《英语语法》第十一章 并列与从属

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第十一章并列与从属
并列
在大多数情况下,并列结构由并列连词连接而成。

不同的并列连词有不同的含义,因此被连接的成分就具有不同的关系。

我们需要注意的是,在一个特定的句法环境中,一个并列连接词与另一并列连接词所起作用的方式是不同的。

所以我们需要辨别并列连接词及其用法。

并列连接词
最常见的并列连接词是and,or和but,它们被称为“中心并列连接词”或“纯粹并列连接词”,因为他们主要用来连接在同一句法层上的语言单位。

其他并列连接词具有中心并列连接词的一部分句法和语义特征。

“关联并列连接词”几乎总是连接两个并列成分。

此外,还有几个连接词被称为“半并列连接词”,因为它们有时用作并列连接词。

还有一类称为“边际并列连接词”,因为它们有时用作并列连接词,有时用作从属连接词或介词。

常用的并列连接词如下:
中心并列连接词:and,or,but
关联并列连接词:both… and, either.., or, not...but, neither...nor, not only.., but also
半并列连接词:nor, so, yet
边际并列连接词:as well as,as much as,rather than,more than
尽管上述列举不够详尽,但这些并列连接词在连接句子成份方面起了重要作用d and,or和but是中心并列连接词,不仅因为它们用法如此,还因为它们代表了并列成分之间的三种基本关系:列举、选择和对比。

其他并列连接词相对于这三个并列连接词就边缘些。

但是,正如我们很快就会看到的那样,一个并列连接词在不同的词境中代表不同的关系,即使中心并列连接词在语义上也不那么纯粹。

and和有关并列连接词
并列连接词and常用来连接一组并列成分:结构是A and B。


他能起类似作用的并列连接词有:both…and,not only…but also,as well as, not.., or,not.., nor,neither.., nor.例如:
①I gave her a cup of tea and some biscuits.我给她一杯茶和一些饼干。

②Both my wife and l will be coming to see you today.我和我妻子今天都要来看你。

③She is not only pretty but also intelligent.她不仅美丽而且聪明。

④He gave me money as well as advice.他给了我钱,而且还给我提了些建议。

⑤Not a fly nor a mosquito was to be found.无论苍蝇还是蚊子都没有发现。

⑥He doesn't like football or basketball.他既不喜欢足球也不喜欢篮球。

⑦He neither smokes nor drinks.他既不抽烟,也不喝酒。

在大多数情况下,and仅用来把两个并列成分连接起来,自身并无太大意思。

但如果在相同情况下用both…and,这两个成分的并列意味就有所加强。

not only.,, but also则表示语
义逐渐加强:即not only引导不太重要的内容'but also引导的内容则得到强调。

但as well as 正相反,在“A as well as B”结构中,A得到强调,而不是B。

not.., or.not.., nor和neither.., nor(后者语义最强)与and和both.., and作用相同,只是语义是否定的。

与有关的并列连接词相比,and作用最多,它能起很多种作用。

①The professor went into the classroom, opened his notebook and started the lecture.
教授走进教室,打开教案,开始讲课。

(事物发展的时间顺序)
②He heard his dog bark at the door,and he looked out of the window only to find his house was surrounded by a large, crowd of angry people.
他听到狗在门口叫,于是他向窗外望去,只见一大群愤怒的人们包围了他的房子。

(因果关系)
③Work harder and you' 11 pass the test.学习再努力些,你就会考试及格的。

(条件)
④Liz is talkative and her husband is reserved.里兹好说话,丽她的丈夫则内向些。

(对比)
⑤English is difficult to learn,and so is French.英语难学,法语也难学。

(类同)
⑥He is a chain smoker,and he stinks all over.
他抽烟抽得很凶,身上有一股难闻的气味。

(追加)
⑦She ran and ran until she was out of breath.
她跑啊跑,直到喘不过气来。

(重复或连续的动作)
在非正式英语中,and常用于come,go,try,wait等词后表示目的,用来替代不定式符号to:
①come and have tea with 'us.来和我们一起喝杯茶吧。

②I'll go and see if she's ok.我要去看看她是否好了。

③Let‟s wait and see.我们等着瞧。

④Try and get some coffee.去拿些咖啡。

⑤Stay and have dinner with us,will you?留下来和我们一起吃饭,好吗?
⑥We ought to stop and think.我们必须停下来想想。

⑦Hurry up and get dressed.快点穿好衣服。

注意这种结构常用于动词的简单形式。

①We went and saw if she was OK.
? We waited and saw.
在非正式美语中,go后面可省略and:
①When I tell you to do something,go do it at once.当我告诉你去干某件事时,马上去干。

②Go jump in the fiver:去跳河去!
and也用于口语中填充句子片段留下的空白,使谈话尽管充满犹豫,也能继续下去。

I did drink.., not much… and I mean l was not drunk….and I was sure OK. OK behind the wheel.and he just blew the horn and yelled at me like hell...
我...的确喝了酒……但不多……嗯,我的意思是我没醉……我相信还可以…开车没
事……嗯,他按喇叭,冲着我大喊大嚷……
or和有关的并列连词
我们常用or表示选择:
①Which do you prefer,tea or coffee?你喜欢什么,茶还是咖啡?
②We have the alternative of going or staying.我们可去可留。

③Which John would you like to talk to, with or without beard?
你要谈哪个约翰,留胡子的还是不留胡子的?
④Do it now,or you' re fired.现在就去做,否则‟的话你就会被解雇。

⑤I'm sure you'll enjoy your holiday in a place such as Venice, or Florence or somewhere like that. 我相信你会在威尼斯或佛罗里达,或类似的地方度假。

either…or常用来连接仅仅两种可能性,并强调or的唯一性。

①You can either come with me or stay at home.你可以和我一起去或呆在家里。

②Either you do it now,or you' re fired.你或者现在就去做,或者被解雇。

or也用于某些固定词组中,仍用来引导一种选择:
①Give me five minutes or so and I'll finish the work.
给我五分钟左右的时间,我会完成工作。

(五分钟左右或五分多钟)
②Clean up the mess,or else!打扫干净,否则等着瞧。

(用作威胁)
③You may stay here for a day or two.你可以在这儿呆一二天。

④The tribe was called Milwaukee or something.
这部落叫做密尔活克或类似的名字。

(表示说话者不确定)
but和有关的并列连接词
作为一个并列连接词,but用来表达一种对比,这种对比通常也可用yet,while,whereas 等来表达。

①They are poor but/yet proud.他们虽然穷,但很有骨气。

②I am objecting to his n~rals,but/yet not to his manners.
我反对他的道德标准,但不反对他的行为。

③We had intended to come and see you,but/yet it rained.我们原想来看你,但下雨了。

④He is not brave but bold.他不是勇敢,而是鲁莽。

⑤You like sports,while/whereas/but/yetl 'd rather read.你喜欢运动,但我更喜欢读书。

⑥They are having trouble at home,while/whereas/but/yet abroad things are even worse.
他们在国内遇到了麻烦,但国外的形势更糟。

⑦While/whereas they want a house, we would rather live in a flat.
他们想要一间房子,但我们更愿住在公寓里。

以上例子表明了这些并列连接词有如下重要的句法特点:
(1) while和whereas通常引导一个从句。

而but和yet可连接处在同一句法层上的语言单位。

(2)but和yet通常可互换,除了but在not后表示对已经说过的话表示否定以外。

(3) while和whereas可出现在句首,而but和yet作为并列连接词通常不能出现在句首。

并列成分之间的标点符号
如果并列结构中只有两项,我们可以用一个并列连接词把它们连接起来,如果有三项或更多项,我们通常在它们之间用逗号隔开,只在最后一项前用并列连接词。

①What I need after a day's hard work is a hot shower,a cigarette and a nice cup of coffee.
一天的艰苦工作之后,我所需要的是洗个热水澡,抽支雪茄,喝杯可口的咖啡。

②He didn't play football,basketball or volleyball.他不踢足球,不打篮球,也不打网球。

在适当的语境下,破例会产生特殊的效果。

例如,我们可以在每个并列项与后面的并列项之间加上并列连接词:A and B and C,或者我们一个并列连接词也不用,全用逗号来代替
A、B、C,这两种结构如下所示:
(1)①Raising vegetables present endless opportunities for weeding and thinning and hoeing and watering,种菜意味着无数次的除草啦,间苗啦,锄地啦,浇水啦等等。

②The battery may be disconnected, or the connection may be loose,or the bulb may be faulty,电池有可能短路,或者接头处松了,或者灯泡坏了。

③Mrs. Jones went into the house, and she left the door unlocked,and that's how they got in.琼斯夫人走进屋子,可她没关门,所以他们就这样进来了。

(2)①Mr. Brown cooked, cleaned, mended, went to meetings of sewing club; he did everything just to please his wife.
布朗先生做饭、打扫卫生、缝缝补补,去参加缝衣俱乐部的聚会。

他什么都做,只为了取悦他的妻子。

②If you refuse to do what I've told you, you' 11 have no pocket money,no birthday present,no pleasant words, from my lips, no,nothing.
如果你不按照我说的去做,你就没有零用钱,没有生日礼物,也休想听好听的话,什么都没有。

①和②都具有特殊的语体效果。

他们可+以意味着不完全的列举,事件的戏剧化过程或者并列成分同等的重要性。

注意逗号意味着停顿,常用于并列连接词前来澄清意义或方便阅读。

连接两个或更多的形容词时有特殊的规则。

当形容词用在表语位置时,我们常把and…放在最后一个形容词之前:
①He was ta/l,dark and handsome.他又高又黑,又英俊。

②The room is small,clean and cozy.这房间又小又干净,又温馨。

当这些有级别的形容词用在定语位置来表示质量时,我们常在这些词之间用逗号。

a mall,clean,cozy room—间又小,又干净,叉温馨的房子
a talf,dark,handsome man一个又高又黑又英俊的男人
但是我们把几个无级别的分类形容词放在一个名词前时,我们必须断定这些形容词是否属于同一类的形容词,
我们用并列连接词来连接属于同二类的形容词:
the country's social, economic and political crisis. 国家的社会,经济和政治危机
Asian,European and African cultures亚洲、欧洲和非洲文化。

如果这些形容词不属于同一类,我们就不用标点符号,因为不属同一类的形容词通常构成等级修饰。

a pink Indian cotton dress一件粉红色的印度棉衣
a red carved French wooden card table一张法国制造的红色雕刻木牌桌
如果不同范围的形容词同时出现,也是如此。

a new red American;sports utility car一辆红色的美国运动型新轿车
a certain funny retired movie star某一个有趣的退休电影明星
它可用于并列成分之间的标点符号包括分号和冒号:
①The breakfast menu' consisted of fruit juice or cereal; a boiled,fried, or poached egg;toast and marmalade;and a pot of tea or coffee.
早饭菜单包括果汁或粥;煮的、煎的或炒的鸡蛋;面包片和柑橘酱;一杯茶或咖啡。

②She had been, sick for several days: this could explain her poor performance at the test.
她几天来一直生病,这就是她考试成绩不好的原因。

在①中的分号不仅把同级的成分连接起来,还表示比逗号更高一级的组合。

②中的冒号所引导的句子的后半部分是前半部分的扩展。

冒号典型的作为并列连接词的用法相当于for example,namely,that is等等。

Please send us the following items:a letter of application,a resume,three letters of recommendation,and the correct fee.请给我们以下材料:一封求职信,一份简历,三封推荐信和必要的费用。

从属
从属与并列不同,它指的是不在同一句法层上的两个成分,通常是两个分句的连接,结果构成一个复杂句。

较高层次上的分句称为主句,处于从属地位的较低层次的分句叫从句。

从属连接词数量比并列连接词多,用法也复杂很多。

从属连接词
引导关系从句或名词性分句的连接词过去常不被看做是从属连接词,引导非谓语从句的连接词过去也常不被看作是从属连接词。

我们现在将它们归于同类中,如下是根据形式分类列举的常用的从属连接词。

简单从属连接词:
1 )wh-词:however, what (ever), when (ever), where (ever), whether, which, who (ever), whom, whose, why等。

2)其他:after, although, as, because, before, for,if,lest, once, since,that, though, till, unless, until等。

复杂从属连接词:
1)与that连用的:assuming (that),but that,considering (that),except( that), for all( that),given(that), granted(that), in that, in order that; in so far that, now(that),
provided( that),save that, seeing (that),such that, supposing(that)等。

2)与as连用的:according as,as far as,as long as,as soon as等。

3)其他:as if,as though,in case等。

关联从属连接词
as... as, as... so, barely...、when, hardly.…., when, scarcely...when, more.., than, less.., than, no sooner.., than, so... as, so... that,such.., as, such.., that, the more.. the morE, whether...or等。

even if, if only, just as,only if,every time (that), the instant(that),the moment(that), due to the fact that, for the reason that, by reason that, for fear( that), in spite of the fact that,in the light of the fact that,on account of the fact that, on the ground that, regardless of the fact that,in the sense that等。

一些边际从属连接词用起来显得生硬,它们常可用简单连接词或介词来代替。

①In spite of the fact that he had an immense fortune, he died a mostunhappy man.
尽管他拥有巨额财产,他死得却很惨。

in spite of his immense fortune...
with all his immense fortune...
though he had an immense fortune...
②They were obliged to rest because of the fact that it was intensely
hot.他们被迫休息,因为天气太热了。

...because it was intensely hot
…because of intense heat
英语学习者应尽量少随意用这些边际从属连接词。

记住,大词或较复杂的句子不一定能传达较复杂的信息。

除了上述那些,in order (to),so as(to)等可被称为特殊从属连接词。

从属分句
从属连接词是从属结构最重要的形式标记:大多数从属分句都有一个标记,那就是从属连接词。

从属分句可根据它们的作用分为三类:关系分句,状语分句和名词性分母。

从形式分类,从属分句也可被分为限定性从句,非限定性从句和无动词从句。

限定性从句
三种主要韵从属分句可由不同的从属连接词引导,从而使它们与主句的关系变得明了。

(1)关系从句(由,that;when,where,which,who(m),whose等引导)
①The man who is smokingⅡcigar is a film director.正在吸雪茄的男士是个电影导演。

②He refused to return the money to his aunt which she had saved for repairing the house.
他拒绝把他姑妈省下来修房子的钱还给她。

③They told me that she stole the money, which mined out to betrite.
他们告诉我她偷了钱,那是真的。

④I think he told me all that he knew.我想他把他所知道的一切都告诉了我。

(2)状语从句(可由10.2.1中列出的大多数从属连接词引导,除了that,which,who(m),
whose等)
①When, was young, I listened to the radio waiting for my favourite song.
我年轻的时候,我听收音机里我喜欢的歌。

(时间)
②Wherever he诂,he makes a lot of noise.他无论在哪儿,都弄出许多噪音。

(地点)
③She married him not because he was rich but because he has an attractive personality.
她嫁给他,不是因为他有钱,而是因为他有吸引人的品质。

(原因)
④He lay there as if he were shot dead.他躺在那儿,好像是被射死了。

(方式)
⑤She was very disappointed, so that she left the country for good.
她非常失望,所以永远离开了这个国家。

(结果)
⑥We shall make hay if it shines tomorrow.如果明天出太阳,我们就晒干草。

(条件)
⑦John stood up and spoke clearly so that everyone could see and hear.
约翰站在那些里,说话清晰,以便每个人都能看到听到。

(目的)
⑧Though he had an immense fortune, he' died a most unhappy man.
尽管他有大量财产,但他死时很惨。

(让步)
(3)名词性从句(由that和who词引导)
①What he does is often at variance With what he says.
他所做的事经常和他所说的不一致。

(主语)
②He said that he would come.to my rescue, but he didn't show up.
他说他会来解救我,但他没来。

(宾语)
③The question is whether she is qualified for the job.
问题是她是否适合这项工作。

(主语补足语)
④I don't like the idea that we risk cheating.
我不喜欢我们冒险行骗这个主意。

(同位语)
⑤You must give it back to whoever it belongs to.你必须把它还给物主。

(介宾)
非限定性和无动词从句
(1)非限定性从句(由as if,as though,in order,so as,wh-等词引导)
①I am wondering whether to punish him or not.我正在考虑是否惩罚他。

②He didn't know what to do with his unfaithful wife.他不知道如何处置他不忠实的妻子。

③She stood up流order to see better.她站起来为了看更清楚。

④He cleared his throat as if to speak.他清清喉咙,好象要说话的样子。

(2) -ing分词从句(由although,as if,as though,even if,once,though, unless, until, when( ever), whether… or, while等引导)
①Although having a lot of aristocratic connections, he refused to resort to their help and worked up his own business.
尽管他有许多贵族亲戚,但他拒绝他们帮助,而是独立干事业。

②Whenever the professor explained something; she kept smiling and nodding her head from time to time as though understanding every word of his lecture.
不论什么时候教授解释的时候,她总是微笑着,不时点点头,好像理解他讲的每个字。

(3) -ed分词从句和无动词从句(由as if,as soon as,as though,even if,if,once, though, unless, until; When (ever), where (ever), wheth er…or,while等引导)。

①Work lard until told to stop.努力工作让你停再停。

②As soon as dismissed from his position, he started his own business.
他一被辞退,他就开始办自己的公司。

③Once released from prison, he is likely to engage himself in the same business and commit the same crime.
一旦从监狱莹释放出来,他极有可有重操旧业,重新犯罪。

④When still a girl, of ten, she was able to speak three foreign languages.
当她还是一个十岁的小姑娘时,她就能说三门外语了。

⑤Whatever the reason,physical punishment to children at school is illegal.
无论是什么原因,在学校里对孩子进行体罚是不合法的。

⑥Whether by accident or by design, he arrived too late to help us.
不知是偶然的还是故意的,他来帮助我们时已经太晚了。

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