托福阅读学科背景 3考古 历史
托福听力背景知识：考古学(Archaeology)
托福听力背景知识：考古学(Archaeology) Definition (定义)：根据发掘或古代遗物、遗迹研究古代人文历史的科学。
Categories (类别)：按照研究的年代范围、具体对象、所用手段和方法等的不同，考古学可以划分为史前考古学、历史考古学、田野考古学及各种特殊考古学等分支。
史前考古学和历史考古学从研究的年代范围上划分，考古学可分为史前考古学和历史考古学两大分支。
也有人主张在两者之间加入原史考古学而成为三大分支，但从实际意义来说，原史考古学的重要性不如前两者。
史前考古学的研究范围是未有文字之前的人类历史，历史考古学的研究范围则限于有了文献记载以后的人类历史，两者的界线在于文字的发明。
世界各地，文字的发明有早有晚，所以各地区史前考古学的年代下限和历史考古学的年代上限各有不同。
史前考古学和历史考古学都以遗迹和遗物为研究对象，这是它们之间的共同性。
但由于历史考古学必须参证文献记载，而史前考古学则没有任何文献记载可供依据，所以两者的研究任务也有所不同。
史前考古学承担了究明史前时代人类历史的全部责任，而历史考古学则可以与历史学分工合作，相辅相成，共同究明历史时代人类社会的历史。
由于史前考古学主要是研究旧石器时代和新石器时代(有时也包括青铜时代和早期铁器时代)，历史考古学主要是研究青铜时代尤其是铁器时代，两者所研究的遗迹和遗物在性质上有一定的差异，所以它们的研究方法也有所不同。
从与其他学科的关系来说，史前考古学要充分与地质学、古生物学、古人类学和民族学等学科相结合，历史考古学则必须与历史学相配合，同时还要依靠古文字学、铭刻学、古钱学和古建筑学等分支。
从断定绝对年代的手段来说，史前考古学在很大程度上要依靠物理学、化学等自然科学的技术，而历史考古学则主要依靠文献记载和年历学的研究。
“田野考古学”的名称，是20世纪初正式提出来的。
但当时的田野考古学主要是勘察地面上的遗迹和遗物，依靠地图进行调查，有时则要根据调查结果，测绘地图，作为记录的附件。
考古类 托福 听力
TPO23 L1
Shipwreck 海难；遇难船 Corrode vi. 受腐蚀； 侵蚀 Rotate Motion Phase Conclusive Forge into 锻造 Gear 齿轮 装置
Eclipse 日食 Mechanism 机制 原理 Replicate Take sth into account Stand to reason 显而易见的；合乎道理 的 B.C.E before the Common Era 公元前
ruins 遗迹，废墟 remains 遗迹，遗骸 artifact 手工艺品 relic 遗物，文物 antique 古物，古董 antiquity 古代，古老 Stone Age 石器时代 Bronze Age (青)铜器时代 Iron Age 铁器时代
problems
Analyzing the artistic style
To impose our own values ; preconceived ideas
背景：考古年代的测定
Dating Methods in Archaeology If there is one fundamental issue on which most archaeologists can generally agree, it is the importance of chronology in studying the past. Although one of the most important contributions that archaeology can make is the study of. Given the importance of establishing the cultures over long time spans, control of the time dimension is crucial in almost all kinds of archaeological research. In studying the archaeological record, the archaeologist needs to differentiate those materials that are contemporary and those that reflect the passage of time temporal relationships of archaeological remains, it is not surprising that until the introduction of dating techniques from the physical sciences (e.g., chemistry and nuclear physics), issues of chronology dominated archaeology. Archaeologists can now access a wide variety of techniques to estimate the age of archaeological remains, and can now turn their attention to issues other than chronology.
Unit 3 Back to the past.话题语言应用——考古与历史(知识梳理)-精选文档
Unit 3 Back to the past话题语言应用——考古与历史语言积累交际用语1．特征It looks like... 它看起来像......It could be because... 可能是因为......How large do you think it is? 你认为它有多大？Is there any ... on the ...? 在......有什么......吗？It may be used as / for... 它可能被用作/用来......Is it in good／poor condition? 它状态良好/不好吗？It could be made from... 它可能是由......制成的。
What do you think it is? 你认为它是什么？2．建议I think that we should... because... 我想我们应该......，因为......What if ...? 如果......，我们怎么办呢？If...，then maybe we ought to... 如果......，那时也许我们应该......Perhaps we should / could... 也许我们应该/可以......It seems likely / unlikely that... ......似乎是可能的/不太可能的。
I suggest we... 我建议我们......We must ask for help from... 我们必须向......求助。
3．假定It is reasonable to assume that... 假设......是合理的。
Our evidence suggests that... 我们掌握的证据表明......It seems that.... 似乎......Perhaps there was... 也许有......We think that.... 我们认为......It suggests that... 情况表明......话题语句（1）Words for archaeology 有关考古的词汇1. excavate 挖掘collect 收集identify and analyze 识别分析2. clay lamp 粘土灯Chinese chimes 编钟stone/ jade axe 石/玉斧Terra-Cotta Warriors 兵马俑pottery 陶器bone needle 骨针stone tools石制工具（石器）stoneware粗陶，石器，缸瓷a death mask of an Egyptian Pharaoh 埃及法老死亡面具3. hunt animals 猎兽catch fish 捕鱼rub stones for fires击燧石取火cut fat and meat from bones 剔骨取肉collect nuts and fruits 收集坚果和水果trade with people who have seashells 与有贝壳的人交易4. primitive people 原始人skull 颅骨layers of ash 积灰有关句子：Archaeologists study early people by examining the objects they used.考古学家研究早期人类用过的物品来研究他们。
TOEFL新托福阅读背景知识精选5篇
TOEFL新托福阅读背景知识精选5篇新托福阅读背景知识：太空城休士顿太空城休士顿休士顿是美国的第五大都市，人类第一次登上月球的阿波罗飞船11号就在这里升空，因而使它也成为全球闻名的城镇。
这一城镇是在1836年当德克萨斯州自墨西哥获得独立时，随之而诞生。
通往墨西哥湾的休士顿港，是美国第三大港，在那里出口的棉花和石油产品，其数量占全美第一位。
自从美国国家航空太空总署NASA在近效设置太空中心以来，休士顿正在继续不断地急速发展。
阿斯托洛圆顶运动场Astrodome耗资3，100万美元，于1965年兴建完成的这一运动场是目前世界上最大的一座室内运动场，内部装有冷暖气设备。
棒球、足球、骞马，以至于马戏团表演，都可以在室内进行。
紧邻的Afterworld是一个规模极大的娱乐中心，游客可以观赏欧洲各种村落的景色，也能够欣赏各类表演。
圣哈新托古战场SanJacintoBattlefield1836年，休士顿将军为了争取德州独立，率军与墨军激战的地方。
现在已成为州立公园，纪念塔高达174公尺，可乘电梯登上塔项。
塔下是历史博物馆。
距休士顿市约26公里。
美国航空太空总署太空飞行中心NASAMannedSpacecraft因阿波罗11号在此升空而全球闻名。
美国国家航空太空总署NASA于1961年设立于休士顿东南方45公里处的克利阿湖畔。
附近有GeneralElectric和InternationalBusinessMachines等重要的电子工业企业，是名符其实的航空太空科学中心。
展览馆Exhibit Hall的一号馆中，陈列着太空飞行员使用的器具、太空食物、太空船模型、月球上采集的岩石，对一般观光客公开。
太空飞行中心内部极为辽阔，可在进入中心的问讯处索取地图，备作参考。
太空中心内也有礼品店，出售太空船模型、月球石头模型，以及阿波罗帽等。
新托福阅读背景知识：友爱之城费城费城费城是美国第四大都市，随同岁月的飞逝，与工业化的进展，费城所拥有的历史性遗产，已逐渐褪色。
托福阅读考古学类练习
托福阅读考古学类练习- The ArchaeopteryxFossil托福阅读中包含各个科目的文章，因此在备考托福的过程中，将文章按类别区分准备是很有必要的。
三立在线小编为大家总结了托福阅读考古学类短篇练习- The Archaeopteryx Fossil，希望对各位同学的托福备考有所帮助：Thomas Hunt MorganThe Archaeopteryx fossil was a veryimportant discovery by archaeologists. It was discovered in Southern Germany,where there are many well-preserved fos sils. The Archaeopteryx fossil is theremains of an ancient bird, which is about 150 million years old. Manyscientists believe that Archaeopteryx might have been the first kind of bird ever.It is not very similar to the kinds of birds we see today. Scientists believeit was part bird and part dinosaur because it had feathers and wings but it wasalso reptilian, like the ancient dinosaurs.Unlike birds in today 's world,Archaeopteryx had a full set of teeth, a flat che st, a long, bony tail, andthree claws on its wings, which might have been use d to attack prey or to holdon to trees. In fact, from looking at the fossils of Archaeopteryx, the ancientcreature looks a lot more like a dinosaur than a bir d.A big debate amongst scientists is whatArchaeopteryx used its feathers for. S ome scientists suggest they were used tocontrol their body temperature while others believe that they were used forflight. This is a very important questio n for scientists because they want toknow how animals first started to fly.There are two theories about the origin offlight and about what Archaeoptery x used its feathers for. The first argumentis called trees-down; this is the the ory that birds their feathers to glidedown to the ground from trees much like how flying squirrels do today. Theother argument is called ground-up; this is the theory that ancient birds livedon the ground and used their feathers to help them make long leaps into treeswhenever they needed to. For example, if they needed to get away frompredators, then they could jump into the tre es from a great distance and holdon to them with their claws.Scientists are curious as to why ancientbirds stroked their wings like modern birds. They believe it might be relatedto the way that some kinds of dinosaur s used their strong forearms to grabdownwards and hold on to their prey. If Archaeopteryx did this, then it mighthave learned that it could also use its str ong forearms to flap its wings andstay in the air for longer periods of time. Over millions of years, animalsthat were related to Archaeopteryx might havebeen able to stay in the air forlonger and longer until finally they could fly li ke modern birds do.Passage summaryRemains of ancient bird found in (1) ________Characteristics-about (2) ________ years old-maybe first (3) ________ ever-was part (4) ________ and part (5) ________Don’t know the use of (6) ________-some think to (7) ________- others think to (8) ________Theories on (9) ________-trees-down →used features to (10) ________ from trees -ground up →used features to (11) ________参考答案：•150 million –2•bird –3•bird –4•control body temperature –7•dinosaur –5•feathers –6•flight origins –9•fly –8•glide down –10•leap into trees –11•Southern Germany –1Questions for general comprehensionQuestion 1According to the paragraph 1, Archaeopteryxused the claws on its wings for 1.flying2.3.grabbing things4.5.defensive purposes6.7.fishing8.Question 2According to the passage, why do scientistswant to know why ancient birds s troked their wings?1.They will be able to find out the birds’mating habits.2.3.They might understand more about evolution.4.5.They will be able to learn when animals first learned how to fly.6.7.They will learn the secret to how Archaeopteryx could fly for so long.8.Question 3Which expresses the first highlightedsentence?1.Scientists think that Archaeopteryx was created when a bird and dinosaur mat ed with one another, giving it characteristics of both.2.3.Since Archaeopteryx had feathers but was reptilian, scientists think it was a cr oss between a bird and a dinosaur.4.5.Archaeopteryx had features like a bird and was also reptilian, so this makes s cientists believe that it was an ancient dinosaur.6.7.Many scientists believe that the ancient dinosaurs were both part bird and pa rt dinosaur.8.Question 4Which expresses the second highlightedsentence?1.Archaeopteryx’s first flight and the purpose of its feathers can be explained i n two ways.2.3.Two theories perfectly describe the uses of Archaeopteryx’s feathers and flig ht origins.4.5.Scientists are not sure how Archaeopteryx learned to fly or how it used its fe athers.6.7.The great mysteries of Archaeopteryx are the use of its feathers and how it l earned to fly.8.参考答案：答案1：B解析：文章 Part 2 当中的第一句话（S1）当中明确提到了… and three claws on its wi ngs, which might have been used to attackprey or to hold on to trees …由此可见是为了捕猎或者抓住树，选项里没有捕猎的相关选项，只有B.选项中的抓住东西为正确答案答案2：C解析：根据文章 Part 4 当中的第一句话（S1）Scientists are curious as to why ancie nt birds stroked theirwings...后面补充道始祖鸟如何开始在空中停留越来越长时间，过了很久可以变成现代鸟。
新托福听力场景分析之考古学应对技巧
新托福听力场景分析之考古学应对技巧新托福听力场景分析之考古学应对技巧朗阁托福培训中心朗阁托福培训中心的专家分析发现，在托福听力考试4个lecture 中，必会出现至少一个历史、艺术、或考古类的话题。
艺术与历史类我们之前已经探讨过，属于考生熟悉的话题范围；而考古学话题本身就不为广大考生熟悉，很多考生对这一话题非常畏惧。
实际上只要提前适应难度，掌握好词汇，还是可以轻松攻克的。
下面我们来共同讨论一下考古话题的应对方式。
一、概述考古话题往往和其他分支学科产生联系，具体可以从以下几个方面来考察：☆历史年代如不同地理地质时期的化石，遗迹等。
☆人类学如某个历史阶段人类生活工具和遗址的发掘，故而推测出当时人们的生活状态。
☆艺术类例如古代壁画，陶瓷的发现及其艺术价值。
☆其他话题商业容易和其他学科产生交叉，如古生物学和文化等。
所谓话题的交叉性，前几讲中我们也提到过，但在考古学中这一特点得到了升华。
考古学很难独立成段子，一般会涉及其他方面，在这里考生应该多积累历史，地质，人文方面的知识。
推荐BBC的documentary，生动且令人印象深刻。
二、案例分析下面是一个考古学的经典案例：TPO 30 Lecture 2 (Paleontology)听力原文：1) And as for popular attitudes towards dinosaurs … w ell, take the Obiraptor for instance … In the 1920s, a paleontologist discovered the fossil remains of a small dinosaur near a nest containing eggs. He assumed the dinosaur wasstealing the eggs, so he named it Oviraptor that means egg thief in Latin, which fuel ed the generally negative public image of such dinosaurs …But by the 1990s, other experts had convincingly made the case that instead of robbing the nest; the Oviraptor was probably taking care of the eggs. You see, dino saurs’ closest living relati ves–birds and crocodiles–display nesting behavior. And dinosaur fossils have been found in postures that we now believe to indicate brooding behavior, that is, sitting on the eggs until they hatch.Q: What is the professor's attitude toward the name "Obiraptor"?Click on 2 answers.A. It accurately represents the behavior of the dinosaurB. It resulted from an incorrect translation of the original Latin termC. It was based on a misunderstanding of the fossil evidenceD. It influenced popular attitudes toward dinosaurs分析：这里提到了attitude一词，说明考到了语气态度这个考点。
托福听力之考古学背景知识解密
托福听力之考古学背景知识解密托福听力的讲座会考到一些学科类的题目，这就要求我们对这些学科的背景知识有一个大致的了解，为了帮助大家备考，下面小编给大家带来托福听力之考古学背景知识解密。
托福听力之考古学背景知识解密首先同学们我们先要来了解下考古学是什么? Archaeology’s definition/考古学的定义：根据发掘或古代遗物、遗迹研究古代人文历史的科学。
然后我们来认识下考古学的分类构成有哪些?Categories：1. Prehistoric archaeology 史前考古学2. Historical archaeology 历史考古学3. Field archaeology 田野考古学4. Aerial archaeology 航空考古学5. Underwater archaeology 水下考古学6. Art archaeology 美术考古学7. Religious archaeology 宗教考古学8. Ancient coins archaeology 古钱币考古学9. Paleography and epigraphy 古文字学和铭刻学考古学与建筑类相交叉比如TPO1 lecture3 Catalhoyuk这个遗址。
从这个城市是怎么建成的、房屋的艺术还有这个地方的墓葬等三个方面介绍。
但这些介绍都只是猜测而已，需要进一步挖掘坟墓获得线索。
TPO33 lecture 1金字塔是如何建造的。
教授提出了最古老的理论，某人认为是用木头起重机建造的，教授驳斥了该理论。
接着又说到斜坡理论，但是驳斥了。
再后来提到另一个人改进了斜坡理论，认为金字塔底部可以在外面建造斜坡，剩余部分可以在金字塔内部建造环绕型的斜坡。
教授用现代的微重力测量来说明测量结果与这个人预测的一致，表示这个人的理论是很靠谱的。
考古话题往往和其他分支学科产生联系，具体可以从以下几个方面来考察：历史年代，如不同地理地质时期的化石，遗迹等。
托福阅读文章的四个来源
托福阅读文章的四个来源相信大家都很好奇托福阅读的文章来源于哪里?知道了我们就可以去找一些针对性的阅读材料来复习了，下面小编给大家带来托福阅读文章的四个来源，希望能帮助到大家!托福阅读文章的四个来源托福阅读文章来源一共涉及到以下几个部分：托福阅读文章来源一：自然和自然科学大约占比30%左右，也就是所有题材中占比最大的一部分，这个部分包含天体、地理、气候和化学等学科内容;托福阅读文章来源二：生物科学大约占比20%左右，这一部分包含，动物学、植物学、细胞学和生物化学等学科的相关学习内容，接下来排的托福阅读文章来源三：艺术和美国历史这部分内容大致涵盖音乐、表演、电影和电视等艺术形式。
托福阅读文章来源四：社科类文章和人文类文章分别占比10%左右，社科类文章包括经济学、考古学、人类学、通信和媒体等内容，而人文类文章则更多涵盖历史和语言学等内容，占比最少并且基本很少考察的题材则是人物传记类，这类文章更容易出现在GRE、SAT等北美升学类考试中。
那么，如果把这些题材占比从高到底排序的话，就形成了一条题材的线索线，即人类文明的发展史。
首先，在人类出现之前，宇宙中存在天体、地理、气候条件等一系列的客观因素，这是第一类托福阅读文章来源中的题材，随后，地球上开始形成了生物体，比如动物、植物、微生物等，再接着，人类出现了，并且从繁衍生息的过程中积淀了文化和艺术，比如音乐、油画等，再后来，人类开始意识到科学的重要性，例如经济学、通信等现代科学技术，最后人类开始回顾自己的历史，就有了考古学，传记等题材。
综上所述，托福阅读文章来源中涉及更多的则是自然科学类的文章，考生在托福阅读备考的过程中，可以对相关文章和知识进行一定的了解和学习，这样在考场之上对于文章的理解就会更加深刻。
新托福阅读各题型解题技巧分享1.新托福阅读题型之细节题(FactualInformation)可以说，细节题是新托福阅读所有题型中是最重要的题型了，因为在整场考试中它所占的比重非常的大，细节题是否拿捏到位直接影响到考生最后的语言成绩。
托福阅读分类词汇：历史类考古学词汇
托福阅读分类词汇：历史类考古学词汇托福阅读会考到很多不同的话题，历史类也是其中一种，为了帮助大家备考，下面小编给大家带来托福阅读分类词汇：历史类考古学词汇，望喜欢!托福阅读分类词汇：历史类考古学词汇dwelling 住所 dweller 居民savages 野蛮人 disclosure 揭露remains 残余;遗迹 remnant 残余;遗迹remainder残余，剩余物 residue 残余primitive 原始的，最初的 prehistoric 史前的，陈旧的archaic 古老的，陈旧的medieval 中世纪的，仿中世纪的;老式的originate 起源，发生 excavation 挖掘，挖掘成的洞;出土文物vestige 遗迹，痕迹 trace痕迹，踪迹primordial 原始的 primeval 原始的chronological 按年代顺序排列的 Paleolithic 旧石器时代的Mesolithic 中石器时代 Neolithic 新石器时代invaluable 无价的，价值无法衡量的 precious 宝贵的，贵重的archeology 考古学 archeologist 考古学家artifact 人造物品 relic 遗物，遗迹;纪念物excavate 挖掘 carve 刻，雕刻temple 庙 kingdom/realm 王国empire 王国 emperor 国王 pharaoh法老the Niles 尼罗河 pyramid 金字塔 statue 雕像chart 绘图 skull 头脑;头骨 antique 古物，古董warship 祭拜 site地址、遗址 exhume掘出unearth 发掘，发现 scoop 汲取;挖掘 indigenous 当地人antiquity 古代，古老，古代的文物 offspring/descendent 后代托福阅读背景之美国历史词汇THE 1421 THEORY (1421年中国发现新大陆)EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENT(地理探险与早期殖民) LOST COLONY & JAMESTOWN(失落的殖民地&美国第一个永远殖民地：詹姆斯镇)PLYMOUTH COLONY (普利茅斯殖民地)THE THIRTEEN COLONIES (美东最初的十三个殖民地)LIFE IN COLONIAL AMERICA (殖民时期美国生活)THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754~1763) (印法战争)THE ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE (美国独立之路)THE BOSTON TEA PARTY (波士顿茶会事件)TEA HISTORY IN AMERICA (美国茶叶历史)THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS (第一次大陆会议)THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS (1775~1783) (美国独立战争)COMMON SENSE (常识)THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE (独立宣言)THE CONSTITUTION (美国宪法)THE BILL OF RIGHTS (人权法案)THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE (刘易斯安纳购地)LEWIS AND CLARK(利瓦伊 & 克拉克将军美西探勘)THE WAR OF 1812 (1812~1814) (1812年英美战争)THE NATION MOVES WEST (国家西移)ALAMO (德州阿拉莫事件)MEXICAN WAR (1846~1848) (美墨战争)INDIAN WARS (美国与印地安人的战争)GOLD RUSH (淘金潮)FORTY-NINERS (旧金山四九人)THE CIVIL WAR (1861~1865) (南北战争)RESULTS OF THE CIVIAL WAR (南北战争的后果)RECONSTRUCTION(战后重建期)THE CATTLE KINGDOM OF THE GREAT PLAINS (美国中部大平原上的畜牧王国)THE HOMESTEAD ACT (安居法案)SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR (1898) (美西战争)ROARING TWENTIES 1920’s (辉煌的20年代)THE FLAMING YOUTH (跳跃的烈火青春)PROHIBITION (禁酒时期)MAFIA (黑手党)THE DECLINE OF THE PROHIBITION MOVEMENT (禁酒令的废除)THE ECONOMY-BOOM AND BUST (美国二零年代：经济的飙长与迅速萧条)GREAT DEPRESSION (经济大萧条)CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS(CCC公共资源保护队)WORLD WAR II (1939~1945) (二次世界大战)POPULATION BOOM IN THE WEST (战后的人口西拓)新托福阅读背景知识：羊皮书制手抄本羊皮书制手抄本公元100年前后，古希腊人将纸莎草纸裁成单页，双面书写，写完后粘成类似今书本型。
考古类 托福 听力
Chamber室，膛；房间 Calendar Echo Chanting 念咒;诵唱 Chorus Intriguing adj. 有趣的；迷人的
Phenomenon Frequency Acoustic 音响的；听觉的 Volume n. 量；体积；卷；音量； Resonance n. [力] 共振；共鸣；反响 Note
考古类
origin 起源 originate 起源于 ancestor 祖先 hominid 人(科) homogeneous 同一种族(种类)的 tribe 部落 clan 氏族 archeologist 考古学家 excavation 挖掘 excavate (unearth) 挖掘
TPO23 L1
Shipwreck 海难；遇难船 Corrode vi. 受腐蚀； 侵蚀 Rotate Motion Phase Conclusive Forge into 锻造 Gear 齿轮 装置
Eclipse 日食 Mechanism 机制 原理 Replicate Take sth into account Stand to reason 显而易见的；合乎道理 的 B.C.E before the Common Era 公元前
Newgrange is the most famous Neolithic passage grave in Europe
What does the professor mainly discuss?
The role of physics in the discovery of Neolithic religious sites The sound effects that Neolithic people could experience in passage graves Evidence that passage graves were designed to function as calendars A debate about the role of sound in passage grave ceremonies
托福阅读背景知识汇总
托福阅读背景知识汇总托福考试中，阅读想要做的又快有准确，不仅需要提升英语阅读能力，还要掌握阅读背景知识。
下面就和大家分享托福阅读背景知识知多少，来欣赏一下吧。
托福阅读背景知识知多少阅读背景知识汇总一.考古学(archaeology)题材1.文化(cultural )考古学形态(physical)考古学(多见)2.化石(fossil )化石构成。
化石比原物更沉重(矿物质环境)化石形成原因。
坚硬物质，迅速掩埋。
化石与动物的进化关系。
3.人的左右手使用工具。
证据：敲击的划痕;手柄的形状。
牙齿上的划痕。
大脑左右半球的大小差别;趾骨的粗细差别。
作画时人像的方向4.古代陶瓷的考古。
Clay，model，wheel (转盘)，glaze，kiln5.古代文字的考古。
二.印第安题材1.白令海峡移民理论2.印第安文化3.印第安宗教观4.印第安建筑业：大、先进。
5.印第安手工业：好。
6.社会组织结构：严密、分工细、凝聚力强。
7.农业先进：A. irrigation; B. maize，squash，bean，pea。
三.动植物题材(必考)1.植物学题材(不多见)地衣、苔、真菌、蘑菇最常见。
树冠上方生物。
植物在生态平衡中的作用。
2.动物学题材(90%以上)考普通动物为多。
最近常考鸟类、蚂蚁、动物智能与灭绝(联系天文学与冰河理论)。
考动物进化(evolution)。
考动物的分类(classification)。
phyla(单数phylum)—门class—纲order—目family—科genus—属species—种carnivore/predator—食肉动物herbivore—食草动物omnivore—杂食动物动物的生活习性最为多见。
群居(social animal)动物的习性蚂蚁：社会组织结构—等级制(caste)：交流方式—信息素—气味;生活****;外来物种的有害性。
蜜蜂：群居个性;“8”字舞;蜜蜂智能;防御;天敌—大黄蜂。
托福TPO16综合写作精讲【考古学】
智课网TOEFL备考资料托福TPO16综合写作精讲【考古学】摘要：有关考古学的文章也是我们托福考试过程中经常会遇到，托福TPO16综合写作部分的内容就设计到了这一块，下面我们就通过对托福TPO16综合写作内容的精讲，来为大家详细介绍一二，希望对大家会有一定的帮助。
托福 TPO16综合写作阅读材料：The United Kingdom (sometimes referred to as Britain) has a long and rich history of human settlement. Traces of buildings, tools, and art can be found from periods going back many thousands of years: from the Stone Age, throughthe Bronze Age, the Iron Age, the time of the Roman colonization, the Middle Ages, up to the beginnings of the industrial age. Yet from most of the twentieth century, the science of archaeology – dedicated to uncovering and studying old cultural artifacts – was faced with serious problems and limitations in Britain.英国(有的时候被称为不列颠)在人类居住建筑方面有久远丰富的历史。
建筑、建筑工具以及建筑艺术的遗迹的历史可以追溯到数千年。
从石器时代开始，历经青铜时代、铁器时代、罗马殖民时代、中世纪，一直到工业时代的初期。
但是在 20 世纪的大部分时间里的英国，致力于挖掘和研究古代文化遗迹的考古学面临着严峻的问题和局限性。
托福阅读词汇大全之考古、人类篇
托福阅读词汇大全之戏剧篇托福阅读中涉及到很多词汇的使用，任何情况下词汇是至关重要的，在复习托福考试时，Delta是很多考生的备考资料。
而且其中部分出现的生词也很有可能出现在托福实战中。
下面我们就搜集整理了部分托福阅读词汇中的戏剧篇，以便大家在托福阅读中更好地应对生词。
tragedy 悲剧one-act play 独幕剧opera 歌剧farce 滑稽戏，趣剧(stage) play 话剧Beijing opera 京剧historical play 历史剧puppet show 木偶戏(a play) in three acts and five scenes 三幕五场(剧)comedy 喜剧operetta 小歌剧pantomime 哑剧playwright 编剧，剧作家dress rehearsal 彩排traditional theatrical pieces 传统剧目director 导演climax 高潮libretto 歌剧脚本intermezzo 间奏曲part, role 角色title role 剧名角色rehearsal 排演plot 情节episode 情节中的插曲character 人物stage version 上演本(one’s) lines 台词prologue 序幕leading role (character) 主角chief actress 女主角chief actor 男主角to present on the stage 搬上舞台to rehearse 排演to play the role of ……扮演(某一角色)to put on a play 演出，上演announcer, master of ceremonies 报幕员repertoire 保留节目(总称)scenery, decor 布景scene-painter 布景画家setting designer 布景设计人scene-man 布景员properties, props 道具property man 道具管理员top light 顶灯costume 服装farewell performance 告别演出back stage 后台applause 喝采make-up 化装make-up man 化装师dressing room 化装室foot light 脚灯synopsis 剧情简介company, troupe 剧团spotlight 聚光灯curtain 幕first performance, premiere 首次演出prompter 提词人prompters’ box 提词厢stage 舞台stage manager 舞台监督stage effect 舞台效果stage illumination, lighting 舞台照明interval, intermission 休息revolving stage 旋转舞台mobile troupe 巡回演出队art director 艺术指导sound effect 音响效果possible encore 预备节目orchestra pit 乐池to applaud 喝彩The curtain falls. 幕落The curtain rises. 幕启to present a bouquet (a basket of flowers) to ……献花to answer a curtain call; to respond to a curtain call 谢幕Encore! 再来一次to give an encore 再唱(演奏)一次box 包厢exit 出口cinema 电影院gallery 顶层楼座opera house 歌剧院audience, spectators 观众aisle (座位中的)走道programme 节目单theatre 剧院opera glasses 看戏望远镜house full， full house 客满，满座auditorium 礼堂upper circle 楼厅(二楼)后座dress circle 楼厅(二楼)前座open-air theatre, amphitheatre 露天剧场puppet show theatre 木偶剧场usher 男引座员usherette 女引座员以上就是托福阅读中戏剧篇，希望给每一位考生一个更好地了解托福阅读的途径。
托福阅读分类词汇：历史类考古学词汇
托福阅读分类词汇：历史类考古学词汇托福阅读分类词汇：历史类考古学词汇dwelling 住所dweller 居民savages 野蛮人disclosure 揭露remains 残余;遗迹remnant 残余;遗迹remainder残余，剩余物residue 残余primitive 原始的，最初的prehistoric 史前的，陈旧的archaic 古老的，陈旧的medieval 中世纪的，仿中世纪的;老式的originate 起源，发生excavation 挖掘，挖掘成的洞;出土文物vestige 遗迹，痕迹trace痕迹，踪迹primordial 原始的primeval 原始的chronological 按年代顺序排列的Paleolithic 旧石器时代的Mesolithic 中石器时代Neolithic 新石器时代invaluable 无价的，价值无法衡量的precious 宝贵的，贵重的archeology 考古学archeologist 考古学家artifact 人造物品relic 遗物，遗迹;纪念物excavate 挖掘carve 刻，雕刻temple 庙kingdom/realm 王国empire 王国emperor 国王pharaoh法老the Niles 尼罗河pyramid 金字塔statue 雕像chart 绘图skull 头脑;头骨antique 古物，古董warship 祭拜site地址、遗址exhume掘出unearth 发掘，发现scoop 汲取;挖掘indigenous 当地人antiquity 古代，古老，古代的文物offspring/descendent 后代托福阅读背景之美国历史词汇?THE 1421 THEORY (1421年中国发现新大陆)?__TION AND EARLY __ENT(地理探险与早期殖民)?LOST COLONY __WN(失落的殖民地美国第一个永远殖民地：詹姆斯镇)?__H COLONY (普利茅斯殖民地)?THE __N __S (美东最初的十三个殖民地)?LIFE IN __L __ (殖民时期美国生活)?THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754~1763) (印法战争) ?THE ROAD TO __DENCE (美国独立之路)?THE BOSTON TEA PARTY (波士顿茶会事件)?TEA __ IN __ (美国茶叶历史)?THE FIRST __NTAL __S (第一次大陆会议)?THE __IONARY WAR BEGINS (1775~1783) (美国独立战争) ?COMMON SENSE (常识)?THE __TION OF __DENCE (独立宣言)?THE __UTION (美国宪法)?THE BILL OF RIGHTS (人权法案)?THE __NA __E (刘易斯安纳购地)?LEWIS AND CLARK(利瓦伊克拉克将军美西探勘)?THE WAR OF 1812 (1812~1814) (1812年英美战争)?THE NATION MOVES WEST (国家西移)?ALAMO (德州阿拉莫事件)?__ WAR (1846~1848) (美墨战争)?INDIAN WARS (美国与印地安人的战争)?GOLD RUSH (淘金潮)?FORTY-NINERS (旧金山四九人)?THE CIVIL WAR (1861~1865) (南北战争)?__ OF THE CIVIAL WAR (南北战争的后果)?__(战后重建期)?THE CATTLE __ OF THE GREAT PLAINS (美国中部大平原上的畜牧王国)?THE __AD ACT (安居法案)?__-__N WAR (1898) (美西战争)?__ __S 1920’s (辉煌的20年代)?THE __ YOUTH (跳跃的烈火青春)?__TION (禁酒时期)?MAFIA (黑手党)?THE __ OF THE __TION __T (禁酒令的废除)?THE __-BOOM AND BUST (美国二零年代：经济的飙长与迅速萧条)?GREAT __ION (经济大萧条)?__N __ATION CORPS(CCC公共资源保护队)?WORLD WAR II (1939~1945) (二次世界大战)?__ION BOOM IN THE WEST (战后的人口西拓)新托福阅读背景知识：羊皮书制手抄本羊皮书制手抄本公元100年前后，古希腊人将纸莎草纸裁成单页，双面书写，写完后粘成类似今书本型。
【托福】北京朗阁托福TPO综合写作：生物和考古话题考点
托福TPO综合写作：生物和考古话题考点朗阁海外考试研究中心备考误区：大多数参加新托福考试的考生在备考的时候仅仅是把TPO套题做个几遍，不做任何总结和归类就进了考场，但最终成绩往往并不令人满意。
从写作科目来说，综合写作听力的得分会直接影响分数的变化，除了词汇资源和语法多样性这些要求外，学生对于听力细节的把握也是至关重要的。
今天朗阁海外考试研究中心的专家将分析一下新托福综合写作中的两个主流话题-生物话题和考古话题，相信能够帮助考生们在有效的时间内去科学地突破它们。
生物话题考点：在TPO的题目中，最具有代表性的生物类话题分布在TPO 4, TPO 10, TPO 15, TPO 17, TPO18和TPO 26, 它们分别研究的是恒温动物，海獭，蟾蜍，鸟类，某种常青树的濒危灭绝和某类淡水鱼的入侵。
从研究的内容来看，考生们觉得它们之间绝无内容的相似性，更无从谈及什么相关性，但事实上并非如此。
——TPO 4: 阅读和听力争论的焦点是恐龙是不是恒温动物，基于三个方面：climate change, leg position and movement and Haversian canals——TPO10: 这篇谈及的是：whether does the number of sea otters decline attributes to the pollution, their predators and survival location——TPO15: 讨论的是来自北美的cane toads本来到了澳洲是消灭那里的害虫的，但是入侵之后带来了许多害处，人们想了诸多方法减少它们：包括设置篱笆，志愿者参与和病毒侵害。
——TPO 17: 辩驳了某种鸟数量下降的原因（人类的增长，频繁的农业活动和大量杀虫剂的使用）。
——TPO 18: 为了挽救某种常青树，人们实施了很多措施：选择适合它生活的环境；迁移到别处（其实这里就有物种入侵的意思了）或在研究中心这个所谓的“温室”环境里成长。
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Illiad:Story of the last year of the Trojan War
The War lasted 10 years.
Troy was defeated when Ulysses and his men were able to get inside the walls of Troy concealed within the body of the Trojan
Terrace 梯田 farming – carved flat surfaces on mountains to allow farming. 2. Irrigation system to water crops. 3. Extensive road system. 4. Mita – every citizen must work for the government for part of the year. A. Received care in return. B. Similar to socialism.
Greek Women: In ancient Greece, except in Sparta, women had no rights. They were the property of their husband. Roman Women: During the 500 years that Rome was a Republic, Roman women could go to shops, chat with friends, and visit a temple, all without asking their husband for permission.
Ancient ROME 和希腊的对比
The ancient Romans were realists现实主义者, not idealists理想主义者. The Greeks made statues of perfect people. The Romans created real life statues. The Romans built roads all over the empire, and all roads led to Rome.
IncaInca Empire (1200-1535)
1. Located on the west coast of S. America in the Andes Mts.
2. Largest of all the Mesoamerican civilizations
Geography 1. West coast of South America. 2. Andes Mountains.
The Odyssey
The story of the journey of Ulysses and his men trying to get home after the Trojan War. 10 years an epic about humans on the journey of life overcoming temptations along the way. Sirens - group of females who lured sailors by their singing
Machu Picchu
3. Largest of all Mesoamerican civilizations. Government
1. All-powerful emperor：Descendant of the Sun God. 2. Class system – Priests, soldiers, artisans, farmers & slaves. Economy 1. Based on Agriculture
A fable is a story that ends with a lesson to be learned. A legend is a popular story that has been told over and over again about something that happened in the near or far past. A myth is a story about one or more magical deities.
Plato 柏拉图
He started a school called The Academy. Plato's writing took the form of a dialogue between teacher and student.
Aristother Greek philosopher and student of Plato. He wrote about science, art, law, poetry, and government.
Unlike Sumeria, no independent city-states in Egypt The Pharaoh– the ruler of Egypt Type of government where the political rulers are thought to be divinely-guided, or even divine themselves is a theocracy. Theocracy 神权政体
After a period of exploration by people from various European countries, Spanish, Dutch, English, French, Swedish, and Portuguese settlements were established.
Mayan Civilization (1000 BC- 1500 AD)
Geography---Located in today’s Mexico, at the Yucatan Peninsula
1.Religion A.The Sun God B.Temples pyramid-like buildings. C.Human sacrifice. 2.Astronomy A.Built observatories. B.Calendar based on movements of the sun. Hieroglyphs – system of picture writing. 象形文字
Athens 雅典
Athens became the world’s first democracy around 508 B.C. A democracy is a government in which all citizens can vote and have equal say in what happens.
The Aztecs 1200-1521
Geography South-central Mexico： Mountainous area. Tenochtitlan: Capital city A. Island in present day Mexico City. B. Chinampas: “floating gardens” Religion Polytheistic – Over 1000 gods. Sun God Human sacrifice
Colonization
Third Voyage * May 30, 1498 Columbus leaves from Sanlucar, Spain. He finally lands on the mainland of South America. (Present-day Venezuela委内瑞拉)
ROANOKE ISLAND The Lost Founded for economic reasons by the English. 1st permanent English settlement
Formation of the United States of America (1776–1789) The Thirteen Colonies began a rebellion against British rule in 1775 and proclaimed their independence in 1776. American Revolutionary War
Classical Greek Art
Copied by the Romans Set lasting standards Other achievements in literature, art, drama, etc., many considered classics today. Many Europe's traditions/cultural standards began with “Golden Age” Greeks emphasized the individual—thus excelled 胜出at portraying the human form In both painting and sculpture Portray 画，描绘 Sculpture 雕塑
Ganges 恒河
美索不达米亚平原和古埃及
Sumerians 苏美尔人were first to settle in this region, attracted by the rich soil. 1. Irrigation ditches 灌溉沟渠 2.Built city walls with mud bricks 3.Traded with people around them for products they lacked. Babylonian Empire 巴比伦 Famous Code of Law Hammurabi