The Principal Element of a Frobenius Lie Algebra
卢梭《论人类不平等的起源》(英文版)
On the Inequality among Mankind&Profession of Faith of a Savoyard VicarJEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU was born at Geneva, June 28, 1712, the son of a watchmaker of French origin. His education was irregular, and though he tried many professions—including engraving, music, and teaching—he found it difficult to support himself in any of them. The discovery of his talent as a writer came with the winning of a prize offered by the Academy of Dijon for a discourse on the question, “Whether the progress of the sciences and of letters has tended to corrupt or to elevate morals.” He argued so brilliantly that the tendency of civilization was degrading that he became at once famous.The discourse here printed on the causes of inequality among men was written in a similar competition.1He now concentrated his powers upon literature, producing two novels, “La Nouvelle Héloise,” the forerunner and parent of endless sentimental and picturesque fictions;and“Émile,ou l’Education,” a work which has had enormous influence on the theory and practise of pedagogy down to out own time and in which the Savoyard Vicar appears, who is used as the mouthpiece for Rousseau’s own religious ideas.“Le Contrat Social”(1762)elaborated the doctrine of the discourse on inequality. Both historically and philosophically it is unsound; but it was the chief literary source of the enthusiasm for liberty, fraternity, and equality, which inspired the leaders of the French Revolution, and its effects passed far beyond France.2His most famous work, the “Confessions,” was published after his death. This book is a mine of information as to his life, but it is far from trustworthy; and the picture it gives of the author’s personality and conduct, though painted in such a way as to make it absorbingly interesting, is often unpleasing in the highest degree. But it is one of the great autobiographies of the world.3During Rousseau’s later years he was the victim of the delusion of persecution; and although he was protected by a succession of good friends, he came to distrust and quarrel with each in turn. He died at Ermenonville, near Paris, July 2, 1778, the most widely influential French writer of his age.4The Savoyard Vicar and his “Profession of Faith” are introduced into “Émile” not, according to the author, because he wishes to exhibit his principles as those which should be taught, but to give an example of the way in which religious matters should be discussed with the young. Nevertheless, it is universally recognized that these opinions are Rousseau’s own, and represent in short form his characteristic attitude toward religious belief. The Vicar himself is believed to combine the traits of two Savoyard priests whom Rousseau knew in his youth. The more important was the Abbé Gaime, whom he had known at Turin; the other, the Abbé Gâtier, who had taught him at Annecy.IntroductionQuestion Proposed by the Academy of DijonWhat is the Origin of the Inequality Among Mankind; and whether such Inequality is authorized by the Law of Nature?’TIS of man I am to speak; and the very question, in answer to which I am to speak of him, sufficiently informs me that I am going to speak to men; for to those alone, who are not afraid of honouring truth, it belongs to propose discussions of this kind. I shall therefore maintain with confidence the cause of mankind before the sages, who invite me to stand up in its defence; and I shall think myself happy, if I can but behave in a manner not unworthy of my subject and of my judges.1I conceive two species of inequality among men; one which I call natural, or physical inequality, because it is established by nature, and consists in the difference of age, health, bodily strength, and the qualities of the mind, or of the soul; the other which may be termed moral, or political inequality, because it depends on a kind of convention, and is established, or at least authorized, by the common consent of mankind. This species of inequality consists in the different privileges, which some men enjoy, to the prejudice of others, such as that of being richer, more honoured, more powerful, and even that of exacting obedience from them.2It were absurd to ask, what is the cause of natural inequality, seeing the bare definition of natural inequality answers the question: it would be more absurd still to enquire, if there might not be some essential connection between the two species of inequality, as it would be asking, in other words, if those who command are necessarily better men than those who obey; and if strength of body or of mind, wisdom or virtue are always to be found in individuals, in the same proportion with power, or riches: a question, fit perhaps to be discussed by slaves in the hearing of their masters, but unbecoming free and reasonable beings in quest of truth.3What therefore is precisely the subject of this discourse? It is to point out, in the progress of things, that moment, when, right taking place of violence, natural became subject to law; to display that chain of surprising events, in consequence of which the strong submitted to serve the weak, and the people to purchase imaginary ease, at the expense of real happiness.4The philosophers,who have examined the foundations of society,have,every one of them, perceived the necessity of tracing it back to a state of nature, but not one of them has ever arrived there. Some of them have not scrupled to attribute to man in that state the ideas of justice and injustice, without troubling their heads to prove, that he really must have had such ideas, or eventhat such ideas were useful to him: others have spoken of the natural right of every man to keep what belongs to him, without letting us know what they meant by the word belong; others, without further ceremony ascribing to the strongest an authority over the weakest, have immediately struck out government, without thinking of the time requisite for men to form any notion of the things signified by the words authority and government. All of them, in fine, constantly harping on wants, avidity, oppression, desires and pride, have transferred to the state of nature ideas picked up in the bosom of society. In speaking of savages they described citizens. Nay, few of our own writers seem to have so much as doubted, that a state of nature did once actually exist; though it plainly appears by Sacred History, that even the first man, immediately furnished as he was by God himself with both instructions and precepts, never lived in that state, and that, if we give to the books of Moses that credit which every Christian philosopher ought to give to them, we must deny that, even before the deluge, such a state ever existed among men, unless they fell into it by some extraordinary event: a paradox very difficult to maintain, and altogether impossible to prove.5 Let us begin therefore, by laying aside facts, for they do not affect the question. The researches, in which we may engage on this occasion, are not to be taken for historical truths, but merely as hypothetical and conditional reasonings, fitter to illustrate the nature of things, than to show their true origin, like those systems, which our naturalists daily make of the formation of the world. Religion commands us to believe, that men, having been drawn by God himself out of a state of nature, are unequal, because it is his pleasure they should be so; but religion does not forbid us to draw conjectures solely from the nature of man, considered in itself, and from that of the beings which surround him, concerning the fate of mankind, had they been left to themselves. This is then the question I am to answer, the question I propose to examine in the present discourse. As mankind in general have an interest in my subject, I shall endeavour to use a language suitable to all nations; or rather, forgetting the circumstances of time and place in order to think of nothing but the men I speak to, I shall suppose myself in the Lyceum of Athens, repeating the lessons of my masters before the Platos and the Xenocrates of that famous seat of philosophy as my judges, and in presence of the whole human species as my audience.6O man, whatever country you may belong to, whatever your opinions may be, attend to my words; you shall hear your history such as I think I have read it, not in books composed by those like you, for they are liars, but in the book of nature which never lies. All that I shall repeat after her, must be true, without any intermixture of falsehood, but where I may happen, without intending it, to introduce my own conceits. The times I am going to speak of are very remote. How much you are changed from what you once were! ’Tis in a manner the life of your species that I am going to write, from the qualities which you have received, and which your education and your habits could deprave, but could not destroy. There is, I am sensible, an age at which every individual of you would choose to stop; and you will look out for the age at which, had you your wish, your species had stopped. Uneasy at your present condition for reasons which threaten your unhappy posterity with still greater uneasiness, you will perhaps wish it were in your power to go back; and this sentiment ought to be considered, as the panegyric of your first parents, the condemnation of you contemporaries, and a source of terror to all those who may have the misfortune of succeeding you.First PartHOWEVER important it may be, in order to form a proper judgment of the natural state of man, to consider him from his origin, and to examine him, as it were, in the first embryo of the species; I shall not attempt to trace his organization through its successive approaches to perfection: I shall not stop to examine in the animal system what he might have been in the beginning, to become at last what he actually is; I shall not inquire whether, as Aristotle thinks, his neglected nails were no better at first than crooked talons; whether his whole body was not, bear-like, thick covered with rough hair; and whether, walking upon all-fours, his eyes, directed to the earth, and confined to a horizon of a few paces extent, did not at once point out the nature and limits of his ideas. I could only form vague, and almost imaginary, conjectures on this subject. Comparative anatomy has not as yet been sufficiently improved;neither have the observations of natural philosophy been sufficiently ascertained, to establish upon such foundations the basis of a solid system. For this reason,without having recourse to the supernatural informations with which we have been favoured on this head, or paying any attention to the changes, that must have happened in the conformation of the interior and exterior parts of man’s body, in proportion as he applied his members to new purposes, and took to new aliments, I shall suppose his conformation to have always been, what we now behold it; that he always walked on two feet, made the same use of his hands that we do of ours, extended his looks over the whole face of nature, and measured with his eyes the vast extent of the heavens.1If I strip this being, thus constituted, of all the supernatural gifts which he may have received, and of all the artificial faculties, which we could not have acquired but by slow degrees; if I consider him, in a word, such as he must have issued from the hands of nature; I see an animal less strong than some, and less active than others, but, upon the whole, the most advantageously organized of any; I see him satisfying the calls of hunger under the first oak, and those of thirst at the first rivulet; I see him laying himself down to sleep at the foot of the same tree that afforded him his meal; and behold, this done, all his wants are completely supplied.2The earth left to its own natural fertility and covered with immense woods, that no hatchet ever disfigured, offers at every step food and shelter to every species of animals. Men, dispersed among them observe and imitate their industry, and thus rise to the instinct of beasts; with this advantage, that, whereas every species of beasts is confined to one peculiar instinct, man, who perhaps has not any that particularly belongs to him, appropriates to himself those of all other animals, and lives equally upon most of the different aliments,which they only divide among themselves; a circumstance which qualifies him to find his subsistence, with more ease than any of them.3 Men, accustomed from their infancy to the inclemency of the weather, and to the rigour of thedifferent seasons; inured to fatigue, and obliged to defend, naked and without arms, their life and their prey against the other wild inhabitants of the forest, or at least to avoid their fury by flight, acquire a robust and almost unalterable habit of body; the children, bringing with them into the world the excellent constitution of their parents, and strengthening it by the same exercises that first produced it, attain by this means all the vigour that the human frame is capable of. Nature treats them exactly in the same manner that Sparta treated the children of her citizens; those who come well formed into the world she renders strong and robust, and destroys all the rest; differing in this respect from our societies, in which the state, by permitting children to become burdensome to their parents, murders them all without distinction, even in the wombs of their mothers.4The body being the only instrument that savage man is acquainted with, he employs it to different uses, of which ours, for want of practice, are incapable; and we may thank our industry for the loss of that strength and agility, which necessity obliges him to acquire. Had he a hatchet, would his hand so easily snap off from an oak so stout a branch? Had he a sling, would it dart a stone to so great a distance? Had he a ladder, would he run so nimbly up a tree? Had he a horse, would he with such swiftness shoot along the plain? Give civilized man but time to gather about him all his machines, and no doubt he will be an overmatch for the savage: but if you have a mind to see a contest still more unequal, place them naked and unarmed one opposite to the other; and you will soon discover the advantage there is in perpetually having all our forces at our disposal, in being constantly prepared against all events, and in always carrying ourselves, as it were, whole and entire about us.5Hobbes would have it that man is naturally void of fear, and always intent upon attacking and fighting.An illustrious philosopher thinks on the contrary,and Cumberland and Puffendorff likewise affirm it, that nothing is more fearful than man in a state of nature, that he is always in a tremble, and ready to fly at the first motion he perceives, at the first noise that strikes his ears. This, indeed, may be very true in regard to objects with which he is not acquainted; and I make no doubt of his being terrified at every new sight that presents itself, as often as he cannot distinguish the physical good and evil which he may expect from it, nor compare his forces with the dangers he has to encounter; circumstances that seldom occur in a state of nature, where all things proceed in so uniform a manner, and the face of the earth is not liable to those sudden and continual changes occasioned in it by the passions and inconstancies of collected bodies. But savage man living among other animals without any society or fixed habitation, and finding himself early under a necessity of measuring his strength with theirs, soon makes a comparison between both, and finding that he surpasses them more in address, than they surpass him in strength, he learns not to be any longer in dread of them. Turn out a bear or a wolf against a sturdy, active, resolute savage, (and this they all are,) provided with stones and a good stick; and you will soon find that the danger is at least equal on both sides, and that after several trials of this kind, wild beasts, who are not fond of attacking each other, will not be very fond of attacking man, whom they have found every whit as wild as themselves. As to animals who have really more strength than man has address, he is, in regard to them, what other weaker species are, who find means to subsist notwithstanding; he has even this great advantage over such weaker species, that being equally fleet with them, and finding on every tree an almost inviolable asylum, he is always at liberty totake it or leave it, as he likes best, and of course to fight or to fly, whichever is most agreeable to him. To this we may add that no animal naturally makes war upon man, except in the case of self-defence or extreme hunger; nor ever expresses against him any of these violent antipathies, which seem to indicate that some particular species are intended by nature for the food of others.6But there are other more formidable enemies, and against which man is not provided with the same means of defence;I mean natural infirmities,infancy,old age,and sickness of every kind, melancholy proofs of our weakness, whereof the two first are common to all animals, and the last chiefly attends man living in a state of society. It is even observable in regard to infancy, that the mother being able to carry her child about with her, wherever she goes, can perform the duty of a nurse with a great deal less trouble, than the females of many other animals, who are obliged to be constantly going and coming with no small labour and fatigue, one way to look out for their own subsistence, and another to suckle and feed their young ones. True it is that, if the woman happens to perish, her child is exposed to the greatest danger of perishing with her; but this danger is common to a hundred other species, whose young ones require a great deal of time to be able to provide for themselves; and if our infancy is longer than theirs, our life is longer likewise; so that, in this respect too, all things are in a manner equal; not but that there are other rules concerning the duration of the first age of life, and the number of the young of man and other animals, but they do not belong to my subject. With old men, who stir and perspire but little, the demand for food diminishes with their abilities to provide it; and as a savage life would exempt them from the gout and the rheumatism, and old age is of all ills that which human assistance is least capable of alleviating, they would at last go off, without its being perceived by others that they ceased to exist, and almost without perceiving it themselves.7In regard to sickness, I shall not repeat the vain and false declamations made use of to discredit medicine by most men, while they enjoy their health; I shall only ask if there are any solid observations from which we may conclude that in those countries where the healing art is most neglected, the mean duration of man’s life is shorter than in those where it is most cultivated? And how is it possible this should be the case, if we inflict more diseases upon ourselves than medicine can supply us with remedies! The extreme inequalities in the manner of living of the several classes of mankind, the excess of idleness in some, and of labour in others, the facility of irritating and satisfying our sensuality and our appetites, the too exquisite and out of the way aliments of the rich, which fill them with fiery juices, and bring on indigestions, the unwholesome food of the poor, of which even, bad as it is, they very often fall short, and the want of which tempts them, every opportunity that offers, to eat greedily and overload their stomachs; watchings, excesses of every kind, immoderate transports of all the passions, fatigues, waste of spirits, in a word, the numberless pains and anxieties annexed to every condition,and which the mind of man is constantly a prey to; these are the fatal proofs that most of our ills are of our own making, and that we might have avoided them all by adhering to the simple, uniform and solitary way of life prescribed to us by nature. Allowing that nature intended we should always enjoy good health, I dare almost affirm that a state of reflection is a state against nature,and that the man who meditates is a depraved animal. We need only call to mind the good constitution of savages, of those at least whom we have not destroyed by our strong liquors; we need only reflect, that theyare strangers to almost every disease, except those occasioned by wounds and old age, to be in a manner convinced that the history of human diseases might be easily composed by pursuing that of civil societies. Such at least was the opinion of Plato, who concluded from certain remedies made use of or approved by Podalyrus and Macaon at the Siege of Troy, that several disorders, which these remedies were found to bring on in his days, were not known among men at that remote period.8Man therefore, in a state of nature where there are so few sources of sickness, can have no great occasion for physic, and still less for physicians; neither is the human species more to be pitied in this respect, than any other species of animals. Ask those who make hunting their recreation or business, if, in their excursions they meet with many sick or feeble animals. They meet with many carrying the marks of considerable wounds, that have been perfectly well healed and closed up; with many, whose bones formerly broken, and whose limbs almost torn off, have completely knit and united, without any other surgeon but time, any other regimen but their usual way of living, and whose cures were not the less perfect for their not having been tortured with incisions, poisoned with drugs, or worn out by diet and abstinence. In a word, however useful medicine well administered may be to us who live in a state of society, it is still past doubt, that if, on the one hand, the sick savage destitute of help, has nothing to hope from nature, on the other, he has nothing to fear but from his disease; a circumstance, which often renders his situation preferable to ours.9Let us therefore beware of confounding savage man with the men,whom we daily see and converse with. Nature behaves towards all animals left to her care with a predilection, that seems to prove how jealous she is of that prerogative. The horse, the cat, the bull, nay the ass itself, have generally a higher stature, and always a more robust constitution, more vigour, more strength and courage in their forests than in our houses; they lose half these advantage by becoming domestic animals; it looks as if all our attention to treat them kindly, and to feed them well, served only to bastardize them. It is thus with man himself. In proportion as he becomes sociable and a slave to others, he becomes weak, fearful, mean-spirited, and his soft and effeminate way of living at once completes the enervation of his strength and of his courage. We may add, that there must be still a wider difference between man and man in a savage and domestic condition, than between beast and beast; for as men and beasts have been treated alike by nature, all the conveniences with which men indulge themselves more than they do the beasts tamed by them, are so many particular causes which make them degenerate more sensibly.10Nakedness, therefore, the want of houses, and of all these unnecessaries, which we consider as so very necessary, are not such mighty evils in respect to these primitive men, and much less still any obstacle to their preservation. Their skins, it is true, are destitute of hair; but then they have no occasion for any such covering in warm climates; and in cold climates they soon learn to apply to that use those of the animals they have conquered; they have but two feet to run with, but they have two hands to defend themselves with, and provide for all their wants; it costs them perhaps a great deal of time and trouble to make their children walk; but the mothers carry them with ease; an advantage not granted to other species of animals, with whom the mother, when pursued, isobliged to abandon her young ones, or regulate her stapes by theirs. In short, unless we admit those singular and fortuitous concurrences of circumstances, which I shall speak of hereafter, and which, it is very possible, may never have existed, it is evident, in every state of the question, that the man, who first made himself clothes and built himself a cabin supplied himself with things which he did not much want, since he had lived without them till then and why should he not have been able to support in his riper years, the same kind of life, which he had supported from his infancy?11Alone, idle, and always surrounded with danger, savage man must be fond of sleep, and sleep lightly like other animals, who think but little, and may, in a manner, be said to sleep all the time they do not think: self-preservation being almost his only concern, he must exercise those faculties most, which are most serviceable in attacking and in defending, whether to subdue his prey, or to prevent his becoming that of other animals: those organs on the contrary, which softness and sensuality can alone improve, must remain in a state of rudeness, utterly incompatible with all manner of delicacy; and as his senses are divided on this point, his touch and his taste must be extremely coarse and blunt; his sight, his hearing, and his smelling equally subtle: such is the animal state in general, and accordingly if we may believe travellers, it is that of most savage nations. We must not therefore be surprised, that the Hottentots of the Cape of Good Hope, distinguish with their naked eyes ships on the ocean at as great a distance as the Dutch can discern them with their glasses; nor that the savages of America should have tracked the Spaniards with their noses, to as great a degree of exactness, as the best dogs could have done; nor that all these barbarous nations support nakedness without pain; use such large quantities of Pimento to give their food a relish, and drink like water the strongest liquors of Europe.12As yet I considered man merely in his physical capacity; let us now endeavour to examine him in a metaphysical and moral light.13I can discover nothing in any mere animal but an ingenious machine to which nature has given senses to wind itself up, and guard, to a certain degree, against everything that might destroy or disorder it. I perceive the very same things in the human machine, with this difference, that nature alone operates in all the operations of the beast, whereas man, as a free agent, has a share in his. One chooses by instinct; the other by an act of liberty; for which reason the beast cannot deviate from the rules that have been prescribed to it, even in cases where such deviation might be useful, and man often deviates from the rules laid down for him to his prejudice. Thus a pigeon would starve near a dish of the best flesh-meat, and a cat on a heap of fruit or corn, though both might very well support life with the food which they disdain, did they but bethink themselves to make a trial of it: it is in this manner dissolute men run into excesses, which bring on fevers and death itself; because the mind depraves the senses, and when nature ceases to speak, the will still continues to dictate.14All animals must be allowed to have ideas, since all animals have senses; they even combine their ideas to a certain degree,and,in this respect,it is only the difference of such degree,that constitutes the difference between man and beast; some philosophers have even advanced, thatthere is a greater difference between some men and some others, than between some men and some beasts; it is not therefore so much the understanding that constitutes, among animals the special distinction of man, as his quality of a free agent. Nature speaks to all animals, and beasts obey her voice. Man feels the same impression, but he at the same time perceives that he is free to resist or to acquiesce; and it is in the consciousness of this liberty, that the spirituality of his soul chiefly appears; for natural philosophy explains, in some measure, the mechanism of the senses and the formation of ideas;but in the power of willing,or rather of choosing,and in the consciousness of this power, nothing can be discovered but acts, that are purely spiritual, and cannot be accounted for by the laws of mechanics.15But though the difficulties, in which all these questions are involved, should leave some room to dispute on this difference between man and beast, there is another very specific quality that distinguishes them,and a quality which will admit of no dispute;this is the faculty of improvement; a faculty which, as circumstances offer, successively unfolds all the other faculties, and resides among us not only in the species, but in the individuals that compose it; whereas a beast is, at the end of some months, all he never will be during the rest of his life; and his species, at the end of a thousand years, precisely what it was the first year of that long period. Why is man alone subject to dotage? Is it not, because he thus returns to his primitive condition? And because, while the beast which has acquired nothing and has likewise nothing to lose, continues always in possession of his instinct, man, losing by old age, or by accident, all the acquisitions he had made in consequence of his perfectibility, thus falls back even lower than beast themselves? It would be a melancholy necessity for us to be obliged to allow, that this distinctive and almost unlimited faculty is the source of allman’s misfortunes; that is this faculty, which, though by slow degrees, draws the mount of their original condition, in which his days would slide away insensibly in peace and innocence; that it is this faculty, which, in a succession of ages, produces his discoveries and mistakes, his virtues and his vices, and, at long run, renders him both his own and nature’s tyrant. it would be shocking to be obliged to commend, as a beneficent being, whoever he was the first that suggested to the Oronoco Indians the use of those boards which they bind on the temples of their children, and which secure to them the enjoyment of some part at least of their natural imbecility and happiness.16Savage man, abandoned by nature to pure instinct, or rather indemnified for that which has perhaps been denied to him by faculties capable of immediately supplying the place of it, and of raising him afterwards a great deal higher, would therefore begin with functions that were merely animal: to see and to feel would be his first condition, which he would enjoy in common with other animals. To will and not to will, to wish and to fear, would be the first, and in a manner, the only operations of his soul, till new circumstances occasioned new developments.17Let moralists say what they will, the human understanding is greatly indebted to the passions, which,on their side,are likewise universally allowed to be greatly indebted to the human understanding. It is by the activity of our passions, that our reason improves: we covet knowledge merely because we covet enjoyment, and it is impossible to conceive why a man exempt from fears and desires should take the trouble to reason. The passions, in their turn, owe their origin to。
西塞罗作品英文版
西塞罗作品英文版Cicero's Works in English Translation: A Timeless LegacyCicero, the renowned Roman statesman, philosopher, and orator, has left an indelible mark on the Western intellectual tradition. His extensive body of work, spanning a wide range of topics, from politics and rhetoric to philosophy and ethics, has been the subject of intense scholarly interest and admiration for centuries. The enduring relevance of Cicero's ideas and the profound impact they have had on the development of Western thought have led to a rich tradition of translating his works into various languages, including English.The English translations of Cicero's works have played a crucial role in disseminating his ideas and making them accessible to a global audience. One of the earliest and most influential English translations of Cicero's works was that of the 16th-century scholar, Thomas Bentley. Bentley's translations of Cicero's philosophical treatises, such as "On the Nature of the Gods" and "On Duties," helped to introduce Cicero's thought to a wider English-speaking readership and laid thefoundation for the subsequent proliferation of Cicero's works in the English language.Over the centuries, numerous scholars and translators have contributed to the English translation of Cicero's vast literary corpus. In the 17th and 18th centuries, figures such as Meric Casaubon, Walter Moyle, and Charles Yonge produced new translations of Cicero's works, further expanding the reach of his ideas in the English-speaking world. These translations not only conveyed the content of Cicero's writings but also sought to capture the elegance and rhetorical power of his original Latin prose.One of the most significant and comprehensive English translations of Cicero's works was undertaken in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the renowned scholar, Walter Ker. Ker's translations, published in a multi-volume series, covered a vast array of Cicero's writings, including his political speeches, philosophical treatises, and letters. Ker's meticulous and scholarly approach to translation ensured that the nuances and complexities of Cicero's thought were faithfully rendered in English, making his works more accessible to a modern audience.In more recent decades, the translation of Cicero's works has continued, with new generations of scholars and translators bringing fresh perspectives and approaches to the task. The Oxford UniversityPress, for example, has published a series of high-quality translations of Cicero's works, including "On the Commonwealth" and "On the Laws," which have been widely acclaimed for their accuracy and readability.The enduring popularity and relevance of Cicero's works in the English-speaking world can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, Cicero's writings touch upon timeless themes and questions that continue to resonate with readers today. His insights into the nature of politics, the role of the state, and the pursuit of virtue and justice remain highly relevant in the modern world. Moreover, Cicero's mastery of rhetoric and his ability to articulate complex ideas with clarity and eloquence have ensured that his works continue to be studied and admired by students of language, literature, and philosophy.Furthermore, the English translations of Cicero's works have played a crucial role in preserving and disseminating his legacy. By making his writings accessible to a wider audience, these translations have facilitated a deeper understanding and appreciation of Cicero's contributions to Western thought. They have also inspired new generations of scholars and thinkers to engage with Cicero's ideas and to explore their relevance in the contemporary world.In conclusion, the English translations of Cicero's works represent asignificant and enduring aspect of the Western intellectual tradition. From the pioneering efforts of 16th-century scholars to the latest scholarly endeavors, the translation of Cicero's writings has ensured that his ideas and his influence continue to be felt across the globe. As we navigate the complexities of the modern world, the timeless wisdom and insights found in Cicero's works remain a valuable resource, guiding us in our pursuit of justice, virtue, and the betterment of society.。
特洛伊介绍
只是他没有想到他还会有爱情的发生，他的温情脉脉和被夺取的惨痛欲绝让他在战场之外同样显得高贵。他甚至已经选择了逃避这场战争，尽管痛惜战友的牺牲，尽管痛心生命的践踏，可是他依旧按捺住自己沸腾的战火。他最后倒下了，为了拯救一个女人。他钻进木马的唯一目的竟然就是找到并且保护这个女人。他奔跑在这个被厮杀抢掠的城市，目光急切，呼喊悲戚。这个时候我感怀于一个神的人性回归。
Only that he did not think he will have taken place of love, his sentimental and tragic stricken captured on the battlefield outside of him the same look noble. He even has chosen to escape the war, although deplored the sacrifice of his comrades in arms, despite the sad life of trampling, but he still restrain the fighting to live their own boiling. Finally, he fell, in order to save a woman. He even got into Trojan for the sole purpose is to find and protect this woman. He has been killing one run in the looting of the city, anxious eyes, shouting grief. Thanks for the Memories at this time I return to a God of human nature.
鲁宾逊漂流记读后感 Bookreport of Robinson Crusoe
A Book Report of Robinson CrusoeHave you ever wondered what you would do if you were the only person on a desert island? How many days can you survive? Day or days?Daniel Defoe dramatizes such an experience in Robinson Crusoe, an adventure story about a man named Robinson Crusoe who is stranded on a desert island for 28 years. This book is one of the forerunners of the English realistic novel, which is based on a real experience of Alexander Selkirk, a Scottish castaway who lived four years on the Pacific island. Defoe develops the sailor's story with his own imagination. As the struggle of man vs. nature and man vs. man is so interesting to read, I keep my attention on the story until the very end.As a bourgeois writer, Daniel Defoe shows his ideas about the rising bourgeois class in his book. He creates the image of Robinson Crusoe, a typical of the rising English bourgeois class in the 18th century. Robinson Crusoe is a practical,diligent and religious person with a restless curiosity to know more about the world. He is never content with his current life and he is longing for adventures. All his characters indicate the bourgeoisie's dissatisfactions with their situations at that time and their desires for extension in the world.Another thing delivering through the whole story is individualism. With the influence of the Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution, more and more people are being interested in individualism, especially the bourgeois class. And from the story of Robinson Crusoe, we can see his desire to prove individual power in the face of social and natural challenges. Although his bad luck puts him alone on a desolate island, he doesn't lose his belief to survive. Alone on the island, Robinson Crusoe overcomes many difficulties: hunger, loneliness, the fight against disease etc.Of course he is only an ordinary person and he also has fears and gets puzzled at the beginning. We can see that he is in despair and questiones himself "Why did God put me on this island all alone ?" But later he gets out of despair and does all he can to find out ways to provide himself with residence, food, and tools. He salvages things from a wrecked ship and makes full use of them.Just as the proverb says, "God helps those who help themselves". With great will and strength, Robinson Crusoe creats for himself a kingdom by taming animals, gathering fruit, growing crops, and hunting. He also makes a calendar to remind himself of the world. It is his marvelous capacity for work, his boundless courage and energy in overcoming obstacles that make him a hero. And in the story, Daniel Defoe also sings the praises of human labour, presenting it as the source of pride andhappiness as well as a means to change man's living conditions.However, Daniel Defoe also beautifies colonialism and slavery in the story., which I think is the limitation of his class and the times. Obviously, Robinson Crusoe is a colonist. For example he puts up a sign as his landing monument after he sets foot on the island. He also thinks he owns Friday's life and wants Friday to be obedient just because he saves Friday and gives Friday a name as a man. Moreover, Robinson Crusoe's adventures is not only for survival, but also for occupancy of wealth and land.All in all, it's no wonder that Robinson Crusoe is a successful realistic novel. On one hand, it glorifies the individualism and tells a story of ordinary people in plain and simple language; on the other hand, it shows a vivid and positive picture of he rising English bourgeois class at its early stage of development.。
海底两万里第一篇的读书笔记
海底两万里第一篇的读书笔记英文回答："20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" is a classic science fiction novel written by Jules Verne. It tells the story of Professor Pierre Aronnax and his companions who are taken captive by Captain Nemo and embark on a thrilling underwater adventure aboard the submarine Nautilus.One of the main themes of the book is the exploration of the unknown. Throughout the story, the characters encounter various sea creatures and underwater landscapes that were previously unseen by humans. This theme reminds me of the saying "The world is your oyster," which means that there are endless opportunities and adventures waiting to be explored.Another theme in the book is the conflict between man and nature. Captain Nemo represents the power and mystery of the ocean, while Professor Aronnax and his companionsrepresent human curiosity and the desire to conquer the unknown. This conflict is similar to the expression "You can't fight Mother Nature," which means that nature is more powerful than human beings and cannot be controlled or tamed.The character development in the book is also noteworthy. Captain Nemo is portrayed as a complex and enigmatic character. He is both a hero and a villain, as he fights against injustice but also resorts to violence. This reminds me of the phrase "Every coin has two sides," which means that every person or situation has both positive and negative aspects.Furthermore, the book explores the theme of isolation. The characters spend a significant amount of time aboard the Nautilus, cut off from the outside world. Thisisolation can be compared to the saying "A fish out of water," which means feeling uncomfortable or out of place in a particular situation.In conclusion, "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" is acaptivating novel that explores themes of exploration, the conflict between man and nature, character development, and isolation. It is a timeless story that continues tocaptivate readers with its imaginative and thought-provoking narrative.中文回答：《海底两万里》是由儒勒·凡尔纳所著的一部经典科幻小说。
CollegeEnglish--我们唯一恐惧的就是恐惧本身[含翻译]
![CollegeEnglish--我们唯一恐惧的就是恐惧本身[含翻译]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/4702cb7e168884868762d626.png)
The Only Thing We Have to Fear Is Fear ItselfSpeaker: Franklin Roosevelt, January 30, 1882-April 12, 1945, the 32nd President of the United StatesDate & Place: March 4, 1933, Washington D.C., USABackground: First Inaugural Address with the nation in the grips of the Great Depression. The address is 1880 words and took 19 minutes to deliver, won 20 ovations, ranked3rd in The Top 100 American Speeches of the 20th Century.President Hoover, Mr. Chief Justice, my friends:This is a day of national consecration. And I am certain that on this day my fellow Americans expect that on my induction into the Presidency, I will address them with a candor and a decision which the present situation of our people impels. (Applause.)This is preeminently the time to speak the truth, the whole truth, frankly and boldly. Nor need we shrink from honestly facing conditions in our country today. This great Nation will endure, as it has endured, will revive and will prosper. (Applause.)So, first of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself- nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance. In every dark hour of our national life, a leadership of frankness and of vigor has met with that understanding and support of the people themselves which is essential to victory. And I am convinced that you will again give that support to leadership in these critical days. (Applause.)In such a spirit on my part and on yours we face our common difficulties. They concern, thank God, only material things. Values have shrunk to fantastic levels; taxes have risen; our ability to pay has fallen; government of all kinds is faced by serious curtailment of income; the means of exchange are frozen in the currents of trade; the withered leaves of industrial enterprise lie on every side; farmers find no markets for their produce; and the savings of many years in thousands of families are gone. More important, a host of unemployed citizens face the grim problem of existence and an equally great number toil with little return. Only a foolish optimist can deny the dark realities of the moment.And yet our distress comes from no failure of substance. We are stricken by no plague of locusts. Compared with the perils which our forefathers conquered, because they believed and were not afraid, we have still much to be thankful for. Nature still offers her bounty and human efforts have multiplied it. Plenty is at our doorstep, but a generous use of it languishes in the very sight of the supply.Primarily, this is because the rulers of the exchange of mankind's goods have failed, through their own stubbornness and their own incompetence, have admitted their failure, and have abdicated. Practices of the unscrupulous money changers stand indicted in the court of public opinion, rejected by the hearts and minds of men.True, they have tried. But their efforts have been cast in the pattern of an out- worn tradition. Faced by failure of credit, they have proposed only the lending of more money. Stripped of the lure of profit by which to induce our people to follow their false leadership, they have resorted to exhortations, pleading tearfully for re- stored confidence. They only know the rules of a generation of self-seekers. They have no vision, and when there is no vision the people perish. (Applause.)Yes, the money changers have' fled from their high seats in the temple of our civilization. We may now restore that temple to the ancient truths. (Applause.) The measure of that restoration lies in the extent to which we apply social values more noble than mere monetary profit.Happiness lies not in the mere possession of money; it lies in the joy of achievement, in the thrill of creative effort. The joy, the moral stimulation of work no longer must be forgotten in the mad chase of evanescent profits. These dark days, my friends, will be worth all they cost us if they teach us that our true destiny is not to be ministered unto but to minister to ourselves, to our fellow men. (Applause.)Recognition of that falsity of material wealth as the standard of success goes hand in hand with theabandonment of the false belief that public office and high political position are to be valued only by the standards of pride of place and personal profit; and there must be an end to a conduct in banking and in business which too often has given to a sacred trust the likeness of callous and selfish wrong- doing. (Applause.) Small wonder that confidence languishes, for it thrives only on honesty, on honor, on the sacredness of obligations, on faithful protection, and on unselfish performance; without them it cannot live.Restoration calls, however, not for changes in ethics alone. This Nation is asking for action, and action now. (Applause.)Our greatest primary task is to put people to work. (Applause.) This is no unsolvable problem if we face it wisely and courageously. It can be accomplished in part by direct recruiting by the Government itself, treating the task as we would treat the emergency of a war, but at the same time, through this employment, accomplishing great -- greatly needed projects to stimulate and reorganize the use of our great natural resources.Hand in hand with that we must frankly recognize the overbalance of population in our industrial centers and, by engaging on a national scale in a redistribution, endeavor to provide a better use of the land for those best fitted for the land. (Applause.)Yes, the task can be helped by definite efforts to raise the values of agricultural products, and with this the power to purchase the output of our cities. It can be helped by preventing realistically the tragedy of the growing loss through foreclosure of our small homes and our farms. It can be helped by insistence that the Federal, the State, and the local governments act forthwith on the demand that their cost be drastically reduced. (Applause.) It can be helped by the unifying of relief activities which today are often scattered, uneconomical, unequal. It can be helped by nation- al planning for and supervision of all forms of transportation and of communications and other utilities that have a definitely public character. There are many ways in which it can be helped, but it can never be helped by merely talking about it.(Applause.) We must act. We must act quickly.And finally, in our progress towards a resumption of work, we require two safe- guards against a return of the evils of the old order. There must be a strict supervision of all banking and credits and investments. (Applause.) There must be an end to speculation with other people's money. (Applause.) And there must be provision for an adequate but sound currency. (Applause.)These, my friends, are the lines of attack. I shall presently urge upon a new Congress in special session detailed measures for their fulfillment, and I shall seek the immediate assistance of the 48 States. (Applause.) Through this program of action we address ourselves to putting our own national house in order and making income balance outgo. Our international trade relations, though vastly important, are in point of time, and necessity, secondary to the establishment of a sound national economy. (Applause.) I favor, as a practical policy, the putting of first things first. I shall spare no effort to restore world trade by international economic readjustment; but the emergency at home cannot wait on that accomplishment.The basic thought that guides these specific means of national recovery is not nationally -- narrowly nationalistic. It is the insistence, as a first consideration, up- on the interdependence of the various elements in and parts of the United States of America -- a recognition of the old and permanently important manifestation of the American spirit of the pioneer. It is the way to recovery. It is the immediate way. It is the strongest assurance that recovery will endure.In the field of world policy, I would dedicate this Nation to the policy of the good neighbor: the neighbor who resolutely respects himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others; the neighbor who respects his obligations and respects the sanctity of his agreements in and with a world of neighbors. (Applause.) If I read the temper of our people correctly, we now realize, as we have neverrealized before, our interdependence on each other; that we can not merely take, but we must give as well; that if we are to go forward, we must move as a trained and loyal army willing to sacrifice for the good of a common discipline, because without such discipline no progress can be made, no leadership becomes effective.We are, I know, ready and willing to submit our lives and our property to such discipline, because it makes possible a leadership which aims at the larger good. This, I propose to offer, pledging that the larger purposes will bind upon us, bind upon us all as a sacred obligation with a unity of duty hitherto evoked only in times of armed strife. With this pledge taken, I assume unhesitatingly the leadership of this great army of our people dedicated to a disciplined attack upon our common problems.Action in this image, action to this end is feasible under the form of government which we have inherited from our ancestors. Our Constitution is so simple, so practical that it is possible always to meet extraordinary needs by changes in emphasis and arrangement without loss of essential form. That is why our constitutional system has proved itself the most superbly enduring political mechanism the modern world has ever seen. It has met every stress of vast expansion of territory, of foreign wars, of bitter internal strife, of world relations. And it is to be hoped that the normal balance of executive and legislative authority may be wholly equal, wholly adequate to meet the unprecedented task before us. But it may be that an unprecedented demand and need for undelayed action may call for temporary departure from that normal balance of public procedure.I am prepared under my constitutional duty to recommend the measures that a stricken nation in the midst of a stricken world may require. These measures, or such other measures as the Congress may build out of its experience and wisdom, I shall seek, within my constitutional authority, to bring to speedy adoption.But, in the event that the Congress shall fail to take one of these two courses, in the event that the national emergency is still critical, I shall not evade the clear course of duty that will then confront me. I shall ask the Congress for the one remaining instrument to meet the crisis broad Executive power to wage a war against the emergency, as great as the power that would be given to me if we were in fact invaded by a foreign foe. (Applause.)For the trust reposed in me, I will return the courage and the devotion that be- fit the time. I can do no less.We face the arduous days that lie before us in the warm courage of national unity; with the clear consciousness of seeking old and precious moral values; with the clean satisfaction that comes from the stern performance of duty by old and young alike. We aim at the assurance of a rounded, a permanent national life.We do not distrust the future of essential democracy. The people of the United States have not failed. In their need they have registered a mandate that they want direct, vigorous action. They have asked for discipline and direction under leadership. They have made me the present instrument of their wishes. In the spirit of the gift I take it.In this dedication. In this dedication of a Nation, we humbly ask the blessing of God. May He protect each and every one of us. May He guide me in the days to come. (Applause.)我们唯一恐惧的就是恐惧本身演讲者：富兰克林·罗斯福，1882.1.30—1945.4.12, 第32任美国总统时间地点：1933年3月4日，美国首都华盛顿演讲背景：美国处于历史上最严重的经济危机时期的首任总统就职演讲。
Chaos… of a dripping faucet - University of Roches
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Logistic Map: Comparing Successive Drops
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DROPPER A (1.9 mm) 21.41 DROPS/SEC
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CHAOS… OF A DRIPPING
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the ostrich英语作文有译文
Title: The Ostrich: A Unique Yet Misunderstood CreatureIn the vast expanse of the African savanna, among the towering giraffes and the majestic lions, lies a creature that has long been shrouded in mystery and misconception – the ostrich. This fascinating bird, with its towering height, powerful legs, and striking plumage, stands as a testament to the diversity of nature, yet its reputation is often marred by the age-old adage, "The ostrich with its head in the sand." However, a closer examination reveals a much more complex and intriguing animal than commonly portrayed.The Magnificence of the OstrichAt first glance, the ostrich is nothing short of impressive. With a height that can exceed two meters and a weight reaching up to 150 kilograms, it is the largest living bird species on Earth. Its legs, long and muscular, enable it to reach speeds of up to 70 kilometers per hour over short distances, making it one of the fastest land animals. This speed, coupled with its keen eyesight and hearing, allows the ostrich to evade predators with ease.The Myth of the Head in the SandPerhaps the most enduring misconception surrounding the ostrich is the belief that it buries its head in the sand when faced with danger. In reality, this behavior stems from a misinterpretation of the ostrich's natural habits. When threatened, an ostrich may indeed lower its head to the ground, but this is not out of ignorance or denial; rather, it is a defensive tactic. By doing so, the ostrich can better blend into its surroundings, reducing its visibility to predators. Additionally, it allows the bird to listen for approaching threats, as the ground conducts sound better than air. Adaptations for SurvivalThe ostrich's unique physiology is a testament to its evolutionary success. Its powerful legs and wings (which, though not used for flight, are instrumental in courtship displays and balance) enable it to traverse vast distances in search of food and water. Its beak is adapted for a varied diet, consisting of seeds, fruits, insects, and even small mammals. Furthermore, the ostrich's body temperature fluctuates throughout the day, allowing it to conserve water in arid environments, a crucial adaptation for survival in the harsh African climate.Social DynamicsContrary to popular belief, the ostrich is a highly social animal. They form monogamous pairs and live in groups, known as flocks, for protection and companionship. Within these flocks, a strict hierarchy is established, with dominant birds enjoying preferential access to resources. The ostrich's courtship rituals are elaborate, involving elaborate displays of the wings and neck, further emphasizing the importance of social interactions within the species.In ConclusionThe ostrich, with its majestic appearance and intriguing behaviors, is a true marvel of nature. While often misunderstood and misrepresented, this unique creature possesses an array of adaptations that have allowed it to thrive in the harsh African wilderness for millions of years. From its impressive speed and strength to its complex social dynamics, the ostrich offers a fascinating insight into the diversity and resilience of the animal kingdom.Translation:鸵鸟：一种独特而常被误解的生物在辽阔的非洲大草原上，高耸的长颈鹿和威严的狮子之间，生活着一种常被神秘和误解笼罩的生物——鸵鸟。
小王子作者--圣埃克絮佩里中英文
安托万?马里?让-巴蒂斯特?罗歇?德?圣埃克絮佩里(法语:Antoine Marie Jean-Baptiste Roger de Saint-Exupéry，1900年6月29日,1944年7月31日)，法国作家、飞行员，1900年6月29日生于法国里昂。
1944年获得“法兰西烈士”称[N 1]号。
在他的经典儿童小说《小王子》出版一年后，为祖国披甲对抗纳粹德军。
在1944年7月31日执行一次飞行任务时失踪。
他以于1943年出版的童话《小王子》(Le/The Little Prince)而闻名于世，其他著名的小说分别有《夜航》、《人类Petit Prince的土地》等。
位于其家乡的里昂圣-埃克苏佩里机场是以他命名的。
直到2004年4月，离奇失踪近60年的埃克苏佩里飞机残骸才在法国南部马赛海底附近被寻获。
在他逝世50周年时，法国人将他与小王子的形象印在50法国法郎的钞票上。
生平童年和青年时期[编辑]圣埃克絮佩里出生于一个贵族家庭，在五个孩子中排行老三，他有三个姐妹和一个金发小弟弟弗朗索瓦斯(François)。
父亲让•德圣埃克絮佩里(Jean de Saint-Exupéry )(1863-1904)是伯爵，1904年死于中风，此时安托万还未满四岁。
母亲Marie de Fonscolombe独自抚养五个孩子。
弗朗索瓦斯是安托万最亲近的知己，却在15岁时患上风湿热，并不幸死于心包炎。
那是1917年夏天，他们都在瑞士弗里堡的Marianist教会学校上学。
安托万在弗朗索瓦斯离世前一直照顾他，并在《小王子》一书的结尾处写到:“他的脚踝处闪过一道金光。
他似乎呆了一下，也没有喊叫，像一棵树一样倒下了。
因为地上是沙子，他甚至没有发出一点声音。
……”安托万在17岁就成了家里唯一的男性。
受到弟弟离世和一战的影响，安托万开始创作讽刺普鲁士士兵的漫画，并开始写诗.1917年，他通过了高中毕业会考，成绩平平，随后两次报考海军学校落榜。
习题Englishliteratureinthe18thCentury
4 English Literature in the 18th CenturyⅠ. Essay questions.1. Comment on the feature of the neoclassical literature.2. State the artistic features of Gulliver’s Travels.3. Daniel Defoe’s novels Robison Crusoe was a great success partly because the protagonist was a real middle-class hero. Discuss Crusoe, the protagonist of the novel, as an embodiment of the rising middle-class virtues in the mid-eighteenth century England.4. Discuss the artistic features of Henry Fielding’s novels.5. What makes Laurence Sterne’s Tristram Shandy one of the most original works in English literature?6. Analyze Gulliver’s Travels to illustrate the use the satire in it.7. Comment on the main features of Alexander Pope’s works.Ⅱ. Define the following terms.1. Three unities 9. Persona2. Didactic literature 10. Epigram3. Satire 11. Gothic novel4. Mock epic 12. Graveyard school of poetry5. Farce 13. Neoclassicism6. Burlesque 14. Fiction7. Picaresque novel 15. Anti-hero8. Melodrama 16. ForeshadowingⅢ. Fill in the blanks.1. Most of the writers in the 18th century were enlighteners. They fell into two groups: the ________group and the _______________group.2. The principal elements of the ________novel are mystery, horror and suspense.3. Laurence Sterne’s fame rests chiefly on his two books, __________and A Sentimental Journey, esp. the former.4. Pamela is written in the form of a ______novel.5. The only novel of Oliver Goldsmith is _________, which gives a detailed account of the numerous misfortunes befalling the central character and his family.6. _________written by Sheridan is a clever satire on the sentimental and pseudo-romantic fancies of many young women of the upper classes of the 18th century.7. The biography of Samuel Jonson entitled Life of Johnson is frequently considered the best in the English language. The author of the book is ________.8. The only important English dramatist produced in the 18th century is ________.9. Thomas Gray’s poem________ is taken as a model of sentimentalist poetry, esp. the Graveyard school.10. In the collection of familiar essays__________, Oliver Goldsmith voices hissatirical comments on the English society of his day from the viewpoint of an alleged Chinese traveler.11. In __________, William Blake expounds his theory of Imagination, asserting that the world of imagination is the world of eternity.12. “Till a’ the seas gang dry, my dear,And the rocks melt wi’ the sun:I will luve thee still, my dear,While the sands o’ life shall run.”The above verse lines are taken from the famous poem________.13. __________ is Oliver Goldsmith’s best poem, which is a sharp protest against the depopulation of the English countryside as a result of the large scale Enclosure Movement.14. The greatest historical work in English literature, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is the masterpiece of __________.15. The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling has been praised for its excellent plot construction. The three big divisions of the adventures of the hero and the heroine are marked by the change of scenes: ________, on the road and __________.16. Friday is a character in the novel__________.17. ________is called the Father of the English Novel.18. __________ is taken as a companion piece to Robison Crusoe: the story of his feminine counterpart who struggles with difficulties in order to get her portion of security, comfort and wealth.19. Among the representatives of the Enlightenment, _______ was the first to introduce rationalism to England.20. The 18th century England is known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of ________.21. _________ is Alexander Pope’s best satirical poem. Its satire is directed at Dullness in general.22. Samuel Richardson’s masterpiece is ________, in which the writer creates an image of a young woman who is weak and helpless but who dares to rebel against the tyranny and fight against the social evils.23. The Seasons is often considered as epoch-making, the first significant poem in the tradition of pre-romanticism. It is written by __________.24. In Gulliver’s Travels, Yahoos are the creatures living on ________.Ⅳ. Choose the best answer.1. Essay on Criticism is a didactic poem written in_________.A. alliterationB. heroic coupletC. sonnetD. blank verse2. Literature of Neoclassicism is different from that of Romanticism in that ________.A. the former celebrates reason, rationality, order and instruction while the lattersees literature as an expression on an individual’s feelings and experiencesB. The former is heavily religious but the latter secularC. The former is an intellectual movement, the purpose of which is to arouse themiddle class for political rights while the latter is concerned with the personal cultivationD. The former advocates the “ return to nature” whereas the latter turns to the ancient Greek and Roman writers for its models3. Lives of the Poets consists of the biographies of 52 poets and affords some of the best-known pictures of the early English poets. Its author is ________.A. Samuel RichardsonB. Jonathan SwiftC. Joseph AddisonD. Samuel Johnson4. Jonathan Swift’s famous prose work ________ is a satirical dialogue between the Ancients and the Moderns in the character of the Bee and the spider.A. A Modest ProposalB. The Battle of the BooksC. The Drapier’s LettersD. A tale of a Tub5. Of all the 18the century novelists, _________ was the first to set out in theory and practice, to write specially a “comic epic in prose”, and the first to give the modern novel its structure and style.A. Daniel DefoeB. Samuel RichardsonC. Henry FieldingD. Oliver Goldsmith6. Which of the following is NOT a character in the novel The History of Tom Jones,a Foundling?A. BlifilB. SophiaC. Mr. AllworthD. Amelia7. _______is of the author of the first dictionary by an Englishman—Dictionary of the English Language, which has become the foundation of all subsequent English dictionaries.A. Samuel JohnsonB. Laurence SterneC. Oliver GoldsmithD. Samuel Richardson8. In Sheridan’s The School for Scandal, the man who wins the hand of his beloved as well as the inheritance of his rich uncle is __________.A. Charles surfaceB. Joseph SurfaceC. Sir Peter TeazleD. Sir Benjamin Backbite9. Modern English novel arose in the ________century.A. 16thB.17thC. 18thD. 19th10. _________is William Blake’s most important prose work, which is the manifestoof his spiritual independence.A. Songs of InnocenceB. Songs of ExperienceC. The Marriage of Heaven and HellD. Jerusalem11. In the William Blake’s poetry, the father (and any other in whom he saw the image of the father such as God, Priest and King) was usually a figure of_______.A. benevolenceB. admirationC. loveD. tyranny12. _______was a progressive intellectual movement going on throughout Europe in the 18th century.A. The RenaissanceB. Puritan MovementC. Romantic MovementD. The Enlightenment13. Sheridan’s _____is the best English comedy since the days of Shakespeare.A. She Stoops to ConquerB. The RivalsC. The School for ScandalD. The Conscious Lovers14. The poem ________indicates Pope’s political and philosophical views on human nature and relation with the universe, the society and himself.A. DunciadB. The Rape of the lockC. An Essay on ManD. Essay on Criticism15. Sir Roger De Coverley is a most living person who appears frequently in the important journal _________.A. The SpectatorB. The TatlorC. The RamblerD. The Idler16. Which of the following place does Gulliver visit first in Gulliver’s Travels?A. LilliputB. BrobdingnagC. LaputaD. Houyhnhnms17. Which of the following is not true about Robinson Crusoe?A. It is written in the autobiographicalB. It is a record of Defoe’s own experience.C. Robinson spends 28 years of isolated life on the islandD. it is set in the middle of the 17th century18. In the 18th century, _______found its expression chiefly in poetry, especially that of William Blake and Robert burns.A. neoclassicismB. realismC. sentimentalismD. pre-romanticism19. _________is not a novel written by T. G. SmollettA. The Adventures of Roderick RandomB. The Adventures of Peregrine PickleC. The Adventures of Expedition of Humphry ClinkerD. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn20. Among the pamphlets Jonathan swift wrote about Ireland ._________is of the actual social struggle against the debasement of the Irish coin.A. A Modest ProposalB. The Drapier’s LettersC. Gulliver’s travelsD. A Tale of a Tub21. Which of the following is a gothic novel?A. The Mysteries of Udolpho (The Mysteries Udolpho)B. Tristram ShandyC. Northanger AbbeyD. The Vicar of Wakefield22. Many of Burns’ songs deal with friendship, ______has long become a universal parting-song of all the English-speaking countries.A. A Red, Red RoseB. Auld Lang SyneC. My Heart’s in The HighlandsD. John Anderson, My Jo23. “Nature himself” is the basis of fielding’s work, by mature, fielding means ___.A. the goodness of human natureB. exact observation and study of human natureC. the natural worldD. the evil side of human nature24. The rise and grows of __________is the most prominent achievement of the 18th century English literature, which has given the world such writers as Daniel Defoe, Jonathan swift and Henry fielding.A. neo-classical poetryB. realistic novelC. sentimentalist novelD. gothic novel25. Which of the following is not true about Samuel Richardson?A. He is the master of writing epistolary novelsB. He has much sympathy for women in their inferior social statusC. He is the first novelist of realist traditionD. His novels have a moral purpose.26. Which of the following novels by Henry Fielding satirizes the political system of England and the then prime minister sir Robert Walpole?A. Joseph AndrewsB. Jonathan Wild the GreatC. The History of Tom Jones, a FoundlingD. Amelia27. Epistolary novel was very popular in the 18th century. Which of the following is not written in epistolary form?A. The Expedition of Humphry ClinkerB. The Vicar of WakefieldC. PamelaD. Joseph Andrews28. Oliver goldsmith’s best comedy is ________, which greatly enhanced his fame in literature.A. She Stoops to ConquerB. The Conscious LoversC. The Deserted VillageD. The Historical Register for the Year 173629. Dr. Primrose is the central character of the novel____.A. The Vicar of WakefieldB. Gulliver’s TravelsC. PamelaD. The Rivals30. Henry Fielding’s first novel is first intended as a burlesque of Samuel Richardson’s Pamela.A. The History of Tom Jones, a FoundlingB. Joseph AndrewsC. Jonathan Wild the GreatD. A Sentimental JourneyⅤ. Short-answer questions.1. What great work did Joseph Addison and Richard Steele do for English literate?2. What is the significance of Pamela in English literature?3. Analyze the character of Tom Jones in The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling.4. What are the essential features of sentimentalism?5. Comment on William Blake’s songs of innocence and songs of experience.6. What does Robert Burns’ poetry mainly deal with?7. How do images help to convey the poet’s idea in “elegy written in a country churchyard”?8. What are the features of Thomas gray’s poetry?9. Analyze the theme of the play The School for Scandal.10. What are the major characteristics of the gothic novel?11. Why is Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe regarded as one of the forerunners of the English realistic novel?12. Make a brief comment on The History of Tom Jones, a FoundlingⅥ. Answer the questions according to the following passages.Passage 1The chimney sweeper(From songs of experience)A little black thing among the snowCrying “ ’weep! ’weep!” in tones of woe!“Where are thy father & mother? Say?”“They are both gone up to the church to pray.”“Because I was happy upon the heath,And smil’d among the winter’s snow;They cloth’d me in the clothes of death,And taught me to sing the notes of woe.”“And because I am happy & dance &singThey think they have done me no injury,And are gone to praise God & his Priest &King,Who make up a heaven of our misery.”Questions:1. What is the “little black thing” in the poem?2. When the young child speaks of his “father and mother”, whom does he refer to?3. What is the theme of the poem? How does the poet convey hid view>Passage 2I wandered thro’ each charter’d streets.Near where the charter’d Thames does flow,And mark in every face I meetMarks of weakness, marks of woe.In every cry of every man,In every infant’s cry of fear,In every voice, in every ban,The mind-forg’d manacles I hear.How the chimney-sweeper’s cryEvery black’ning church appalls;And the hapless soldier’s sighRuns in blood down palace walls.But most thro’ midnight streets I hearHow the youthful harlot’s curseBlasts the new born infant’s tear.And blights with plagues the marriage hearse.Questions:4. Identify the author of the poem and give the title of it.5. What is the rhythmical pattern of the poem?6. Repetition is the most striking formal feature of the poem .what role does it play?7. what does the speaker mean when he says” the mind –forg’d manacles I hear”?8. What does the “blackening church “suggest? What does the palace represent?9. Why does the poet use the phrase “marriage hearse”? What kind of plague would be associated with the harlot’s curse?10. What is the main idea of the poem?Passage 3But well says a certain author, no man is wise of all hours; it is therefore no wonder that a boy is not son. A difference arising at play between the two lads, Master Blifil called Tom a beggarly bastard. Upon which the latter, who was somewhat passionate in his disposition, immediately caused that phenomenon in the face of the former, which we have above remembered.Blifil now, with his blood running from his nose, and the tears galloping after from his eyes, appeared before his uncle, and the tremendous Thwachum. In which court an indictment of assault, battery and wounding ,was instantly preferred against tom; who in his excuse only pleaded the provocation ,which was indeed all the matter that Master Blifil had omitted.It is indeed possible, that this circumstance might have escaped his memory; for, in his reply, he positively insisted ,that he had made use of no such appellation ;adding ,”heaven forbid such naughty words should ever come out of his mouth.”Tom, though against all form of law, rejoined in affirmance of the words. Upon which Master Blifil said, “It is no wonder. Those who will tell one fib, will hardly stick at another. If I had told my master such a wicked fib as you have done, I should be ashamed to shew my face.”“What fib, child?” cries Thwackum pretty eagerly.“Why, he told you that nobody was with him at shooting when he killed the partridge; but he knows, (here he burst into a flood of tears) yes, he knows; for he confessed it to me, that black George the gamekeeper was there .nay, he said,—yes you did, —deny it if you can, that you would not have confest the truth, though master had cut you to pieces.”At this the fire flashed from Thwackum’s eyes; and he cried out in triumph: “Oh ho! This is your mistaken notion of honour! This is the boy who was not be whipped again!” But Mr. Allworthy, with a more gentle aspect, turned toward the lad, and said” Is this true, child? How came you to persist so obstinately in a falsehood?”Tom said, “He scorned a lie as much as anyone; but he thought his honour engaged him to act as he did; for he had promised the poor fellow to conceal him; which,” he said, “he thought himself farther obliged to, as the gamekeeper had begged him not to go into the gentleman’s manor, and had at last gone himself in compliance with his persuasions. He said, this was the whole truth of the matter, and he would take his oath of it;” and concluded with very passionately begging Mr. Allworthy, “to hove compassion on the poor fellow’s family, especially as he himself had been only guilty, and the other had been very difficulty prevailed on to do what he did. Indeed, sir,” said he, “it could hardly be called a lie that I told; for the poor fellow was entirely innocent of this whole matter. I should have gone alone after the birds; nay, I did go at first, and he only followed me to prevent more mischief. Do, pray sir, let me be punished, take my little horse away again; but pray sir, forgive poor George.”Mr. Alloworthy hesitated a few moments, and then dismissed the boys, advising them to live more friendly and peaceably together.Questions:11. In this passage, what characteristic traits can be found in Tom Jones and MasterBlifil?12. What does the passage say about the relation between Tom and Blifil?13. Comment on Fielding’s narrative features as reflected in the passage.KeysI. Essay question.1. (1) Neoclassical writers exhibited a strong traditionalism, which was evidenced intheir great respect for classical writers. They took the ancient Greek and Roman classical works as the literary models.(2) Human beings, and especially human being as an integral part of a socialorganization, were regarded as the primary subject matter of literature. Poetry was held to be an imitation on human life. It is design to yield both instruction and aesthetic pleasure to the people who read it.(3) Neoclassical writers tried to control literary creation by some fixed laws andrule drawn from Greek and Roman works. Rimed couplets instead of blank verse, the three unities of time, place and action, regularity in construction, and the presentation of types rather than individuals were the standards required of the drama. Poetry, including such popular forms as mock epic, romance, satire and epigram, was elegant in structure ad dictation and noted for its seriousness and earnestness in tone and constant didacticism. Prose should be precise, direct and flexible.(4) In style, the neoclassical literature was polity, urbane, witty and intellectual asa result of the writer’s conscious efforts to seek proportion, unity, harmonyand grace in literary expressions.(5) Literature at the time was heavily didactic and moralizing became a verypopular means of public education.2. Artistically, the novel is at once a fantasy and a realistic work of fiction. The stories about the Lilliputians, the Brobdingnagians, the Laputians, the Houyhnhnms and the Yahoos, thought quite frankly invented and unreal, are told in a very vivid and convincing way. The direct descriptions of men and things of the 18th century English society and the indirect references to conditions of the time lend an up-to-datedness to the imagined travels and make them all the more believable.The language in this novel, as is typical of all Swift’s works, is very simple, unadorned, straightforward and effective. An apparent innocence and honesty of the hero and his account, the direct, truthful, detailed presentation of people and things encountered set off the biting satire and a desperate indignation of the writer.Besides, the novel is noted for its exceptionally tidy structural arrangement. The four seemingly independent parts are linked up by the central idea of social satire and make up an organic whole. There is a complementary relationship between the four parts, each supporting, adding to and developing the central satire. This is especially true of the first two parts.The narrative patter of the book is also outstanding. Common to all the four parts, there is the apparent outward-homeward-bound motif, treating Gulliver’s adventures and his inevitable return to England. With each voyage, there is a grave consistency and there is a darkening gradation of incident and a growing perversion of the hero. On the other hand, the incident begins with a chance shipwreck, goes on to some man-made misfortunes and finally ends with intended mutinies. On the other hand, the hero’s attitude towards mankind change from firm belief to doubt, further doubt, and finally to dislike. His early eagerness to return home eventually turns into complete reluctance.3. Robinson Crusoe is about the adventures of Robinson Crusoe, son of a middle-class family. The novel traces the development of Crusoe from a naïve and artless youth into a clever and hardened man, tempered by numerous trials in his eventful life. It celebrates the eighteenth-century Western civilization’s material triumph and the strength of human rational will to conquer the natural environment. Robison is a real hero, with marvelous capacity for work, with boundless energy and persistence in overcoming obstacles. On the uninhabited island, with the help of a few stores and utensils saved from the wrecked ship and by the exercise of infinite ingenuity,Robinson builds himself a house, domesticates goats, grows corn, barley and rice, and makes himself a boat. In describing Robison’s life on the island, Defoe glorifies the bourgeois man, who has the courage and will o face hardship and the determination to preserve himself and improve on his livelihood by struggling against nature. He also glorifies human labour, physical as well as mental. Labour saves Robison from despair, and is a source of pride and happiness.Robinson is the image of a true empire-builder, a colonizer and a foreign trader. He is most practical and exact, always religious and at the same time mindful of his own profit. Robinson’s every voyage is connected with some commercial enterprise. In the first part of the novel, he appears chiefly in the capacity of a colonizer, while in the second part he first acts as a colonizer. He fights against the savages and establishes a colony on the desert island. As soon as the native Friday makes his appearance on the island, Robinson assumes the role of a master. Then he extracts profit from the plantation in Brazil and brings religion and morality and the social institution of marriage to the Gulf of Persia, China and Siberia. So, the character of Robinson Crusoe is representative of the English bourgeois middle class at the earlier stage of its development. He is the embodiment of private enterprise and colonization.4. (1) Method of relating a story: Fielding starts “the third-person narration”, that is,his story is told directly by the author, an omniscient narrator. With such an approach, he is able to present not only the characters’ external behaviours but also the internal workings of their minds. It enables the author to develop his narrative in the fullest, freest, clearest and most straightforward manner, and also affords him opportunities of giving personal explanation at suitable places.Fielding frequently intervenes in his own person and talks to his readers in a very intimate way, especially in the first chapter of each of the books of the novel, where he invariably indulges in a bit of theorizing, usually about the art of writing, sometimes also about the art of criticism.(2) Satire abounds everywhere in his novels. There are two kinds of satire. One isthe humorous satire, which is meant to be instructive and corrective. The other kind is grim satire, which is used to lash the cardinal evils of the corrupt ruling classes.(3) Fielding believes in the educational function of the novel. He shares thecontemporary Enlighteners’ view that the purpose of the novel is not only to amuse, but also to instruct. The object of his novels is to present a faithful picture of life, while sound teaching is woven into the very texture.(4) Fielding is a master of style. His style is easy, unlaboured and familiar, butextremely vivid and vigorous. His language command is remarkable. The sentences are always logical and rhythmical. The structures of the novels are well balanced and carefully planned.(5) His novels are noted for individualized dramatic dialogues, and other theatricaldevices such as suspense, coincidences and surprise. They complicate the plot and enliven the story.5. (1) The novel does not pretend to be an objective narration of the life andadventures of any hero. The emphasis is laid upon the subjective consciousness of the characters rather than upon their external actions. The workings of the mind in the major characters like Uncle Toby and Walter Shandy constitute the chief contents in their lives and determine their words and actions. This extreme subjectivity and this indulgence in detailed mental analysis lead to numerous long digressions, which are called by the author “the sunshine, the life, the soul of reading”. It seems Sterne tries to catch the actual flow of human mind and sentiment in ordinary life, in the manner of a modern “stream-of-consciousness” novelist. Thus, it is a novel without a regular plot, consisting of episodes, conversations and perpetual digressions.(2) The novel has an unusual artistic form. Sterne consciously plays all sorts oftricks in his style of writing. Incidents are not arranged in their normal chronological order. A sentence would be written and called a chapter.Occasionally entire chapters would be a blank, left to the imagination of the readers. Punctuation marks are frequently juggled with, and pictures of curves and fantastic drawings sometimes appear on the pages instead of words.(3) Fantasticality dominates the form of the novel as well as its contents. In a waySterne looks forward to modern novel.6. Jonathan Swift’s highest achievement in literature is Gulliver’s Travels.It is a satire on the whole English society of the early 18th century, touching upon the political, religious, legal, military, scientific, philosophical as well as literary institution, about almost every aspect of the society. It brings to light the wickedness of the then English society, with its tyranny, religious disputes and persecution, and its ruthless oppression and exploitation of the common people. The four parts of the book project the writer’s satire in different ways.In the first part, Gulliver describes his shipwreck in Lilliput. This part is full of references to current politics. Lilliput is a miniature of England. In his account of the two parties in the country, distinguished by the use of high and low heels, Swift satirizes the Tories and Whigs in England. The English religious dissensions are also laughed at in the description of the controversy on the question whether eggs should be broken at the big or the small end.In the second part, Gulliver is left ashore on Brobdingnag. The king of Brobdingnag is described as a wise and kind king, and the inhabitants are said to be a civilized race. The law of the country is used to defend the natives’ freedom and happiness. The satire of Western civilization and English lords and ladies is here developed more directly by statement of differences between Brobdingnag and the English society.In the third part, Gulliver’s voyage is occupied with several places. The satire is directed against British misgovernment of Ireland, as is reflected in the Flying Island Laputa. Obtuse scientific researches and philosophical discussions in the early 18th century are ridiculed via the description of the Academy of Projectors in Lagado, and false history is criticized in the episode about the Island of the Sorcerers.In the last part, Gulliver’s is in a country where horses are possessed of reason,。
读《巴黎圣母院》的读书笔记英文
读《巴黎圣母院》的读书笔记英文，600字My Reading Notes on Notre-Dame de ParisNotre-Dame de Paris, a classic novel written by Victor Hugo in 1831, tells the story of Quasimodo, a disfigured bell ringer of Notre-Dame who is deeply in love with Esmeralda, a beautiful gypsy girl. Throughout the novel, readers can witness the love, revenge and devotion of the characters, as well as the power and intrigue of the Church in medieval Paris.The novel begins with the introduction of Claude Frollo, the archdeacon of Notre-Dame who is consumed by his own twisted obsession with Esmeralda. Through his obsession, Frollo takes it upon himself to take care of Quasimodo, who becomes an outcast due to his physical deformity. Quasimodo develops an intense loyalty to the archdeacon and his church and will do anything to protect them.The novel then follows Esmeralda as she falls in love with Phoebus, a captain of the guards. This is despite the fact that Frollo has been relentlessly pursuing her. Things start to go awry when Frollo's plans for Esmeralda are thwarted and he spirals into a downward spiral of obsession and madness. He then takes it upon himself to frame Esmeralda for the murder of Phoebus. Quasimodo, haunted by his loyalty to Frollo, carries out his orders and captures Esmeralda, but soon realises the evilness of his master's intentions. Ultimately, it is Quasimodo’s loyalty to Esmeralda that helps him save her from Frollo’s wicked plan and bring her back to her beloved Notre-Dame.One of the main themes of the novel is the power struggle between the Church and the state. In the beginning of the novel, it was easy to see the Church as a beacon of hope in the dark and dank alleyways of Medieval Paris. However, by the end of the novel, it is clear that the Church’s attempts at cont rolling people for the sake of their own personal gain has led to consequences that have threatened the peace and harmony of the city.Throughout the novel, the reader is taken on an emotional journey as they follow the characters and explore the inner workings of the Church. With vivid descriptions of the places and people, it is easy to become engrossed in this classic story. Hugo’s writing style is both elegant and captivating as he paints a vivid portrait of life in Medieval Paris. Notre-Dame de Paris is a timeless classic that is sure to leave readers feeling inspired and in awe of the complexity of human emotions and relationships.。
frobenius特征多项式
frobenius特征多项式Frobenius characteristic polynomial (also called Frobenius characteristic polynomial) refers to the characteristic polynomial of the Frobenius endomorphism of a finite-dimensional vector space over a finite field.The Frobenius endomorphism is the map defined by raising each element of the vector space to the power of q, where q is the order of the underlying finite field. In other words, if V is a finite-dimensional vector space over a finite field of order q, then the Frobenius endomorphism is the linear map F: V -> V defined byF(v) = v^q for all v in V.The Frobenius characteristic polynomial is obtained by applying the characteristic polynomial operator to the Frobenius endomorphism. It is denoted as χ_F(T) and is defined as det(F - T·id), where id is the identity map and det denotes the determinant.The Frobenius characteristic polynomial has special significance in representation theory and algebraic geometry, as it encodes information about the action of the Frobenius endomorphism on the vector space. It can be used to determine properties of the vector space, such as the dimensions of the fixed point subspaces under the Frobenius endomorphism.In the context of algebraic geometry, the Frobenius characteristic polynomial is often used to study the zeta function associated with an algebraic variety, which provides information about the number of rational points over finite fields.Overall, the Frobenius characteristic polynomial is an important tool for studying the structure and properties of finite-dimensional vector spaces over finite fields, particularly in the fields of representation theory and algebraic geometry.。
aesop's fables 中英
aesop's fables 中英Aesop's Fables is a collection of short stories, attributed to a slave and storyteller named Aesop. These fables, written around 600 BCE, have been passed down through generations and have become an integral part of literature, teaching valuable lessons through allegorical narratives. Let's explore a few examples of Aesop's Fables and their moral lessons.1. The Lion and the Mouse:In this fable, a mighty lion spares the life of a tiny mouse. Later, when the lion is caught in a hunter's net, the grateful mouse gnaws through the ropes, freeing the lion. The moral of the story is that no act of kindness, no matter how small, is ever wasted.2. The Tortoise and the Hare:This fable features a competitive race between a slow-moving tortoise and a fast-running hare. The hare arrogantly takes a nap during the race, assuming victory is guaranteed. However, the tortoise continues to plod along and eventually wins the race. The moral lesson here is that slow and steady wins the race.3. The Ant and the Grasshopper:In this fable, an ant works diligently all summer, gathering food and storing it. Meanwhile, a careless grasshopper spends his time singing and playing. When winter arrives, the grasshopper realizes he has no food, while the ant has plenty. The moral of the story is that hard work and preparation yield rewards, while laziness leads to hardship.4. The Boy Who Cried Wolf:This cautionary fable tells the story of a shepherd boy who repeatedly tricks the villagers by pretending there is a wolf attacking his sheep. When a real wolf eventually appears and the boy cries for help, the villagers do not believe him, and the boy loses his sheep. The moral lesson here is that if you lie or exaggerate the truth, people will eventually stop believing you, even when you speak the truth.5. The Goose That Laid the Golden Eggs:In this fable, a poor farmer owns a goose that lays golden eggs. However, driven by greed, the farmer impatiently kills the goose, hoping to find a treasure inside. The farmer ends up losing both the goose and its golden eggs. The lesson here is that greed can lead to self-destruction and the loss of valuable possessions.These fables serve as timeless teachings, with their moral lessons applicable to various aspects of life. The stories often feature animals or natural elements as characters, making them relatable and easily understood by people of all ages and backgrounds.Through Aesop's Fables, readers learn important values such as kindness, patience, hard work, honesty, and the consequences of greed. The stories have been retold and adapted in various forms of literature, theater, and media, cementing their place in the literary canon.In conclusion, Aesop's Fables continue to inspire and educate readers with their profound moral teachings. They remind us of the timeless wisdom and universal truths that can be found in simple and engaging stories.。
aufbau principle英语解释
aufbau principle英语解释The aufbau principle, also known as the building-up principle, is a fundamental concept in chemistry that describes the way in which electrons occupy energy levels in an atom. This principle provides a systematic way to determine the electron configuration of an atom based on the increasing energy levels of the orbitals.According to the aufbau principle, electrons fill the lowest energy levels available before moving on to higher energy levels. This means that electrons will occupy the 1s orbital before moving on to the 2s orbital, and so on. The order in which the orbitals are filled follows a specific pattern that is based on the relative energies of the orbitals.The aufbau principle is essential in understanding the structure and properties of atoms. By determining the electron configuration of an atom, we can predict its chemical behavior and how it will interact with other atoms. This principle also helps us to understand the periodic trends in the periodic table, such as the increase in atomic size and reactivity as we move down a group.One important aspect of the aufbau principle is the concept of electron spin. According to the Pauli exclusion principle, no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers. This means that electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins. The spin of an electron can be either "up" or "down," and this determines the direction in which the electron is spinning.In addition to electron spin, the aufbau principle also considers the shapes of the orbitals and their orientations in space. Each orbital has a specific shape and orientation that is determined by its quantum numbers. For example, the 1s orbital is spherical in shape, while the 2p orbital has a dumbbell shape with two lobes along different axes.Overall, the aufbau principle is a fundamental concept in chemistry that helps us understand the electronic structure of atoms and the periodic trends in the periodic table. By following this principle, we can predict the behavior of atoms and molecules and gain insights into their chemical properties. It serves as the basis for many of the theories and models that we use to study the world of atoms and molecules.。
英美文学选读-英国-新古典主义时期-练习题汇总
英美文学选读-英国-新古典主义时期-练习题汇总1. The 18th-century England is known as ( ) (浙0710)A. the Age of PuritanismB. the Age of ReasonC. the Era of CapitalismD. the Age of Glory2. English Enlighteners in the 18th century held ________ as the yardstick for the measurement of all human activities and relations. （一）1A. propertyB. educationC. emotionD. reason3. In the Enlightenment Movement, the progressive representatives intended ______. (浙0810)A. to call the people to fight against poverty and hardshipB. to tell people to economize and to accumulate wealthC. to enlighten the whole world with the light of modern philosophical and artistic ideasD. to instruct people to obtain their present social status through hard work4. As to education, the enlighteners thought that ______. （浙0310）A. human beings were limited, dualistic, imperfect, and not capable of rationality and perfectionthrough education.B. universal education was unnecessary.C. if the common people were well educated, there would be great chance for a democratica n d equal human society.D. most of the human beings were perfect themselves, so only a few needed further education.5. Why did the enlighteners regard education the major means to improve the society and the people? ( ) (浙0710)A. Because most of the human beings were perfect themselves, so only a few needed further education.B. If the common people were well educated, there would be great chance for a democratic and equal human society.C. Because universal education was limited , dualistic, imperfect, and unnecessary.D. Because human beings were not capable of rationality and perfection through education.6. About reason , the enlighteners thought _____. （浙0210）A. reason or rationality should be the only, the final cause of any human thought and activitiesB. reason couldn't lead to truth and justiceC. superstition was above reason and rationalityD. equality and science is contrary to reason and rationality7. In the field of literature, the Enlightenment Movement brought about the tendency of ( )A. realismB. puritanismC. neoclassicismD. romanticism8. Which of the following statements about Neo-Classicism and Enlightenment Movement is true?A. The Enlightenment was a progressive intellectual movement throughout Western Europe in the 17th century.B. Neo-Classicism found its artistic models in the classicalliterature of the ancient Greek and Roman writers like Homer, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, etc. and in the contemporary French writers.C. Neo-Classicism put the stress on the classical artistic ideals of order, logic, proportion, spontaneous emotion, and passion.D. Satire was much used in writing in the neo-classic works. English literature of this age produced a distinguished satirist Daniel Defoe.9. Which of the following descriptions of Enlightenment Movement is NOT true? ()A. It was a progressive intellectual movement that flourished in France.B. It was a furtherance of the Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries.C. The purpose was to enlighten the whole world with modern philosophical and artistic ideas.D. The Enlighteners advocate individual education.（common people）10. The enlighteners placed much emphasis on reason, because they thought （）(浙0710）A. superstition was above reason and rationality.B. reason and emotion both could lead to truth and justice.C. reason or rationality should be the only, the final cause of any human thought and activities.D. equality and science is contrary to reason and rationality.11. All of the following statements can correctly describe the Enlightenment Movement EXCEPTA. The movement flourished in France.B. The movement was a furtherance of the Renaissance.C. The purpose of the movement was to enlighten the whole world.D. The purpose of the movement was to enhance the religious education.12. As a representative of the Enlightenment, ______ was one of the first to introduce rationalism to England. (094) A. John Bunyan B. Daniel DefoeC. Alexander PopeD. Jonathan Swift13.(The)（）was a progressive intellectual movement throughout Western Europe in the 18th century. (054)A. RomanticismB. HumanismC. EnlightenmentD. Sentimentalism14. According to the neoclassicists, all forms of literature were to be modeled after the classical works of the ancient Greek and ______ writers. （浙0210）A. ItalianB. BritishC. GermanD. Roman15. Which of the following statements is true according to the principles of the neoclassicists? (浙0801)A. All forms of literature were to be modeled after the classical works of the ancient Greek and Roman writers.B. They tried to delight, instruct and correct human beings as social animals.C. They tried to develop a polite, urbane, witty and intellectual art.D. All of the above.16. The neoclassicists did not believe that ( ) (浙0710)A. the literature should be used to delight and instruct human beings.B. the artistic ideals should be order, logic, restrained emotion and accuracy.C. the literary works should be created independently and originally.D. both A and C17. The great political and social events in the English society of neoclassical period were the following EXCEPT ______. (104)A. the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660B. the Great Plague of 1665C. the Great London Fire in 1666D. the Wars of Roses in 1689 （1455-1487）18. The 18th century witnessed a new literary form－the modern English novel, which, contrary to the medieval romance, gives a ______ presentation of life of the common people. (044) A. romantic B. realistic C. prophetic D. idealistic19. Which of the following terms can be used to refer to the 18th-century English literature?A. The Age of Romance.B. The Age of Drama .C. The Age of Prose.D. The Age of Poetry.20. The belief of the eighteenth - century neoclassicists in England led them to seek the following EXCEPT ______. (104)A. proportionB. UnityC. harmonyD. spirit21. The British bourgeois or middle class believed in thefollowing notions EXCEPT ______.(094)A. self - esteemB. self - relianceC. self - restraintD. hard work22. In the 18th century, the British government was mainly controlled by two political parties in turn. They are （）(浙0801)A. the upper House and the lower House.B. the House of Lords and the House of Representatives.C. the Whigs and the Tories.D. the Senate and the House of Representatives.23．Contrary to the traditional romance of aristocrats, the modern English novel gives a realistic presentation of life of ______. （084）A．the common English people B．the upper class C．the rising bourgeoisie D．the enterprising landlords24. The principal elements of _________in the late eighteenth century are violence, horror, and the supernatural, which strongly appeal to reader’s emo tion.( ) （一）3 (浙0601) A. history novelB. Gothic novelC. romantic novelD. sentimental novel25. “Graveyard School” writers are the following sentimentalists EXCEPT ______. (094)A. James ThomsonB. William CollinsC. William CowperD. Thomas Jackson古墓派诗人—汤姆森-科林斯-库伯26. The poem “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”墓园挽诗established ______ as the leader of the sentimental poetry of the day，especially “the Graveyard School”. ()(047)A. Thomas Gray 汤姆斯-葛雷B. Samuel JohnsonC. John BunyanD. John Milton27. Neoclassicists had some fixed laws and rules for prose EXCEPT_____.（一）4 （）A. being preciseB. being directC. being flexibleD. being satiric28. In the theatrical world of the neoclassical period, ________ was the leading figure among the host of playwrights.A．William Blake B．Richard Brinsley Sheridan理查德.比.谢立丹C．Ben Jonson D．Bernard Shaw29. Richard Brinsley Sheridan was the only English dramatist of the ______ century. (浙0810)A. sixteenthB. seventeenth （一）5C. eighteenthD. nineteenth30. In the last few decades of the 18th century, the neoclassicism was gradually replaced by __. (浙0510)A. romanticismB. critical realismC. modernismD. naturalism31. The middle of the 18th century saw a newly rising literary form—( ) (浙0301)A. the modern English novelB. the modern English poetryC. the modern English dramaD. both A and B32. Britain witnessed two major romantic poets in the later half of the 18th century. They are ( ) （浙0701）A. John Milton and William Blake （一）6B. Robert Burns and John KeatsC. George Herbert and John DonneD. Robert Burns and William Blake33. _____ was the last greatest neoclassicist enlightener in the later 18th century. (浙0501)A. Henry FieldingB. Alexander PopeC. Richard SteeleD. Samuel Johnson34. ______ was the last great neoclassicist enlightener in the later eighteenth century. He was very much concerned with the theme of the vanity of human wishes.（）（一）7 （浙0901）A. William Blake B. Samuel JohnsonC. Thomas GrayD. Henry Fielding35. Which of the following authors does not belong to the enlighteners of the 18th century? （浙0701）A. Jonathan Swift.B. Walter Scott .C. Daniel Defoe.D. Henry Fielding.Daniel Defoe36. Which of the following is not Daniel Defoe’s works? (浙0710 )A. Gulliver’s Travels Jonathan SwiftB. Captain SingletonC. Moll FlandersD. Robinson Crusoe37. In Robinson Crusoe, Daniel Defoe glorifies all the following qualities of middle-class men EXCEPT_____.A. the indignity of labourB. religious devotionC. loyalty to the kingD. pioneering spirit38. In Robinson Crusoe, the writer glorifies （）（一）8 (浙0710)A. pride and happiness.B. independence and strong will.C. human labor and the Puritan fortitude.D. hard work and success.39. The language in Robinson Crusoe is ( ). （浙0310）A. easy, smooth and colloquialB. difficult and artificialC. lengthy and imaginativeD. obscene and difficult40. The novels of _______ are the first literary works devoted to the study of problems of the lower-class people.A．Bunyan B．DefoeC．Fielding D．Swift41. Defoe’s group of four novels are the first literary works devoted to the study of problems of the lower-class people. They are the following EXCEPT ______.（一）9 （107）A. Captain Singleton B. Moll FlandersC. RoxanaD. Robinson Crusoe42. Daniel Defoe, at the age of nearly 60, started his first novel__________,which is universallyconsidered his masterpiece. (浙0410) A. Robinson Crusoe B. Moll FlandersC. Colonel JackD. Captain Singleton43. Daniel Defoe’s ______ is universally considered as his masterpiece. (104)A. Colonel JackB. Robinson CrusoeC. Captain SingletonD. A Journal of the Plague Year44. Daniel Defoe’s works are all the following EXCEPT_____. （）A. Moll FlandersB. A Tale of a TubC. A Journal of the Plague YearD. Colonel Jack45．Daniel Defoe describes ______________ as a typical English Middle- class man of the eighteenth century, the very prototype of the empire builder or the pioneer colonist. （）A．T om Jones B．GulliverC．Moll Flanders D．Robinson Crusoe46. Daniel Defoe describes ______ as a typical English middle —class man of the eighteenth century，the very prototype of the empire builder，the pioneer colonist．()A. Robinson CrusoeB. Moll FlandersC. GulliverD. Tom Jones47. The hero Robinson Crusoe is a typical （）man, who hasa great capacity for work,inexhaustible energy, courage, patience and persistence in overcoming obstacles and struggling against the hostile natural environment. (浙0510)A. seventeenth-century English upper classB. eighteenth-century English middle classC. seventeenth-century English working classD. eighteenth-century English lower class48. The hero Robinson Crusoe is a typical 18th century English middle-calss man who __. (浙0610)A. has a great capacity for work, inexhaustible energy, courage, patience and persistence in overcoming obstacles and struggling against the hostile natural environment.B. has strong will, but can’t endure life’s loneliness.C. has a great capacity for work, but is frightened by the hostile natural environment.D. thinks all the people are born equal.49. The hero in Robinson Crusoe is the prototype of ( ) （一）10 （浙0210）（浙0810）A. the then progressive bourgeoisieB. the empire builderC. the pioneer colonistD. all of the above50. In his novel, Robinson Crusoe, Defoe eulogizes the hero of the ________? (047)A. aristocratic classB. enterprising landlordsC. rising bourgeoisieD. hard-working people51. _____, an adventure story very much in spirit of the time, is universally considered Defoe’smasterpiece. (浙0501) A. Moll Flanders B. Colonel JackC. Robinson CrusoeD. Roxana52. Which of the following works best represents the national spirit of the 18th-century England?A. Robinson CrusoeB. Gulliver’s Travels (044)C. Jonathan Wild the GreatD. A Sentimental Journey53. Crusoe is the hero in The life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Grusoe, of York, Mariner (also known as Robinson Crusoe)by . (034) A. Jonathan Swift B. Daniel DefoeC. George EliotD. /doc/e813633090.html,wrence54．All of the following novels by Daniel Defoe are the first literary works devoted to the study of problems of the lower-class people EXCEPT ______. （084）A．Robinson Crusoe B．Captain SingletonC．Moll Flanders D．Colonel Jack55. Which of the following is NOT Defoe’s work?( ) (浙0401)A. Moll FlandersB. Colonel JackC. Silas MarnerD. RoxanaJonathan Swift56. Which of the following is true about Jonathan Swift’s thoughts as a representative of the enlightenment movement? ( ) （一）11 (浙0701)A. To better human life, enlightenment is unnecessary.B. Human nature is simple and naive.C. Human nature was destined and couldn’t be changed.D. It’s possible to reform and improve human nature and human institutions.57. English literature of the 18th century produces some excellent satirists, among whom _______ isa master satirist.A．Jonathan Swift B．Henry FieldingC．Samuel Richardson D．Thomas Gray58. As a master satirist, Swift’s satire is usually masked by ( ) （一）12 (浙0710)A. outward gravity and apparent earnestnessB. apparent eagerness and sincerityC. pessimism and bitternessD. seemingly gentleness and sweetness59. In the book Gulliver’s Travels the hero traveled to the following places except ( )（浙0810）A. the Indian IslandB. BrobdingnagC. LilliputD. the Houyhnhnm land60.In which of the following works can you find the proper names “Lilliput,”“Brobdingnag,”“Houyhnhnm,” and “Yahoo”? (034)A. James Joyce’s Ulsses.B. Charles Dickens’s Bleak House.C. Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels.D. D. H. Lawrence’s Women in love.61. Lilliput is _____in Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift. (浙0301)A. the name of the hero who made deep-sea voyagesB. an imaginary island inhabited by people not more than six inches highC. a minor character who accompanied the hero during his voyagesD. the country of horses endowed with human intelligence62. Brobdingnag is an imaginary island where the inhabitants are_____.（一）13 (浙0301)A. ten times taller and larger than the ordinary human beingsB. the horses who are hairy, wild, low and despicableC. the Yahoos who are wise and intelligentD. the small people who are only six inches tall63.The Houyhnhnms depicted by Jonathan Swift in Gulliver's Travels are ___. ()A.horses that are endowed with reasonB.pigmies that are endowed with admirable qualitiesC.giants that are superior in wisdomD.hairy,wild, low and despicable creatures, who resemble human beings not only in appearance but also in some other ways.64. The Honyhnhnm Land is an imaginary island where _____. (浙0501)A. horses are endowed with reason and all good and admirable qualities.B. yahoos are governing class.C. horses are hairy, wild, low and despicable brutes, who resemble human beings not only inappearance but also almost every other way.D. yahoos are possessed of reason.65. In the Houyhnhnm land, Gulliver found that ______ were hairy, wild, low and despicable brutes while ______ are endowed with reason and all good and admirable qualities. （一）14A. the horses ... the YahoosB. the horses ... human beings （浙0710）C. the Yahoos ... the horsesD. the Yahoos ... human beings66. In ___________ of Gulliver’s Travels, Jonathan Swift satirizes the western civilization includingfalse illusions about science, philosophy, history and immortality.A．the first voyage to Lilliput 小人国-利利普特，仅6英寸高，B．the secondt voyage to Brobdingnag巨人岛-布鲁布丁鲁那可，国王60英尺C．the third voyage to the Flying Island 飞岛—与世隔绝的世界D．the fourth voyage to Houyhnhnm land 智慧岛—马-高度智慧-圈养YAHOOS67. As a whole, ______is one of the most effective and devastating criticisms and satires of all aspects in the then English and European life—socially, politically, religiously, philosophically, scientifically, and morally. (044)A. Moll FlandersB. Gulliver’s Travels（一）15C. Pilgrim’s ProgressD. The School for Scandal68. Which of the following is true about th e book Gulliver’s Travels ? （）A. It is a study of human nature and life.B. It has high artistic skills in making the story an organicwhole.C. It makes criticisms and satires of all aspects in the contemporary English and European life.D. It is not a book of satire though it is a book of rebellion.69. The social significance of Gulliver’s Travels lies in ______. （浙0210）A. the devastating criticisms and satires of all aspects in the then English and European life.B. his artistic skill in making the story an organic wholeC. his central concern of study of human nature and lifeD. both B and C70．As one of the greatest masters of English prose, ________ defined a good style as “proper words in proper places”. （084）A．Henry Fielding B．Jonathan Swift（一）16C．Samuel Johnson D．Alexander Pope71. Who defined a good style as “proper words in proper places?”(浙0307)A. Jonathan SwiftB. Charles DickensC. Edmund SpencerD. George Bernard Shaw72. A good style of prose“ proper works in proper places” was defined by_____. （）A. John MiltonB. Henry FieldingC. Jonathan SwiftD.T.S. Eliot73. Jonathan Swift’s greatest satiric work is ______.A. A Tale of a TubB. The Battle of the BooksC. Gulliver’s TravelsD. A Modest Proposal74. Jonathan Swift’s ______ is general ly regarded as the best model of satire, not only of the period but also in the whole English literary history. （一）17 (104) A. Gulliver’s Travels B. The Battle of the BooksC. “A Modest Proposal”D. A Tale of a Tub75. The best model of satire in the whole English literary history is Jonathan Swift's ______. (094)A. A Modest ProposalB. A Tale of a TubC. Gulliver's TravelsD. The Battle of the Books76. Jonathan Swift is a master satirist in English literature. HisA Tale of a Tub is an attack on （）.A. the governmentB. greed（一）18C. the churchD. the abuse of power77．______________ is a typical feature of Swift’s writings. （）A．Bitter satire B．Elegant styleC．Casual narration D．Complicated sentence structure78. Which of the following is not Swift’s work s? (浙0310)A. A Tale of a TubB. The Battle of the BooksC. Gulliver’s TravelsD. Tom Jones79. Henry Fielding is mainly concerned about ______ in his works. (浙0701)A. the miserable life of the middle-class peopleB. the ordinary and usually ridiculous life of the common peopleC. the special life style of some groupsD. the real life of the upper-class people80. _____ is generally consiered Fielding’s masterpiece. (浙0610)A. Joseph AndrewsB. Jonathan Wild the GreatC. Tom JonesD. Gulliver’s Travels81. _____ was first intended as a burlesque of the dubious morality and false sentimentality ofRichardson’s Pamela. (浙0401) A. Joseph Andrews B. Tom Jones（一）19C. Jonathan Wild the GreatD. Moll Flanders82. Of all the eighteenth - century novelists ______ was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a “comic epic in prose”, the first to give the modern novel its structure and style. (104)A. Henry FieldingB. Daniel DefoeC. Jonathan SwiftD. Laurence Sterne83.Of all the 18th century novelists Henry Fielding was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a “___ in prose,”the first to give the modern novel its structure and style. ()A.tragic epic/doc/e813633090.html,ic epicC.romanceD.lyric epic84 Of the eighteenth-century novelists Henry Fielding was the first to _____. （浙0210）A. instruct the people through his writingB. give the modern novel its structure and styleC. amuse the people through his worksD. adopt the third-person narration85. In Tom Jones, the hero Tom is __________in contrast with Blifil who is __________.(浙0301)A. innocent and kind-hearted ... hypocritical and wickedB. hypocritical and wicked ... innocent and kindheartedC. rude and stubborn ... cunning and speculatingD. cunning and speculating ... rude and stubborn86. An honest, kind-hearted young man, who is full of animal spirit and lacks prudence, is expelled from the paradise and has to go through hard experience to gain knowledge of himself and finally to have been accepted both by a virtuous lady and a rich relative . （一）20 (044) The above sentence may well sum up the theme of Fielding’s work .A. Jonathan Wild the GreatB. Tom JonesC. The Coffe-House PoliticianD. Amelia87. Henry Fielding adopted “______” to relate a story in his novel in which the author becomes the“all- knowing God”. （107）A. the first- person narrationB. the epistolary formC. the picaresque formD. the third -person narration88. Henry Fielding adopted_________ as his way to relate the story in a novel. (浙0601 )A. the epistolary formB. the picaresque formC. the third-person narrationD. flashback89. For his contribution to the establishment of the form of the modern novel, ________ has beenregarded as “Father of the English Novel”. (047) A. Henry Fielding B. Daniel DefoeC. John BunyanD. James Joyce90. For his contribution to the establishment of the form of the modern novel,______ has been regarded by some as “Father of the English Novel”. （浙0301）A. Daniel DefoeB. Henry FieldingC. Jonathan SwiftD. Samuel Richardson91．Henry Fielding has been regarded by some as “_______”,for his contribution to the establishment of the form of the modern novel. （浙0310）A．Father of the English Novel B．Father of the English PoetryC．Father of the English Drama D．Father of the English Short Story92. Henry Fielding has been regarded as “______” for his contribution to the establishment of theform of the modern ______. (浙0810)（浙0210）(浙0510）A. Father of English Poetry...poetryB. Father of English Novel...novelC. Father of Modern English Poetry...poetryD. Father of Modern English Novel...novelIII. Questions and Answers (24 points in all, 6 for each)45. List at least two leading neoclassicists in England. What did Neoclassicists celebrate in literary creation? (094) （一）4845. A. Alexander Pope, John Dryden, Samuel Johnson.B. They believed that the artistic ideals should be order, logic, restrained emotion andaccuracy and that literature should be judged in terms of its service to humanity. They seek proportion, unity, harmony and grace in literary expressions, in an effort to delight, instruct and correct human beings. Thus a polite, elegant, witty, and intellectual art developed.IV. Topic Discussion(20 points in all, 10 for each)49．Daniel Defoe’s novel Robinson Crusoe was a great success partly because the protagonist was a real middle-class hero. Discuss Crusoe, the protagonist of the novel, as an embodiment of the rising middle-class virtues in the mid-eighteenth century England. （084）1. Give a brief comment on the hero in The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. (浙0810)1.Why has Fielding been regarded as “Father of the English novel”? (浙0307)（一）501. A. Fielding has been regarded as “Father of the English novel”, for his contributionto the establishment of the form of the modern novel.B. Of all the eighteenth-century novelists Fielding was the first to set out, both in theory andpractice, to write specifically a “comic epic in prose,” the first to give the modern novel its structure and style.C. Before him, the relating go a story in a novel was either in the epistolary form (a series ofletters), as in Richardson’s Pamela, or the picaresque form (adventurous wanderings) through the mouth of the principal character, as in Defoe’s Ro binson Crusoe, but Fielding adopted “the third-person narration,”in which the author becomes the “all-knowing God.”D. In planning his stories, he tries to retain the grand epical form of the classical works but atthe same time keeps faithful to his realistic presentation of common life as it is.。
TheNun’sPriest’sTale-CaliforniaStateUniversity,…
The Nun’s Priest’s TaleBackgroundThe Nun’s Priest Tale most closely resembles the beast-fable in genre, which has its origin in the fables of Æsop. The immediate sources are three-fold. Marie de France’s Del cok e del gupil. Beast-epics Roman de Renart and Renart le Contrefait. The beast epic used animals to satirise human behaviour; the fables were moral tales.The Nun’s Priest tells his tale at the request of Harry Bailey only after the Knight has interrupted the Monk’s Tale. The Monk, self-confessed practicer of letting old things pass (GP 175), and a favourite amongst those who write about Chaucer’s use of estates satire, surprises us, and all the pilgrims, by giving us in his tale a catalogue of examples tragedy: the rise and fall of great men. This is so dull, that, again, surprisingly, the Knight interrupts — surprisingly because the turn of Fortune’s Wheel was a major theme in his own tale. But the Knight’s Tale, however cynical we may think it was, was not all gloom and doom. The Knight tells that a tale which lightens the heart is more appropriate to the game. Harry Bailey agrees, and rather rudely. He is quite put out with the Monk’s Tale; he says it annoys everyone (2789) and only the Monk’s harness bells are keeping him awake (2794-97Harry asks the Monk to tell a tale of hunting, which we expect the Monk to like. But the Monk refuses, so Harry turns to the Nun’s Priest. This is a character not described in the General Prologue, so we don’t have much to go on in getting a picture of him. Harry seems to be interested in getting merry tales out of religious figures, which is a slightly difficult task, since they are accustomed to sermonising. So the Nun’s Priest has something of a task, as he acknowledges in his one line of dialogue. We already know that he accompanies the Prioress. But unlike her rich trappings, he rides on a ‘jade’: a foul lean nag (2812-13), as Harry points out. But that’s all we’re given until the epilogue. There Harry tells us a bit more. He makes the ridiculous proposition that, if the Priest had been a secular man, he would have been a right good tread-foul, or cockerel — a real stud (3450ff.). He may seem to be drawing inspiration from the Nun’s Priest’s Tale, but he actually makes the same proposition about the Monk, though, in the Prologue to the Monk’s Tale (1945). He points out that the priest has might and brawn, a great neck and a large breast, sharp eyes, and tanned skin. He says that, if the Priest had the ‘corage’ or desire to match his might he would need at least 120 “hens” to satisfy him. Again, you have to ask just how many pints Harry had put away by this time.Themes1.The Simple Life:The Nun’s Priest begins with an idyllic farmhouse setting where a simple widow lives with her two daughters in a life of moderation, temperance, and therefore good health. Her cockerel, Chauntecleer, is anything but moderate though. Immediately after we have a description of the widow’s humility, the tale launches into an extravagant description of Chauntecleer. Chauntecleer is described like a king, but it is perhaps a humorous image that his kingdom is only the bounds of the widow’s yard.2.The Significance of Dreamsa.Types of DreamsHowever, grandiose the description of Chauntecleer and Pertelote may be, the act like an old married couple. When Chauntecleer groans in his sleep Pertelote’s first reaction is to ask what is the matter and come up with a practical solution. Chauntecleer’s reaction to the dream is anything but a problem to be solved; it is an opportunity for self-aggrandising. He thinks the dream is a message from God warning of his imminent fall from the top of the Wheel of Fortune, and by implication associates himself with tragic heroes who also suffer the whims of Fortune. Pertelote tries to goad Chauntecleer into losing his fear by saying that women like fearless men. There may be further meaning behind her mention of not like ‘noon avantour’ (2917), as if she senses Chauntecleer’s pride swelling. Her practical solution is to argue that this particular dream is a somnium naturale, a dream with physical causes, namely an imbalance of humours, the bodily fluids on which medieval medicine was founded. It’s all logical, she says: the two colours, red and black, which feature in the dream, represent superfluities of choleric and melancholic humours, since these are red and black. For good measure, she cites a proverb to effect that dreams are meaningless from Cato. Pertelote says she’ll make Chauntecleer a prescription of herbs which will purge him of the offending humours: ‘bynethe and eek above’ (2953). In a nice touch, she prescribes worms, a recognised medieval cure for tercian fevers, but also what you might expect a bird to eat.Medieval dream-theory was complicated, and Chaucer doesn’t give very much of it here. The major source-text was the Somnium Scipionis, a chapter of Cicero’s De republica with commentary by Macrobius. Macrobius exhaustively categorised different kinds of dreams according to their causes. In the Nun’s Priest’s Tale we are given two possibilities: the natural dream and the celestial or prophetic dream, which is a message from God. Chauntecleer gives us both anecdotal evidence and cites auctors to support his case that his dream is of the latter type. This is a ‘verray preeve’ (2983), the type considered best.Chauntecleer tells us two extended stories, which almost constitute digressions within a digression as well as stories within a story. But they are not so extended that they disrupt the flow of the narrative. So we have the two pilgrims, one of whom is murdered because his friend ignored the dreams which told of his murder. Chauntecleer goes rather overboard describing the survivor’s distress, as if he is rather enjoying the tale (3050ff.). The moral isthat ‘heere may men seen that dremes been to drede’ (3063). Next we have the tale of the two travellers. One has a dream that they will drown if they go on their journey. He stays, but the other laughs and embarks on the ship, which then sinks. Moral: ‘many a dreem ful soore is for to drede’ (3109). Next we get the story of Saint Kenelm, king of Mercia, who dreamt himself in a tree which was chopped down and was mudered after ignoring it. A host of other examples is given before he decides that Pertelote’s beauty ‘maketh al my drede for to dyen’ (3162)b.The value of experience against auctoritee.In Chauntecleer’s defence of dream interpretation, the old question of experience and auctoritee returns with what I hope is not tedious predictiability. But returning to his subject matter only gets the narrator going on a new digression. The cockerel followed the advice of a woman, poor fool — just like Adam, who got kicked out of Paradise. And then he says (3261ff.) that he’s not really blaming the counsel of women; it’s just the game. For the authoritative opinion you should read what the real auctores say; what I’ve said here is just the words of a cock: ‘I kan noon harm of no womman divyne’ (3266), which means ‘I can think of no harm in women’ or ‘I know no harm in a religious woman’. Perhaps this is the Priest’s way of staying in the good books with his employer, the Prioress?c.Relations between husbands and wives.Chauntecleer’s response is exactly what ours might be to this cure. What’s more, it is certainly beneath his dignity. In fact, listening to Pertelote’s advice at all is beneath his dignity. So he launches into a learned argument, a spectacular performance of rhetoric designed to contradict and wow his wife, and to which we notably do not get her response.In the end of the day, Chauntecleer ignores the dream, despite his argument. We can ask three questions: (a) What is Pertelote’s main advice, the laxative or the ignoring the dream? (b) Does Chauntecleer just argue against Pertelote’s theory to escape the laxative; (c) Are the later comments by the Nun’s Priest that Chauntecleer took his wife’s advice accurate?Chauntecleer turns his attention to more pleasurable pursuits, namely the seduction of Pertelote. His final parting shot in the argument is his mistranslation of mulier est hominis confusio in line 3164 as ‘womman is mannes joye and al his blis’ instead of woman is man’s ruin, which he knows she will not catch (Cato was available in English, but most of his sources were not). There is gentle humour of this type running throughout the tale: Chauntecleer’s name means ‘sing-clear’, and Pertelote’s name means ‘one who confuses someone’s fate’.d.FortuneChauntecleer then jumps down from his perch and begins to reign over his hens, ‘roial, as a prince is in his halle’ (3184). The implication is again that he is at the top of Fortune’swheel—until a certain day. The elaborate chronology establishes the date as Friday, 3rd May, which is traditionally unlucky. It was the date when Palamon escaped from prison in the Knight’s Tale. It is a day for Fortune to operate. The Nun’s Priest may even be working in a reference (possibly humorous) to the Knight’s Tale, given that it was the Knight’s prompting which got him going. The theme of Fortune is taken up again, explicitly: ‘For evere the latter ende of joye is wo. / God woot that worldly joye is soone ago’ (3205-6). Of course, this is also taking up the theme of the Monk’s Tale. In the context of Chauntecleer and his wife, or wives, it is equally applicable to the blissful married state he appears to be enjoying.Don Russell, the col-fox is introduced as lying in wait in the hedge for the opportunity to pounce on Chauntecleer. He is there by ‘high ymaginacioun forncast’ (3217), which could mean either Chauntecleer’s dream or God’s ordinance. Don Russell is described in a melodramatic apostrophe(3226-), being equated with the cause of the fall of Troy, of all things.But then the narrator lapses into a short digressio about the scholastic debate on predestination. The debate is between the orthodox Augustinian ‘we are granted free will by God to use such as God allows us’, against Boethius’s distinction between simple necessity (3245) (e.g., by necessity all men are mortal), and conditional, or implied, necessity (3250) (e.g. if you know that a man walks, you can infer that by necessity he does — but your knowledge is not the cause of his walking. Hence God’s foreknowledge is not a necessary cause of man’s actions).Note the question of how dreams may or may not provide foreknowlegde connects with the question of how foreknowledge, if we get it, affects the freedom of our actions.The Nun’s Priest doesn’t solve the conundrum, saying his tale is of a cock, so what is the point? This raises the question of allegory. Does a tale of a cock provide us with any useful understanding? Does Chauntecleer behave the way he does just because, being a cock, it is his nature? Or does Chaucer come down on one side by the end of the tale? After all, we’re invited in the end to find meaning in this tale of the cock and the fox (3436ff.).The Stated MoralitasThe only way the fox is going to catch Chauntecleer is to trick him, so he says he came to hear his singing, which has more feeling than Boethius, whose work on music advocated a more mathematical model. Don Russell says that he has had Chauntecleer’s father and mother in his house ‘to my greet ese’ (3297). He goes right to Chauntecleer’s pride, and Chauntecleer falls right into the flatterer’s trap. Don Russell grabs him by the neck and heads for the woods.Well, we’re not going to hear his fate until he is properly lamented by the narrator. The irony is that it is all for nought, since the horrible fall on Fortune’s Wheel never comes to pass. But we get good apostrophes starting in line 3338 on how Friday was unlucky: the Expulsionfrom Eden, the Flood, the Betrayal of Christ, the Crucifixion, and the fatal wounding of Richard I. This high tragedy culminates in a comparison with the events in the Aeniad; but then the hens start to shriek and it all turns into barnyard chaos. It is almost as if the tragedy, the fall of a king leads to the collapse of order itself. There is even a passing reference to the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381.Everything is solved with a typical turn of medieval humour in which you get what you deserve. Just as the jealous husband deserves to be cuckolded (Miller’s Tale, Merchant’s Tale) and the guiler deserves to be beguiled (Reeve’s Tale), so the fox deserves to be outfoxed. And he too falls into the pride trap. He has to brag about his feat. Just as pride brought the first turn of Fortune’s Wheel, it causes that wheel to turn back. I think there is something profound being said here about the way we interact with Fortune. But the sentence, as it were is encapsulated by two sententiae or morals, one by the frustrated fox and one by the narrator. The fox says (3433-5) ‘God yeve hym meschaunce, / That is so undiscreet of governaunce / That jangleth whan he sholde holde his pees’ [explain]. The Priest says (3436) ‘swich it is for to be reccheless / and necligent, and truste on flaterye’. But then he reminds us to take the morality lest, we think the tale is just a folly.So does the tale give us a more sophisticated view of Fortune than ‘don’t talk too much or God will get you’ or ‘don’t let yourself be flattered into foolish negligence’? Are we really to take these morals seriously? Some people have seen the Tale as an allegory of the Fall of Man, and presumably later redemption. What is certainly there is respectful ridiculing of rhetorical practice. Not only does rhetoric take up most of the tale, but it seems to reduce everything to rather banal sententiae in the end.Towards the end of the Tale, the Nun’s Priest invites addresses his audience directly: But ye that holden this tale a folye,As of a fox, or of a cok and hen,Taketh the moralite, goode men.For Seint Paul seith that al that write is,To our doctrine it is ywrite, ywis:Taketh the fruyt, and lat the chaf be stille. (3438-3443)The idea that literature was for doctrina, teaching religious doctrine, was a prevailing one in the Middle Ages. The primary model for literary interpretation was biblical exegesis: the practice of interpreting the meaning of the Bible. This involved training, which is why the Church did not advocate translating the Bible so that everyone could read it and form their own interpretations. They feared that people would always take the Bible literally and so form interpretations that ran contrary to Christian doctrine. In fact, there was a sophisticated exegetical tradition which specified four ways of understanding the Bible:1.Literal (historical): what the story actually says (litera gesta docet). E.g. the crossing ofthe Red Sea by the Hebrews was actual history.2.Typological (allegorical): illustrating truths (allegoria quod credas). E.g. the story of thecrossing of the Red Sea by the Hebrews is to be understood Hebrews as exemplifying “type” or model of the soul redeemed by Christ.3.Moral (tropological): illustrating what should be done for the conversion of the soul(moralia quod agas). E.g. the story of the crossing of the Red Sea by the Hebrews is a lesson: that humans are all sinful and must leave wicked habits and cross over to God, with His help.4.Anagogical (eschatological): dealing with the four last things – Heaven, Hell, Death, andJudgement – or eternity (quo tendas angogica). E.g. the story of the crossing of the Red Sea by the Hebrews is illustrative of the way God's universe is ordered, all leading out of evil and upward into Heaven.The Nun’s Priest seems to invite the reader to engage in an interpretation of his non-biblical story. But do any of these methods help us to find the “fruyt”? Is biblical exegesis even appropriate for understanding such a story?。
英语猜词基本技巧
I.Context Clues1.DefinitionThe animals whose temperature is regulated by internal metabolic process are called endotherms and those whose temperature is regulated by, and who get most of their heat from, the environment are called ectotherms.Animosity, a feeling of strong dislike, developed among the musicians, causing the group to disband.The principal—— money he put in his savings account to earn interest —— was safe even though the bank was closed by the police.2.RestatementThe perimeter, or the distance around the circle, was exactly sixteen inches.3.ExplanationThe prisoner was placed in solitary confinement. He was not allowed even one visitor.Matrimony does not seem to agree with Elizabeth — she has been unhappy ever since she became a Peter’s wi fe.4.SituationThe students were jubilant when they learned that their school had placed first in the competition.Knowing that the slightest mistake meant losing his job, the waiter carried the expensive wine glasses gingerly from the kitchen.Mary was always adroit in her dealing with others. Sandra, on the other hand, lacked Mary’s social diplomacy.John got on the motorbike, Helen sat behind him on the pillion, and they roared off into the night.The problem appears in a short sketch we are going to perform in Hawk Theatre.5.Generic-specific (Example)Nocturnal creatures, such bats and owls, have highly developed senses of eyesight.Among all the malignancies, lung cancer is the biggest killer; more than 100,000 Americans a year die of the disease.6.SynonymDoctors believe drinking that is detrimental to people’s health. They also regard smoking cigarettes as harmful.7.AntonymJane was talking with others while Eliza remained reticent all the time.II.Word BuildingThe youngster postdated his birth date in the register form in order to be accepted by the company.。
金凤花原则英文解释
金凤花原则英文解释The Golden Flower Principle, also known as the Golden Flower Method or the Golden Flower Teaching, is a spiritual and philosophical concept that originated in ancient China. It was first introduced by the legendary Chinese strategist and philosopher, Zhuge Liang, during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280 AD). The principle draws inspiration from various aspects of Chinese culture, particularly Taoism and Confucianism, andoffers guidance on how to lead a harmonious and balanced life.At its core, the Golden Flower Principle emphasizes the importance of three key aspects: self-cultivation, social harmony, and cosmic unity. These aspects provide a framework for individuals to align their thoughts, actions, and way of life with the natural world and the greater forces at play.Cosmic unity is the final aspect of the principle. It refers to the belief that all beings are interconnected and part of a larger cosmic whole. According to this concept, every action and thought has a ripple effect on the world around us. By recognizing the interconnectedness of all things, individuals are encouraged to act with mindfulness and consideration, as their actions have far-reaching consequences.The Golden Flower Principle also provides practical guidance on how to apply these principles in daily life. It suggests adopting a holistic approach to life, where physical, mental,and spiritual well-being are equally important. This can be achieved through meditation, self-reflection, and mindfulness practices.。
《巴黎圣母院英文版》(3)
like the Abbey of Tournus, the grave and massive frame, the large and round vault, the glacial bareness, the majestic simplicity of the edifices which have the rounded arch for their progenitor. It is not, like the Cathedral of Bourges, the magnificent, light, multiform, tufted, bristling efflorescent product of the pointed arch. Impossible to class it in that an- cient family of sombre, mysterious churches, low and crushed as it were by the round arch, almost Egyptian, with the exception of the ceiling; all hieroglyphics, all sacerdotal, all symbolical, more loaded in their orna- ments, with lozenges and zigzags, than with flowers, with flowers than with animals, with animals than with men; the work of the architect less than of the bishop; first transformation of art, all impressed with theo- cratic and military discipline, taking root in the Lower Empire, and stop- ping with the time of William the Conqueror. Impossible to place our Cathedral in that other family of lofty, aerial churches, rich in painted windows and sculpture; pointed in form, bold in attitude; communal and bourgeois as political symbols; free, capricious, lawless, as a work of art; second transformation of architecture, no longer hieroglyphic, im- movable and sacerdotal, but artistic, progressive, and popular, which be- gins at the return from the crusades, and ends with Louis IX. Notre- Dame de Paris is not of pure Romanesque, like the first; nor of pure Ara- bian race, like the second.It is an edifice of the transition period. The Saxon architect completed the erection of the first pillars of the nave, when the pointed arch, which dates from the Crusade, arrived and placed itself as a conqueror upon the large Romanesque capitals which should support only round arches. The pointed arch, mistress since that time, constructed the rest of the church. Nevertheless, timid and inexperienced at the start, it sweeps out, grows larger, restrains itself, and dares no longer dart upwards in spires and lancet windows, as it did later on, in so many marvellous cathedrals. One would say that it were conscious of the vicinity of the heavy Romanesque pillars.However, these edifices of the transition from the Romanesque to the Gothic, are no less precious for study than the pure types. They express a shade of the art which would be lost without them. It is the graft of the pointed upon the round arch.Notre-Dame de Paris is, in particular, a curious specimen of this vari- ety. Each face, each stone of the venerable monument, is a page not only of the history of the country, but of the history of science and art as well. Thus, in order to indicate here only the principal details, while the little Red Door almost attains to the limits of the Gothic delicacy of the110fifteenth century, the pillars of the nave, by their size and weight, go back to the Carlovingian Abbey of Saint-Germain des Prés. One would suppose that six centuries separated these pillars from that door. There is no one, not even the hermetics, who does not find in the symbols of the grand portal a satisfactory compendium of their science, of which the Church of Saint-Jacques de la Boucherie was so complete a hieroglyph. Thus, the Roman abbey, the philosophers’ church, the Gothic art, Saxon art, the heavy, round pillar, which recalls Gregory VII., the hermetic symbolism, with which Nicolas Flamel played the prelude to Luther, papal unity, schism, Saint-Germain des Prés, Saint-Jacques de la Boucherie,—all are mingled, combined, amalgamated in Notre-Dame. This central mother church is, among the ancient churches of Paris, a sort of chimera; it has the head of one, the limbs of another, the haunches of another, something of all.We repeat it, these hybrid constructions are not the least interesting for the artist, for the antiquarian, for the historian. They make one feel to what a degree architecture is a primitive thing, by demonstrating (what is also demonstrated by the cyclopean vestiges, the pyramids of Egypt, the gigantic Hindoo pagodas) that the greatest products of architecture are less the works of individuals than of society; rather the offspring of a nation’s effort, than the inspired flash of a man of genius; the deposit left by a whole people; the heaps accumulated by centuries; the residue of successive evaporations of human society,— in a word, species of forma- tions. Each wave of time contributes its alluvium, each race deposits its layer on the monument, each individual brings his stone. Thus do the beavers, thus do the bees, thus do men. The great symbol of architecture, Babel, is a hive.Great edifices, like great mountains, are the work of centuries. Art of- ten undergoes a transformation while they are pending, pendent opera in- terrupta; they proceed quietly in accordance with the transformed art. The new art takes the monument where it finds it, incrusts itself there, assimilates it to itself, develops it according to its fancy, and finishes it if it can. The thing is accomplished without trouble, without effort, without reaction,—following a natural and tranquil law. It is a graft which shoots up, a sap which circulates, a vegetation which starts forth anew. Certainly there is matter here for many large volumes, and often the uni- versal history of humanity in the successive engrafting of many arts at many levels, upon the same monument. The man, the artist, the indi- vidual, is effaced in these great masses, which lack the name of their111author; human intelligence is there summed up and totalized. Time is the architect, the nation is the builder.Not to consider here anything except the Christian architecture of Europe, that younger sister of the great masonries of the Orient, it ap- pears to the eyes as an immense formation divided into three well- defined zones, which are superposed, the one upon the other: the Romanesque zone20, the Gothic zone, the zone of the Renaissance, which we would gladly call the Greco-Roman zone. The Roman layer, which is the most ancient and deepest, is occupied by the round arch, which re- appears, supported by the Greek column, in the modern and upper layer of the Renaissance. The pointed arch is found between the two. The edi- fices which belong exclusively to any one of these three layers are per- fectly distinct, uniform, and complete. There is the Abbey of Jumiéges, there is the Cathedral of Reims, there is the Sainte-Croix of Orleans. But the three zones mingle and amalgamate along the edges, like the colors in the solar spectrum. Hence, complex monuments, edifices of gradation and transition. One is Roman at the base, Gothic in the middle, Greco- Roman at the top. It is because it was six hundred years in building. This variety is rare. The donjon keep of d’Etampes is a specimen of it. But monuments of two formations are more frequent. There is Notre-Dame de Paris, a pointed-arch edifice, which is imbedded by its pillars in that Roman zone, in which are plunged the portal of Saint-Denis, and the nave of Saint-Germain des Prés. There is the charming, half-Gothic chapter-house of Bocherville, where the Roman layer extends half way up. There is the cathedral of Rouen, which would be entirely Gothic if it did not bathe the tip of its central spire in the zone of the Renaissance.21 Facies non omnibus una,No diversa tamen, qualem, etc.Their faces not all alike, nor yet different, but such as the faces of sis- ters ought to be.However, all these shades, all these differences, do not affect the sur- faces of edifices only. It is art which has changed its skin. The very con- stitution of the Christian church is not attacked by it. There is always the 20.This is the same which is called, according to locality, climate, and races, Lombard, Saxon, or Byzantine. There are four sister and parallel architectures, each having its special character, but derived from the same origin, the round arch.21.This portion of the spire, which was of woodwork, is precisely that which was consumed by lightning, in 1823.112same internal woodwork, the same logical arrangement of parts. Whatever may be the carved and embroidered envelope of a cathedral, one always finds beneath it— in the state of a germ, and of a rudiment at the least— the Roman basilica. It is eternally developed upon the soil ac- cording to the same law. There are, invariably, two naves, which inter- sect in a cross, and whose upper portion, rounded into an apse, forms the choir; there are always the side aisles, for interior processions, for chapels,—a sort of lateral walks or promenades where the principal nave discharges itself through the spaces between the pillars. That settled, the number of chapels, doors, bell towers, and pinnacles are modified to infinity, according to the fancy of the century, the people, and art. The service of religion once assured and provided for, architec- ture does what she pleases. Statues, stained glass, rose windows, ar- abesques, denticulations, capitals, bas-reliefs,— she combines all these imaginings according to the arrangement which best suits her. Hence, the prodigious exterior variety of these edifices, at whose foundation dwells so much order and unity. The trunk of a tree is immovable; the fo- liage is capricious.113Chapter 2A BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF PARISWe have just attempted to restore, for the reader’s benefit, that admirable church of Notre-Dame de Paris. We have briefly pointed out the greater part of the beauties which it possessed in the fifteenth century, and which it lacks to-day; but we have omitted the principal thing,—the view of Paris which was then to be obtained from the summits of its towers.That was, in fact,— when, after having long groped one’s way up the dark spiral which perpendicularly pierces the thick wall of the belfries, one emerged, at last abruptly, upon one of the lofty platforms inundated with light and air,— that was, in fact, a fine picture which spread out, on all sides at once, before the eye; a spectacle sui generis, of which those of our readers who have had the good fortune to see a Gothic city entire, complete, homogeneous,— a few of which still remain, Nuremberg in Bavaria and Vittoria in Spain,— can readily form an idea; or even smal- ler specimens, provided that they are well preserved,— Vitré in Brittany, Nordhausen in Prussia.The Paris of three hundred and fifty years ago—the Paris of the fif- teenth century—was already a gigantic city. We Parisians generally make a mistake as to the ground which we think that we have gained, since Paris has not increased much over one-third since the time of Louis XI. It has certainly lost more in beauty than it has gained in size.Paris had its birth, as the reader knows, in that old island of the City which has the form of a cradle. The strand of that island was its first boundary wall, the Seine its first moat. Paris remained for many centur- ies in its island state, with two bridges, one on the north, the other on the south; and two bridge heads, which were at the same time its gates and its fortresses,— the Grand-Châtelet on the right bank, the Petit-Châtelet on the left. Then, from the date of the kings of the first race, Paris, being too cribbed and confined in its island, and unable to return thither, crossed the water. Then, beyond the Grand, beyond the Petit-Châtelet, a114first circle of walls and towers began to infringe upon the country on the two sides of the Seine. Some vestiges of this ancient enclosure still re- mained in the last century; to-day, only the memory of it is left, and here and there a tradition, the Baudets or Baudoyer gate, “Porte Bagauda”. Little by little, the tide of houses, always thrust from the heart of the city outwards, overflows, devours, wears away, and effaces this wall. Philip Augustus makes a new dike for it. He imprisons Paris in a circular chain of great towers, both lofty and solid. For the period of more than a century, the houses press upon each other, accumulate, and raise their level in this basin, like water in a reservoir. They begin to deepen; they pile story upon story; they mount upon each other; they gush forth at the top, like all laterally compressed growth, and there is a rivalry as to which shall thrust its head above its neighbors, for the sake of getting a little air. The street glows narrower and deeper, every space is over- whelmed and disappears. The houses finally leap the wall of Philip Augustus, and scatter joyfully over the plain, without order, and all askew, like runaways. There they plant themselves squarely, cut them- selves gardens from the fields, and take their ease. Beginning with 1367, the city spreads to such an extent into the suburbs, that a new wall be- comes necessary, particularly on the right bank; Charles V. builds it. But a city like Paris is perpetually growing. It is only such cities that become capitals. They are funnels, into which all the geographical, political, mor- al, and intellectual water-sheds of a country, all the natural slopes of a people, pour; wells of civilization, so to speak, and also sewers, where commerce, industry, intelligence, population,— all that is sap, all that is life, all that is the soul of a nation, filters and amasses unceasingly, drop by drop, century by century.So Charles V.’s wall suffered the fate of that of Philip Augustus. At the end of the fifteenth century, the Faubourg strides across it, passes bey- ond it, and runs farther. In the sixteenth, it seems to retreat visibly, and to bury itself deeper and deeper in the old city, so thick had the new city already become outside of it. Thus, beginning with the fifteenth century, where our story finds us, Paris had already outgrown the three concent- ric circles of walls which, from the time of Julian the Apostate, existed, so to speak, in germ in the Grand-Châtelet and the Petit-Châtelet. The mighty city had cracked, in succession, its four enclosures of walls, like a child grown too large for his garments of last year. Under Louis XI., this sea of houses was seen to be pierced at intervals by several groups of ruined towers, from the ancient wall, like the summits of hills in an in- undation,—like archipelagos of the old Paris submerged beneath the115new. Since that time Paris has undergone yet another transformation, unfortunately for our eyes; but it has passed only one more wall, that of Louis XV., that miserable wall of mud and spittle, worthy of the king who built it, worthy of the poet who sung it,—Le mur murant Paris rend Paris murmurant.22In the fifteenth century, Paris was still divided into three wholly dis- tinct and separate towns, each having its own physiognomy, its own spe- cialty, its manners, customs, privileges, and history: the City, the University, the Town. The City, which occupied the island, was the most ancient, the smallest, and the mother of the other two, crowded in between them like (may we be pardoned the comparison) a little old wo- man between two large and handsome maidens. The University covered the left bank of the Seine, from the Tournelle to the Tour de Nesle, points which correspond in the Paris of to-day, the one to the wine market, the other to the mint. Its wall included a large part of that plain where Julian had built his hot baths. The hill of Sainte-Geneviève was enclosed in it.The culminating point of this sweep of walls was the Papal gate, that is to say, near the present site of the Pantheon. The Town, which was the largest of the three fragments of Paris, held the right bank. Its quay, broken or interrupted in many places, ran along the Seine, from the Tour de Billy to the Tour du Bois; that is to say, from the place where the granary stands to-day, to the present site of the Tuileries. These four points, where the Seine intersected the wall of the capital, the Tournelle and the Tour de Nesle on the right, the Tour de Billy and the Tour du Bois on the left, were called pre-eminently, “the four towers of Paris.”The Town encroached still more extensively upon the fields than the University. The culminating point of the Town wall (that of Charles V.) was at the gates of Saint-Denis and Saint-Martin, whose situation has not been changed.As we have just said, each of these three great divisions of Paris was a town, but too special a town to be complete, a city which could not get along without the other two. Hence three entirely distinct aspects: churches abounded in the City; palaces, in the Town; and colleges, in the University. Neglecting here the originalities, of secondary importance in old Paris, and the capricious regulations regarding the public highways, we will say, from a general point of view, taking only masses and the22.The wall walling Paris makes Paris murmur.116whole group, in this chaos of communal jurisdictions, that the island be- longed to the bishop, the right bank to the provost of the merchants, the left bank to the Rector; over all ruled the provost of Paris, a royal not a municipal official. The City had Notre-Dame; the Town, the Louvre and the Hôtel de Ville; the University, the Sorbonne. The Town had the mar- kets (Halles); the city, the Hospital; the University, the Pré-aux-Clercs. Offences committed by the scholars on the left bank were tried in the law courts on the island, and were punished on the right bank at Mont- fauçon; unless the rector, feeling the university to be strong and the king weak, intervened; for it was the students’ privilege to be hanged on their own grounds.The greater part of these privileges, it may be noted in passing, and there were some even better than the above, had been extorted from the kings by revolts and mutinies. It is the course of things from time imme- morial; the king only lets go when the people tear away. There is an old charter which puts the matter naively: apropos of fidelity: Civibus fidelitas in reges, quoe tamen aliquoties seditionibus interrypta, multa peperit privileyia. In the fifteenth century, the Seine bathed five islands within the walls of Paris: Louviers island, where there were then trees, and where there is no longer anything but wood; l’ile aux Vaches, and l’ile Notre-Dame, both deserted, with the exception of one house, both fiefs of the bishop—in the seventeenth century, a single island was formed out of these two, which was built upon and named l’ile Saint-Louis— , lastly the City, and at its point, the little islet of the cow tender, which was afterwards en- gulfed beneath the platform of the Pont-Neuf. The City then had five bridges: three on the right, the Pont Notre-Dame, and the Pont au Change, of stone, the Pont aux Meuniers, of wood; two on the left, the Petit Pont, of stone, the Pont Saint-Michel, of wood; all loaded with houses.The University had six gates, built by Philip Augustus; there were, be- ginning with la Tournelle, the Porte Saint-Victor, the Porte Bordelle, the Porte Papale, the Porte Saint-Jacques, the Porte Saint-Michel, the Porte Saint-Germain. The Town had six gates, built by Charles V.; beginning with the Tour de Billy they were: the Porte Saint-Antoine, the Porte du Temple, the Porte Saint-Martin, the Porte Saint-Denis, the Porte Mont- martre, the Porte Saint-Honoré. All these gates were strong, and also handsome, which does not detract from strength. A large, deep moat, with a brisk current during the high water of winter, bathed the base of the wall round Paris; the Seine furnished the water. At night, the gates117were shut, the river was barred at both ends of the city with huge iron chains, and Paris slept tranquilly.From a bird’s-eye view, these three burgs, the City, the Town, and the University, each presented to the eye an inextricable skein of eccentric- ally tangled streets. Nevertheless, at first sight, one recognized the fact that these three fragments formed but one body. One immediately per- ceived three long parallel streets, unbroken, undisturbed, traversing, al- most in a straight line, all three cities, from one end to the other; from North to South, perpendicularly, to the Seine, which bound them togeth- er, mingled them, infused them in each other, poured and transfused the people incessantly, from one to the other, and made one out of the three. The first of these streets ran from the Porte Saint-Martin: it was called the Rue Saint-Jacques in the University, Rue de la Juiverie in the City, Rue Saint-Martin in the Town; it crossed the water twice, under the name of the Petit Pont and the Pont Notre-Dame. The second, which was called the Rue de la Harpe on the left bank, Rue de la Barillerié in the island, Rue Saint-Denis on the right bank, Pont Saint-Michel on one arm of the Seine, Pont au Change on the other, ran from the Porte Saint-Michel in the University, to the Porte Saint-Denis in the Town. However, under all these names, there were but two streets, parent streets, generating streets,—the two arteries of Paris. All the other veins of the triple city either derived their supply from them or emptied into them. Independently of these two principal streets, piercing Paris diametric- ally in its whole breadth, from side to side, common to the entire capital, the City and the University had also each its own great special street, which ran lengthwise by them, parallel to the Seine, cutting, as it passed, at right angles, the two arterial thoroughfares. Thus, in the Town, one descended in a straight line from the Porte Saint-Antoine to the Porte Saint-Honoré; in the University from the Porte Saint-Victor to the Porte Saint-Germain. These two great thoroughfares intersected by the two first, formed the canvas upon which reposed, knotted and crowded to- gether on every hand, the labyrinthine network of the streets of Paris. In the incomprehensible plan of these streets, one distinguished likewise, on looking attentively, two clusters of great streets, like magnified sheaves of grain, one in the University, the other in the Town, which spread out gradually from the bridges to the gates.Some traces of this geometrical plan still exist to-day.118Now, what aspect did this whole present, when, as viewed from the summit of the towers of Notre-Dame, in 1482? That we shall try to describe.For the spectator who arrived, panting, upon that pinnacle, it was first a dazzling confusing view of roofs, chimneys, streets, bridges, places, spires, bell towers. Everything struck your eye at once: the carved gable, the pointed roof, the turrets suspended at the angles of the walls; the stone pyramids of the eleventh century, the slate obelisks of the fifteenth; the round, bare tower of the donjon keep; the square and fretted tower of the church; the great and the little, the massive and the aerial. The eye was, for a long time, wholly lost in this labyrinth, where there was noth- ing which did not possess its originality, its reason, its genius, its beauty,—nothing which did not proceed from art; beginning with the smallest house, with its painted and carved front, with external beams, elliptical door, with projecting stories, to the royal Louvre, which then had a colonnade of towers. But these are the principal masses which were then to be distinguished when the eye began to accustom itself to this tumult of edifices.In the first place, the City.—“The island of the City,” as Sauval says, who, in spite of his confused medley, sometimes has such happy turns of expression,—“the island of the city is made like a great ship, stuck in the mud and run aground in the current, near the centre of the Seine.”We have just explained that, in the fifteenth century, this ship was anchored to the two banks of the river by five bridges. This form of a ship had also struck the heraldic scribes; for it is from that, and not from the siege by the Normans, that the ship which blazons the old shield of Paris, comes, according to Favyn and Pasquier. For him who under- stands how to decipher them, armorial bearings are algebra, armorial bearings have a tongue. The whole history of the second half of the Middle Ages is written in armorial bearings,—the first half is in the symbolism of the Roman churches. They are the hieroglyphics of feudal- ism, succeeding those of theocracy.Thus the City first presented itself to the eye, with its stern to the east, and its prow to the west. Turning towards the prow, one had before one an innumerable flock of ancient roofs, over which arched broadly the lead-covered apse of the Sainte-Chapelle, like an elephant’s haunches loaded with its tower. Only here, this tower was the most audacious, the most open, the most ornamented spire of cabinet-maker’s work that ever let the sky peep through its cone of lace. In front of Notre-Dame, and119very near at hand, three streets opened into the cathedral square,— a fine square, lined with ancient houses. Over the south side of this place bent the wrinkled and sullen façade of the Hôtel Dieu, and its roof, which seemed covered with warts and pustules. Then, on the right and the left, to east and west, within that wall of the City, which was yet so contrac- ted, rose the bell towers of its one and twenty churches, of every date, of every form, of every size, from the low and wormeaten belfry of Saint- Denis du Pas (Carcer Glaueini) to the slender needles of Saint-Pierre aux Boeufs and Saint-Landry.Behind Notre-Dame, the cloister and its Gothic galleries spread out to- wards the north; on the south, the half-Roman palace of the bishop; on the east, the desert point of the Terrain. In this throng of houses the eye also distinguished, by the lofty open-work mitres of stone which then crowned the roof itself, even the most elevated windows of the palace, the Hôtel given by the city, under Charles VI., to Juvénal des Ursins; a little farther on, the pitch-covered sheds of the Palus Market; in still an- other quarter the new apse of Saint-Germain léVieux, lengthened in 1458, with a bit of the Rue aux Febves; and then, in places, a square crowded with people; a pillory, erected at the corner of a street; a fine fragment of the pavement of Philip Augustus, a magnificent flagging, grooved for the horses’ feet, in the middle of the road, and so badly re- placed in the sixteenth century by the miserable cobblestones, called the “pavement of the League;” a deserted back courtyard, with one of those diaphanous staircase turrets, such as were erected in the fifteenth cen- tury, one of which is still to be seen in the Rue des Bourdonnais. Lastly, at the right of the Sainte-Chapelle, towards the west, the Palais de Justice rested its group of towers at the edge of the water. The thickets of the king’s gardens, which covered the western point of the City, masked the Island du Passeur. As for the water, from the summit of the towers of Notre-Dame one hardly saw it, on either side of the City; the Seine was hidden by bridges, the bridges by houses.And when the glance passed these bridges, whose roofs were visibly green, rendered mouldy before their time by the vapors from the water, if it was directed to the left, towards the University, the first edifice which struck it was a large, low sheaf of towers, the Petit-Chàtelet, whose yawning gate devoured the end of the Petit-Pont. Then, if your view ran along the bank, from east to west, from the Tournelle to the Tour de Nesle, there was a long cordon of houses, with carved beams, stained-glass windows, each story projecting over that beneath it, an in- terminable zigzag of bourgeois gables, frequently interrupted by the120mouth of a street, and from time to time also by the front or angle of a huge stone mansion, planted at its ease, with courts and gardens, wings and detached buildings, amid this populace of crowded and narrow houses, like a grand gentleman among a throng of rustics. There were five or six of these mansions on the quay, from the house of Lorraine, which shared with the Bernardins the grand enclosure adjoining the Tournelle, to the Hôtel de Nesle, whose principal tower ended Paris, and whose pointed roofs were in a position, during three months of the year, to encroach, with their black triangles, upon the scarlet disk of the setting sun.This side of the Seine was, however, the least mercantile of the two. Students furnished more of a crowd and more noise there than artisans, and there was not, properly speaking, any quay, except from the Pont Saint-Michel to the Tour de Nesle. The rest of the bank of the Seine was now a naked strand, the same as beyond the Bernardins; again, a throng of houses, standing with their feet in the water, as between the two bridges.There was a great uproar of laundresses; they screamed, and talked, and sang from morning till night along the beach, and beat a great deal of linen there, just as in our day. This is not the least of the gayeties of Paris.The University presented a dense mass to the eye. From one end to the other, it was homogeneous and compact. The thousand roofs, dense, an- gular, clinging to each other, composed, nearly all, of the same geomet- rical element, offered, when viewed from above, the aspect of a crystal- lization of the same substance.The capricious ravine of streets did not cut this block of houses into too disproportionate slices. The forty-two colleges were scattered about in a fairly equal manner, and there were some everywhere. The amus- ingly varied crests of these beautiful edifices were the product of the same art as the simple roofs which they overshot, and were, actually, only a multiplication of the square or the cube of the same geometrical figure. Hence they complicated the whole effect, without disturbing it; completed, without overloading it. Geometry is harmony. Some fine mansions here and there made magnificent outlines against the pictur- esque attics of the left bank. The house of Nevers, the house of Rome, the house of Reims, which have disappeared; the Hôtel de Cluny, which still exists, for the consolation of the artist, and whose tower was so stupidly deprived of its crown a few years ago. Close to Cluny, that Roman121。
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if i is prime to n. Dergachev and Kirillov [1] have given a simple algorithm to determine when a “seaweed” subalgebra of sln, i.e., one obtained by omitting both some positive and some negative roots, is Frobenius. The suggestive name comes from their shape as pictured in [1], but the definition is meaningful for all simple Lie algebras. Seaweed algebras are called “biparabolic” by A. Joseph [8].
The main results of this note are: 1) If a Frobenius Lie algebra f is a subalgebra of a simple Lie algebra g and if f is not an ideal of any larger subalgebra of g (a condition satisfied in particular when f contains a Cartan subalgebra of g) then the principal element is semisimple; we will call such a Frobenius subalgebra saturated. 2) If, moreover, g is sln then the eigenvalues of ad Fˆ are integers which, together with their multiplicities, are independent of the choice of Frobenius functional. In some important special cases where f has a “small” Frobenius functional, in particular for the seaweed subalgebras of sln, we give a simple method for the computation of the principal element.
arXiv:0801.4808v1 [math.RT] 31 Jan 2008
The principal element of a Frobenius Lie algebra
M. GERSTENHABER
February 3, 2008
Department of Mathematics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 191046395, U.S.A. email:mgersten@
2 Semisimplicity of the principal element
Theorem 1 Suppose that f is a saturated Frobenius subalgebra of a simple Lie algebra g. If F is a Frobenius functional on f then its principal element Fˆ is semisimple.
Abstract. A finite dimensional Lie algebra f is Frobenius if there is a linear Frobenius functional F : f → C such that the skew bilinear form BF defined by BF (x, y) = F ([x, y]) is non-degenerate. The principal element of f is then the unique element Fˆ such that F (x) = F ([Fˆ, x]); it depends on the choice of functional. However, if f is a subalgebra of a simple Lie algebra g and not an ideal of any larger subalgebra of g (in particular when f contains a Cartan subalgebra of g) then the principal element is semisimple, and for g = sln the eigenvalues of ad Fˆ are shown to be integers which are independent of the choice of Frobenius functional. A basic open question is whether these eigenvalues characterize the algebra. The principal element of the first parabolic subalgebra of sln is shown to be the semisimple element of the principal three-dimensional subalgebra of sln. Deformations of Frobenius Lie algebras remain Frobenius.
Proof. Viewing Fˆ as an element of g it has a Jordan-Chevalley decomposition Fˆ = Fˆs + Fˆn into semisimple and nilpotent parts which in any linear representation of g would be the same as its decomposition as a matrix (cf. [7, p. 24]) so we may assume that g is linear. There are then polynomials ps and pn, each without constant term, such that ps(T ) + pn(T ) = T (T being any variable) and Fˆs = ps(Fˆ), Fˆn = pn(Fˆ). One has, further that ad(Fˆ)s = ad(Fˆs) (which therefore may be written unambiguously as ad Fˆs) and similarly for Fˆn (cf. [7]). It follows that ad Fˆs is a polynomial in ad Fˆ and therefore that [Fˆs, f] ⊆ f. By
The second result probably holds for all simple g although it is possible (but seems unlikely) that in some cases the eigenvalues may be half-integers or even multiples of 1/3. It will be seen that the principal element of the first parabolic subalgebra of sln is (up to scalar multiple) the semisimple element of Kostant’s principal three-dimensional subalgebra of sln, [9]. The principal three-dimensional subalgebra is defined for all simple g; we do not know if its semisimple element is always the principal element of some parabolic subalgebra. Probably the most important open question, however, is the extent to which the eigenvalues associated with a saturated Frobenius Lie subalgebra f of sln (or, if conjectures hold, of any simple Lie algebra) characterize f. In particular, do they determine f up to conjugacy?
The index of a Lie algebra f is the minimum dimension of the kernel of BF (defined by BF (x, y) = F ([x, y]) as F ranges over f∗. The Dergachev-Kirillov algorithm actually computes the index of any seaweed algebra. Elashvili [3] has also computed the index of various subalgebras of simple algebras other than sln.