Compositional Semantics of German Prefix Verbs

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英语语义学Semantics

英语语义学SemanticsSemanticsSemanticsSemantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Semantics = Theory of MeaningIts goal is to reveal how language are matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language.Lexical semantics—the study of word meanings. it deals not only with the meanings of individual words but also the relationship between the meanings of different words.Compositional semantics—is concerned exclusively with the meanings of phrases and sentences.History of Semantics1893 - French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖.1897 – Breal first use it as the science of meaning.1900 – Its English version came out.1980s – semantics began to be introduced into China.One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning(1923). Semantic Triangle 语义三⾓Concept（meaning）refers tosymbolizesSymbol Thing（word）（referent）stands forThe Referential Theory 指称论Concept (Meaning): the mental image, the abstraction or generalization of objects of the same kind.Referent (Thing): the physical entity or actual object, event, idea or whatever if denoted by a word, phrase or expression. Concept VS. Referent (Thing)A referent may exist in the physical world.The concept is abstracted from the referent and labeled by a word.Sense 语义Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context.It’s abstract and de-contextualized.Sense RelationsSense relations between wordsWords are in different sense relations with each other.There are generally 5 kinds of sense relations:1) synonymy 同义2) antonymy 反义3) hyponymy 上下义4) polysemy ⼀词多义5) homonymy 同⾳同形异义1. SynonymyIt is the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.2. AntonymyIt is the oppositeness of meaning.Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymy (relational opposites)Gradable antonymy 分级反义词good/ bad, long /short, narrow/ wideThe members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.Not good≠badHot ---warm---cool---coldComplementary antonymy 互补反义词alive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girlIt is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.Converse antonymy 换位反义词(relational opposites关系对⽴反义词)buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after,teacher/ student, above /belowThe members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.ExerciseClassify the following pairs of antonyms:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymymarried-single male-female hot-coldgive-take big-small awake-asleepnorth-south logical-illogical win-losebuy-sell doctor-patient above-below3. Hyponymy上下义关系It is the sense relation between two words in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word. HyponymyMusical instruments ---piano flute guitar violin tuba tromboneFish---snapper salmon bass sole troutSalmon---chinook spring coho king sockey4. PolysemyA word is polysemic if it has more than one meaning.Wood:family treea geographical area with many trees5. HomonymyWhen two or more words are the same in pronunciation or in spelling or in both but different in meaning, they are called homonyms.3 types of homonyms:perfect homonyms(同⾳同形异义词)homographs（同形异义词）homophones (同⾳异义词).Perfect homonymsPerfect homonyms are words which are the same in both pronunciation and spelling but different in meaning.bank (银⾏、河岸)bear (容忍、⽣（孩⼦）)sound (声⾳、完美的)HomographsHomographs are words which are the same in spelling, but different in pronunciation and meaning."bow" /b??/ -----"⼸―"bow" /bau/ -----"鞠躬"HomophonesHomophones are words which are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling and meaning.tail / taleto / two / toopair / pearsee / seaI / eye piece / peace。

语言学考研术语名词解释带解释

语言学考研术语-名词解释1.赵元任赵元任，字宣仲，又字宜重，江苏武进（今常州）人，生于天津。

赵元任是“中国语言学之父”。

他将科学运用于语言学研究的结果：用自然科学中的基本概念说明语言问题；用自然科学的先进成果记录和分析语音；把自然科学中的研究方法引入语言学；引入科学的描述事物的方式以及解决问题的程序等等。

赵元任成功了，中国的传统语言学在他和同时代的一批优秀学者的共同努力下，终于逐步而又缓慢地走向了现代化。

2.哥本哈根学派哥本哈根学派是受到索绪尔语言学思想影响而出现的世界三个结构主义语言学的主要流派之一。

它以1931年哥本哈根语言学会的成立为标志，主要创始人和理论家是丹麦哥本哈根大学的语言学教授L.叶尔姆斯列夫。

哥本哈根学派的理论叫做“语符学”。

叶尔姆斯列夫认为，语言的内在结构是各级要素共同构成的关系网络。

为了确定语言的基本要素，他把语言成分分为“内容”和“表达”两个平面。

这两个平面又各分为“形式”和“实质”两层，“形式”是结构关系，“实质”是体现形式的语言的实体（一方面是声音，另一方面是意义）。

另一方面，叶尔姆斯列夫在语言中区分“序列”和“系统”。

“序列”是词、短语、句子等形式结构。

符号的序列包括内容平面和表达平面，两者都由系统中的要素构成。

3.描写语言学描写语言学是结构语言学的一个分支，是20世纪美国的一些学者在对美洲印第安语调查和研究的基础上逐步形成和发展起来的，它以面向语言材料、注重语言结构的形式描写而著称。

它的主要特点如下：注重口语的描写和共时的研究；注重形式的分析，回避意义问题；在结构分析中主要运用分布和替换的方法，以便从一堆语言素材中切分出独立的单位并加以分类；对句法结构进行层次分析；建立语素音位这个新的单位，这是在语法和语音结合的基础上建立的一个新的单位；强调验证。

4.语言学语言学是以语言为专门研究对象的一门独立学科。

其主要任务是研究语言的性质、结构和功能，通过考察语言及其应用的现象，来揭示语言存在和发展的规律。

李幼蒸《纯粹现象学通论》德法英中术语对照索引

李幼蒸《纯粹现象学通论》用语对照表（1995商务版）德、法、英、中abbilden depeindre,/copier depict 映像，描绘（动词）Abbildung copie depiction 映像，描绘（名词）Abgehobenheit relief saliency 突出abgeschlossen clos self-contained 封闭的，完结的Ablehnung refus refusal 拒绝Ableitung dérivation derivation 派生(项)，偏离abschatten s’esquisser adumbrate 侧显Abschattung esquisse adumbration 侧显（物）Abstraktum abstrait abstractum 抽象物Abstufung gradation different levels 层次组Abwandlung mutation variation 变异、变体、派生项Abweisen (sich) (se) démentir reject 中断achten observe heed 注意、注视achtung observation respect,attention 注意、注视Adäquatheit adéquation adequateness 充分（性）Affirmation affirmation affirmation 肯定Akt acte act 行为、作用Aktivität activitéactivity 活动性Aktualität actualitéactuality 实显性Aktualisierung actualisation actualization实显化Allgemeinheit géréralitéuniversality 普遍性、一般性Animalia être animés psychophysical being生命存在、有生命物Anknüpfung liason connexion联结anmuten supputer deem possible推测Anmutung supputation deeming possible推测Annahme supposition assumption假定annehmen admettre assume假定Ansatz supposition supposed statement, starting 假定、开端Anschaulichkeit intuitivite intuitiveness直观性Anschaung intuition intuition 直观ansetzen supposer suppose,start假定、开端Apodiktizität apodicitéapodicticity确真性Apophansistik apophansistique apophantics命题逻辑、命题学Apperzeption apperception apperception 统觉apriopri 先天的Art espèce,sorte,maniere/ sort,species,manner,character 种、方式、特性Artikulation articulation articulation （分节）连结Attention attention attention 注意Attribution attribution attribution属性归与、赋与Auffassung apprehension, conception apprehension, conception统握、理解Aufhebung suspension suspension, abolition中止Aufmerksamkeit attention attention注意Ausbreitung étendue spread 扩大Ausdehnung extension extension扩展、广袤Ausdruck expresion expresion词语、表达ausdrücklich expressive expressive表达的、明确的Ausfüllung remplissement filling充实（化）Aussagesatz énoncé,proposition enonciative/ statement, predicative sentence 陈述ausschalten mettre hors circuit suspend, exclude排除、中断Ausweisung légitimation showing, demostration证明、明示Bau structure structure 结构Beachten vermarquer heed 审视bedeuten signifier signify 意指、意谓Bedeutung signification significance, meaning意义、意谓Begehrung desir desire 欲望Begründung fondation grounding基础Behauptung assertion assertion断言、主张Bejahung affirmation affirmation 肯定bekraftigen confirmer confirm断言、证实、加强bekunden(sich) s’annoncer evince显示bemerken remarquer notice 注意、指出Beschaffenheit propriétéquality 性质Beschreibung description description描述beseelen animer animate使活跃、赋予活力Besonderung particularisation particularity, particularization特殊化、特殊性(das) besondere le particulier the particular特殊项、特殊物Bestand composition composition组成（成分）、性质Bestände composantes components组成成份Bestandstück composantes component组成成份bestätigen confirmer corroborate 证实Bestimmtheit détermination determination规定、规定性Bewährung vérification verification证实Bewusstsein conscience consciousness意识bewusst dont on a conscience conscious有意识的bewusstseinsmässig en rapport avecla conscience relative to consciousness 相关于意识的beziehen mettre en relation relate使相关Beziehung relation relation关系beziehend relationnel relating to （有）关系的Bezogenheit reference relatedness相关性Bezeichnung désignation designation, denotation标记、名称Bild portrait image, picture形象、图象bildlich en portrait pictorial 形象的bilden construire form形成Bildung construction formation形成Blick regard regard, glance目光Blickstrahl rayon du regard ray of regard目光射线bloss simple mere,bare 简单的、仅只、纯Bürgschaft garantie guarantee 保证Charakter caractere character特性Charakteisirung caracterisation characteristic（表明）特性Cogitatio(nes) 我思思维、我思行为．．．．．．．．．Cogitatum我思．．对象、被思者Cogito我思．．darstellen figurer present 呈现、描述Darstellung figuration presentation 呈现、描述Dasein existence factual existence 事实存在、定在decken(sich) coincider coincide 相符、一致Deckung coincidence coincidence相符、相互符合Denkstellungnahme position adoptee par la pensee cogitative position-taking 思想设定Description description description 描述Deutlichkeit distinction distinctness 清晰性Dies-da ceci-la this-there此处这个Diesheit eccéitéthisness此物性Differenz difference difference差异(niederste)Differenz difference ultime ultimate difference种差Ding chose thing物、事物Dinggegebenheit donne de chose physical thing data所与物、物所与性Dinglichkeit chose physical affairs, thingness物性、物质事物Dingwelt monde des choses world of physical things物质世界disjunkt disjonctif disjunctive,mutually exclusive相互排斥的、析取的Doxa 信念doxisch doxique doxi c信念的durchstreichen biffer cancel抹消echt authentique genunine真正的Echtheit authenticitégenuineness真正（性）Eidos 艾多斯、本质eidetisch eidétique eidetic 本质的Eidetik eidetique eidetics本质学eigen propre own特有的、自己的Eigenheit spécificitéownness特殊性Eigenschaft proprietéproperty特性Eigentumlichkeit trait caracteristique peculiarity特性Einbilden feindre imagine虚构，想象Einbildung fiction imagination 虚构，想象eindeutig univoque univocal单义的Einfühlung intropathie empathy 移情作用Einheit unitéunity统一（体）einheitlich unitaire unitary统一的Einklammerung mise entre parentheses parenthesizing置入括号einsehen voir avec evidence have insight into洞见，领会einseitig unilateral one-sidedly单面的Einsicht évidence intellectuelle insight洞见，领会Einstellung attitude attitude态度，观点Einstimmigkeit concordance accordance 一致（性）Einzelheit cas individuel single case, singleness单一（体）Empfindungsdata data de sensation data of sensation感觉材料Entkräftigung infirmation refutation使无效Entrechnung invalidation invalidation（使）无效Entschluss decision decision决定、决断Entstehung genèse origin产生Epoché悬置erblicken regarder regard 注视Erfahrung expérience experience经验erfassen saisir grasp把握Erfassung saisie grasping把握Erfüllung remplissement fulfilling,fulfillment 充实（化），履行，实现Erinnerung souvenir memory记忆Erkenntnis connaissance cognition认识，知识erkenntnismassig cognitif cognitional认识的erkenntnis-theoretisch epistemologique epistemological认识论的Erlebnis le vécu lived experience, mental process体验，心理经验Erlebnis-strom flux du vécu stream of experience体验流erscheinen apparaitre appear显现Erscheinung apparence appearance显现，显相erschauen voir see 看erzeugen produire produce产生Erzeugung production production产生Essenz essence essence本质Evidenz évidence evidence明证（性）Exakt exact exact精确的Extention extension extension广延faktisch de fait de facto事实性Faktizität facticitéfactualness事实性，事实因素Faktum fait fact事实fern remote distant离远的Fiktion fiction fiction 虚构，假想Fiktum fictum figment虚构fingieren feindre phantasy虚构，想象fingiert fictif phantasied虚构的fingierende Phantasie imagination creatrice inventive figment 虚构的想象Folge consequence consequence后果Folgerung consecution deduction推论Form forme form形式Formalisierung passage au formal formalization形式化Formung formation forming形成Formenlehre morphologie theory of forms形式理论fortdauern perdurer last持续fraglich problematique questionable成问题的Fülle le plein fullness充实（性）fundierend fondatrice founding根基性的fundierte Akt actes fondés founded act有根基的行为funktionellen Problemen problems fonctionnels functional problems 功能的问题Gattung genre genus属gebende Akt acte donateur giving(presentive) act给与的行为(originar) gebende Anschauung intuition donatrice originaire original giving intuition（原初）给与的直观Gebiet domaine province（领）域Gebilde formation formation,structure 形成、构成、构造Gefallen plaisir pleasure喜悦Gefühl sentiment feeling感情、情绪Gegebenheit donnée giveness,something given,data 给与性、给与物Gegennoema contre-noéme conter-noema对应意向对象Gegenstand object object对象Gegenstand schlechtin objet per se object pure and simple对象本身、纯对象gegenständlich objectif objective对象的Gegenstandlichkeit objectivitéobjectivity,something objective 对象（性）Gegenwärt présence present现在，现前gegenwärtig present present现在的Gegenwärtigung presentation presentation呈现Gegenwesen contre-essence conter-essence对应本质gegliedert articuléarticulated有分段的、分节的Gehalt contenu content内容，内包Geltung(Gultigkeit) validitélegitimacy有效（性），妥当Gemüt affectivitéemotion情绪Generalthese thèse general general thesis总设定Generalität généralisation generality 一般（性）Generalisierung généralisation generalization 一般化Gerichtetsein(auf) dirigé sur directedness to 指向Gestalt forme,figure formation,structure构形，形态Gestaltung configuration configuration构成（形成）物，构成gewahren s’apercevoir perceive attentively觉察gewährleisten garantir guarantee 保证Gewicht poids weight重（量）Gewissheit certitude certaity确定性Glaubensmodalität modalité de la croyance doxic modality 信念样态gleichsam quasi quasi准（的）Glied membre member组成项，肢Gliederung articulation articulation分节，分段Grenze limite limit界限Grenzepunkt point limite limit限制Grund fondement ground根基，基础gültig valable valid有效的Habitulität(Habitus) habitus habitus习性，习态handeln agir act行动Handelung action action行动Hintergrund arriere-plan background背景hinweisen renvoyer a point to 指示，指出Hof aire halo光晕，场地Horizont horizon horizon边缘域，视界（野），界域Hyle 质素Hyletik hyletique hyletic质素学Ich je(moi) I, ego我，自我Ichsubjekt sujet personnel Ego subject主体我Ideal 理想，观念Idee idee idea观念ideal ideal ideal观念的ideel ideel ideal观念的Ideation ideation ideation观念化，观念化作用Identifikationssynthesen syntheses d’identification identifying synthesis同一综合Immanenz immanence immanence内在（性），内在物Impression impression impression印象Inaktualität inactualiténon-actionality非实显性，非活动性individuel individuel individuel个体的Individuum individu individual个体Inhalt contenu content内容Intention intention intention意向intentional intentionnel intentional意向的Intentionalität intentionalitéintentionality意向性，意向关系Intersubjektivität intersubjectivitéintersubjectivity主体间性，主体间共同体Intuition intuition intuition直观，直觉Iteration redoublement reiteration 重复jetzt present present现在Kategorie catégorie category范畴Kern noyau core核（心）Klarheit clartéclarity明晰（性）Klärung clarification clarification阐明，澄清Kollektion collection collection集合，集聚Kolligation colligation collecting汇集kolligieren colliger collect汇集Komponent composante component组成成分Konkretum concret concretum具体项Konkretion concretion concretion具体化Konstitution constitution constitution构成Körper corps body身体，物体Körperlichkeit corporeitécorporeity身体性，物体性Korrelat correlat correlat相关项Korrelation correlation correlation相关（关系）lebendig vivant living活生生的，生动性的Leerform forme vide empty form 空形式Leervorstellung representation vide empty objectivation空表象leibhalf(ig) corporel in person机体的、身体的Mannigfaltigkeit/le divers,multiplicite/multiplicity,manifoldness多样性，复合体，集合，复多体Materie matiere material,matter质料meinen viser mean意指，意欲Meinung la visée meaning意指Menge groupe set集合Mengenlehre theorie des groupes theory of set集合论Modalität modalitémodality样态，模态Modifikation modification modification变样，改变Modus mode mode样式Möglichkeit possibilitépossibility可能性Moment moment moment因素，机因，要素monothetisch monothetique monothetic单设定的Morphe 形态Motivation motivation motivation动机Nähe proximiténearness靠近Neutralisation neutralisation neutralization中性化Neutralität neutraliténeutrality中性（体）Neutralitatsmodifikation modification de neutralite neutral modification 中性变样nichtig nul null无效的，极微的Noema noéme noema意向对象noematisch noematique noematic意向对象的Noesis noèse noesis意向作用，意向行为，意向过程Noetik noetique noetics意向行为学noetisch noetique noetics意向行为的Nominalisierung nominalisation nominalization 名词化Objekt objet object客体Objektivität objectivitéobjectivity客体（性）Objektivation objectivation objectivation客体化，对象化ontisch ontique ontic存在的Ontologie ontologie ontology本体论Operation operation operation实行，运作，程序Ordnung ordre order秩序，级次originär originaire original原初的originär gebende Erfahrung experience donatrice originaire original giving experience 原初给与的（呈现的）经验Parallelism parallelisme parallelism平行关系，类似性Passivität passivitépassivity被动性Phänomen phenomeno phenomenon现象Phantasie image phantasy想象phantasierend imageant phantasying想象着的phantasiert imaginaire phantasied想象的phantasma phantasme phantasma幻影Plural plural plural多数的polythetisch polythetique polythetic多设定的Position position position设定Positionalität positionalitépositionality设定性positionnal positionnel positional设定的potential potentiel potential潜在的Potentialität potentialitépotentiality 潜在性Prädikat prédicate predicate谓词Prädikation predication predication 述谓（作用）prädizieren prediquer predicate述谓化，论断prinzipiell de principe essential本质的、必然的、原则的Production production production产生、实行Protention protention protention预存Qualität qualitéquality性质Rationalisierung rationalisation rationalization 理性化、合理化Rationalität rationalitérationality 合理性real réel real实在的Realität realitéreality实在（性），现实Rechtsprechung juridiction legitimation判定Reduktion réduction reduction还原reell réel real,genuine 真实的Referent objet de reference referent所指者Reflexion rélexion reflection反思Regel régle rule规则Regellung regulation regulation调节Regung amorce stirring引动（者）Representation représentation representation表象，代表，再现Reproduktion reproduction reproduction再生，复现Retention rétention retention持存richten(sich) se diriger direct to指向Richtung direction direction方向Rückbeziechung rétro-reférence backward relation自反关涉Rückerinnerung rétro-souvenir reminiscence回忆Sache chose matter,matter in question事物，有关问题，真正问题sachhaltig ayant un contenu having material content 实质的Sachlage situation state of affairs状态，事况，所谈事项sachlich objective,concret material有关的，事物的，事实上的Sachlichkeit ensemble de choses materiality 全体事情，事物性Sachverhalt état de chose state of affairs事态Satz proposition proposition命题Schachtelung emboitement encasement套接Schatten ombre shadow影子Schauen voir see看、注视Schein simulacre illusion假象Schichte couche stratum层Schichtungen stratification stratification分层sehen voir see看Sein être being存在Seinscharakter caractere d’etre character of being存在特性Selbst soi-meme it itself自身selbständig independant independent独立的Selbstbeobachtung introspection self-observation 自省Setzung position position,positing设定Sichtighaben avoir un apercu sighting察看Singularität singularite singularity单个性、单个体Sinn sens sense意义Sinnesdaten data sensuels sense-data感觉材料Sinngebung donnation de sens sense-bestowing 意义给与Sinnlichkeit sensibilitésensuality感性Spezialität specification specificity 特殊性Spezies espéce species种Spontanetät spontanéitéspontaneite自发性Steigerung accroissement enhancement增加Stellungnahme prise de position position-taking采取设定Stoff matiére material质料，素材Strahl rayon ray射线Struktur structure structure结构Stück fragment piece片断，部分Stufe niveau level,degree 层阶，段，度Stufenbildung hierarchie hierarchical formation层阶系统Subjekt sujet subject主体Subjektivität subjectivitésubjectivity主体（性）Substrat substrat substrat基底Synkategorematika syncategorematique syncategorems互依词，非独立词Syntax syntaxe syntax句法Synthesis synthese synthesis综合（设定）Tatsache fait fact事实Teil partie component部分Thema thème theme主题，论题Thematisierung thematisation thematization主题化Thesis these thesis设定，论题thetisch thetique theti c设定的Transzendenz transcendance transcendence超验（者），超越transzendental transcendantal transcendental先验的treu fidel true忠实的Triebe impulsion impulse冲动triftig valide valid有效的Triftigkeit validite validity有效性tun agir do 做，行动Typik typologie set of types类型分化Umfang extension sphere,extention范围，外延Umformung transformation transformation变形，转换unselbständig dependant dependant从属的，非独立的Unterschicht intrastructure lower stratrum基层，基础结构Unverträglichkeit incompatibilitéincompatibility不相容性Ur-aktualität proto-actualitéproto-autuality原现实Urdoxa croyance-mere proto-doxa原信念Urform forme-mere primitive mode原形式Urmodus mode-primitif primitive mode原样式Ursprung origine origin起始，始源，根源Urteil jugement judgment判断V erallgemeinerung generalisation universalization普遍化V erdunkelung obscurcissement darkening暗化V ereinzelung individuation singularzation单一化V erflechtung entrelacement combination联结体，介入，交织V ergegenständlichung objectivation objectification再现，对象化V ergegenwärtigung presentification presentiation,re-presentation再现，现前化V erhalt état de chose state of affairs事态V erknüpfung liasion connexion联结（体）vermeinen viser mean意志，意念vermuteng conjecture deeming likely 推测V ernichtung aneantissement annihilation消除V ernunft raison reason理性V ernunftigkeit rationalitérationality理性，合理性V erworrenheit confusion confusion含混V orerinnerung pro-souvenir anticipation预期记忆V orfindlichkeit faits decouverts facts呈现物，事物V ollständig integral complete完全的vorschwebend flotte en suspens hover before us 浮动的V orstellung représentation objectivation,representation观念，表象，呈现vorzeichnen prescrire prescribe指示vollziehen opérer effect实行，运行V ollzug opération operation实行，运行waches Ich moi vigilant waking ego醒觉自我wahr vrai true真的wahrnehmbar perceptible perceivable可知觉的Wahrnehmung perception perception知觉Wandlung mutation change改变Weise mode manner方式Wert(sach)verhalt etat de valeur value-complex 价值事态Wertung evaluation evaluation评价Wesen essence essence本质Wesensbestand fonds eidetique essential composition本质构成因素Wesenserschauung intuition de l’essence seeing essence本质看Wesensverhalt relation essentielle eidetic relationship本质事态Widersinn absurditéabsurdity悖谬Wiedererinnerung resouvenir recollection重忆wirklich reel actual现实的，真实的，实在的Wirklichkeit realitéactuality现实，真实，实在wissen savoir know知道wollen vouloir will意愿Wortlaut mot prononcésound of words字音Wunsch souhait wish愿望Zeichen signe sign记号Zeit temts time时间Zeitbewusstsein conscience de temps consciousness of time时间意识zufällig contingent accidental偶然的Zusammengehörigkeit appartennance belongingness together关联性，相关Zusammenhang connexion connexion,interconnexion关联体，关联域zusammenhängend coherent coherent一致的Zusammenschliessen(sich) s’agréger join together聚合Zustand etat state状态Zustimmung assentiment assent同意zuwenden(sich) se tourner turn to 朝向Zuwendung conversion turning towards朝向Zweifel doute doubt 怀疑。

Automatic Semantic Classification of German Preposition Types_ Comparing Hard and Soft Clustering

Automatic Semantic Classiﬁcation of German Preposition Types: Comparing Hard and Soft Clustering Approaches across FeaturesMaximilian K¨o per and Sabine Schulte im WaldeInstitut f¨u r Maschinelle SprachverarbeitungUniversit¨a t Stuttgart,Germany{maximilian.koeper,schulte}@ims.uni-stuttgart.deAbstractThis paper addresses an automatic clas-siﬁcation of preposition types in Ger-man,comparing hard and soft cluster-ing approaches and various window-andsyntax-based co-occurrence features.Weshow that(i)the semantically most sali-ent preposition features(i.e.,subcategor-ised nouns)are the most successful,andthat(ii)soft clustering approaches are re-quired for the task but reveal quite differ-ent attitudes towards predicting ambiguity.1IntroductionIn the last decades,an impressive number of se-mantic classiﬁcations has been developed,both regarding manual lexicographic and/or cognitive classiﬁcations such as WordNet(Fellbaum,1998), FrameNet(Fillmore et al.,2003),VerbNet(Kip-per Schuler,2006)and PrepNet/The Preposition Project(Litkowski and Hargraves,2005;Saint-Dizier,2005),as well as regarding computational classiﬁcations for nouns(Hindle,1990;Pereira et al.,1993;Snow et al.,2006),verbs(Merlo and Stevenson,2001;Korhonen et al.,2003;Schulte im Walde,2006)and adjectives(Hatzivassiloglou and McKeown,1993;Boleda et al.,2012). Semantic classiﬁcations are of great interest to computational linguistics,speciﬁcally regarding the pervasive problem of data sparseness in the processing of natural language.Such classiﬁca-tions have been used in applications such as word sense disambiguation(Dorr and Jones,1996;Ko-homban and Lee,2005;McCarthy et al.,2007), parsing(Carroll et al.,1998;Carroll and Fang, 2004),machine translation(Prescher et al.,2000; Koehn and Hoang,2007;Weller et al.,2014), and information extraction(Surdeanu et al.,2003; Venturi et al.,2009).Regarding prepositions,comparably little ef-fort in computational semantics has gone beyond a speciﬁc choice of prepositions(such as spa-tial prepositions),towards a systematic classiﬁca-tion of preposition senses,as in The Preposition Project(Litkowski and Hargraves,2005).Dis-tributional approaches towards preposition mean-ing and sense distinction have only recently star-ted to explore salient preposition features,but with few exceptions(such as Baldwin(2006))these ap-proaches focused on token-based classiﬁcation of preposition senses(Ye and Baldwin,2006;O’Hara and Wiebe,2009;Tratz and Hovy,2009;Hovy et al.,2010;Hovy et al.,2011).This paper addresses an automatic classiﬁcation of preposition types in German,comparing vari-ous clustering approaches.We aim for an unsuper-vised setting that does not require predeﬁned ex-pensive resources,such as a token-based annota-tion of preposition senses.Our task is challenging, because(i)prepositions are notoriously ambigu-ous,(ii)the interpretation of out-of-context pre-position type classiﬁcation is more difﬁcult than context-embedded token interpretation,(iii)there are no established lexical resources for type-based semantic classiﬁcation other than for English,and (iv)there are no established evaluation measures for ambiguous linguistic classiﬁcations.We ac-cept the challenges,identify salient preposition features,and demonstrate the inevitability to ap-ply soft(rather than hard)clustering in order to explore linguistic ambiguity.2Experiments2.1Preposition DataIn the absence of any large-scale semantic hier-archical type classiﬁcation,the German grammar book by Helbig and Buscha(1998)represents our gold standard.We selected those prepositionClass Sizelokal’local’27modal’modal’24temporal’temporal’21kausal’causal’5distributiv’distributive’6ﬁnal’ﬁnal’4urheber’creator’3konditional’conditional’3ersatz’replacement’2restriktiv’restrictive’2partitiv’partitive’2kopulativ’copulative’2Table1:Preposition classes. classes that contained more than one preposition, and deleted prepositions that appeared<10,000 times in our web corpus containing880million words(cf.Section2.2).This selection process resulted in12semantic classes covering between 2and27prepositions each(cf.Table1),and a moreﬁne-grained version that sub-divided the three largest classes’local’,’modal’and’tem-poral’into6/10/7sub-classes,respectively,and resulted in a total of32classes.12The preposi-tions in theﬁne-grained version exhibit ambiguity rates of1(monosemous)up to10.Out of the49 preposition types,23are polysemous(46.9%). 2.2Preposition FeaturesThe corpus-based features for the German pre-positions were induced from the SdeWaC corpus (Faaßand Eckart,2013),a cleaned version of the German web corpus deWaC(Baroni et al.,2009) containing approx.880million words.We com-pare three categories of distributional features: (1)bag-of-words window co-occurrence fea-tures:we apply a standard bag-of-words model(BOW)relying on a window of2words to the left and to the right,and a continuous bag-of-words model(CBOW)using negative sampling with K=15(Mikolov et al.,2013);(2)direct syntactic dependency:we compare themost salient preposition-related dependencies: preposition-subcategorised nouns(nouns-dep,e.g.,in Buch‘in book’),preposition-subcategorising nouns(nouns-gov, e.g., Buch von‘book by’),and preposition-subcategorising verbs(verbs-gov,e.g.,reisen nach‘to travel to’);1While we also conducted experiments using the coarse-grained class distribution in Table1,the experiments in this paper focus on theﬁne-grained inventory.2The gold standard was previously used in Springorum et al.(2013)and in K¨o per and Schulte im Walde(2014).(3)2nd-order syntactic co-occurrence:adject-ives that modify nouns subcategorised by the prepositions,and adverbs that modify verbs subcategorising the prepositions.The dependency information was extracted from a parsed version of the SdeWaC using Bo-hnet’s MATE dependency parser(Bohnet,2010; Scheible et al.,2013).All but the CBOW fea-tures were weighted according to positive point-wise mutual information.2.3Clustering ApproachesAs we wanted to explore hard vs.soft clustering approaches on the same task,we chose k-Means as a standard hard clustering approach(relying on W EKA’s spherical k-Means implementation),and compared it to various soft clustering approaches. We transfered the hard k-Means cluster ana-lyses to soft cluster analyses,using two alternat-ive methods.(1)The prep-based soft k-Means method(Springorum et al.,2013)calculated the mean cosine distance¯d for each preposition p to the centroids z c of the clusters c,and assigned a preposition to a speciﬁc cluster if its distance to the respective cluster centroid was below a threshold t multiplied with the mean distance, with t=0.05,0.1,0.15,...,0.95.Additionally, (2)we propose a hard-to-soft clustering transfer prob-based soft k-Means that converts the cosine distances between the prepositions and the hard cluster centroids to membership probabilities. Instead of transferring a hard clustering to a soft clustering we also directly applied soft clustering approaches:(1)The fuzzy c-Means algorithm ex-tends k-means by a cluster membership function for each preposition,f m∈[0,1].(2)We applied Latent Semantic Clustering(LSC),an instance of the Expectation-Maximisation(EM)algorithm (Baum,1972)for unsupervised training on un-annotated data(Rooth et al.,1999).The cluster analyses deﬁne two-dimensional soft clusters(in our case:preposition–feature clusters)with cluster membership probabilities,which are able to gener-alise over hidden data.(3)We used Non-negative matrix factorization(NMF),a factorisation ap-proach with an inherent(soft)clustering property (Ding et al.,2005).All variants of our hard-to-soft clustering approaches and the direct soft clustering ap-proaches(except for k-Means/prep)3resulted in a 3k-Means/prep directly provides binary membership.preposition–cluster membership matrix with val-ues∈[0,1].We transfered the real member-ship values to binary membership by applying a threshold t to decide about the cluster member-ship,again with t=0.05,0.1,0.15,...,0.95.For each clustering approach and for each number of clusters k we then identiﬁed the best threshold.2.4EvaluationWe chose the fuzzy extension of B-Cubed(Bagga and Baldwin,1998)as evaluation measure,be-cause it is(a)a pair-wise evaluation,which is con-sidered as most suitable for soft clustering eval-uations,and(b)distinguishes between homogen-eity and completeness of a clustering,and thus resembles an evaluation by precision and recall. Amig´o et al.(2009)demonstrated the strengths of B-Cubed,and a similar version has been used in SemEval2013for Word Sense Induction(Jurgens and Klapaftis,2013).Pair-wise precision P determines the homogen-eity of a cluster analysis,by calculating for each individual preposition p the amount of preposi-tions p in the same cluster c that also belong to the same gold-standard class g,cf.Equation(1). Pair-wise recall R determines the completeness of a cluster analysis,by calculating for each indi-vidual preposition p the amount of prepositions p in the same gold-standard class g that also belong to the same cluster c,cf.Equation(2).The over-all B-Cubed precision and recall scores are the av-erages over all preposition-wise scores.We com-bined precision and recall by their harmonic mean, the f-score.P(p,p )=min(|c(p)∩c(p )|,|g(p)∩g(p )||c(p)∩c(p )|(1)R(p,p )=min(|c(p)∩c(p )|,|g(p)∩g(p )||g(p)∩g(p )|(2) 2.5BaselinesWe created two baselines for our preposition clus-terings:The hard baseline was computed for every number of clusters k=[5,40].For each k, each preposition was randomly assigned to one of the k clusters,and the resulting hard cluster ana-lysis was evaluated.The hard cluster assignments were repeated1,000times for each k,and the over-all evaluation score for k clusters is the average score of the1,000runs.The soft baseline was also created by random assignment across1,000runs for each k,but–integrating the fuzzy component–each preposition was assigned to n clusters,with n a random number between1and the number of gold-standard classes for that speciﬁc preposi-tion.Note that this baseline is more informed than an entirely random baseline,because the informa-tion about the number of gold-standard classes for each preposition is very helpful.For example,the baseline assigns monosemous prepositions to only one cluster,and prepositions with three senses to a random integer in[1,3].3ResultsFigure1compares the fuzzy B-Cubed f-score val-ues across the hard and soft clustering approaches, relying on the preposition-subcategorised nouns as one of the best features(cf.Figure2below). The plot demonstrates that(i)the hard k-Means clustering approach is the only one resulting in f-scores below the soft baseline,while(ii)the vast majority of soft clustering results lies above the soft baseline.Furthermore,(iii)there is a clear tendency for all soft clustering approaches to provide the best f-scores for similar values of k clusters:15≤k≤19.The overall best result is reached by NMF for a clustering with17clusters. Figure2compares the f-scores across feature types,relying on NMF as the best clustering approach.The plot conﬁrms that(i)–across features–,the vast majority of soft clustering res-ults lies above the soft baseline.In addition,(ii)in the previously most successful range for15≤k≤19clusters,the preposition-subcategorised nouns represent the best features.(iii)The best cluster analyses relying on window vs.syntax features are similarly successful,and outperform2nd-order co-occurrence features.We checked the overall best cluster analysis (NMF,k=17,nouns-dep)on the predicted de-gree of ambiguity(cf.Figure3):for23out of the 26monosemous prepositions,we correctly pre-dicted one preposition sense;for7out of the23 polysemous prepositions,we predicted the cor-rect number of senses;for9out of the23poly-semous prepositions,we predicted less senses than the gold standard deﬁnes;and for7out of the 23polysemous prepositions,we predicted more senses than the gold standard deﬁnes.Our best soft-clustering approach to the prepos-ition classiﬁcation task thus demonstrates its use-fulness through quantitative B-Cubed evaluation and through reliable predictions of ambiguity.Number of clustersFigure 1:Fuzzy B-Cubed f-score using the subcategorised noun feature set (nouns-dep),acrosssoft clustering approaches.Number of clustersFigure 2:Fuzzy B-Cubed f-score using NMF soft clustering,across feature sets.a u fb e i i n f ür a n b i s m i t v o n z u a u s s e r d u rc h o h n e üb e r a u s n a c h u m u n t e r v o r z w i s c h e n a b g e g e n i n n e r h a l b n e b e n a a l s a u s s e r h a l b b i n n e nd a n k ge g e n üb e r g e m äs s h i n t e r i nf o lg e i n m i t t e n j e l a u t m i t t e l s p e r p r o s a m t s e i t s e i t e n s s t a t t u n f e r n u n t e rh a l b w äh r e n d w e g e n wi e z u g u n s t e n z u l i e b e24681012#s e n s e sFigure 3:Predicting polysemy across prepositions (NMF,k =17,nouns-dep ).4DiscussionWhile the results in the previous section demon-strate the success of the type-based clustering, we were interested in two speciﬁc questions:(i) Where do the differences in the quality of the cluster analyses come from?(ii)Do the best cluster analyses present linguistically reliable and useful semantic classes?From a quantitative point of view,both ques-tions have been addressed by the evaluation meas-ure,fuzzy B-Cubed,which we chose for reasons outlined in Section2.4.One should keep in mind, however,that there is an ongoing discussion about cluster comparison and cluster evaluation(Meila, 2007;Rosenberg and Hirschberg,2007;Vinh and Bailey,2010;Utt et al.,2014),which demonstrates uncertainty about an optimal measure,and which concerns us,expecially regarding the linguistic as-pects of soft clustering.In the following,we there-fore provide qualitative analyses and discussions of the cluster approaches and analyses. Ambiguity rate of soft-clustering approaches: We looked into the best cluster analysis for each soft-clustering approach,and checked the ambi-guities.While the number of preposition types in the cluster analyses is similar across approaches (between44and48),the ambiguity rate(i.e., the number of cluster assignments per preposi-tion type)and the number of ambiguous prepos-ition types(i.e.,the number of prepositions as-signed to more than one cluster)differ strongly. For example,k-Means/prob and NMF perform an average of3.1/3.7assignments for each preposi-tion,in comparison to2.2–2.4assignments by the other approaches.On the other hand,while k-Means/prob deﬁnes almost all preposition types (43out of48)as ambiguous,NMF only deﬁnes28 out of46prepositions as ambiguous.NMF(best approach)thus shows a high ambiguity rate,but only60%of the prepositions are ambiguous. Cluster sizes:Looking into the actual cluster analyses reveals that the sizes and the structures within the individual clusters differ strongly.The best k-Means/prep and k-Means/prob analyses (k=16,F=0.33,and k=19,F=0.34),for example,each contain7large clusters with10–25 prepositions.All other clusters contain only1–3 prepositions.In comparison,the best NMF ana-lysis(k=17,F=0.43)contains only one cluster with three prepositions,and all other clusters but one contain≥5and≤14prepositions.The cluster sizes of the best NMF analysis are there-fore more homogeneous than for other clustering approaches.Optimal k:While fuzzy B-Cubed determined the numbers of clusters[15,19]as optimal for the soft-clustering approaches,we also looked into the NMF cluster analysis with k=32,with NMF as the best approach and32as the number of gold standard classes.The clusters are,again,very sim-ilar in size,including only one singleton and only one cluster with9prepositions.All other clusters contain2−6prepositions.The smaller cluster sizes allow manual evaluations.We can indeed ﬁnd reliable semantic clusters,such as{an,auf, hinter,in,mit,nach,neben,um,vor},where7out of9prepositions belong to the gold-standard class local:not target-oriented containing a total of12 prepositions.5ConclusionWe presented variants of hard and soft clus-tering approaches across several sets of pre-position features,to automatically classify pre-position types into semantic classes.While type-based classiﬁcations for highly ambiguous word classes are a computational challenge,our best approach(NMF-based classiﬁcation with17 clusters)reached an f-score of0.43.The clus-tering experiments showed that(i)the semantic-ally most salient preposition features are indeed the most successful,and that(ii)the clustering of highly ambiguous words requires soft rather than hard clustering approaches.Most interestingly,a qualitative analysis zoomed into the assignment behaviour of the soft clustering approaches,and revealed different attitudes towards predicting ambiguity.NMF as the best approach predicted a high ambiguity rate but only for a restricted proportion of60%of the preposition types.Furthermore,the distribution of cluster sizes was less skewed than for other approaches.AcknowledgmentsThe research was supported by the DFG Re-search Project“Distributional Approaches to Se-mantic Relatedness”(Maximilian K¨o per)and the DFG Heisenberg Fellowship SCHU-2580/1 (Sabine Schulte im Walde).ReferencesEnrique Amig´o,Julio Gonzalo,Javier Artiles,and Fel-isa Verdejo.2009.A Comparison of Extrinsic Clus-tering Evaluation Metrics Based on Formal rmation Retrieval,12(4):461–486. 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洪堡的普通语言学

洪堡的普通语言学洪堡的普通语言学（Humboldtian linguistics）是指19世纪德国语言学家威廉·冯·洪堡（Wilhelm von Humboldt）对语言学的一系列贡献和理论观点。

他的研究以语言的内在结构和功能为主要内容，强调语言与文化、思维和个体的紧密联系。

洪堡认为语言不仅是一种交流工具，而且也反映了人类的认知方式和精神世界。

他提出的语言观念成为了后世语言研究的重要基础，对20世纪语言学以及人文学科的发展都产生了深远的影响。

洪堡的语言观点主要包括以下几个方面：语言的内在结构、语言的功能、语言和思维的关系、语言与文化的关系。

下面我们将分别介绍这些方面。

洪堡强调语言的内在结构。

他认为语言不是简单的词汇和语法规则的组合，而是由一系列具有内在联系的要素构成的复杂系统。

这些要素包括语音、词汇、句法等，它们之间相互作用，共同构成了语言的结构。

要想深入理解一种语言，就需要研究这些要素之间的内在关系和相互影响。

洪堡提出了语言的功能理论。

他认为，语言不仅仅是一种交流工具，更重要的是反映了人类的思维方式和认知能力。

他强调语言和思维之间的密切关系，认为语言的结构和词汇表达了人类对世界的认识和理解。

要想深入了解一种语言，就需要从它的功能角度出发，探究它是如何反映人类思维和认知的。

洪堡还强调了语言与文化的关系。

他认为，语言不仅仅是一种交流工具，更是文化的表现形式。

不同的语言反映了不同民族的历史、传统、价值观等。

要想深入了解一种语言，就需要从它所处的文化背景出发，探究它是如何反映特定文化的。

洪堡的普通语言学在当时引起了很大的反响，对后世语言学的发展产生了重大影响。

他的理论对20世纪后期的结构主义、功能主义等语言学流派产生了深远影响。

他的理论也对人文学科的发展产生了深远的影响，影响了人类学、社会学、哲学等学科的发展。

洪堡的普通语言学提出了一种新的语言观念，强调了语言的内在结构和功能，探讨了语言和思维、文化之间的关系。

若干语言学术语的德英汉称谓分析

ＣｈｎｓｒｎｌｔｏｆＳｖｒｌＬｎｕｓｉｅｍｓｉｅｅＴａｓａｉｎｏｅｅａｉｇｉｔＴｒｃ
ＣＨＥＮｉＨｕ
Ａｂｔａｔｗｅｔｉｇｕｓｉｅｍｓａｅｃｏｅｓｅａｓｒｃ：ＴｎｙｌｎｉｃｔｒｒｈｓｎａｘｍｐｌｓｆｒｔｉｐｐｒＴｅｒＧｅｒｎ，ｎｉｈｎｔｅｏｈｓａｅ．ｈｉｍａＥｇｌａｄｓ
术语相关但并非语言学范畴的术语（Ｇａｍ如ｒ — ｍ
收稿日期：０１一ｌ２２１Ｏ一８
作者简介：陈辉（９Ｏ）男，１７一，天津人，博士生，南开大学外国语学院讲师，研究方向为翻译学、术语学、言使用及语言规划语等。通信方式：ａｋｉｅｃｅｈｉｈｔａｌｃｎ。ｎｎａ— ｒｈｎｕ＠ｏｉｏｇｍ・ｍ．
ｔｉａｉ，ｓｍｅｔｒｉｏｏｙｔａｓａｉｎｐｒｂｌｍｓａｅｄｓｕｓｄ．ｈｓｂｓｓｏｅｍｎｌｇｒｎｌｔｏｅｒｉｃｓｅｏＫｅｒｓ：ｔｒｎｌｇｙｗｏｄｅｍｉｏｏｙ，ｌｇｉｔｓ，ｔａｓａｉｎ，Ｇｅｍａｉｕｓｉｎｃｒｎｌｔｏｒｎ，Ｅｇｌｈｎｉｓ
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中国科技术语／０２年第１期２１
应两个以上德语称谓，比如汉语 “ 位 ” 应德语法对Ｇａｍｍ、ａｍｍ，语 “ 素 ” 应德语Ｌｘｍ、ｒｍｅＴｇｅ汉词对ｅｅＭｏｐｅ汉语 “ ｒｈｍ，义素 ” 应德语ＰｅｅＳｍｍ．对ｌｒｍ、ｅｅ汉

从汉英亲属称谓浅谈_萨丕尔_沃尔夫假说_

从汉英亲属称谓浅谈‘萨丕尔———沃尔夫假说’朱俊虹（电子科技大学外国语学院，四川成都610054）摘要：‘萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说’是语言学上关于语言，思维和文化之间关系的重要理论，引起了人们的普遍关注以及研究。

本文从汉英亲属称谓之间的差异出发，试图探讨‘萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说’中有关语言以及思维之间的关系。

汉英亲属称谓的差异主要取决于不同社会环境中的文化差异以及社会需求，并不反映汉英两族人民在分类和表达能力上的差异。

关键词：萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说，语言相对论，中英亲属称谓中图分类号：A93文献标识码：A文章编号：1673-2111（2011）02-0100-011‘萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说’概述沃尔夫作为一家公司的防火保险员，在日常的许多火灾分析报告中发现语言概念是导致火灾的一个重大因素。

标有‘空’的汽油桶比‘满’汽油桶更容易引起火灾。

人们在‘满’汽油桶旁边小心翼翼，而在‘空’汽油桶旁边则肆无忌惮的乱扔烟蒂。

人们行为如此无疑是受到了语言概念‘空’和‘满’的影响。

沃尔夫通过对中墨西哥，霍皮语，美印第安人等的考察研究，从其老师萨丕尔的语言学理论出发，提出了有关于语言与思维关系的论点。

50年代中期，卡罗尔将其理论成为‘萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说’即语言绝对论或语言相对论。

该理论包含两个方面的内容：语言绝对论即强势说，语言决定思维，语言不同的人其思维方式也完全不同，过去强调语言对思维的影响；语言相对论即弱势说，语言的范畴化影响思维，是影响思维的重要因素，语言不同人们对客观世界的认识也不同。

‘萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说’是语言学上关于语言，思维和文化之间关系的重要理论，对语言学，人类学，语言教学等各个领域都有很深远的影响，引起了人们的普遍关注以及研究。

不同学者通过研究来支持或反对‘萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说’，但至今仍为达成一致意见，但大部分学者都承认语言相对论而否定语言绝对论。

总的说来，‘萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说’具有重大的理论意义，对解决语言和思维关系这一古老的话题有很大的促进和启示作用。

64曲阜师范大学2020年成人高等教育《英语词汇学》复习资料期末考试试题及参考答案

《英语词汇学》复习资料1Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words.1.The 1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the Englishlanguage.3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with fromtwo different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach.4.“Mal-” in “maltreat” is a 4 prefix, while “inter-” in “ interstate” is a 5 prefix.5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle English language of 6endings, and a language of 7 endings.6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggest their meaning,for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, and the later hastwo components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning.8.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or 12 .9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation.10.14 is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus apart of another word.11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, andoutsiders can hardly understand it.12.“Pretty” and “handsome” share the same 16 meaning，but differ in 17 meaning.13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimalcomponents which are also known as semantic features..14.Radiation and 19 are the two coinages which the development of word meaningfollows from monosemy to polysemy.15.20 deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a more specific word isincluded in that of another more general word.Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true” and F for “false”.1.Homonyms are descendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a word of the samesource which has acquired different meanings in the course of development.2.Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, so they havestrong productivity.3.“Can-opener” used as slang to mean “all-purpose key”.4.Native words are neutral in style.5.The Indo-European language family is made up of most languages of Europe, the Far East, andIndia.6.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of English vocabulary, particularly inearlier times.7.The smallest functioning unit in the composition of words is morpheme.8.Stem is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.9.Base is what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.10.Words created by compounding occupy the highest percentage of the English vocabulary.11.“Fore-” in “forehead” and “fore-” in “foreknowledge” belong to two kinds of prefix.12.Word-building and word-formation are relative synonyms.13.The word manusc ript which originally denotes “handwriting” only has undergone a process ofextension of meaning.14.Parent—child and husband—wife are two pairs of converses.15.Policeman, constable, bobby and cop are synonyms differing in intensity.Ⅲ. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What are the characteristics of the basic word stock?2.Why are prefixes and suffixes divided according to different criteria?3.List the four sources of synonyms.4.What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?Ⅳ. Answer the following questions according to the requirement.Classify the three pairs of antonyms according to types of antonyms you have learned and describe the characteristics of each type of them.interviewer/interviewee; male/female; old /young答案I．Fill in the blanks.1. morpheme2. denizens3. diachronic4. pejorative5. locative6. leveled7. lost8. onomatopoeic9. grammatical 10.lexical11.associative 12. pejorative 13. backformation 14. blending 15.argot 16. conceptual 17. collocative 18. componential 19. concatenation 20.hyponymyII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true” and F for “false”.1-5 TTTFT 6-10 TFFFT 11-15 TFFTFIII.Answer the following questions briefly.1.What are the characteristics of the basic word stock?1)All national character 2) stability 3) productivity 4) polysemy 5)collocability2.Why are prefixes and suffixes divided according to different criteria?1)Prefixes primarily effect a semantic modification of the base, i.e. prefixes do not generallychange the word-class of the base but only modify its meaning.2)Suffixes have only a small semantic role and their primary function is to change thegrammatical function of the base, i.e. the change of the word class with a slight modification of meaning.3)So prefixes are categorized on a semantic basis while suffixes are divided on a grammaticalbasis.3.1)Borrowing; (2) dialects and regional English (3) figurative and euphemistic use of words(4) coincidence with idiomatic expressions4.What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?1)Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of wordmeaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to the speakers in the same speech community. (3%)2)Associative meaning differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended andindeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion,geographical region, class background, education, etc…（3%）Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1.1)Interviewer& interviewee are converses; male & female are complementaries; old &young are contraries.2)Complementaries truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposite to eachother that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other or vice versa. Complementaries are nongradable, and they cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them.3)Contraries are gradable antonyms. The existence of one is in relation to the other. We cansay: A man is rich or very rich and also we can say a man is rich than the other. Contraries are characteristic of semantic polarity. These antonyms form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belonging neither to one pole nor to the other.4)Converses consist of relational opposites. The pairs of words indicate reciprocal socialrelationships that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other. It also includes reverse terms, which comprise adjectives and adverbs signifying a quality or verbs and nouns signifying an act or state that reverse or undo the quality, action or state of the other.复习资料2I. 单选题1. In the sentence “I like to see a movie.”, there are ________ functional words.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 52. Conversion is amethod________________________.A. of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speechB. of converting words of one meaning into different meaningC. of deriving words through grammatical meansD. of changing words in morphological structure3. The following words have derivational affixes EXCEPT ________________.A. subseaB. prewarC. postwarD. desks4. Which of the following statements is false?A. Conversion refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.B. Words mainly involved in conversion are nouns, verbs and adverbs.C. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectiveswhen converted to nouns.D. The conversion between nouns and verbs may involve a change of stress.5. _________ is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.A. Grammatical meaningB. Denotative meaningC. Associative meaningD. Connotative meaning6. The words what have emotive content in themselves are said to contain __ meaning.A. collocativeB. affectiveC. stylisticD. denotative7. __________ explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.A. Etymological motivationB. Onomatopoetic motivationC. Morphological motivationD. Semantic motivation8. The following words have inflectional affixes EXCEPT __________.A. worksB. workerC. workingD. worked9. “Smog”is formed by combining “smoke”and “fog”. So it is an example ofA. clippingB. compoundingC. blendingD. back-formation10. The word “smog”is created by blending, with the structure of __________.A. head + tailB. head + headC. head + wordD. word + tail11. The most important mode of vocabulary development in present-day English is the creation of new words by means of ________________.A. translation-loansB. emantic loansC. word formationD. borrowings12. Which of the following belongs to a semantic field?A. steed, charger, palfrey, plug, nagB. pony, mustang, mule, stud, mareC. policeman, constable, bobby, copD. domicile, residence, abode, home13. Words which are used to show the attitude of approval are ________________.A. appreciativeB. pejorativeC. conntativeD. collocative14. General features of English contains the following except _________.A. simplicityB. receptivityC. adaptabilityD. imprssiveness15. The most productive means of word-formation in modern English are the following except .A. compoundingB. affixationC. acronymD. conversionII判断题1. The Indo-European language family is made up of most languages of Europe, the Far East, andIndia. （）2. The word manusc ript which originally denotes “handwriting” only has undergone a process ofextension of meaning. （）3. The beginning of the Middle English Period was marked by the Norman Conquest which broughtmany Latin words into the English language. （）4. Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, so they have strongproductivity. （）5. Grammatical meaning or a word includes part of speech, tense meaning, and stylistic coloring.（）6. Words created by compounding occupy the highest percentage of the English vocabulary. （）7. The marked term of each pair of antonyms covers the sense of the unmarked term. （）8. Policeman, constable, bobby and cop are synonyms differing in intensity. （）9. Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of English vocabulary, particularly inearlier times. （）10. “Radiation” shows that the derived mea nings of a polysemantic word are not directly related tothe primary meaning. （）III简答题1. What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?2. List different types of associative meaning and define them.答案I． 1-5 AADDB 6-10 BDBCA 11-15 CBADCⅡ. 1-5 TFFTF 6-10 TFFTFⅢ. 1. What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to the speakers in the same speech community. Associativemeaning differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc…2. List different types of associative meaning and define them.Explain different types of homonyms with examples.Perfect homonyms are known as absolute homonyms, and they are words identical both in sound and spelling. E.g bear (to put up with) and bear (a kind of fruit) Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. sow (to scatter seeds) and sow (female adult pig)Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear ( a loved person) and deer (a kind of an animal)复习资料3I．Fill in the blanks.Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words.1.The __1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the Englishlanguage.3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt withfrom two different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach.4.“Mal” in “maltreat” is a 4 prefix, while “inter-” in “ interstate” is a 5_ prefix.5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle English language of___6__endings, and a language of __7__ endings.6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggest their meaning,for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, and the later hastwo components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning.8.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or __12 .9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation.10.___14__ is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus apart of another word.11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, andoutsiders can hardly understand it.12.“Pretty” and “handsome” share the same _16_ meaning, but differ in _17_ meaning.13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimalcomponents which are also known as semantic features.14.Radiation and ___19___ are the two coinages which the development of word meaningfollows from monosemy to polysemy.15.__20____deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a more specific word isincluded in that of another more general word.Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write T or F on the answer sheet:1.Homonyms come mainly from borrowing, changes in sound and spelling, and dialects.2.“Radiation” shows that the derived meanings of a polysemantic word are not directly related tothe primary meaning.3.Borrowing is a very important source of synonyms.4. A word which has a synonym naturally has an antonym.5.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.6.Motivation explains the connection between the linguistic form and its meaning.7.Grammatical meaning or a word includes part of speech, tense meaning, and stylistic coloring.8.The origins of the words are a key factor in distinguishing homonyms from polysemants.9.The marked term of each pair of antonyms covers the sense of the unmarked term.10.If the words differ in range and intensity of meaning, the words are not identical in denotation.11.The beginning of the Middle English Period was marked by the Norman Conquest whichbrought many Latin words into the English language.ponential analysis is to break down. the conceptual sense of a word into its minimaldistinctive components.13.Celtic language made great contributions to the expansion of the English vocabulary.14.Native words enjoy the same features as the basic word stock and more.15.Shortening includes clipping and blending.Ⅲ. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes in terms of free and bound morphemes.unbearable international ex-prisoner.2. How would you explain the difference between back formation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point.3. List different types of associative meaning and define them.4. Explain different types of homonyms with examples.Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1. What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants?答案I．Fill in the blanks.1. morpheme2. denizens3. diachronic4. pejorative5. locative6. leveled7. lost8. onomatopoeic9. grammatical 10. lexical 11.associative 12. pejorative 13. backformation 14. blending 15. argot 16. conceptual 17. collocative 18. componential 19. concatenation 20. hyponymyⅡ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write T or F in the brackets: 1．F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6. T 7.F 8.T 9.F 10.T 11.F 12. F 13. F 14. T 15. TⅢ. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes in terms of free and bound morphemes.unbearable international ex-prisoner.un+bear+able:(1)‘bear’ is a free morpheme, and ‘un’, ‘able’are bound morphemes.inter+nation+al: ‘nation’ is a free morpheme, and ‘inter, al’ are bound morphemes.ex+prison+er: ‘prison’ is a free morpheme, and ‘ex, er’ are bound morphemes.2. How would you explain the difference between back formation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point.1)Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.2)Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases.3)Backformation is therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes, socalled because many of the removed endings are not suffixes but inseparable parts of the word.4)For example, it is a common practice to add –er, -or to verb bases to form agential nouns.5)Reasonably, people make verbs by dropping the ending such as –or in editor, -ar in beggar and–er in butler.3. List different types of associative meaning and define them.1)Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptualmeaning, traditionally known as connotations.2)Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles.3)Affective meaning expresses the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.4)Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings ofwords which tend to occur in its environment.4. Explain different types of homonyms with examples.(1)Perfect homonyms are known as absolute homonyms, and they are words identical both insound and spelling. E.g bear (to put up with) and bear (a kind of fruit)(2)Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. sow(to scatter seeds) and sow (female adult pig)(3)Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear( a loved person) and deer (a kind of animal)Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1.What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants?1)Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with reference to spelling andpronunciation, as both have the same orthographical form but different meanings. This creates the problem of differentiation.2)The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the formerrefers to different lexemes which have the same form and the latter the one and same lexeme which has several distinguishable meanings.3)One important criterion by which to differentiate them is ‘etymology’, i.e., homonyms aredescendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a word of the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development.4)The second principal consideration is ‘semantic relatedness’. The several meanings of a singlepolysemous lexeme are related and can be traced back to one central meaning. On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another.5)In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereashomonyms are listed as separate entries.。

汉语言文学专业英语词汇

汉语言文学专业词汇（英文版）FELIX2015-01-07 16:31:09文学思潮：Literature current of thought文学革命：Literature revolution古典文学：Classic literature维新运动：Reformist movement启蒙运动：Enlighten the sport价值领域：worth a realm外国文学：Foreign literature知识分子：Educated person浪漫主义：Romanticism唯美主义：Aestheticism百科全书：Cyclopeadia文艺复兴：Revival of learing发音器官：Speech organs功能名词：Function noun专有名词：Proper noun普通名词：Commen noun集合名词：Collective noun抽象名词：Abstract noun复合谓语：Compound predicate楔形文字：Arrowheaded character语法范畴：Grammatical category汉藏语系：Sino-Tibetan上层建筑：Superstructure意识形态：Ideology现代文学：Contemporary literature大众文学：Popular literature报告文学：Reportage批判主义：Criticism伊索寓言：Aesop`s Fables希腊文化：Hellenism形而上学：Metaphysis孔子学说：Confucian喜怒哀乐：Pleasure Anger Sorrow Joy发源地：Source爱美剧：Amateur修辞学：Rhetoric语音学：Phonetic助动词：Auxiliary verb感叹词：Interjection连接词：Link word-逻辑词：Logical word里程碑：Milestone拉丁语：Latin田园诗：Idyl无名氏：Annymous person真善美：Truth Goodness Beauty英语分类词汇：文学相关词汇classical literature 古典文学contemporary literature 现代文学popular literature 大众文学light literature 通俗文学folklore 民间文学saga (river) novel 长篇小说short novel, long short story 中篇小说short story 短篇小说love story 爱情小说deterctive story 侦破小说mystery story 怪诞小说whodunit 推理小说humorous story 幽默小说historical novel 历史小说essay 随笔book of travels 游记reportage 报告文学criticism 评论best seller 畅销书anthology 选集the complete works(of) 全集edition, printing 版masterpiece 杰作copyright 版权, 著作权deluxe binding 精装flat stitching 平装smyth sewed 线装humanities 人文学科writer 作家book 书volume 卷-theatre 戏剧(美作:theater)drama 话剧comedy 喜剧tragedy 悲剧farce 滑稽剧play 剧本the three unities 三一律(一个情节,一个地点,一个时间)playwright 编剧act 幕scene 场plot 情节Appendix 1 A Glossary of Linguistic TermsAabbreviation []n. 缩写.缩写词.略语ablative []n.夺格 a.夺格的absolute []a.独立的.独立成分absolute clause 独立从句abstract nouns 抽象名词accent []n.口音.重音.(诗歌中词或音节的)重读accidence []n.1.词形变化.字形变化 2. (学科的)初步.入门accommodation []n.调适.接纳accusative []a.直接宾格的n.直接宾格(受格)acoustic []a.听觉的.音响的.声学的（---feature/cue声学特征）acquisition []n.获得.习得acronym []n.首字母缩略字.缩略词active []n.主动语态actor []n.动作者.行动者（actor—action—goal）addition []n. 加.附加.添加address []n. 称呼(forms/terms of address 称呼语)addressee []n. 受话人，收信人，收件人addresser []n. 发话人，发言人，发信人.adjacency pair 相邻语对adjective []n.形容词 a.形容词的adjunct []n.附加语.修饰语.修饰成分adnominal []a.（定语）修饰名词的.形容词的.形容名词的adverb []n. 副词；状语adverbial []a. 副词的,作副词用的adversative []a.反意的.相反的n.反义字(转折语) affirmative []n.肯定词.肯定语affix []n1.附加物.添加物 2.字缀.词缀(affix hopping 词缀跳跃) affixation[]n. 附加.附加法.词缀附加法affricate []n.塞擦音agent (agentive) 施事agreement []n. (人称.性别.数.格的)一致airstream []n.气流alliteration []n.头韵(法)allomorph []n.同质异形体.词.语素变体allophone []n.同位音.音位变体allophonic variation 音位变体alveolar []n. 齿龈音，齿槽音.alveolar ridge 齿龈ambiguity []n.含混，歧义ambiguous歧义的anacoluthon []n.改变说法.错格.句法结构前后不一anadiplosis []n.反复法.顶真analogical []a.类似的.类推的analogical creation 类推造字anapaest []n.抑抑扬格.弱弱强格.短短长格anaphora []n. 复指.首语(句)重复法annotation []n. 注解.注释antecedent []n. (关系代词的)先行词antithesis []n. 1. 对立面;对立 2. (修辞学)对语,对偶,对句antonomasia []n. 代称，称呼替换antonym []n. 反义词,反义现象aphorism []n.格言.警句.箴言aposiopesis []n.话语中断，说话中断法apostrophe []n. 1.呼语 2.撇号 3.省略符号 4.所有格符号appellative []a.1.名称的 2.通称的n.通称名词.普通名词apposition []n. 1.同位语 2.并置appropriateness []n. 得体.适合.适当.相称arbitrariness []n. 任意性archaism []n.古体，拟古，古语argot []n.行语，暗语，黑话article []n.冠词articulation []n. (清楚的)发音.发出的(辅)音.发音动作articulator []n. 1.发音清楚的人或物 2.发音器官articulatory []a.发音清晰的.与发音有关的aside 旁白，私语，离题话aspect []n. (动词的) 体. 时态. 时间aspirated []a.伴有h音的.送气音的.吐气.送气assimilation []n.同化aureate []a.绚丽的（-- diction,绚丽辞令– style绚丽体）assonance []n. 1. 谐音 2. (诗的)准押韵.半谐音attributive []a. 1.归属的.属性的 2.定语的n.定语auxiliary []a. 辅助的.附属的.从属的n.助词auxiliary verb 助动词Bback-formation 逆构词法base form 基础形式base component 基础部分basic form 基本形式behaver 行为者behavioural process 行为过程behaviourism 行为主义bilabial []a.双唇音的n. 双唇音bilabial nasal 双唇鼻音bilateral []a.双边的.双边音bilateral opposition 双边对立bilingualism [] n.双语现象binary []a. 二元的.由二部分构成的(-- feature 二分特征) binomial []a. 二项式的n.二项式blade []n.舌叶.舌面前部blank verse 无韵诗bleaching []n.词义淡化blending []n.混合.混成法.裁切block language 块语、标题式语言(有限语境中使用缩略结构如No smoking) borrow(ing) 借用.借词bound clause粘附句bound morpheme 粘着语素bounding theory 界限理论bracketing 括号法broad transcription 宽式音标broadening 词义扩大Ccalque []n.语义转借.译借vt.转借(语义).仿造语cardinal[]n基数词cardinal vowel 基本元音category []n范畴(categorical component 范畴成分)causative []a.使役的n.使役动词cavity []n.腔clause 小句.从句click 吸气音.咂音clipping []n.缩略closure []n.关闭.闭塞cluster []辅音丛coarticulation 协同发音coda []n.节尾.韵尾code 语码.信码cognate []n.同源词.同根词.同系语言cognitive psycholinguistics 认知心理语言学cognitive psychology 认知心理学cognitive system 认知系统coherence 连贯.相关.关联cohension 衔接collapse [] 叠合collective []n.集合名词colligation []n. 概括.搭连collocation []n.组合.搭配command []命令（句）commissive 承诺语common普通的.共同的（--- core 共核）（--- noun 普通名词）comparative [] a比较的.比较级的-competence []n.语言能力complement(ation) 补语complementary互补.相反component 组成部分，成分componential 组成部分的composition 组构compound(ing) 复合；复合词(句)conative []a. 意动的concord []n. 协调.一致（关系）conditional []n.条件句.条件语congruence []n.重合conjugate []vt.列举(动词)的词形变化conjunct []a. 连接副词conjunction []n.连词.连接词connotation []n.含蓄.言外之意【逻】内涵consonant[]n.辅音.辅音字母 a.辅音的constative []a. 陈述的.表述的constituent []n.成分.结构成分construction (construct) 构建content (ive) 内容.实义(词)contrast(ive) 对立.对比convention(al) 常规；规约conversation 会话conversationalconversion 类转.变换coordinate /coordination/coordiative 并列copula []n.系词copulative []a.连系的.作系词的n.系词co-referential(ity) 同指coronal []n.舌冠（音）.舌尖音corpus []n. 1.文集.全2..躯体(尤指尸体) 3.语料语料库.素材corpora[] (corpus的复数)correlative []a.相关的n.关联词count [] 可数的，countable/uncontable 可/不可数名词couplet []n. 对句.双韵covert []隐性的Ddactyl []n. (英诗的)扬抑抑格.长短短格dative []a.与格的n.与格.与格语dative movement 与格移动declarative []a. 1. 宣言的.布告的.申报的.陈述的 2.陈述的decode []vt. 译解(密码)deductive []a. 推论的.演绎的defeasibility 消除可行性definite []a.1. 明确的.确切的 2. 一定的.肯定的 3. 限定的deictic []a. 直证的.直指的（deixis）denotation []n. 1. 意义.本义2. 表示3. 名称.符号dental []a. 齿音的n.齿音dentalization 齿音化derivation []n.诱导.来历.起源调查.语言derivational []a.诱导的. 衍生的;引出的determiner []n.限定词deviant []a. 越轨的n.不正常者.变异物.变体deviation 偏离；变异devoice []vt.使(有声之音)变为无声之音devoicing 清音化diachronic []a.历时的diachronic linguistics 历时语言学diacritic []a.有区别的.能区分的.辨别的n.区别发音符号dialect []n. 方言.土话dialectology 方言学diphthong []n.双元音.复合元音direct object 直接宾语direct speech直接言语discourse []n.语段.语篇；话语discrete []a. 1. 分离的.不连接的 2.抽象的disjunction []n. 分离.分裂displacement []n.移位.置换.取代dissimilation []n. 1. 异化 2.异化作用 3.异化distinguish []vt.区别.识别把...区别分类distinguisher 辩义成分domain []n. 领域.范围dorsal []a.背部的.背侧的舌背音.舌中音dorsum []n.背.背状部分.舌面(舌尖以后之部分)dual []n. 1. 双数 2. 双数词dualistic []a. 二元的.二元论的duality 二重性Eejective []a. 喷出的.外射的n.外爆音ellipsis []n.省略.省略部分elliptic(al) []a. 1. 椭圆的 2.省略的encode []vt. 1. 把...译成电码(或密码)endocentric []a.向心的.内向的epenthesis []n.增音.插入字母epithet []n. 1. 表示特征的修饰词 2. (描述性的)称号equipollent []a.相等的n. 相等物equivalence 相等equivoque []n. 双关语.模棱两可的词句.语义双关euphemism []n.. 婉转说法.委婉(词)语euphony []n. 声音的和谐.谐音.悦耳语音exocentric []a. 外心的exocentric construction 外向结构extensive []引申的；扩展的Ffeasibility []n.可行性.可能性feature []n. 特征.特色felicity []n. 1. 幸福 2. (措辞等的)得体.巧妙.恰当的语句feminine []a.阴性的figurative []a. 1. 比喻的.象征的 2. (文章等)多比喻的figurative language 比喻性语言；象征性语言figures of speech 修辞手段；修辞格finite []a. 1. 有限的 2.有穷的 3.限定的n. 有限.有限之物flap [] 闪音flexibility []n. 易曲性.适应性.灵活性.弹性fricative []a. 摩擦的n. 摩擦音friction 摩擦function 功能fusion []n.溶合fuzzy []a. 1. 有绒毛的 2. 模糊不清的Ggender []n. 1.【语】性 2.性别gender difference 性别差异generalization []n. 普遍化.概括.综合.归纳generative []a.生殖的.有生产力的generative grammar 生成语法genitive []a.属格的n.属格global []a. 1. 球状的 2. 全世界的 3. 总体的global task 整体任务glottal []a. 1.声门的 2. 用声门发声的.喉音glottal stop 喉塞音gradable []a. (形容词)有比较级和最高级的grammar []n. 语法grammatical []a. 语法的group []n.群.组.类词组guttural []a.喉咙的.喉音的n. 喉音.喉音字腭音Hhead []n.中心词；中心成分headed construction 中心结构heptameter []n.七音步 a. 七音步的hierarchical []a.等级制度的.等级体系的hierarchical structure 等级结构hierarchical system 等级系统hierarchy []n.等级制度.统治集团.级系.阶系holophrastic []a.表句词的.单词句的holophrastic stage 单词句阶段homonym []n.同音异义字.同形同音异义字.同形异义字homophony []n. 同音异义hyperbole []n. 1.修辞的夸张法 2.夸张的语句hypercorrection []n.矫枉过正hyponym []n.下位的名称.下义词hypothesis []n.假说. 前提.假设Iiamb []n.抑扬格.短长格iambic pentameter 抑扬格五音步诗行idiom []n1. 惯用语.成语.习惯语 2. 方言.土话.(个人特有)用语ill-formed sentences 不合适的句子illocutionary []a.发语词内的.语内表现行为的illocutionary act 话中行为；施为性行为illocutionary force 言外作用；施为作用immediacy assumption 即时假定immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法imperative []a.祈使法的.祈使语气.命令的implicate []vt.意味着.暗指n. 包含的事物.暗含的论断implication 蕴涵；含义implosive []a.闭塞音的n.内爆发音inanimate []a.无生命的indefinite []a.不定的.未定的indicative []a.陈述的n.陈述语气.陈述语气的动词形式inference []n. 推论.推断[inferential []a. 推理的.推论的infinitive []n.不定式 a.不定式的infix []n. 插入词.中缀inflection []n. 1. 变音.转调 2. 弯曲.向内弯曲innateness []n. 天生.天赋intensifier []n. 1. 增强器.增强剂 2. 加强者 3.强调成分intensive []a. 加强的.密集的.加强语意的n.强调成分interdental []a. 在牙齿间的 2.齿间音的n.齿间音interface []n. 界面.分界面interjection []n. 感叹词.感叹语interlanguage []n. 国际语言Interlingua []n.人工国际语之一interlocutor []n. 对话者internal []a. 内的.内部的international phonetic alphabet. IPA 国际音标interpersonal []a. 人与人之间的interpersonal function 人际功能interrogative []a. 疑问的.质问的n.疑问词intonation []n. 语调.声调intransitive []a.不及物的n.不及物动词intrinsic []a.本身的.本质的.固有的.内在的invariable []a. 不变的.恒定的.一律的inversion []n.反向.倒置.倒转 2.倒装法IPA chart 国际音标图IPS symbol 国际音标符号J K Ljargon []n.黑话；行语kernel []n.核心.要点keyword关键词label []n. 标记.符号. 称号.绰号labial []a. 唇的.唇音的n. 唇音labiodental 唇齿音language []n.语言larynx []n.喉lateral []a.旁流音的.侧音的lateral sounds侧音lax []a. (元音)松弛的n.松弛的元音lax vowel 松元音letter []n字母level []n. 层，级，平面lexeme []n. 词汇.语汇单位.词位；词素lexical []a. 1. 词汇的.语词的 2. 词典的.词典编纂的lexicon []n. 1. 词典 2. 语汇 3. 词素lexis []n. (某一语言的)词语(层)liaison [] 连音linear []a. 线的.直线的linguistic []a.. 语言的.语言学的lip rounding 圆唇化literal []a. 照字面的.原义的loan translation 翻译借词loanblend 混合借词loanshift 转移借词loanword 借词Mmacro []a. 1. 巨大的.大量的 2. 宏观的.main clause 主句manner of articulation 发音方式marked 标记的masculine []a. 1. 男性的.男子的2阳性的maxim []n. 格言.箴言.座右铭manner maxim 方式准则meaning 意义meaning potential 意义潜势meaning shift 转移mental (processs) 思维过程；心理过程mentalism []n.心灵主义message 信息metafunction 元功能metalinguistic 元语言的metaphor 隐喻metathesis []n. 1.音位转换 2.交换反应.置换metonymy []n.转喻metre []n.格律.韵律.拍子metrical patterning 韵律格式9.3.3mind 思维minimal []a.最小的.极微的n.极简抽象派艺术(或其作品) mirror maxim 镜像准则mistake 错误modal []a. 1.形态上的.形式的 2.语气的.情态的 3.典型的modal subject 语气主语modal verb 情态动词modality []n. 1. 形式.情态程序 3.物理疗法 4. 主要的感觉modification []n.修饰.变异modifier []n.1. 修改者 2. 修饰词语 3.修饰基因 4.改性剂monomorphemic 单语素的monophonemic 单音位的monophthong 单元音monosyllabic 单音节的mood 语气morpheme []n.语素.词素(语言中最小的字义单位)morphemic []a.词素的.语素的morphological []a.形态学的.形态的morphology []n.形态学morphophonemics []n词素音位结构 2. 词素音位学mother tongue 母语；本族语motivation 动因；动机multilingualism 多语制；多语现象Nnasal []a.1. 鼻的2. 鼻音的n.. 鼻音.鼻音字母nasal cavity 鼻腔nasal sound 鼻音nasal stop 鼻塞音nasal tract 鼻道nasality 鼻音性nasalization 鼻音化negation []n. 1. 否定 2. 反对.反驳 3. 不存在 4. 对立面negative []a.否定的.否认的. 反面的.消极的n.否定语negative interference 负面干扰negative marker 否定标记negative transfer 负转移neutralize []vt. 1. 使无效.抵消2. 使中立化neutralizable opposition 可中立对立node []n. 1. 结.节2. 中心点.交叉点nominal []a.名词性的n. 名词性的词nominal group 名词词组nominalization 名词化nominative []a.主格的n.主格.主格词non-conventionality 非规约性non-detachability非可分离性non-linear phonology 非线性音系学non-linguistic entity 非语言实体non-pulmonic sound 非肺闭塞音non-reciprocal discourse 非交替性语篇non-reflexive pronoun 非反身代词nonsense word stage 无意义词语阶段nonverbal cues 非言语提示norm 规范notation system 标写系统notion 意念noun phrase 名词短语noun 名词Oobject 宾语object-deletion 宾语省略objective case 宾格objectivity 客观性obligatory 强制性observational adequacy 观察充分性abstruction 阻塞octametre 八音步诗行onomatopoeia []n. 1.拟声.象声词 2.拟声法onset 节首辅音open class 开放类open syllable 开音节operative 可操作性operator 操作词oppositeness relation 对立关系opposition 对立optimal relevance 最适宜关联option 选择optional 可选择的oral cavity 口腔oral stop 口阻塞音ordinal numeral 序数词origin of language 语言起源orthography []n.1. 正字法.拼字法 2. (几何)正射影(法) ostensive communication 直示交际overgeneralization 过分法则化Ppalate []n. 1.上颚 2. 味觉 3. 趣味.嗜好palatal []a.上颚(音)的.颚(音)的n. 上颚音.颚音palatal-alveolar 腭齿龈音palatalization []n.腭音化paradigm []n.1.范例 2. (名词或动词)词形变化(表) paradigmatic []a.1.范例的 2.词形变化(表)的paradigmatic relation 聚合关系paraphrase []n. 1. 释义.意译.改述vt. vi.. 释义.意译participant 参与者particle []n.虚词(包括某些副词.冠词.介词.连词等).字首.字尾partitive []a. 1. 区分的 2.表示部分的n.表示部分的词passive []n.被动语态被动态的动词pattern 模式patterning 制定模式pause 停顿peak （节）峰perceptual []a.感知的.知觉的perceptual span 感知时距perfectionism 完善主义perfective 完成体performative (verb) 行事性动词person 人称personal (function) 自指性功能pharyngeal []a.1.咽部的 2.喉音的n.喉音pharynx []n.咽头phatic []a. 交流感情的.应酬的phatic (communion) 寒暄交谈；phoneme []n.音素.音位phonetic []a. 1.语音的.语音学的 2. 语音差异的phonetic alphabet 音标phonetic form component 语音形式部分phonetic similarity 语音相似性phonetic symbol 语音符号phonetic transcription 标音（法）phonetics []n. (用作单)语音学phonologic []a.音位学的.语音体系的phonological process 音位过程phonology []n. 音位学.语音体系phrase []n. 短语.词组pidgin []n.1. (并用两种或多种语言的)混杂语.洋泾浜语 2.事儿plosion []n】爆破发音.爆破plosive []n.a.破裂音(的)plural []a.复数的pluralism []n.1.兼职.兼任 2.多重性.多元论plurality []n.1. 复数.多数.多重性 2.复数(形式) polysyllabic []a. 多音节的Portugese 葡萄牙语positive transfer 正移转possessive []a.1.拥有的.占有的 2.所属关系的.所有格的postdeterminer 后限定词pragmatic []a.1. 实际的.实干的 2. 实用主义的pragmatics 语用学Prague School 布拉格学派predeterminer 前限定词predicate []n..谓语.述部 a.谓语的.述部的prefix []n.字首.前缀(人名前的)称谓premodifier 前修饰语preposition []n.1.介词.前置词prepositional []a.. 介词的.前置词的prepositional phrase 介词短语prescriptive []a. 规定的.因时效而获得的presupposition []n.预想.假定.前提primary []a. 首要的.主要的priva principle []n. 原则.原理process 过程pro-form 代词形式；替代形式pronominal []a. 代词的pronoun 代词pronunciation 发音pronunciation dictionary 发音词典proposition 命题prosodic []a. 作诗法的.韵律学的psycholinguistics 心理语言学psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic approach 心理-社会语言学方法pulmonic []a. 肺病的pulmonic sound 肺闭塞音Putonghua 普通话Qquality 质量quality maxim 质量准则quantity 数量-quantity maxim 数量准则quantifier 数量词quantitative analysis 定量分析quantitative paradigm 数量变化表quatrain []n. 四行诗quirk []n.1. 突然的转变 2. 字的花体 3. 怪癖 4. 借口Rrange 范围rank 级rationalism 理性主义raw data 原始素材R-based implicature 基于关联的涵义realisation 体现received pronunciation. RP 标准发音receiver 受话者；信息接受者recency effectrecognition 识别recursion []n.【数】递回.递回式.循环.可溯recursive []a.】递归的.可溯的；还原的recursiveness 递归性reference 所指参照referential []a.1 指示的所指的reflexive []n..反身动词.反身代词 a.反身的regional dialect 地域方言register []n.语域regressive []a.1.后退的.逆行的.退化的 2. 回归的relative clause 关系分句.关系从句relative pronoun 关系代词relative uninterruptibility 相对的非间断性relevance theory 关联理论reliability 信度repetition 重复residue []n.残余.剩余.剩余成分restricted []a. 受限制的.被限定的restricted language 限制性语言retrieval []n.1. 取回.恢复 2. 纠正.补偿检索retroflex []a.1. 反折的.后翻的 2. 卷舌(音)的n. 卷舌音reverse rhyme 反陨rhyme 韵；韵角；压韵rhythm 韵律；节奏role 角色root 词根root morpheme 词根语素round vowel 圆元音rules of language 语言规则Ssameness relation 相同关系Sanskrit []n. 梵文.梵语 a. 梵文的.梵语的Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃夫假设Saussure 索绪尔scale of delicacy 精密阶schema []n.1. 轮廓.概要.略图2.先验图式 3.图式second language acquisition 第二语言习得secondary cardinal vowel 次要基本元音secondary stress 次重音segment []n.语流中的一个音素(或单个音)selection restriction 选择限制selectional rules 选择规则self-reflexive 自反身semantic []a.. 语义的.语义学的semantic triangle 语义三角semantics 语义学semi-consonant 半辅音semiotic []a.1.符号学的 2.症状的semiotics 符号学semi-vowel 半元音sense 意义sentence 句子sentence fragments 句子成分sentence meaning 句义sentence memory 句子记忆sentence stress 句重音sentence structure 句子结构sentential calculus 句子演算setting 场景sibilant []a.1.丝丝作响的 2.发丝音的n.1.丝丝音 2.发丝音辅音sign 符号signified 所指.受指signifier 能指.施指simile []n. (修辞)直喻.明喻simultaneity 同时性singular 单数slot 空缺soft palate 软腭sonnet 十四行诗sonorant []n..响音sonority []n.1. 响亮 2. (声音的)响亮程度sound 语音Spanish 西班牙语Speaker 说话者speech 言语spelling 拼写.拼法split infinitives 分裂的不定式spoken corpus 口语语料库spoken language 口语spondee []n.扬扬格spoonerism []n.斯本内现象(即字音的无意互换现象) Standard English 标准英语standardization 标准化statistical analysis 统计分析status 地位stem 词干stimulus 刺激stimulus-response 刺激反应stop 闭塞音stratification []n.成层.阶层的形成stress 重音structure 结构stylistics 文体学subcategorize 次范畴subject 主语subject-deletion 主语省略subjectivity 主观性subjunctive []a.虚拟的n.虚拟语气subordinate construction 从属结构subordination 从属substitutability 替代性substitution 替换suffix 后缀superlative degree 最高级superordinate 上坐标词suprasegmental feature超语段特征syllabic []a.1. 音节的.构成音节的n.音节主音syllabification []n.1. (语音)分音节 2. 分音节法syllable []n. 音节syllabus []n. 教学大纲.课程大纲 2.要目syllogism []n.1.三段论.演绎推理 2.推断 3.诡辩.狡辩symbol 符号synchronic []a. 同时的.共时的synonym []n. 同义字.类义字(分类学中的)同物异名synonymous []a. 同义的.同义词性质的synonymy []n. 同义.同义词研究syntax []n.语法.句法 2. (组成部分的)有条理(或系统)的排列syntactic []a. 按照句法的.句法的Ttacit []a1. 缄默的.不说话的 2. 不明言的.默示的tacit knowledge 默契的知识tagmeme []n.法位.序位tagmemics 法位学tautology []n. 同义反复.重复.赘述template []n. 模块tense vowel 紧元音tense 时态tetrameter []n. 四音步诗行text 语篇textual 语篇功能theme []n. 1.论题.话题.题目 2.主题.主题思想.题材 3.词干.主位tone 声调.音调tongue height 舌高tongue position 舌位tongue tip 舌尖topic 主题trace theory 轨迹论transcription []n. 1.抄写.誊写 2.副本音标.标音transfer 移转transformation 转换transitivity []n.动词的及物性trill []n.颤音trochee []n.扬抑格.长短格trope []n.转义.比喻truth condition 真值条件truth value 真值tu/vous distinction 你/您区别turn length 话语轮次长度turn quantity 话语轮次数量turn-taking 依次发言two-place predicate 二位谓语two-word utterance 二词话语typology 类型学UUnaspirated 不松气的underlying form 底层形式underlying representation 底层表达uninterruptibility 非中断性universal quantifier 普遍限量词universal 普遍现象universality 普遍性universals of language 语言的普遍现象unmarked 未标记的unrounded vowel 非圆元音urban dialectology 都市方言学utterance []n.1.发声.表达 2.说话方式.语调3言辞.言论.话语utterance meaning 语句意义uvula []n. 悬雍垂.小舌uvular []a.小舌的.小舌音的Vvalidity 效度variable 可变化的variable word 可变化词variation变异variety 变体；语体velar []a.1膜的 2.软颚音的n. 软颚音velarization 腭音化velum []n.1.软颚 2.菌膜.缘膜verb 动词verb phrase 动词短语verbal communication 言语交际verbal process 言语过程verbiage []n.1. 废话.冗词 2. 用语.措词vernacular []n.本国语.本地话.方言.行话.日常用语.白话vernacular language education 本地化教育vocabulary 词汇vocal []a.声的.声音的.元音的.浊音的n.元音.浊音vocal cord 声带vocal organ 发音器官vocal tract 声道vocative []a. 称呼的.呼格的n.呼格voice 语态voiced consonant 浊辅音voiced obstruent 浊塞音voiced (sound) 浊音voiceless consonant 清辅音voiceless obstruent 清塞音voiceless(sound) 清音voicing 浊音化，有声化vowel []n. 1.元音 2. 元音字母vowel glide 元音音渡WWh-interrogative 特殊疑问句women register 女性语域-word 词word class 词类word formation 词语形成word group 词组word meaning 词义word order 词序word recognition 词语识别word formation 词语形成word-for-word 逐词翻译wording []n. 措辞.用语written language 书面语written text 篇章XY ZYes--no interrogative 是非问句yes--no question 是非问句zero 零.零形式zeugma []n. 轭式搭配，轭式修饰法欢迎下载21。

文学术语对照表(英法德部分)

文学术语对照表（英法德部分）A《A map of misreading》《误读的地图》Ableben der kunst 艺术的终结Abrams,Meyer Howard 阿勃拉姆斯Abstractism 抽象论Absurd 荒诞Act 行为Actant 行为体Acte de discours 话语行为Action 动作Adaptation 改编Adaquate konkretisation 恰当的具体化Adorno, Theodot Weisengrund 阿多尔诺Affective fallacy 感受谬见Affinity 类同Alexandrin 亚历山大体Alienation 异化Allegory 寓言Allegorical symbol 寓言式象征Alliteration 头韵Allusion 引喻Althusser, Louis 阿尔杜塞Ambiguity 含混American school 美国学派Analogy 类比Analyse de contenu 内容分析Analyse de texte 文本分析Analyse litteraire 文学分析Analyse semantique 语义分析Analyse structurale 结构分析Analytical/non-analytical 分解性符号链/非分解性signchain 符号链Anaphora 首语重复法Anapest 抑抑扬格《Anatomy of Criticism》《批评的剖析》Anchoring 锚定Animus und anima 男性潜倾和女性潜倾Anthology 选集Anthroponym 人素Anti-climax 反高潮Antiheros 反英雄Anti-intellectualism 反智性Anti-kunst 反艺术Antinarratve 反叙述Antinaturalism 反自然主义Antiquarianism 复古主义Anxiety of influence 影响焦虑Apllonian spirit 日神精神Apocalyptic 启示性Apocrypha 集外拾遗Appellstruktur 召唤结构Applikation 运用Appropriation 据为己有Arcadianism 阿卡迪亚情调Archaism 仿古Archetyp 原型Aristoteles 亚里士多德Arnold, Matthew 阿诺德,马修《Art poetica》《诗艺》Art as device 作为技巧的艺术Artistic beauty 艺术美《Art poetique》《诗的艺术》Art pour art 为艺术而艺术Aside 旁白Association 联想Assonance 半谐韵Assonance 不完全韵《Asthetik》《美学》Asthetische bildung 审美陶冶Asthetische distanz 美感距离Asthetische erfahrung 审美经验《Asthetische Erfahrung uadLiterarische Hermeneutik》《审美经验与文学阐释学》《Asthetische Theorie》《美学理论》Augustinus, Aurelius 奥古斯丁Ausdruck 表达Authentity 本真性Autobiography 自传Autobiographical novel 自传体小说Automoner komplex 自主情结Autonomie der kunst 艺术的自律性Avant-garde 先锋派Avant-texte 前文本BBacon, Francis 培根,费兰西斯Ballad 歌谣Barthes, Roland 巴尔特,罗朗Baudelaire, Charles 波德莱尔Beauty 美Begining rhyme 起韵Behavourist begining 行为主义式开场法Belles-lettres 美文学Benjamin, Walter 本雅明Biographical criticism 传记批评Black humour 黑色幽默《Black Qrpheus》《黑肤的奥尔甫斯》Blank verse 素体诗《Blindness and Insight》《盲目与悟解》Bloch, Ernst 布洛赫Bloom, Harold 布鲁姆Boileau, Nicolas 布瓦洛Booth, Wayne 布思Borrowing 借用Bound motif 束缚母题Brecht, Bertolt 布莱希特Brooks,Cleanth 布鲁克斯Brunetiere, Ferdinand 布吕纳介Bucolic 田园风味Burke,Kenneth 勃克Burlesque 谐谑模仿CCaesure 停顿Cartesianism 笛卡尔主义Cassirer, Ernst 卡西尔Catalog 排列Catalyser 催化单元Catastrophe 结局Catharsis 宣泄Causal sequence 因果序Chain verse 连环诗Channel 渠道Chanson de geste 武功歌Chapelain, Jean 夏泼兰Chiasmus 交叉排比《Chinese character as medium for poetry》《作为诗歌手段的中国文字》Chinoiserie 中国风Chronical play 编年史剧Chrononym 时素Climax 高潮Cloak and dagger 阴谋小说Cloak and sword 剑侠传奇Closet drama 书案剧Co-textual context 共存文本语境Code 信码Coincidence 巧合Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 柯勒律治,萨缪尔·泰勒Collage 拼贴Collective foculization 集体视角式Comedy of manners 风俗喜剧Comic relief 喜剧穿插Commentary 评论Comparative literature 比较文学Comparative poetics 比较诗学Compound narrator 复合叙述者Computational stylistics 数理风格学Conative 意动性Conceit 曲喻Context 语境Contextualism 语境论Contrapuntal 对位式Contrast 对比Convention 常规Conventionality 规约性Cousin,Victor 库赞Crane, R.S. 克莱恩,R.S.Crenologie 渊源学Critical distance 批评距离《Criticism and Ideology》《批评与意识形态》Croce, Benedetto 克罗齐Crown of sonnets 皇冠十四行诗Cubic poetry 立体诗Cult value 崇拜价值DDactyl 扬抑抑格Dante, Alighieri 但丁Das asthetische objekt 审美对象Das asthetische erlebnis 审美体验Dasein 此在《Das Literarische Kunst-werk》《文学艺术作品》《Das Prinzip der Hoffnung》《希望的原则》Das selbst 自性De Man, Paul 德曼Dead space 空档Decentering of subjectivity 主体分化Decoding 解码Decorum 合体Deep-structure 深层结构Demystification 非神话化Denudation 剥离Der funkionale realismus 功能现实主义Der hermeneutische zirkel 阐释的循环Der implizite leser 隐在的读者《Der Implizite Leser》《隐在的读者》Derrida, Jacques 德里达Description 描写Desemantization 消义化Diachronic 历时性Diachronische analyse 历时性分析Diary fiction 日记体小说Dichotomy 对立式《Dichter und Phantasie》《诗人与幻想》“Dictionary” interpretation“词典”式释义Diderot, Denis 狄德罗《Die Beziehung Zwischen Dichter undTagtraum》《诗人与白昼梦的关系》《Die Eigenart des Asthetischen》《审美特性》Die frankfurter schule 法兰克福学派《Die Geburt der Tragodie》《悲剧的诞生》《Die welt als wille und vorstellung》《作为意志和表象的世界》Differentia of literature 文学特异性Dilthey, wilhelm 狄尔泰Dime novel 一角钱小说Dimeter 双音步诗行Dionysian spirit 酒神精神Direct free form 直接自由式Direct quoted form 直接引语式Directory 指点Disclosure 去蔽Discourse 讲述《Discours surl'art Paetique》《关于诗歌艺术的演讲》《Discours surle style》《论风格》Disengagement 脱身Dissociation of sensibility 感觉解体Distortion of duration 时长变形Doggerel 打油诗Doxologie 流传学Dramatism 戏剧化《Du Sublime》《论崇高》Dynamic motif 动力性母题EEagleton,Terry 伊格尔顿《Eckermann:Gesprach mit Goethe》《和爱克曼的谈话录》Ecole de geneve 日内瓦学派《Economic and philosophic Manuscripts of 1844》《1844年经济学哲学手稿》Ecriture automatique 自动写作Ego 自我Einfuhlung;Empathy 移情Elegy 挽诗Eliot,T.S. 艾略特Ellipsis 省略Emotive 情绪性Empson,William 燕卜荪Encoding 编码Encomium 赞诗“Encyclopedia”interpretation“百科式”释义Endogene bilder 内生图象End-rhyme 尾韵Engels, Fridrich 恩格斯Enjambement 跨行Erlebnis 体验Enonce 表述Enonciation 表述行为英Enonciation/utterance法表述/被表述Enonciation/enonce Entkunstung 非艺术化Envelope structure 封套结构Epigram 警句Epiphany 灵悟Epistolary fiction 书信体小说Epithalamium,epithalamion 婚后诗Epoch 时代Erwartungshorizont 期待视野Euphuism 游浮体Evaluative commentary 评价性评论Exhibition Value 展览价值Expectation 期待Expectation of meaning 意义期待Expectation of non-reference 非指称化期待Expectation of rhythm 节律化期待Expectation of totality 整体化期待Explanation/understanding 说明/理解Explanatory commentary 解释性评论Explication de texte 文本解释Explicit ellipsis 明省略Explicit narrator 现身叙述者Extra-textual elements 超文本成分Eye-rhyme 目韵Eye-rhyme 视韵FFable 寓言Fallacy of communication 传达谬见Fairy-tale 童话Fait social 社会事实Farce 笑剧Feminine rhyme 阴韵Feminist criticism 女权主义批评Fest 节日Fields of semiotics 符号学领域分科Fish, Stanley Eugene 费什Flashback 倒述Flashforward 预述Flat character 扁平人物“Fly-on-the-wall” technique“墙上苍蝇”式叙述法Focalization 叙述角度Focus character 视角人物Folklore 民间传说Folktale 民间故事Followability 可追踪性Foregrounding 前推Foreshadowing 伏笔Form 形式Formalism 形式主义Fortune 际遇Foucault,Michel 福柯,米歇尔Fourteener 七音步十四音节Frame story 框架故事Framework-story 连环故事France,Anatole 法朗士Free motif 自由母题Free verse 自由诗French school 法国学派French poststructuralist 法国后结构主义符号学派Freud,Sigmund 弗洛伊德Freytag pyramid 弗雷塔格金字塔Function 功能Function 功能体GGadamer,Hans Georg 迦达默尔General literature 总体文学Generation 代Genetic fallacy 发生谬见Genette,Gerard 惹奈特,杰Genre 文类Genology 文类学Gesellschaftlichkeit der Kunst 艺术的社会性Gesellschaftliche rezeption 社会接受Gesellschaftliche vermittelung 社会中介Gestalt 格式塔Gestaltgesetze 格式塔规律Gestaltqualitat 格式塔质Gide,Andre 纪德Gnomic verse 格言诗Goldmann,Lucien 戈德曼Gongorism 贡古拉文风Gothic novel 哥特小说Grotesque 怪诞Greimas,Algidas Julien 格雷马斯HHabermas,Jurgen 哈贝马斯Half-rhyme 半韵Half-rhyme 腰韵Heiddeger,Martin 海德格尔Heresy of paraphrase 意释误说Hermeneutik 阐释学Heroic couplet 英雄双韵诗Hexameter 六音步诗行High comedy 高雅喜剧Higher narrative level 高叙述层次Hirsch,Eric Donald Jr 赫什Histoire litteraire 文学史Historical narration 历史叙述/文学叙述Holland,Norman N. 霍兰德Horizont 视界Horizont verschmelzung 视界融合Hulme,T.E. 休姆Humanism 人文主义Humanistic criticism 人文主义批评Humor 幽默Hymn 赞美诗IIamb 抑扬格Iconicity 象似性Id 本我Identif ikationsmuster 认同类型Ideologie kritik 意识形态批评Image 意象Imagination 想象Imitation 模仿Impersonality 非个性化Implicit ellipsis 暗省略Implicit lower narrative level 隐式低叙述层次Implicit narrator 隐身叙述者Implied author 隐指作者Implied metaphor 潜喻Implied reader 隐指读者Impure poetry 不纯诗Impressionistic criticism 印象式批评Index 指示体Indexical context 标示语境Indexicality 标示性Indice 标记体Indirect free form 间接自由式Indirect quoted form 间接引语式Individuation 个性化Influence 影响Influence study 影响研究Informant 信息体Ingarden, Roman 英加登Institution litteraire 文学建制Intertextuality 互文性Intentional context 意图语境Intentional fallacy 意图谬见Intentionaler gegenstand 意向对象Intentionalitat 意向性Interdisciplinary study 跨学科研究Interior monologue 内心独白Internal rhyme 内韵Interpretation 阐释《Intuition creatrice en art et enpoesie》《艺术和诗的创造性直觉》Irony 反讽Ironic commentary 反讽性评论Ironic narrative 反讽叙述《Is there a text in this class?》《这门课有无文本?》Isomorphie 异质同构JJames,Henry 詹姆斯,亨利Jameson,Fredric 詹姆逊Johnson,Samuel 约翰逊,萨缪尔Journal intime 内心日记Jung,Carl Gustav 荣格Juxtaposition 意象并置Juxtaposition 并置KKeats,John 济慈,约翰Kermode,J.Frank 科默德Kollektives unbewaβtes集体无意识Komplex 情结Konkrete Poesie 具象诗Konkretisation 具体化Krieger,Murray 克里格Kristeva,Julia 克里斯特娃,朱《Kritik der Urteilskraft》《判断力批判》Kulturindustrie 文化工业LLa nouvelle critique 法国新批评La psychocritique 精神批评《La phylosophie de l'art》《艺术哲学》Lacan,Jacques 拉康Lament 哀诗Language as gesture 姿势语论Langue/parole 语言/言语Lanson,Gustave 朗松,G.Leavis,F.R 李维斯Lebenstrieb/eros 生本能/性本能Leitmotiv 主导母题Leser 读者Libido 力必多Lichtung 澄明Life expression 生命表达Link sonnet 连韵十四行诗Lisibilite 可阅读性Lipps,Theodor 李普斯Literalism 字面论Local colour 地方色彩Low comedy 低俗喜剧Lower narrative level 低叙述层次Lukacs,Georg 卢卡契Lyric 抒情诗MMacherey,Pierre 马舍雷,彼Macro-semiotic system 宏观符号系统Macro-sign 宏观符号Macro-text 宏观文本Main plot 主情节Manipulative narrative 操纵式叙述Mannerism 矫饰主义Manuscript 手写本Marcuse,Hebert 马尔库塞Marx, Karl 马克思Masculin rhyme 阳韵Medium 中介Medievalism 中世纪精神Melodrama 情节剧Memoires fiction 回忆录小说Mesologie 媒介学Message 信息Meta- 元Metacriticism 元批评《Metahistory》《元历史》Metalanguage 元语言Metalingual 元语言性Metaphysische qualitat 形而上质量Metaphor 隐喻Meter 音步Metonymy 转喻Miller,J. Hillis 米勒Mime 哑剧Miracle play 奇迹剧Mise en scene 导演Misreading 误读Mock-heroic 戏仿英雄体Monodrama 独角戏Montage 蒙太奇Montivation 促动因素Moral criticism 道德批评Motif 母题Motivation 根据性Movement 运动Mukarovsky,Jan 慕卡洛夫斯基Multiple plot 复合情节Musical comedy 音乐喜剧Myth 神话NNaive dichtang 素朴诗Narratee 叙述接收者Narrative 叙述Narratorial intrusion 叙述干预Narrative poem 叙事诗Narrative perspective 叙述方位Narrative setup 叙述格局Narrative stratification 叙述分层Narrativity 叙述性Narratology 叙述学Narrator 叙述者Narrativity 叙述性Narratorial mediation 叙述加工National literature 民族文学Naturalization 自然化Natural beauty 自然美Negative influence 负影响Negativitat der kunst 艺术的否定性Neologism 新词风格New criticism 新批评派Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm 尼采Nokan,Charles 诺康Non-referential pseudostatement非指称性伪陈述Non-significant system 无意义组合Northrop Frye 诺思洛普·弗莱Novel 长篇小说Novella 中篇小说Nucleus 核心单元OObjective criticism 客观批评Octave rima 八行诗Ode 颂诗Odipuscomplex 俄底浦斯情结Omniscient narrative 全知式叙述《On Modern Novel》《现代小说》《On Dramatic Art》《论戏剧艺术》Onomatopoeia 拟声Ontological criticism 本体式批评Open-ended 开放结尾式Opera 歌剧Organism 有机论Ostranenie 陌生化Overcoding 附加解码Overstatement 夸大陈述PPalindrome 回文Panegyric 颂文Pantheism 泛神论Paradigm 纵聚合系Paradox 悖论Paralipses 假省笔法Parallel study 平行研究Paraphrasability 可意释性Paratextual elements 类文本成分Parole 言语Parody 戏仿Passion play 耶稣受难剧Pastiche 仿作Pastoral 牧歌Pater,Walter 佩特,沃尔特Pathetic fallacy 感情误置Pathos 哀婉感受Pause 停顿Periphrasis 迂回Period 时期Persona 人格面具Personliches unbewates 个人无意识Perspective of incongruity 不相容透视Phatic 交际性《Phenomenologie de l'experienceesthetique》《审美经验现象学》Phrase rhythm 词组节奏Picaresque novel 流浪汉小说Pirated edition 盗版Platon 柏拉图Platonism 柏拉图主义Plot 情节Plotinus 普洛丁Plot typology 情节类型学Poetic licence 诗歌特权Poetic drama 诗剧Poetic truth 诗歌真理《Poetics》《诗学》Poetique de lespace 空间诗学Poetry 诗Poetry of inclusion 包容诗Poetry of exclusion 排它诗Point of view 视点Poulet, Georges 布莱Polyphone harmonie 复调和谐Pope,Alexander 蒲柏,亚历山大Pornography 色情文学Possible worlds 可能世界Post-structuralism 后结构主义Pound, Ezra 庞德Pragmatics 符用学Prague school 布拉格学派Preciosite 高雅Pre-text 前文本Prinzip der aquivalerz 等值原则Prinzip der entropie 均衡原则Private symbol 私设象征Problem novel 问题小说Problem play 问题剧Production of art 艺术生产Projektion 投射propagandism 宣传Prosody 诗律Prothalamion 婚前诗Proverb 格言Proverb 谚语Provincialism 外省风格Proust, Marcel 普鲁斯特Psychische energie 心理能Psychische funktion 心理功能Psychische valenz 心理值Psychische zustand 心态Psychological context 心理语境Psychological fiction 心理小说Psychological realism 心理现实主义Psychologische und 心理型和幻想型illusionarer typPsychologische rezeptionsforschung 接受心理分析Psychologische typen 心理类型Psychologism 心理主义Public symbol 公共象征Pulp magazine fiction 廉价杂志小说Pun 双关语Pure poetry 纯诗QQualisign/sinsign/legisign 形符/单符/义符Qualitative knowledge 质的知识Qualitative progression 质性进展Querelle des anciens ermodernes古今之争RRationalism 理性主义Rational and perceptual 理性与感性Raymond Williams 维廉斯·雷蒙德Ransom, John Crowe 兰色姆Reader-response criticism 读者反应批评Realismo magico 魔幻现实主义Referential 指称性Reflection/nachdenken 反思Reification 物化Repetition 重复Repetition 复述Replica 复制Reported speech 转述语Reproduction 复制Resemantization 再义化Revenge tragedy 复仇悲剧Rezeptionsasthetik 接受美学Rezeptionsvorgabe 接受前提Rhapsody 狂诗Rhyme 韵Rhythm 节奏Richards.I.A. 瑞恰慈Riviere,Jacques 里维埃,J.Rohstoff 素材Romanaclef 影射小说Roman noir/Gothic novel 黑色小说/哥特小说Romantic irony 浪漫式反讽Round character 圆形人物Rousseau,Jean-Jacques 卢梭,让-雅Ruskin John 拉斯金·约翰SSage 英雄传奇Said,Edward W. 赛义德Saint Thomas Aquinas 托马斯·阿奎那Sainte-Beuve,Charles Augustin 圣伯夫Sapphics 萨福体Sartre,Jean-Paul 萨特Saussure,Ferdinand de 索绪尔,费德Scene 场景Schatten 阴影Schematisierte ansichten 轮廓化图象Schichtenaufbau 层次构造Schleiermacher, Friedrich Ernst Daniel施莱尔马赫Schoppenhauer,Arthur 叔本华Science fiction 科幻小说Scientific criticism 科学化批评Scriptible/lisibe 可写式/可读式Secondary system 二度体系Semanalysis 符号分析学Semantics 符义学Semantique poetique 诗歌语义学Semantique structurale 结构语义学Semiosis 符指过程Semiotics 符号学Sensibility 感性Sentimentalische dichtung 感伤诗Sentimentalism 感伤主义Sequence deformation 时序变形《Seven Types of Ambiguity》《含混的七种类型》Shelley,Percy Bysshe 雪莱Shock 震惊Short story 短篇小说Sign 符号Signifier/signified 能指/所指Simile 明喻Situational context 场合语境Skaldic verse 行吟宫廷诗Sociology of literature 文学社会学Soliloquy 独白Sonnet 十四行诗Sontag, Susan 桑塔格,苏珊Source 渊源Source study 渊源研究Southern critics 南方学派Soviet semiotics 苏联符号学派Spatial form 空间形式Spatial sequence 空间序Spiel 游戏Stadialism 阶段平行论Stael, Madame de 斯塔尔夫人Stanzaic form 诗节形式Stanzaic form 段式Starobinski, Jean 斯塔罗宾斯基Static motif 静力性母题Stereotype 模式Stoffgeschichte 主题学Stream of consciousness 意识流Stretch 延长Structural realism 结构现实主义Structuralism 结构主义Structuralist/post-structuralist semiotics 结构主义与后结构主义符号学《Structuralist Poeties》《结构主义诗学》Structure 结构Structure/texture 构架/肌质论Stylistics 风格学Stylization 风格模仿Sub-narrative 次叙述Sub-plot 次情结Sublimation 升华Sublime 崇高《Summa Theologiae》《神学大全》Summary 缩写Superego 超我Super-narrative 超叙述Superposition 意象迭加Super-sign 超符号Supplementary commentary 补充性批评Surface structure 表层结构Suspense 悬疑Symbol 象征Symbolic action 象征行动Symptomatic reading 症候式阅读Synaesthesia 通感Synaesthesis 综感Synchronic/diachronic 共时性/历时性Synchronische anayse 共时性分析Synecdoche 提喻Syntactics 符形学Syntagm 横组合段Syntagmatic/paradigmatic 横组合/纵聚合TTaboo 塔布Tagtraum 白日梦Taine, Hippolyte 泰纳Tate, Allen 退特Tecriture 文体Temporal deformation 时间变形Temporal sequence 时间序Tendenz 倾向性Tenioha 天尔运波Tenor/vihicle 喻指/喻体Tension 张力Tercet 三行体诗节Terza rima 三行连环韵诗Tetralogy 四部曲Tetrameter 四音步诗行Text/discourse 文本/讲述Textual criticism 文本批评Texture 肌质Theatre of cruelty 残酷剧The epic theatre 叙事剧The new criticism 新批评The new humanism 新人文主义《Theory of Literature》《文学理论》The past/the present 叙述现在/被叙述现在《The Political Unconsciousn》《政治无意识》《The Sacred Wood》《圣林》The Second self 第二自我《The Well-Wrought Urn》《精致的瓮》The Verbal Icon 《语象》The yale critics 耶鲁学派Thibaudet, Albert 蒂博代Three unities 三一律Todestrieb /thanatos-trieb 死本能Todorov, Tzvetan 托多罗夫Toponym 地素Totality 总体性Totem 图腾Tradition 传统Tragicomedy 悲喜剧Translation 翻译Transpassing of stratification 跨层Trilogy 三部曲Trilling, Lionel 特里林Trimeter 三音步诗行Type 类型Typicality 典型性Typical character 典型人物Typology 类型学UUgliness 丑Unbestimmtheit 不确定性《Uber die Beziehungen der AnalytischenPsychologie zur Dichtung》《分析心理学与诗的关系》Undercoding 不足解码Understatement 克制陈述Unite narrative 叙述单元Unite significative 意义单元Unites romanesques 小说单元Unreliable narrative 不可靠叙述Urtumliche bilder 原始意象Utilitarianism 功利主义Utopian literature 乌托邦文学V《Validity in interpretation》《解释的正确性》Valery, Paul 瓦雷里,P. Variorum edition 集注本Verbal icon 语象Verfremdung 陌生化Verfremdungseffekt 陌生化效果Verstehen 理解Verisimilitude 逼真性Vico, Giovanni Battista 维柯V orurteil 成见W《Wahreit und Methode》《真理与方法》Wellek, Rene 韦莱克Well-made play 巧构剧Werkimmanente kritik 文本批评Wilde, Osear 王尔德Wilson, Edmund 威尔逊,艾德蒙Wimsatt, William K.Jr 维姆萨特Wirkungsgeschichte 作用史Wittgenstein,Rudwig 维特根斯坦World/earth 世界/大地World literature 世界文学ZZero-sign 零符号Zola,Emile 左拉Zwei-pole-theorie 两极理论。

简述西方语文阶段词类理论的发展概况

简述西方语文阶段词类理论的发展概况
1.古希腊和古罗马时期：在古希腊，语法学家如柏拉图、亚里士多德和戴奥尼修斯·斯里庇提斯等人将词分为名词、动词和连词。

而在古罗马，西塞罗基于柏拉图和亚里士多德的理论，将词类扩展为名词、动词、形容词、副词和介词。

2.中世纪和文艺复兴时期：在中世纪，语法传统主要基于前人的理论，注重形式和结构。

到了文艺复兴时期，人文主义者如埃拉斯谟开始将语法与人类思维和语言能力联系起来，提出了更系统化的词类分类。

3.18世纪以后：18世纪以来，语言学成为一门独立的学科，词类理论逐渐得到正式的系统化研究。

法国语法家DomaineSylvius和法国启蒙思想家狄德罗分别提出了词类的具体分类和定义。

在19世纪，学者们开始将词类理论与语法规则联系起来，并且提出了更加细致和精确的分类。

4.20世纪：20世纪的语言学研究中，词类理论不断发展和完善。

在句法学中，学者们引入了语义和功能角度，进一步细分和调整了词类分类。

随着结构主义和生成语法的兴起，对词类理论进行了更深入的研究和探讨。

《西方语言学名著选读》复习参考题(1)

《西方语言学名著选读》复习参考题
一、名词解释
1.普遍唯理语法
2.向心结构
3.离心结构
4.格语法
5.转换生成语法
6.格里姆定律
7.维尔纳定律
8.萨丕尔----沃尔夫假说
9.马氏文通
10. 动词形容词“名物化11. 句本位12. 系统功能语法13.情境意义
14.局限语言15.节律
二、简答
1．普遍唯理语法对中国语言学研究的影响
2.布拉格学派的语言学家的三个重要观点是什么？
3.中国古代方言学的兴起、代表人物及其著作有哪些？
4. 怎样理解洪堡特的“每一种语言里都包含着一种独特的世界观”？
5.韩礼德的功能主义思想有哪些？
6.如何解释布龙菲尔德的理论“S－r-s-R”
7. 欧洲汉学家对中国语言学的主要影响有哪些？
8.乔姆斯基的的转换生成语法经历了哪几个发展阶段？
9.生成语义学的主要观点是什么？
10.语言先天论的主要观点是什么？语言习得机制（LAD）是什么？
11.弗斯在语言学上最大的贡献是什么？
12.霍凯特的主要理论贡献有哪些？
三、论述题
1．马林诺夫斯基的人类学研究对语言学的影响与美国人类学家对语言学的影响有何异同？
2. 霍凯特是如何论述“向心结构”和“离心结构”的？与布龙菲尔德的相关论述有何不同？
3.索绪尔的历时与共时之分，语言与言语之分有什么重大意义
4.布拉格学派的什么学说最著名？为什么？
5.为什么索绪尔被尊为“现代语言学之父”？
6.叶尔姆斯列夫的主要理论贡献有哪些？
7.系统语法与功能语法之间是什么关系？
8. 试论汉语语法史上的“本位”观。

复合论元结构的名词解释

复合论元结构的名词解释在语言学领域中，复合论元结构（Complex Predicate）是指由一个核心动词和一个或多个附加论元组成的结构。

这种结构是一种形式上看似单一谓词的复合结构，可以增加动词的语义细节，同时展示出一定的信息丰富性。

一、复合论元结构的特点与形成方式复合论元结构的主要特点在于其构成方式。

具体而言，复合论元结构的形成方式可以通过动词短语的合并或者述宾结构的扩展来实现。

在动词短语的合并中，两个或多个动词通过中心语（核心动词）的词性以及其他成分的支配关系形成复合结构。

在述宾结构的扩展中，附加的论元会扩展宾语的域，从而形成一个复合谓词。

二、复合论元结构的语义功能复合论元结构在语义上能够提供丰富的信息。

通过不同的附加论元，它可以说明动词的细节意义、动作的方式或者情态等。

例如，动词短语“上学”和“打高尔夫球”都是典型的复合谓词结构，前者通过附加的论元“上”和“学”来体现动作的方式，后者则强调了打高尔夫球的动作方式。

三、复合论元结构的语言现象与研究复合论元结构作为一种语言现象，在不同语言中都存在。

例如，在汉语中，“喝醉了”、“走过去”等都是复合谓词结构。

而在印欧语系中，例如英语和德语，也存在类似的现象。

语言学家通过对不同语言中的复合论元结构进行研究，可以揭示不同语言的结构和语义之间的联系。

四、复合论元结构的应用与启示复合论元结构的应用不仅限于研究领域，也能够拓展到其他方面。

例如，在自然语言处理领域中，对复合论元结构的解析和理解可以帮助机器理解文本，从而提供更准确的文本分析和语义理解。

此外，在语言教育中，教师可以通过引入复合论元结构的概念，让学生更好地理解和运用语言，提升语言表达的准确性和丰富性。

总结起来，复合论元结构是由动词和附加论元组成的一种复合结构，它能够通过增加动词的语义细节和信息丰富性来丰富语言表达。

通过对复合论元结构的研究和应用，我们可以更好地理解语言的特点和结构，同时在其他领域中取得更多的应用启示。

论19世纪上半叶英国汉语语法研究

论19世纪上半叶英国汉语语法研究。

19世纪上半叶是英国汉语语法研究从做进一步发展的时期。

英国学术界从事汉语语法研究的人物不多，但也有一些著名的学者，他们用他们独特的学术方法，将英国人在汉语
语法研究所取得的成就推向新高度。

首先，1840年，英国学者利物浦大学Paton博士由于闻睹了中国文学，着手研究汉语语法，这标志着英国汉语语法研究的开始。

Paton博士把对汉语语法推进了一个新的高度，系统化地进行了汉文字研究，像春秋期间老庄的系统思维和语法。

他的研究也将中文字义
和语法性质等结合在一起，他的成果得到了英国学者的广泛认同，并得到了不少新的进展。

此外，1862年，英国汉学家Max Muller发表了他的汉语语法研究，对汉语的学习和
教育产生了深远的影响，他把中国文学和历史概括为一个系统，用他丰富的实践经验来系
统地讨论汉语语法，这些非常有用。

同时，他也评论了英国人学习汉语的方法和方法，这
也为英国汉语语法研究奠定了基础。

最后，19世纪10年代，英国语言学家博士在的Counani的汉语语法也引起了很多英
国汉学家的关注。

他写中文语法学习系统，系统总结出汉语文字结构，到层次，例如词性，句性，句子结构等。

Counani博士认为，要正确地理解和系统化汉语语法，就要从其历史
发展入手，循序渐进，从中文字及其动态变化出发，把汉语语法分开，把汉语语法整合起来，形成更为系统的语法结构。

他提出的这项学术研究也为英国set-off了一番新的汉语
语法研究的开始。

美国描写语言学派

美国描写语言学派
L/O/G/O
• • • • • • •
学派简介代表人物步骤主要特点产生背景内部原因外部原因产生的理论基础语言论

学派简介
• 美国描写语言学派又称美国描写语言学派（American descriptivists）。 • 20世纪20年代美国学者在调查美洲印第安语的基础上逐步形成的语言学流派。 • 以注重对语言结构形式的描写而著称。 • 美国结构主义跟欧洲结构主义都强调语言结构的系统性，但又各有自己的特色。美国结构主义着重结构形式的描写

主要特点
• ①注重口语和共时描写。 • ②注重形式分析，避开意义这一因素。 • ③在结构分析中，主要是研究分布情况和运用替代的方法。 • ④采用直接成分分析法。 • ⑤建立“语素音位”。 • ⑥反对心灵主义，主张行为主义。 • ⑦主张共时的描写和分析方法的研究。 • ⑧着重形式分析，运用分布和替代法，从话语中分离出音素、语素，并加以归类。 • ⑨注意研究口语。

研究有意义的语音，是音位学（phonology）。因为是区别性语音特征的最小单位。为了识别音位，布龙菲尔德采用了替换由总音响特征构成的连续体中的某一部分跟其他部分相似的语音形式，按照出现的位置进行比较的办法，称作最小对测试（minimal pair test）。例如pin这个词，改变不同的部分，可以得到以下几个系列：

代表人物
• 代表人物：博厄斯和E.萨丕尔 • 这一学派的先驱是F.博厄斯和E.萨丕尔。 • 博厄斯既是人类学家又是语言学家。著有《美洲印第安语手册》 • 萨丕尔也是人类学家兼语言学家，著有《语言论》 • 他们都强调尊重美洲本地人民的言语，从而作出客观的共时系统free form）和 “粘附形式”（bound form）：具有一定意义并能单独出现的形式（如John，run，play等）是自由形式。有些形式不能单独出现，只是较大的形式单位的一部分（如-s，-ing，-ly 等）是粘附形式。

洪堡的普通语言学

洪堡的普通语言学
洪堡的普通语言学是一种对语言的研究方法和理论框架，由德国语言学家威廉·冯·洪堡于19世纪初提出。

这一理论体系对语言的综合研究以及语言和文化之间的相互作用有着重要的贡献。

下面将介绍洪堡的普通语言学及其在中文研究中的应用。

洪堡的普通语言学主张通过对语言本身的研究，来揭示语言的内在本质和普遍规律。

他认为，每种语言都是特定社会和文化背景中的产物，同时也受到个体和群体的主观意识和文化经验的影响。

研究语言必须从个体的视角出发，关注语言的使用者和他们的社会环境。

在中文研究中，洪堡的普通语言学方法体现在对汉语的特点和规律的研究中。

洪堡强调语言的变异性和多样性。

他认为每个个体在语言使用中都有一定的创造性和自由度，从而导致了语言的变化和多样。

这一观点在汉语研究中的体现是对汉语方言和口语的研究，如对闽南语、四川话等方言和俚语的描述和分析。

洪堡的普通语言学也关注语言和文化之间的关系。

他认为语言是文化的一部分，是人类思维和感知的媒介。

在中文研究中，这一观点体现在对汉字和汉语思维方式的研究中。

他们通过对汉字的结构、意义和使用方式的研究，提出了汉字与汉语思维的相互联系和影响。

汉字的象形性质和字义之间的关联，反映了中国文化中对形象和意义的重视。

洪堡的普通语言学还强调了语言的功能和交际意义。

他认为语言是人类社会交往和沟通的工具，具有表达和传递信息的功能。

在中文研究中，人们对汉语的语用学研究多次得出结论：汉语有其特定的交际规则和用语习惯，如专名用法、礼貌用语等，这些都反映了在中国社会中的人际关系和社会地位等因素对语言使用的影响。

语言的可证性

作者：胡壮麟
作者机构：北京大学北京大学英语系100871
出版物刊名：外语教学与研究：外国语文双月刊
页码： 9-15页
主题词：语言;可证性;证素
摘要：自博亚斯首次报道在一种土生美洲人语言中,说话人能运用一种后缀来表达自己所提供信息的来源和可信度,当代语言学家已重视语言可证性的研究,并在更多语言中发现了表示可证性语义的证素。

本文对八十年代的研究进展作了一般回顾,并对以切夫、安德逊、维莱特为代表的3种模式作了描写。

这方面的研究将不仅有助于阐明语言的本质和功能,并将深化我们对社会符号学的认识。

比较文学复习资料（曹顺庆版）

比较文学复习资料（曹顺庆版）比较文学复习资料（曹顺庆版）一、填空1.用西方文论来阐发中国文学的做法，已被台湾学者总结为中国比较文学研究的“阐发研究”。

2.比较文学的英文名称是Comparative Literature，最早使用这一术语的是英国批评家马修?阿诺德，其信件1895年才被出版。

3.真正最早使Comparative Literature进入比较文学学科理论的是波斯奈特。

1886年，他以此为书名出版了世界上第一部比较文学学科理论专著《比较文学》。

4.比较文学作为一门独立学科在19世纪末得以诞生。

5.1827年，最早提出“世界文学”观念的是歌德。

6.1877年，世界上第一本比较文学杂志创刊于匈牙利的克劳森堡，刊名为《世界比较文学报》。

7.1887年科赫创办了一本颇有影响的比较文学杂志《比较文学杂志》，被视为德国比较文学的正式开端。

8.法国学派的四大代表人物：巴尔登斯伯格、梵?第根、卡雷、基亚，他们提出了要去掉比较文学的随意性，加强实证性；放弃无影响关系的平行比较，而集中研究各国的关系史；摆脱不确定的美学意义，而取得一个科学的含义（关键所在）。

9.我国第一部比较文学理论专著——卢康华、孙景尧的《比较文学导论》，也是内地第一部比较文学概论性著作。

10.比较文学的可比性：同源性、变异性、类同性、异质性与互补性。

P.3111.比较文学的基本特征：跨越性（跨国、跨学科、跨文明）；四大研究领域：实证性的文学影响研究、文学变异研究、平行研究、总体文学研究。

P.33 12.比较文学作为一个学科成立的一个标志是法国学派强调影响研究的国际文学关系史理论的提出。

13.文学变异研究的四个层面：语言层面变异研究、民族国家形象变异研究、文学文本变异研究、文化变异研究。

14.1960年美国比较文学学会成立，他标志着美国学派的正式登场。

代表人物有雷马克、艾德礼、勃洛克。

15.平行研究包括直接比较和间接比较。

平行研究主要有类比与对比两种方法构成。

施莱歇尔

所示）。按他的说法，最早是原始印欧语，这像是树干；由此生出两支，一支是斯拉夫-日耳曼语支，一支是雅利安-希腊-意大利-凯尔特语支，从这些语支再分别生出日耳曼、立陶宛、斯拉夫、凯尔特、意大利、希腊、伊朗等语言。这个谱系树模式已为后人所采用，但只是为了大致了解语言的演变过程。语言不是在哪个年月突然分为两支的，一种语言分化为不同语言之后仍然彼此互相影响，这与树木各枝的互不相干不同。
• 堡特和施莱歇尔都是十九世纪杰出的语言学家，他们对历史语言学和比较语言学做出了重大贡献。他们不仅提出了人类语言演变过程的假说，还绘制了世界语言的谱系，使历史语言学最后成一门名副其实的科学。
• 施莱歇尔最重要的著作是《印度日耳曼诸语言比较语法纲要》(1861～1862)，每章先写出他所构拟的原始印欧语形式（加星号为记），再写实有的梵语、古希腊语、拉丁语、日耳曼语等形式。这个比较法为后来的新语法学派开辟了道路。
• 施莱歇尔把语言分为3类：孤立语（如汉语）,屈折语（如印欧语），粘着语。他认为语言总是从孤立阶段经粘着阶段发展到屈折阶段，印欧语是最高阶段的语言，但是拿不出历史证据。他这个说法之所以曾经风靡一时，只是因为迎合了印欧人的种族偏见。
• 施莱歇尔所设想的原始印欧语,结构很简单, 只有几个元音,几个辅音,词法非常有规则。这个假说在他去世几年之后就为K.布鲁格曼等所推翻。1905～1907年在土耳其发掘出了公元前1700～前1200年的赫梯文字，更证明施莱歇尔所构拟的形式需要修正。
• 施莱歇尔最早提倡用自然科学方法来研究语言，他的《印度日耳曼诸语言比较语法纲要》是19世纪60年代对印欧语系最有系统的描述。但是由于掌握材料不够，他的语言类型三分法和印欧语言谱系描写法都不免粗疏，已由后人作了许多修正。

在阐释和模仿之间_兼评汪榕培教授的英译_诗经_关雎_

《外语与外语教学》(大连外国语学院学报)1999年第6期(总第121期)大连外国语学院副教授　陈建中在阐释和模仿之间——兼评汪榕培教授的英译《诗经关雎》既云“翻译即阐释”,又言“翻译是模仿”,孰是?孰非?对曰:并行而不悖也。

模仿的概念源自神话时代的巫术仪式。

古希腊的理性时代以后,亚里士多德和柏拉图沿用此术语,奠定了西方文论之基石。

此论如今早已面目全非。

模仿论是艺术圣俗二重起源的见证,然而在西方文化的语境下,它早已失了理论动力的存在价值。

既然它是人类文化共同的根,我们就可以在这个根上嫁接自己的模仿论。

吴宓先生的“三境”说就是这样的一种模仿论。

模仿的概念在西方已被用来指形而上的逻各斯成为形而下的艺术作品之客观化过程。

吴先生用“真如”(或“道”)取逻各斯而代之,以“三境”说而安身立命。

我们发展吴先生的翻译模仿说,远非贺拉斯拓本写照式的毕肖原形所能概括。

对超验之形上的“模仿”,本身就包含着创造性的超模仿和对这个过程的阐释。

吴先生的“三境”说我们认为可以成为比较文学理论之基石和文学翻译理论的出发点。

文字的艺术和比较这两点先天的优越性就使我们有充分理由把文学翻译作为比较文学之本体。

吴先生的“三境”说的高度概括性也许有人会认为它空疏;然而它的“真境”要求形式和内容的浑然一体,这就要求批评和翻译研究必须从新批评式的“细读”开始,与弗莱(N orthr op F ry e )的理论契合,最后归于弗莱式的“宇宙学”宏观研究。

为此,笔者的研究就从新批评传统的内容隐喻——比兴开始。

一、文学作品是语言符号和艺术符号的矛盾统一文学作品可以通俗地被看成是用语言文字为媒介构筑的艺术品。

它不像绘画和音乐等其它艺术品有自己独特的符号系统,它用的是一套现成的语言符号系统。

语言作为一般的符号,它是个系统,是“由相互依赖的诸要素组成的系统,而其中每一要素的价值完全是由于另外要素的同时存在而获到的”。

!根据这一原则,我们首先在文学作品的语言层面上弄清楚每一要素的价值或意义。

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2
The
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
Semantics
of Prefix
Verbs
Determining the semantics of unknown words which can be derived from lexicon entries is highly desirable for natural language understanding (Light, 1996). In this paper, I sketch a compositional account of the semantics of German prefix verbs derived from a verbal base, concentrating on those verbs that can be generated by a productive word formation rule. Like (Witte, 1997), I assume that the meaning of most of these verbs can be derived compositionally by uni~'ing the semantic representations of its constituents. Example: (1) durch + laufen ('through + to run') =~ durchlaufen ('to run through')
(4)
durch + leben ('through' + 'live') =~ durchleben ('live through:)
This is an instance of a common rule which can be summarized informally ms (2) 'durch' + VERB[+motion,+agentive] ::~ VERB through a space
Specifying the set of adequate bases implicitly by selection restrictions allows to elegantly capture generalizations. For example, we can specify at the feature structure for verbs of motion that they can only combine with the instance of "durch' denoting "VERB through a space". The productivity of a word formation rule is a complex notion (Kastovsky, 1986; Bauer, 1988; Mayo et al., 1995). For our purposes, a rule is productive if it applies to all bases which satisfy a common description such as "'state" or "transitive verb". A rule only provides patterns for analogical forma1Here. aspect denotes certain general verb classes (Binnick. 1992; Comrie. 1992) such as state, activity, accomplishment, and achievement (Vendler, 1957).
When a prefix verb is lexicalized, its meaning frequently shifts due to language change and metaphorical usage (Mayo et al., 1995). For example, 'durchlaufen' is mostly associated with the meaning "passing through all stages of a process": (3) Er durchl£uft die Schulung. He passes through the training.
Compositional
Semantics of German Prefix Verbs
Maria Wolters Institut fiir Kommunikationsforschung und Phonetik University of Bonn Poppelsdorfer Allee 47, D-53115 Bonn
Frequently, the prefix modifies features of the base verb such as valency or aspect 1. For example, while 'eilen' ('to haste') is an activity, 'etw. dureheilen' ('to haste through sth.') is an accomplishment. I assume that the prefix entry provides a highly underspecified blueprint of the structure of the prefix verb; therefore, I regard the prefix as the head of the prefix verb (but see (Bauer, 1990)). The values for all features of the prefix verb are obtained from the base verb via structure sharing, except for basic morphological information and the information to be modified. In other words, the values of all unmodified features of the prefix verb are token identical with the corresponding values of the base verb. Most prefixes appear in distinct but semantically related rules, resulting in polysemou,s prefixes. For example, combined with some stative verbs, 'durch' signifies "'VERB during a certain period of time", as in
mwo©asll, ikp. uni-bonn, de
Abstract
A compositional account of the semantics of German prefix verbs in HPSG is outlined. We consider only those verbs that are formed by productive synchronic rules. Rules are fully productive if they apply to all base verbs which satisfy a common description. Prefixes can be polysemous and have separate, highly underspecified lexical entries. Adequate bases are determined via selection restrictions. 1 The Problem
525
tions; the frequency of application and acceptability of results also indicate its degree of productivity.
verb-prefix durch durch_l dutch2
Figure 1: Part of the sort hierarchy for verb prefixes tures of verb prefixes. Each prefix p is assigned a sort p with subsorts Pl . . . . . Pn for each potential meaning. Relevant verb classes, such as semantic fields or Vendler classes, are also specified using sorts. Following KN, I assume that the prefix is the head of complex affix words, but like Riehemann, I do not assume a binary structure. The internal structure of a complex derived word is given in Fig. 2. Morphological information is given at the feature MORPII. MORPtIILEVEL specifies separability (1 - unseparable, 2 - separable). MORPHIDTRS the internal structure, and MORPHIB.-kSE the base form. Each verb has a complex feature PREFIX located at SYNSEMILOCICAT. FOr each prefix p, the value of the subfeature PREFIXIp points to the adequate prefix meaning. For example, if the instance of 'dutch' corresponding to (2) is labelled dutch_l, we get PREFIX]DURCtI: 1 in the lexical entry for 'eilen'. A verb can only combine with prefixes for which an instance is specified at PREFIX. Regarding semantics, we focus on aspectual classes. The semantic framework chosen here is Lexical Conceptual Structure, which has been applied successfidly to the interface between morphology and lexical semantics by e.g. (Rappaport Hovav and Levin, in press). The representation of "v~ndler classes is adapted from (Van Valin, 1990). Class is specified at SYNSEMII,OClCONTENTICr,Ass. Prefix entries are heavily underspecified. For example, the entry for "durch' can be derived from Fig. 2 by deleting all information specific to the COMPlement "eilen'. except for the value of PREFIX]DIRCII. The semantics of the complex word is composed at the head and then structure shared with the whole word, in accordance with the Semantics Principle. A prefix can only be combined with verbs with an adequate feature value at PREFIX. 4 Conclusion and Further Work

Compositional Semantics of German Prefix Verbs

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语言的可证性

比较文学复习资料（曹顺庆版）

施莱歇尔

在阐释和模仿之间_兼评汪榕培教授的英译_诗经_关雎_

语言学考研术语名词解释带解释

64曲阜师范大学2020年成人高等教育《英语词汇学》复习资料期末考试试题及参考答案