs, claims, or hypotheses. In the realm of academia, law, science, and everyday discourse, evidence serves as the currency of credibility, guiding decisions and shaping outcomes. In this essay, we delveinto the nature of evidence, exploring its forms, functions, and significance.At its core, evidence is any information that can be used to demonstrate the truth or falsehood of a statement.It encompasses a wide array of sources, including empirical data, testimonies, documents, artifacts, and logical reasoning. The credibility and reliability of evidence are paramount, as they determine its effectiveness in substantiating arguments or conclusions.In legal contexts, evidence plays a pivotal role in establishing the guilt or innocence of a defendant. Admissible evidence must meet certain criteria, such as relevance, reliability, and authenticity. Witness testimonies, forensic analysis, and documentary evidence are commonly utilized to construct a compelling case. The weight assigned to different types of evidence varies, with direct evidence carrying more probative value than circumstantial evidence.In scientific inquiry, evidence serves as the basis for validating hypotheses and theories. Empirical evidence derived from experiments, observations, and measurements enables researchers to draw conclusions about the natural world. The scientific method relies on the systematic gathering and analysis of evidence to test hypotheses rigorously. Peer review ensures that scientific findings are subjected to scrutiny by experts in the field, enhancing the reliability and credibility of the evidence.In everyday discourse, evidence is employed to supportarguments, persuade others, and make informed decisions. Whether debating political issues, evaluating product claims, or assessing historical events, individuals rely on evidence to substantiate their viewpoints. Criticalthinking skills are essential for discerning reliable evidence from misinformation or propaganda.The significance of evidence extends beyond its instrumental value in specific contexts. It serves as a bulwark against ignorance, prejudice, and deception, fostering intellectual integrity and accountability. Evidence-based reasoning promotes rational discourse and informed decision-making, enhancing the collective pursuit of truth and justice.However, the interpretation of evidence is not always straightforward, as biases, assumptions, and limitations can influence perception. Confirmation bias, for example, predisposes individuals to seek out evidence that confirms their preexisting beliefs while disregarding contradictory information. Skepticism and skepticism are essential tools for mitigating these cognitive biases, fostering a morenuanced and objective appraisal of evidence.Moreover, the absence of evidence does not necessarily imply the evidence of absence. Some phenomena may elude detection or defy empirical verification due totechnological constraints or epistemic limitations. In such cases, researchers must exercise caution in drawing conclusions and remain open to revising their hypotheses in light of new evidence.In conclusion, evidence serves as the bedrock ofrational inquiry and the linchpin of justice and truth. Its multifaceted nature encompasses empirical data, testimonies, documents, and logical reasoning, which are utilized across various domains, including law, science, and everyday discourse. The credibility, reliability, and interpretation of evidence are critical considerations that shape its efficacy in substantiating claims or conclusions. By upholding rigorous standards of evidence-based reasoning,we can navigate the complexities of the world with clarity and discernment.。
英语阅读专项
1. I came across an old country guide the other day. It listed all the tradesmen in each village in my part of the country, and it was impressive to see the great variety of services which were available onNowadays a superficial traveler in rural England might conclude that the only village tradesmen still flourishing were either selling frozen food to the inhabitants or selling antiques to visitors. Nevertheless, this would really be a false impression. Admittedly there has been a contraction of village commerce, butOur local grocer's shop, for example, is actually expanding in spite of the competition from supermarkets in the nearest town. Women sensibly prefer to go there and exchange the local news while doing their shopping, instead of queueing up (anonymously) at a supermarket. And the proprietor knows well that personal service has a substantial cash value.His prices may be a bit higher than those in the town, but he will deliver anything at any time. His assistants think nothing of bicycling down the villagesent her order by word of mouth with a friend who happened to be passing, the more affluent customers telephone their shopping lists and the goods are on their doorsteps within an hour. They have only to knit at a fancy for some commodity outside the usualthem.The village gains from this sort of enterprise, of course. But I also find it satisfactory because a village shop offers one of the few ways in which a modest individualist can still get along in the world without attaching himself to the big battalions of industry or commerce.Most of the villageshopkeepers I know, at any rate, are decidedly individualist in their ways. For example, our shoemaker is a formidable figure: a thick set, irritable man whom children treat with marked respect, knowing that an ill judged wordcan provoke an angry eruption at any time. He stares with smouldering contempt at the pairs of cheap,is, he seems to be saying, that he, a craftsman, should have to waste his skills upon such trash? But we all know he will in fact do excellent work upon them. And he makes beautiful shoes for those who can afford such luxury.1.The writer considered the oC) the variety of shops and services available in Victorian days in BritainD) information about all the jobs there were in his own and surrounding villages at the time it appeared.A) women spend a lot of their time thereA) their prices aB) he5.What is the village shoemaker's reaction tD) He feels exasperated because people waste their money on inferior shoes.答案与解析：1.B 作者认为这本陈旧的乡下导游手册有意思是因为他发现…… 考察学生对上下文的理解能力。
ConfirmationandEvidentialFavoring-…
Confirmation
The problem of incremental confirmation is to specify a function that takes a hypothesis and a piece of evidence as inputs and gives a degree of confirmation as output.
Confirmation
An obvious first thought is to use conditional probabilities to represent the strength of the evidential support relation in ampliative arguments.
Evidential Favoring
We can get a quantitative version of the law of likelihood by taking a likelihood ratio.
Pr(E | H1)
Pr(E | H2 )
If λ > 1, then the evidence favors H1 to degree λ. If λ < 1, then the evidence favors H2 to degree λ.
Evidential Favoring
Bayesians think that our degree of belief respecting a sentence h at any arbitrary time should depend on exactly two things:
邵阳学院继续教育学位英语考试真题
邵阳学院继续教育学位英语考试真题全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Title: Shaoyang College Continuing Education Degree English Exam QuestionsShaoyang College offers a variety of courses and programs through its continuing education department, allowing individuals to pursue higher education degrees while balancing other commitments. As part of the assessment process, students are required to take English exams to demonstrate their language proficiency. Below are some sample questions from the Shaoyang College continuing education degree English exam:Section 1: Reading ComprehensionRead the following passage and answer the questions below.Passage:In recent years, the importance of lifelong learning has been increasingly recognized by individuals and organizations alike. With rapid technological advancements and changing job requirements, it is essential for professionals to continuallyupdate their skills and knowledge to stay relevant in the workforce.Questions:1. What is the main idea of the passage?2. Why is lifelong learning important for professionals?3. How can individuals benefit from continually updating their skills and knowledge?Section 2: Listening ComprehensionListen to the audio clip and answer the following questions.Audio Clip:You will hear a conversation between two students discussing their experiences in the continuing education program.Questions:1. What program are the students enrolled in?2. What challenges do they face as working professionals studying part-time?3. How do they plan to overcome these challenges?Section 3: WritingChoose one of the following topics and write a short essay (200-300 words) on it.1. The benefits of continuing education for professional development.2. The impact of technology on lifelong learning.3. Strategies for balancing work, studies, and personal life asa continuing education student.These are just a few examples of the types of questions that may be included in the Shaoyang College continuing education degree English exam. By testing students' reading, listening, and writing skills, the exam aims to assess their overall proficiency in the English language and their ability to communicate effectively in an academic setting. Good luck to all the students who will be taking the exam!篇2ShaoYang University Continuing Education Degree English TestSection 1: Reading Comprehension (40 points)Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow:Climate change is one of the greatest threats facing the world today. As the Earth's temperature rises, it is causing more frequent and severe weather events such as hurricanes, droughts, and floods. The consequences of climate change are already being felt around the globe, with devastating effects on ecosystems, economies, and human health.1. What is one of the greatest threats facing the world today?a) Pollutionb) Climate changec) Deforestationd) Overpopulation2. What are some of the consequences of climate change?a) More frequent and severe weather eventsb) Increased biodiversityc) Improved crop yieldsd) Cleaner air3. How are ecosystems being affected by climate change?a) They are thrivingb) They are not affected at allc) They are being devastatedd) They are adapting easily4. How is human health impacted by climate change?a) It has no impact on human healthb) It improves human healthc) It has negative effects on human healthd) It increases life expectancySection 2: Writing (60 points)Choose one of the following topics and write an essay of at least 300 words:1. The importance of renewable energy sources in combating climate change.2. Discuss the role of education in raising awareness about environmental issues.3. The effects of climate change on biodiversity and ecosystems.4. How individuals can contribute to mitigating climate change in their daily lives.Section 3: Listening Comprehension (40 points)Listen to the audio recordings and answer the questions that follow.1. What is the main topic of the recording?a) The benefits of recyclingb) The importance of reducing carbon emissionsc) The impact of deforestation on the environmentd) The significance of renewable energy sources2. What action does the speaker suggest individuals can take to reduce their carbon footprint?a) Drive less and carpool moreb) Use more plastic bagsc) Avoid recyclingd) Waste energy3. Why is it important to conserve water?a) Because water is an unlimited resourceb) Because water is not essential for lifec) Because water scarcity is a global issued) Because water pollution is not a problemSection 4: Speaking (60 points)Part 1: Introduction (10 points)Introduce yourself and discuss your interest in environmental issues.Part 2: Role Play (30 points)You are a member of a local environmental club. Discuss with your partner ways in which the club can raise awareness about climate change in the community.Part 3: Discussion (20 points)Discuss with the examiner the role of governments in combating climate change and the responsibility of individuals in addressing environmental issues.Good luck with your test!篇3Title: Shaoyang College Continuing Education Degree English Exam Sample QuestionsIntroduction:Shaoyang College offers continuing education programs for students pursuing higher degrees in various fields. One of the requirements for graduation is passing the English exam, which tests students' proficiency in the language. Below are some sample questions that students can expect to see on the exam.Listening Section:1. Listen to the conversation between a student and a library staff member. What is the student looking for?A. A book on historyB. A magazine on fashionC. A fiction novelD. A research paper on economics2. Listen to the announcement. What is the speaker asking students to do?A. Sign up for a workshopB. Submit their assignmentsC. Attend a lectureD. Join a study groupReading Section:Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.According to a recent study, students who participate in extracurricular activities have better academic performance than those who do not. The study found that students who are involved in sports, clubs, or volunteer work tend to have higher GPA scores and lower dropout rates.3. What is the main idea of the passage?A. Extracurricular activities improve students' social skills.B. Participating in extracurricular activities improves academic performance.C. Students who do not participate in extracurricular activities are more likely to drop out of school.D. Extracurricular activities are just as important as academic studies.4. According to the passage, which of the following statements is true?A. Students who participate in sports have lower GPA scores.B. Students who do not participate in clubs have better academic performance.C. Extracurricular activities have no impact on students' academic performance.D. Students who volunteer tend to have higher GPA scores.Writing Section:Write an essay on the following topic."In your opinion, what are the benefits of studying abroad? Do you think it is worth the cost? Support your argument with examples and evidence."Conclusion:The English exam at Shaoyang College is designed to assess students' language skills and proficiency. By practicing with sample questions like the ones above, students can better prepare for the exam and increase their chances of success. Good luck!。
九年级英语文章主旨单选题60题
九年级英语文章主旨单选题60题1. The passage is mainly about a girl who _____.A. lost her way in the forestB. won a singing competitionC. had a wonderful birthday partyD. made friends with a strange animal答案：C。
本题主要考查对文章主旨的理解。
文中详细描述了女孩生日派对的准备、过程和欢乐氛围，A 选项在文中未提及女孩在森林迷路，B 选项文中没有提到歌唱比赛，D 选项与文中内容不符，文中未提到女孩与奇怪动物交朋友。
2. What is the main idea of this story?A. A boy's adventure in a magic worldB. A family's trip to the countrysideC. A dog's search for its ownerD. A teacher's inspiring speech at school答案：A。
文章重点讲述了男孩在魔法世界的奇妙经历，B 选项家庭的乡村之旅在文中未体现，C 选项狗寻找主人并非文章重点，D 选项老师在学校的鼓舞人心的演讲在文中没有相关内容。
3. The text mainly tells us _____.A. how a team won a football matchB. the history of a famous cityC. a man's struggle to achieve his dreamD. the benefits of doing exercise答案：C。
文中着重叙述了男人为实现梦想所经历的困难和努力，A 选项足球比赛的胜利不是主要内容，B 选项著名城市的历史文中未提及，D 选项运动的好处并非文章主旨。
斯多亚学派英语作文
斯多亚学派英语作文I'm a big fan of the Stoic school of thought. It's all about accepting things as they come and not getting too caught up in emotions. It's like, you just gotta roll with the punches, you know?Life can be tough sometimes, but Stoicism teaches us to stay strong and not let things get us down. It's all about finding inner peace and staying calm in the face of adversity. It's like having a superpower that helps you deal with whatever life throws at you.One of the key principles of Stoicism is focusing on what you can control and letting go of what you can't. It's all about taking responsibility for your own actions and not getting bogged down by things that are out of your hands. It's like freeing yourself from unnecessary stress and worry.Stoicism also emphasizes the importance of living inthe present moment. It's all about being mindful and fully experiencing each moment as it comes. It's like savoring the taste of a delicious meal or feeling the warmth of the sun on your skin.In a world filled with chaos and uncertainty, Stoicism offers a sense of clarity and purpose. It's like having a guiding light that helps you navigate through life's ups and downs. It's a philosophy that can truly change the way you see the world and help you become a better, more resilient person.。
高一英语哲学思考阅读理解20题
高一英语哲学思考阅读理解20题1<背景文章>Causality is a fundamental concept in philosophy. It refers to the relationship between an event (the cause) and a second event (the effect), where the second event is understood as a consequence of the first.For example, if we drop a glass, it will break. Dropping the glass is the cause, and the breaking of the glass is the effect. But causality is not always so straightforward. Sometimes there can be multiple causes for a single effect, or a single cause can have multiple effects.Consider a fire. A fire can be caused by many things, such as a lightning strike, a carelessly discarded cigarette, or an electrical fault. And a fire can have many effects, such as destroying property, endangering lives, and causing environmental damage.Philosophers have debated the nature of causality for centuries. Some argue that causality is an objective feature of the world, while others claim that it is a human construct, a way that we make sense of the world around us.1. What is causality?A. The relationship between two events where one is not related to the other.B. The relationship between an event and its consequence.C. The relationship between two events that happen at the same time.D. The relationship between an object and its color.答案：B。
列维奇 商务谈判(第8版)英文教师手册IMChap15Lewicki8e
Chapter 15Individual Differences II:Personality and AbilitiesOverviewIn the previous chapter, we examined in depth one particular individual difference: gender.•In this chapter we will look more broadly at the range of other differences that have been studied in connection with negotiation.•We begin with a brief review of early research on individual differences. We then focus on more recent research on individual differences and negotiation, segmenting ourdiscussion into two major categories:o dimensions of personality that appear to have an influence on negotiation, ando the role of native abilities in negotiation, including cognitive ability and the relatively new domain of emotional intelligence•The chapter then concludes with a discussion of the behavioral approach to studying individual differences in negotiations, which explores how superior negotiators behave differently from average negotiators.Learning Objectives1.Explore specific personality traits that influence negotiation behaviors and processes.2.Consider the role of native cognitive, emotional, and cultural abilities in negotiationencounters.3.Gain insight into how behaviors of expert negotiators differ from those of lessexperienced negotiators.1Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-HillChapter OutlineI.Personality and NegotiationA.Conflict styleB.Social Value OrientationC.Interpersonal TrustD.Self-Efficacy and Locus of ControlE.Self-MonitoringF.MachiavellianismG.Face Threat SensitivityH.Epistemic MotivationI.The “Big Five” Personality FactorsII.Abilities in NegotiationA.Cognitive AbilityB.Emotional IntelligenceC.Perspective-Taking AbilityD.Cultural AbilityIII.A n Alternative Approach: Studying Experienced NegotiatorsIV.A Concluding NoteV.Chapter Summary2Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-HillI.Personality and Negotiation•Personality traits are stable tendencies to think, feel, or behave in certain ways that can be identified and measured.o People differ on all kinds of attributes but descriptors such as “happy” or angry” do not amount to personality traits unless they are markers of stable ways of thinking oracting that can usefully predict other aspects of behavior.o Personality traits are sometimes referred to as “dispositions,” and we use them interchangeably here.•There has been quite a bit of controversy among scholars in psychology and organizational behavior about the overall importance of dispositions.o To simplify the debate, on one side are those who argue that the study of personality is theoretically thin and that dispositional effects are less important than situations inpredicting attitudes and behaviors.o On the other side are those who concede that situations matter but insist that dispositions by themselves are significant predictors of relevant behaviors.▪In short, dispositions and situations both matter.•In this section, we review nine approaches to studying personality that have shown promise as predictors of negotiation behavior. These include:o Conflict styleo Social value orientationo Interpersonal trusto Self-efficacy and locus of controlo Self-monitoringo Machiavellianismo Face threat sensitivityo Epistemic motivationo The “Big Five” personality factorsA.Conflict Style•Dealing with conflict is a central part of the negotiating process.o In Chapter 1, we identified five modes of behavior commonly used to deal with conflict: contending, problem solving, inaction, yielding, and compromising.▪Do negotiators choose a style by rational choice – or is the style usedconsistently due to a personality predisposition to do soo Also in Chapter 1, there are two levels of concern underlying the five conflict management styles – the degree of concern shown for your own outcomes and thedegree of concern for the other party’s outcomes.▪One researcher proposed two personality dimensions which can represent these two levels of concern.•The degree of assertiveness a person maintains for their own preferredsolutions or outcomes, ranging from high to low.•The degree of cooperativeness a person shows toward working with others to achieve mutual goals, ranging from high to low.3Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill▪Bringing these two dimensions together (Figure 15.1) leads to theidentification of five major conflict management styles:• A compete style – high on assertiveness and low on cooperativeness•An accommodate style – low on assertiveness and high on cooperativeness• A yield style – low on both assertiveness and cooperativeness• A collaborate style – high on both assertiveness and cooperativeness• A compromise style – moderate on both assertiveness and cooperativeness •Research has generally supported the model’s two dimensions, as well as the premise that conflict management styles result both from the strategic choices an individualmakes and from individual tendencies to use certain styles regardless of the situation.•Conflict style tendencies might lead to particular behaviors, given certain kinds of conflict situations.o If stakes are high and outcomes derive from individual effort, then individuals with strong compete modes should dominate.o In contrast, if the stakes are low, an individual is more likely to ignore the conflict (yield mode) or allow the other to reap what little resources are available(accommodate mode).•Individual differences in conflict management style have been correlated with other dispositions.o There has not been much direct empirical research connecting conflict styles with other stable personality traits, although Box 15.1 does present one interestingexample.B.Social Value Orientation•Social value orientations are preferences people have regarding the outcomes they prefer in social settings where interdependence with others is required.o Some people have a proself or egoistic orientation – they are primarily concerned with personal outcomes and unconcerned with outcomes obtained by the otherparty.o Others have a prosocial or cooperative orientation – a preference for outcomes that benefit both self and others with whom they are interdependent.▪ A prosocial orientation is a tendency to prefer a collaborating conflictmanagement style – refer back to Figure 15.1.•Negotiation is clearly an example of the kind of social interdependence where these social value orientations can play a role.o Prosocial negotiators achieve more integrative outcomes (higher joint gain) than pro-self negotiators, who behave more distributively.•Research links individuals’ social value orientation with their levels of happiness with the deals they negotiate.o One study found that judgments of satisfaction after the negotiation were higher for prosocials – who could find satisfaction either through their own goals orthose of the group, so they were more easily satisfied.4Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill•Differences in negotiation behavior and outcomes that result from social value orientation are significant, but can be diluted by aspects of the bargaining situation.o When both parties had an exit option, prosocial individuals made more threats, exchanged less information, and reached lower joint outcomes.o So, with good alternatives mutually available, the differences between prosocial and pro-self negotiators tended to dissipate.•Prosocial versus egoistic motives in negotiation can be rooted either in stable individual differences or in elements of a particular situation – with the same effects.C.Interpersonal Trust•One of the fundamental dilemmas in negotiation is the degree to which negotiators should trust the other party.o The trustworthiness of the other party may change over time.•Interpersonal trust may be defined as “a generalized expectancy held by an individual that the word, promise, oral, or written statement of another individual or group canbe relied upon.”o Interpersonal trust is determined by the experiences that people have in dealing with others.•The implications for negotiation of a dispositional tendency to trust others are significant.o High trusters impose high moral standards on themselves and behave ethically.o Low trusters may feel less pressure to tell the truth.▪Interestingly, high trusters are not more easily deceived than low trusters.•There is a “self-fulfilling prophecy” aspect to dispositional trust.o Someone with high interpersonal trust is likely to approach the other person, in attitude and style, in a way that communicates trust, and the other may reciprocate.o In contrast, a low-trust individual conveys suspicion and mistrust and may lead the other party to respond in kind.▪Beware, as low trusters sometimes exhibit trusting behaviors to exploit the other party and maximize self-interest.▪Also keep in mind that the effects of trust on deception in negotiation isculturally variable.D.Self-Efficacy and Locus of Control•Self-efficacy is a judgment about your own ability to behave effectively in a given situation.o I t refers to people’s beliefs in their capabilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources.o And courses of action needed to exercise control over events in their lives.•Self-efficacy plays an important role in complex interpersonal behavior, including negotiation.o For example, a negotiator’s self-efficacy predicts their likelihood of choosing to negotiate, rather than accept mediation.5Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hillo Those who believe themselves more skilled at using distributive or integrative tactics employed these strategies more often and achieved higher outcomes indistributive or integrative problems, respectively.• A construct related to self-efficacy is locus of control, which is the extent to which people perceive that they have control over events that occur.o Those who attribute the cause of events to external reasons, such as luck, have a high external locus of control.o Those who attribute the cause of events to internal reasons, such as ability, have a high internal locus of control.▪Some studies show “internals” are tou gher negotiators.▪Also, they are less likely to influenced by the other party’s first offer.▪They also reached agreements with higher joint payoffs.▪In other words, “internals” appear to be good at both value creation and value claiming.•Both self-efficacy and locus of control speak to what are sometimes labeled “control perceptions” – self-judgments regarding our ability to master situations.o Research suggests that negotiators with a propensity to perceive control have an advantage over those who don’t.o Still, negotiating successfully requires a willingness to assume the risks and, just as in control perceptions, people vary in their willingness to take on risk.E.Self-Monitoring•Self-monitoring refers to the extent to which people are aware of and responsive to the social cues that come from one’s social environment.o High self-monitors are attentive to external, interpersonal information that arises in social settings and are more inclined to treat this information as cues to howthey should behave.o Low self-monitors are less attentive to external information that may cue behavior and are guided more in their behavioral choices by inner, personal feelings.•Empirical findings indicate that self-monitoring is an important individual difference that influences negotiation.o Having the motivation to monitor the social context, read it accurately, and adjust to it can be an asset in negotiation.F.Machiavellianism•Those scoring high in Machiavellianism (high Machs) tend to be cynical about others’ motives, more likel y to behave unaltruistically and unsympathetically towardothers, and less willing to change their convictions under social pressure.o They are thought to be more likely to tolerate behavior violating social norms and are more inclined to advocate the use of deception interpersonally.•Personality psychologists have come to regard Machiavellianism as one of three “offensive yet non-pathological” traits known collectively as the “dark triad” ofpersonality: the other two are narcissism and psychopathy.6Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill•Numerous studies explored the relationship between a Machiavellian orientation and behavior in various situations – we describe a few here as they apply to negotiation.o High Machs were no different from low Machs in the frequency of lying, but once accused, high Machs maintained their ability to lie with far greater credibility.o High Machs attempted significantly more manipulative behaviors than low Machs, in both the total number and variety.o High Machs displayed a more opportunistic sense of timing with regard to making or breaking a coalition, and were usually a member of the winning coalition.o High Machs are egoistic, focusing more on maximizing their own outcomes with less concern about others, and likely to use a wider variety of influence tactics.•It’s been theorized and demonstrated the existence of four conceptual elements of Machiavellianism:o Distrust– high Machs are actively distrustful of otherso Amoral manipulation– high Machs are willing to deviate from moral standards when the opportunity for gain presents itselfo Desire for control – seeing other people as threatening, high Machs wish to dominate interpersonal situations.o Desire for status – high Machs are driven to pursue goals such as wealth, power, and status in order to feed a desire to accumulate external indicators of success.• A couple of studies have directly examined the influence of Machiavellianism on negotiation.o One study found that high Machs did better than low Machs in distributive negotiation.o High Machs were more likely to approve of the use of deceptive tactics.o Taken together, these findings suggest that high Machs are willing to use a variety of tactics to pursue their objectives and, in doing so, may intimidate the otherparty into adjusting strategy in ways that make the latter worse off.G.Face Threat Sensitivity•Face refers to the value people place on their public image or reputation.o Some of us are by disposition more susceptible to reacting in a negative way to threats to face.• A study explored how face threat sensitivity (FTS) might work as an element of the personality of negotiators.o Face is important in negotiation because threats to one’s image will make a negotiator competitive in a situation that might otherwise benefit fromcooperative behavior.o Negotiating dyads with at least one high FTS negotiator were less likely to create value that could benefit both parties and less likely to reach cooperativesettlements.H.Epistemic Motivation7Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill•Psychologists use the term epistemic motivation to describe an individual’s “desire to develop and hold a rich and accurate understanding of the world, including thenegotiation problem at hand.”o When epistemic motivation is high, people analyze situations, weigh arguments, and solve problems through effortful thinkingo In contrast, when epistemic motivation is low, people are more likely to form quick impressions and make snap judgments based on well-learned rules.▪Epistemic motivation can be induced in people.•Epistemic motivation matters in negotiation because the situation can be complex, an d people don’t always have all of the information they need about the other partyand about the negotiation task;o Accordingly, searching for and thinking about new information in order to develop a deep understanding of the situation should yield better outcomes,especially in integrative negotiations.•Personality traits that catalyze epistemic motivation—a willingness to seek out and process novel information—are generally quite helpful to negotiators facing complex situations with integrative potential.I.The “Big Five” Personality F actors•One way of moving the study of personality toward a more unified and coherent position is to focus on a few key personality categories, or factors, under which mostindividual traits can be subsumed.o This is what personality psychologists had in mind when they developed the Five-Factor Model of personality, also known as the “Big Five” and include:▪Extraversion– being sociable, assertive, talkative.▪Agreeableness– being flexible, cooperative, trusting.▪Conscientiousness– being responsible, organized, achievement oriented.▪Emotional stability– being secure, confident, not anxious.▪Openness– being imaginative, broad-minded, curious.•Research examined how the Big Five personality factors are related to negotiator behavior and outcomes – in both distributive and integrative negotiations.o In distributive bargaining, negotiators higher in extraversion and agreeableness were more likely to do worse for themselves as they are prone to the trap ofanchoring.o In a more complex integrative negotiation, cognitive ability was more important than personality.o A high degree of motivation to do well overcame the liability of certain personality traits in negotiation.•One study investigated the “fit,” or match, between negotiator and tas k.o For instance, a low-agreeableness negotiator “fit” a competitive, distributive situation,o While a high –agreeableness negotiator is better matched to a situation with integrative potential.8Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill▪These findings show the importance of staffing negotiations with individuals possessing specific dispositions, depending on the situation.• A new angle on the role of the Big Five traits looked at how the combination of both negotiators’ traits affects processes and outcomes.o Findings show that when negotiators’ person alities match – both high or both low on extraversion and agreeableness – the emotional tone of the interaction is morepositive.o Individual differences not only speak to your personal qualities as a negotiator but may also render you well- or poorly suited to negotiate with a particularcounterpart.Section Summaryo In this section, we discussed the role of personality in negotiation in terms of a variety of dispositional traits.▪Convergence around the Big Five focuses the question on whether personality traits are best viewed separately or in clusters of related traits.▪On the other hand, some narrow traits may do a better job predictingnegotiation behavior than these broad personality factors.o Personality is also potentially important in negotiation as people view the actions of other parties through a lens of personality.▪Although interests and positions determine much of what happens innegotiation, negotiators tend to interpret the behavior of the other party interms of personality.▪The result can easily be misperceptionII.Abilities in Negotiation•In this section, we examine the relationship between four kinds of abilities and negotiation behavior:o Cognitive ability, which is the traditional conceptualization of intelligenceo The more recently developed concept of emotional intelligenceo Perspective-taking abilityo The ability to be effective cross-culturallyA.Cognitive Ability•Cognitive ability refers to “a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehendcomplex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience.”o Cognitive ability, which is synonymous with the general notion of intelligence,▪Influences reasoning, decision-making, information processing capacity,learning, and adaptability to change, particularly in complex situations ▪These aspects of thinking and mental processing are clearly related to much of what goes on in the cognitive side of negotiation.9Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill•Studies examining cognitive ability in complex integrative negotiation settings founda strong link between negotiator cognitive ability and the integrativeness ofsettlements reached.•But what about purely distributive negotiation situations, do negotiators with high cognitive ability do better?o One study found no link between intelligence and performance.o Interpret with caution as the task in the study as a basic, single-issue negotiation.o Box 15.2 provides a related application of the role of intelligence in negotiation. B.Emotional Intelligence•Researchers define emotional intelligence (EI) as encompassing a set of discrete but related abilities:o the ability to perceive and express emotion accurately.o the ability to access emotion in facilitating thought.o the ability to comprehend and analyze emotion, ando the ability to regulate appropriately your own emotions and those of others.▪Interest in EI grew among scholars who see it as appropriately rooted in the scientific analysis of human emotion.▪And a growing body of research has shown that EI can predict jobperformance in a variety of settings.•To the extent that EI captures stable and measurable tendencies involving the perception, comprehension, and regulation of emotion, it may be an importantindividual difference for the study of negotiation.o Negotiators high in EI may be better able to use emotions to influence the negotiation outcome—part of a process referred to as emotional tuning.•Despite widespread beliefs that EI is important, few studies have empirically investigated the role of EI in negotiation.o More research is needed to fully understand the role of EI in negotiation and to resolve lingering questions about the best way to measure EI.C.Perspective-Taking Ability•The ability to take the other person’s perspective, especially during planning, should enable negotiators to prepare and respond to the other party’s arguments.o Perspective-taking ability is defined as a negotiator’s cognitive capacity to consider the world from another individual’s viewpoint, which enables thenegotiator to anticipate the other’s behavior.•Perspective-taking ability can help negotiators do better for themselves in competitive situations.o Negotiators high in perspective-taking ability appear to be able to increase the concessions the other party is willing to make.o They also do better in competitive situations as they are less susceptible to the detrimental effects of being anchored by the opponent’s extreme offer.10Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill•The ability to see the other party’s point of view is especially important during integrative negotiation as negotiato rs need to understand the other party’s needs andinterests and work to craft an agreement satisfactory to both parties.o This ability has been shown to predict joint outcomes – in fact, merely thinking about perspective taking prior to an integrative negotiation can lead to higher jointoutcomes.•One study demonstrated that perspective taking can be a double-edged sword.o Perspective takers may have judged fairness of allocation in a less self-interested way, but when the time came to actually make an allocation decision, theybehaved in a more self-interested way – they took more of the available resourcesfor themselves.o This is blamed on “reactive egoism” as when the perspective taker wasconsidering how others would probably act more selfishly, leading the perspectivetaker to arrive at a decision to act selfishly in return.• A social condition that may cloud or reduce people’s ability to understand others’ perspective in the first place is the experience of having power or feeling powerful;see Box 15.3 for a clever experimental illustration.D.Cultural Ability•Context is important in understanding individual differences in negotiation because situations may define whether or not some trait or ability actually has an effect.o Consider national cultures: personality traits may function in one culture very differently than in another.o Big Five traits, such as agreeableness and extraversion, affect American negotiators but not Chinese, while other factors, such as harmony, affect Chinesenegotiators but not Americans.•One thing researchers have learned is that people differ in their ability to adapt to culturally diverse situations.o“C ultural intelligence” (CQ), captures cognitive, motivational, and behav ioral tendencies that play out in intercultural interactions.o For instance, the cognitive aspect of CQ refers to how an individual acquires and uses knowledge of cross-cultural differences (and similarities).o The motivational aspect captures a person’s energy directed at cultural adaptation.o Behavioral aspects include verbal and nonverbal skills when communicating across cultures.o CQ predicts personal effectiveness in cross-cultural situations, with high CQ individuals more likely to make accurate cultural judgments, perform well onintercultural tasks, and adjust to international situations.•The impact of CQ on intercultural negotiation was investigated in a pair of studies.o A survey revealed that people high in CQ were more likely to be cooperatively oriented (a prosocial orientation) and to have a desire to accurately understandtheir surroundings (high epistemic motivation).11Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hillo In the second study, researchers paired American and East Asian students in a negotiation simulation with integrative potential showing that CQ is a “keypredictor of intercultural negotiation effectiveness.”III.An Alternative Approach: Studying Experienced Negotiators•Are good negotiators born or made?o The position a person takes on this questions is important as research shows a person’s view on this issue is strongly related to negotiation o utcomes.o Studies showed those who believe negotiation is a skill outperformed those who believed negotiating abilities are fixed, by a wide margin.o The advantage was found in both claiming and creating value.•If there is value in believing that negotiation is a skill, there is also value in trying to understand the actions of people who are already good at it.o Three approaches have been used to study the behavior of successful negotiators: ▪Comparing expert and amateur negotiations in simulated negotiations▪Comparing experienced and naïve negotiators in simulated negotiations▪Studying high-profile negotiators.o Each of these approaches has its strengths and weaknesses, none are ideal.1. Expert versus amateur negotiatorso Expert and amateur negotiator’s perfo rmance in a simulated negotiation showed that while both were more likely to reach integrative solutions, experts were moreintegrative at the beginning of negotiations than were amateurs.o Experts also tended to receive higher average outcomes than amateurs, although the difference was not very large.2. Experienced versus naïve negotiatorso One study examined the effects of prior opportunities to engage in integrative bargaining on judgments, behaviors, and outcomes in negotiation.▪Experienced negotiators made more accurate judgments about the otherparty’s priorities as they gained experience and the likelihood of negotiatingfavorable agreements increased with experience.o Another study explored how experience in one negotiation encounter influences the quality of negotiated outcomes in subsequent encounters.▪Those whose first negotiation ended in impasse were more likely to reach another impasse in their next negotiation.▪Those who reached impasse the first time but reached a deal the second time arrived at agreements of lower quality compared to those who successfullyreached a deal the first time.3. High-profile negotiatorso Another approach is to look at the professional lives of famous negotiators.▪ A study of interviews of first-hand accounts from professionals revealed a “master negotiator.”12Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill。
哲理品悟的名言名句
哲理品悟的名言名句英文回答：Philosophy, as a profound and enduring field of inquiry, has enriched our understanding of the human condition and the complexities of existence. Throughout history, philosophers have crafted countless profound and eloquent statements that have shaped our thinking and challenged our assumptions.One of the most fundamental questions addressed by philosophy is the nature of reality. Plato's famousallegory of the cave eloquently illustrates the limitations of our perception and the difficulty in discerning true reality from mere shadows and illusions. The notion of "epistemic humility" reminds us to acknowledge the limitsof our knowledge and the vastness of the unknown.Another central theme in philosophy is ethics, thestudy of right and wrong. Socrates famously declared that"an unexamined life is not worth living," underscoring the importance of introspection and self-reflection. Theconcept of "virtue ethics" emphasizes the cultivation of positive qualities such as courage, wisdom, and justice within ourselves. The "categorical imperative" proposed by Immanuel Kant provides a universal moral principle that guides our actions, regardless of our personal inclinations.The exploration of freedom and determinism is another fascinating area in philosophy. The idea of "free will" suggests that we have the power to choose our own actions and shape our destinies. However, some philosophical perspectives, such as determinism, argue that our actions are predetermined by external factors or by the laws of nature. The debate between these opposing views continuesto spark intellectual curiosity and challenge our assumptions about the nature of human agency.The relationship between mind and body has also been a subject of philosophical inquiry for centuries. The Cartesian distinction between "res cogitans" (thinking substance) and "res extensa" (physical substance) hasprofoundly influenced Western thought. However, contemporary philosophers continue to grapple with the complexities of consciousness, the nature of emotions, and the mind-body connection.Philosophy has also played a pivotal role in the development of science and technology. The scientific method, which emphasizes empirical observation and logical reasoning, has its roots in philosophical principles. The advancements in science and technology have, in turn, influenced philosophical inquiry, leading to the emergence of fields such as philosophy of science and philosophy of technology.In addition to grappling with profound questions, philosophy also encourages us to cultivate criticalthinking skills, question assumptions, and engage in meaningful discussions. By studying philosophy, we not only gain insights into the fundamental nature of existence but also develop a more nuanced understanding of ourselves, our values, and our place in the world.中文回答：哲学是一门深邃且永恒的探究领域，它丰富了我们对人类处境和存在复杂性的理解。
The Art of Persuasion
The Art of PersuasionThe art of persuasion is a powerful and essential skill that has been utilized throughout history in various aspects of life. From convincing others to adopt a certain point of view to influencing decisions and actions, the ability to persuade is a valuable tool in personal, professional, and social interactions. In this essay, we will explore the concept of persuasion from multiple perspectives, examining its importance, techniques, ethical considerations, and the impact of persuasion in different contexts. Persuasion is a fundamental aspect of human communication, and it plays a crucial role in shaping opinions, beliefs, and behaviors. Whether it's a political leader rallying support for a policy, a salesperson convincing a customer to make a purchase, or an individual trying to sway their friends' choice of a movie, persuasion is at work. At its core, persuasion involves the art of influencing others' thoughts and actions through effective communication and reasoning. It requires the ability to understand the audience, tailor the message to their needs and values, and present compelling arguments to win them over. One of the key elements of persuasion is the use of rhetoric, the art of using language effectively to persuade or influence others. Rhetorical techniques such as ethos, pathos, and logos are commonly employed to appeal to the audience's emotions, credibility, and logic, respectively. Ethos establishes the speaker's credibility and trustworthiness, pathos evokes emotional responses, and logos appeals to reason and logic. By skillfully employing these rhetorical strategies, persuaders can create a compelling and persuasive argument that resonates with their audience. However, while persuasion can be a powerful tool for achieving positive outcomes, it also raises ethical considerations. The ethical use of persuasion involves respecting the autonomy and agency of others, presenting honest and accurate information, and avoiding manipulation or coercion. It is essential to consider the ethical implications of persuasive techniques, especially in fields such as advertising, politics, and sales, where the line between ethical and manipulative persuasion can be blurred. Ethical persuasion seeks to empower individuals to make informed decisions rather than exploiting their vulnerabilities or biases. In the realm of marketing and advertising, persuasion is a central element of influencing consumer behavior. Advertisersemploy various persuasive tactics to capture the attention of consumers, create desire for products or services, and ultimately drive sales. From celebrity endorsements and emotional appeals to social proof and scarcity tactics, the strategies used in advertising aim to persuade consumers to make purchasing decisions. However, the ethical boundaries of persuasive advertising have been a subject of debate, particularly concerning issues of truthfulness, transparency, and the potential impact on vulnerable populations. In the political arena, persuasion plays a pivotal role in shaping public opinion and mobilizing support for policies, candidates, or ideological movements. Political leaders and campaigners use persuasive communication strategies to sway voters, rally support for their agendas, and build coalitions. Whether through compelling speeches, targeted messaging, or strategic framing of issues, political persuasion can influence the direction of societies and the outcomes of elections. However, the ethical implications of political persuasion are significant, as it raises questions about truthfulness, accountability, and the potential manipulation of public discourse. In interpersonal relationships, persuasion is a common feature of everyday interactions, as individuals seek to influence the decisions and actions of others. Whether it's negotiating with a partner, convincing a friend to try a new restaurant, or persuading a family member to consider a different perspective, interpersonal persuasion is a natural part of human communication. The ability to persuade effectively in personal relationships often relies on empathy, active listening, and the ability to understand and address the needs and concerns of others. However, ethical considerations also apply in interpersonal persuasion, as it's essential to respect the autonomy and boundaries of others while seeking to influence their choices. In conclusion, the art of persuasion is a multifaceted and complex phenomenon that influences various aspects of human communication and behavior. From the use of rhetorical strategies to the ethical considerations of persuasion in different contexts, it's clear that persuasion is a powerful force with the potential for both positive and negative impact. As individuals and societies navigate the complexities of persuasive communication, it's crucial to consider the ethical implications and strive for a responsible and respectful approach to influencing others. Ultimately, the art of persuasion canbe a force for positive change when wielded with integrity, empathy, and a commitment to ethical communication.。