《语言学教程》Chapter 2 phonetics
chapter 2 phonetics 语音学(2012)
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, 2nd edition, 2002: 15
Articulatory Phonetics (发声语音学)
(Linguists’ interest)
studies from the speaker’s point of view, how speaker uses his organs to articulate sounds. Articulatory Phonetic description generally makes reference to six main factors: Air stream – vocal folds – soft palate – place of articulation – manner of articulation – lips Or two major factors: speech organs + articulation (place + manner)
How many segments /sounds in a word?
cough, bough, dough ? Meat, great, threat, Sea, bead, dead ？
(Ss
do the transcriptions by looking up in dictionary.)
Pitch
Theories of speech perception
Listeners
are active Listeners are passive Compromise
Study of the stages in humanmachine speech interaction
语言学chapter 2 phonetics
To make a speech sound visible so that we can measure its components objectively we must then go into the domain of acoustic phonetics, which studies the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.
3.1.2 Places of articulation
In terms of place of articulation, the English consonants can be classified into the following types:
bilabial
labiodental
j
4. Vowels (refer to Poole, 2000: 60)
4.1 cardinal vowels 基本元音(refer to Poole, 2000: 50-51)
British phonetician Daniel Jones first fixed the qualities of the two vowels which were produced with the tongue is as high and as far forward as possible in [i]. Another, represented by [a], is the sound produced when the tongue is as low as possible at the back. The other six vowels have been plotted down between these two extremes, the front vowels being plotted at equal acoustic distances as are the back vowels.
Chapter2Phonetics语音学
Chapter2Phonetics语音学Chapter Two Phonetics: Speech SoundsI. Fill in the blanks.1.____________ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing the speech sounds.2.Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movementshave an effect on the ____________ coming from the lungs.3.Consonants can be either ____________ or ____________, while all vowels are __________.4.Consonants can also be made when two speech organs in the mouth are brought close together so thatthe air is pushed out between them, causing ____________.5.The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the ____________ and the lips.6.One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in themouth. A second element is the ___________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.7.In English there are a number of ____________, which are produced by moving from one vowelposition to another through intervening positions.II. Choose the best answer.1.The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to ________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula2.Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. Neither of them3.Which one is different from the others according to the manners of articulation?A. [z]B. [w]C. [3]D. [v]4.Which one is different from the others according to the places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]5.Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [u]C. [e]D. [i]6.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. VoicedC. GlottalD. Consonant7.Which consonant represents the following description: voiceless labiodental fricative?A. [f]B. [v]C. [z]D. [p]III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].1.Of the three phonetic branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highlydeveloped, is acoustic phonetics.2.[p] is voiced bilabial stop.3.When pure or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.IV. Answer the following questions.1.In which ways may consonants be classified?2.What do speech organs (vocal organs ) include?3.What are broad transcription and narrow transcription?4.What does phonetics concern?。
新编简明语言学教程教案第2章
Chapter 2 PhoneticsContents:2.1.The phonic medium of language2.2.1 What is phonetics2.2.2 Organs of speech oral cavitynasal cavitybroad transcription 2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech soundsnarrow transcriptionvowel2.2.4 Classification of English speech soundsconsonants2.3 phonology2.3.1 phonology and phonetics2.3.2 phone, phoneme, and allophone因素，音位和音位变体2.3.3 phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairSequential rulesAssimilation ruleDeletion rulestress2.3.5 Suprasegmental features toneintonation2.1.The phonic medium of language2.2.1. What is phoneticsPhonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.语音学是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究,它关注语言世界中的所有语音。
Articulatory phonetics----it studies how a speaker uses his speech organto articulate the sounds.Acoustic phonetics---- it studies the way sounds travel by looking at thesound waves, the physical means by which soundsare transmitted through the air from one person toanother.发音语音学通过观察声波研究语音的传播方式，即语音经过空气从一个人到达另一个人的物理方式。
《英语语言学导论》(第四版)课件Chapter 2 Phonetics
[v] and write a short paper on the problem in the acquisition of [v] and how to solve it.
Phonetic features and natural classes
Teaching Aims
The Study of Speech Sounds
1. To make students familiar with sound production mechanism， the transcription and description of English sounds. 2. To make students understand the differences of consonants and vowels, the nature of phonetic features and natural classes. 3. To cultivate students’ cross-cultural awareness and research interests in discovering the regularities of speech sounds.
2.3 Phonetic transcription of sounds
Transcription of sounds
2.3.1 Unit of representation Speech is a continuous flow of sound with interruptions only
胡壮麟《语言学教程》第三版语音学Phonetics课件.ppt
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Linguistics: A Coursebook
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4.3 Coarticulation
Coarticulation: the influence on a sound by its
neighbors e.g. cap [kap]
f v θ ð s z ∫3
h
Approxi w mant
r
j
Lateral
l
Affricate
t∫ d3
Table 1 A chart of English consonants
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5.3 Classification of vowels
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5. Phonetic Classification
Vowels and consonants Classification of consonants Classification of vowels
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4.1 Segment and divergence
Segment: any linguistic unit in a sequence which may be isolated from the rest of the sequence, e.g. a sound in an utterance or a letter in a written text. (Feasibility)
语言学教程 chapter2
Chapter 2 Speech SoundsPhonetics and PhonologyPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Three main areas: Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production ofspeech sounds.Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical propertiesof speech sounds.Perceptual or auditory phonetics is concerned with theperception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Begin by analyzing an individual language, then discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.1, how speech sounds are made?1, Speech organs: vocal tract-- pharynx, mouth, noseoral cavity-- mouthnasal cavity-- noseUpper part of the pharynx:Contents of the mouth: upper part-- the upper lip, the upper teeth, thealveolar ridge, the hard palate, thesoft palate, and the uvulaBottom part-- the lower lip, the lower teeth, thetongue, and the mandibleTongue: the tip, the blade, thefront ,the back, andthe rootThe vocal folds: apart-- the air can pass through easily and the soundproduced is said to be voicelessclose together-- the airstream causes them to vibrateagainst each other and the resultantsound is said to be voicedtotally closed-- no air can pass between them 2, the IPA The International Phonetic AssociationMain principles: there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound,and the same symbol should be used for that sound in anylanguage in which it appears.The diacritics are additional symbols or marks used together with theconsonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of changein their pronunciation.2, consonants and vowelsConsonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.V owels is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way though the mouth or nose.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.1, ConsonantsManner of Articulation: the way in which the air passes through certainparts of the vocal tract. It refers ways in which articulation can beaccomplished1, stop(or plosive)-- [p, b, t, d, k, g]2, nasal-- [m, n, etc.]3, fricative-- [f, v, s, z etc.]4, approximant-- [w, j etc.]5, lateral-- [l]6, trill-- [r]7, tap and flap8, affricateThe Place of Articulation: where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing, or the obstruction of air1, bilabial-- made with two lips2, labiodental-- made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth3, dental-- made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth4, alveolar-- made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge5, postalveolar-- made with the tongue tip and the back of thealveolar ridge6, petroflex-- made with the front of the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or bladeforms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridgeor the hard palate7, palatal-- made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate8, velar-- made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate9, uvular-- made with the back of the tongue and the uvula10, pharyngeal-- made with the root of the tongue and the walls ofthe pharynx11, glottal-- made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towardseach other2, V owels[ i: ]-- high front tensed unrounded vowel[ə: ]-- mid central tensed unrounded vowel[a: ]-- low back tensed rounded vowel[ɔ: ]-- mid back tensed rounded vowel[u: ]-- high back tensed rounded vowel[i ]-- high front lax unrounded vowel[e ]-- mid front lax unrounded vowel[æ ]-- low front lax unrounded vowel[ə]-- mid central lax unrounded vowel[ʌ]-- low back lax rounded vowel[ɔ]-- mid back lax rounded vowel[u ]-- high back lax rounded vowel3, the sounds of EnglishRP-- R eceived P ronunciationGA-- G eneral A merican3, from phonetics to phonology1, coarticulation and phonetic transcriptionsCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of twosuccessive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation-- the sound becomes more like the followingsound (lamb)Perseverative coarticulation-- the sound shows the influence of theproceeding sound (map)Broad transcription-- the use of a simple set of symbols in ourtranscriptionNarrow transcription-- the use of more specific symbols to show morephonetic detail2, phonemesThe smallest unit that distinguishes meaning of words. a unit of explicitsound contrastMinimal pair-- a pair of words with different meanings which differ in onlyone sound.E.g. “pill” and “bill”Phonetics transcriptions are placed between slant lines(/ /), whilephonetic transcriptions are placed between squarebrackets([ ]).3, allophonesThe aspirated /p/ and the unaspirated /p/ have phonetic differece, but theyboth belong to the same phoneme /p/. Such variants are called allophones ofthe same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be incomplementary distribution because they never occur in the same context.This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation is called allophony orallophonic variation.To be allophones of the same phoneme, the phones must be phoneticallysimilar. Phonetic similarity means that the allophones of a phoneme mustbear some resemblance.If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, ifthe substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form butmerely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then aresaid to be in “free variation”.4, phonological process, phonological rules and distinctive features 1, AssimilationInstances: nasalization, dentalization, velarizationTwo possibilities-- 1, if a following sound is influencing a precedingsound, we call it regressive assimilation2, the converse process, in which a preceding soundis influencing a following sound, is known asprogressive assimilationPhonological process-- three aspects: 1, a set of sounds to undergo theprocess2, a set of sounds produced bythe processs3, a set of situations in which theprocess appliesPhonological rules2, epenthesis, rule ordering and the elsewhere conditionA boyAn appleWe treat the change of a to an as an insertion of a nasal sound.Technically, this process of insertion is known as epenthesis.3, distinctive featuresFirstly developed by Roman Jacobson as a means of working out a set ofphonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects oflanguage sounds.Some major distinctions-- consonantal, sonorant, nasal, voiced.5, suprasegmentals1, the syllable structureMonosyllabic-- with one syllablePolysyllabic-- with more than one syllableA syllable must have a nucleus or peak.Open syllable-- a syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable-- a syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle-- the principle which states that when there is achoice as to where to place a consonant, it isput into the onset rather than the coda.2, stressStress Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.3, intonationIntonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall- rise patterns, each ofwhich is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either onsingle words or on groups of words of varying length.4, toneIn Chinese tone changes are made in a different way, affecting themeanings of individual words.Languages like Chinese are known as tone languages.。
《语言学教程》Chapter2phonetics
《语言学教程》Chapter2phoneticsIntroduction to Phonetics:Speech Sounds and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): Articulatory Phonetics:Articulatory phonetics focuses on how speech sounds are produced and articulated by the vocal organs. These organs include the tongue, lips, teeth, and vocal cords. The sounds are produced by manipulating these organs to create different configurations and airflow patterns. For example, the sound [p] is produced by closing the lips and then opening them to release a burst of air.Acoustic Phonetics:Acoustic phonetics analyzes the physical properties of speech sounds in terms of sound waves and their frequencies. Sound waves are vibrations that travel through the air and reach our ears, where they are processed and interpreted as speech sounds. Different speech sounds have distinct acoustic properties, such as their pitch, loudness, and duration. These properties are measured and analyzed to better understand the characteristics of each sound.Auditory Phonetics:Auditory phonetics investigates how speech sounds are perceived and processed by the human auditory system. When we hear speech sounds, our ears detect the sound waves and send them to the brain for interpretation. The brain then matches these signals to specific speech sounds and recognizes their meaning. Auditory phonetics explores the mechanisms and processes involved in this perception and interpretation.Segmental and Suprasegmental Features:In linguistics, speech sounds can be classified into two categories: segmental and suprasegmental features. Segmental features pertain to individual sounds or phonemes, while suprasegmental features refer to properties that extend beyond individual sounds, such as stress, intonation, and rhythm. These suprasegmental features contribute to the melody and rhythm of speech and can carry additional meaning and emphasis.Phonetic Transcription:Conclusion:。
《语言学教程》Chapter 2 phonetics
Main contents in Chapter 2
Phonetics Speech sounds Sounds Phonology Sound systems 1. Phoneme, phone, allophone ClickPhonological 2. to add Title processes
2.2 Consonants and vowels
Preview questions: 1. What are consonants and vowels? 2. What is the major difference between consonants and vowels? 3. In what ways can we describe consonants and vowels respectively?
Chapter Two Speech Sounds
What is Phonetics?
Phonetics (语音学) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Performance
Performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors; it is not stable.
A speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.
语言学教程Chapter 2
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[☐ ♌ ♦ ♎ ♑] are stops and [❍ ⏹ ☠]are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐ ❆ ♦ ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[♦ ❑ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. V elar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because itis widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by mostnewsreaders of the BBC network.In many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearingon the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐],CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak/☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in theword like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Boththe aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemicfunction, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are bothallophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.。
语言学内容课件ChapterTwoPhonetics
语言学内容课件ChapterTwoPhoneticsChapter 2 Speech SoundsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics Focal points: classification of speech sounds;description of consonants and vowelsTeaching difficulties: description of consonants and vowels Teaching procedure:Outline of this chapter:1. Phonetics1.1 sub-branches (scope) of phonetics1.2 Definition of Phonetics2 Speech organs (vocal organs)2.1 The pharyngeal cavity2.2 The oral cavity2.3 The nasal cavity3 Classification of English speech sounds3.1 the criteria of Classification （p 29）3.2 Classification of English speech sounds3.2.1 Consonants(24)3.2.2 V owels(20)4 Description of English speech sounds4.1 description of English consonants4.1.1 ( criteria) Three parameters to identify a consonant:4.1.2 Description4.1.3 Identifying English consonants: (three-term description) 4.2 description of English vowels4.2.1 Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description:4.2.2 description4.2.3 Diphthongs(8)4.2.4 Identifying English vowels: all the single vowels5 Transcription5.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet) 5. 2 phonetic transcription 标音法5.2.1 Broad transcription5.2.2 Narrow transcription1. PhoneticsLanguage is a “system of vocal symbols”. Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.As we know, there are two branches in linguistics, which deal with speech sounds. They are phonetics (the study of sounds) and phonology (the study sound patterns). In this chapter, we will discuss these two branches.1.1Definition of phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived, and their classification, description, and transcription.1.2 sub-branches (scope) of phonetics1)Articulatory phonetics----the study of the production of speech sounds2)Acoustic phonetics----the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3)Auditory phonetics----the study of the perception of speech sounds2 Speech organs (vocal organs)They refer to the parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.The three cavities of the vocal tract: the pharynx (pharyngealcavity), the mouth (oral cavity), and the nose (nasal cavity). The air- stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities, resulting in the production of various sounds.2.1 The pharyngeal cavityLarynx: at the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam’s apple 喉结. This is the first place where sound modification might occur.2.2 The oral cavityThe oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification.Tongue: the most flexibleUvula, the teeth and the lipsHard palate, soft palate (velum)Alveolar ridge: the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth Various obstructions created within the oral cavity lead to the productionof various sounder [p] [b]; [s] [z]; [k] [g]2.3 The nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected to the oral cavity at the back of the mouth .The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum (soft palate) can be draw back to close the passage so that the air can only go through the mouth and produce vowels and most consonants. The passage can also be left open to allow air to exit through the nose and produce nasal consonants [m] [n] [g]3 Classification of English speech sounds3.1 the criteria of Classification （p 29）The basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while the letter is obstructed in one way or another.Consonants are produced by constructing or obstructing thevocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of the air in the oral cavity. The speech sounds will divide into two categories: vowels and consonants.3.2 Classification of English speech sounds3.2.1 Consonants(24):sounds produced by constricting and obstructing the vocal tract at some place.3.2.2V owels(20): sounds produced with no obstruction.a) vowels (monophthong)—vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation.b)vowels (diphthongs)----vowels where there is an audible change of qualityc)Semi-vowels ( semi-consonants) : the sounds produced with little obstruction.(also called glides or transition sounds) e.g. yet wet hot 4 Description of English speech sounds4.1 description of English consonants4.1.1 ( criteria) Three parameters to identify a consonant:1) in terms of voicing, state of vocal cords: voiced VS voiceless, others2)in terms of manner of articulation, manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished3) in terms of place of articulation, place of articulation: place in themouth where obstruction occurs4.1.2 Description1) in terms of voicing(state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless)V oiced: [b] [d] [g] [v] [z] [e] [ζ] [dζ]V oiceless: [p] [t] [k] [f] [s] [θ] [∫] [t∫]Others:[r] [l] [m] [n] [η] [w] [j] [h]2) in terms of manner of articulation(1) Stops (6) 爆破音:[p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g](a) the closing phase , complete closure of the two articulators,(b) the holding or compressing phase,( c) the releasing/plosive phase.(2)Nasals(3) 鼻音:[m] [n] [η]with the oral cavity blocked at the lips, alveolar ridge and the velum respectively.(3)Fricatives(9) 擦音:[f] [v] [s] [z] [θ] [e] [∫] [ζ] [h]A fricative is produced when there is close approximation of twoarticulators so that the airstreams is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced.(4)Approximants (3): [w, r, j]an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent thata turbulent airstreams is produced.(5)Lateral (1): [l]obstruction of the airstreams is released at the side of the tongue. (6)Affricates (2): [t∫, d3]in the production of which a stop is followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same time of articulation.3) in terms of place of articulation(1) Bilabial 双唇音: [p] [b] [m] [w](2)labiodentals 唇齿音: [f] [v](3) dental 齿音: [θ] [e],(4) alveolar 齿龈音: [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [r] [l](5)palatal 腭音: [∫] [ζ] [t∫] [dζ] [j](6)velar 软腭音: [k] [g] [η](7)glottal 喉音: [h]Details see Table 2.1 A chart of English consonants (Hu, 2007: 35)4.1.3 Identifying English consonants: (three-term description):[ ] voiceless, bilabial, stop; [ ] voiced, bilabial, stop.[ ] voiceless, velar, stop; [ ] voiced, velar, stop;[ ] glottal, fricative, [ ] alveolar, lateral...4.2 Description of English vowelsV owels are produced without obstruction so no turbulence or total stoppings of the air can be perceived. the quality of vowels depend on position of tongue and the shape of lips.4.2.1 Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description:1) the height of tongue raising: high, middle, low2) the position of highest part of the tongue :front, central, back3) the length or tenseness of the vowel : tense vs. lax or long vs. short4) lip-rounding (the shape of the lips ) : roundedvs. unrounded4.2.2 description1) according to the height of tongue raising: high, middle, lowhigh vowels: [i:] [u:] [i] [u]mid vowels: [e] [][] (//传统的读法) []low vowels: [?] [] [] [a :]2 ) according to the position of highest part of the tonguefront vowels: [i:] [i] [e] [?]central vowels: [э:] [э]back vowels: [u:] [u] [o] [o:] [∧] [a :]3) according to the length of the soundshort vowels: (Lax or short vowels) those without colon [i] [e] [?] [] [] [u] []long vowels: ( Tense vowels) those marked with a colon(冒号)[i:] [э:] [u:] [][a:] including the diphthongs [ei] [ai] [au] [i] [] [ i] [] []4) according to the shape of lipsUnrounded: [i:] [i] [e] [?] [][] [] [a :]Rounded: [u:] [u] [][]4.2.3 Diphthongs(8)diphthongs including: [ei] [ai] [au] [i] [] [ i] [] []4.2.4 Identifying English vowels: all the single vowels[ ] central lax unrounded vowel,[ ] central tense unrounded vowel;[ ] high back lax rounded vowel[ ] back mid lax rounded vowel.[ ] mid back lax unrounded vowel.[ ] low back lax rounded vowel.5 Transcription5.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet)IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 on the basis ofthe phonetic alphabet proposed at the time. It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The Danish grammarian Jespersen first proposed the idea in 1886.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996.The basic principle: using a separate letter selected frommajor European languages for each distinctive sound and the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.5. 2 phonetic transcription 标音法a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way. There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds5.2.1 Broad transcriptionBroad transcription is transcription with letter-symbols only.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.5.2.2 Narrow transcription1) Narrow transcription is transcription with letter-symbols togetherwith the diacritics.This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.2)Diacritics:(at p 29,37,38) A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a sound value different from that of the same letter without the mark.。
语言学内容课件 Chapter Two Phonetics
Chapter 2 Speech SoundsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics Focal points: classification of speech sounds;description of consonants and vowelsTeaching difficulties: description of consonants and vowelsTeaching procedure:Outline of this chapter:1. Phonetics1.1 sub-branches (scope) of phonetics1.2 Definition of Phonetics2 Speech organs (vocal organs)2.1 The pharyngeal cavity2.2 The oral cavity2.3 The nasal cavity3 Classification of English speech sounds3.1 the criteria of Classification （p 29）3.2 Classification of English speech sounds3.2.1 Consonants(24)3.2.2 V owels(20)4 Description of English speech sounds4.1 description of English consonants4.1.1 ( criteria) Three parameters to identify a consonant:4.1.2 Description4.1.3 Identifying English consonants: (three-term description) 4.2 description of English vowels4.2.1 Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description:4.2.2 description4.2.3 Diphthongs(8)4.2.4 Identifying English vowels: all the single vowels5 Transcription5.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet) 5. 2 phonetic transcription 标音法5.2.1 Broad transcription5.2.2 Narrow transcription1. PhoneticsLanguage is a “system of vocal symbols”. Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.As we know, there are two branches in linguistics, which deal with speech sounds. They are phonetics (the study of sounds) and phonology (the study sound patterns). In this chapter, we will discuss these two branches.1.1Definition of phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived, and their classification, description, and transcription.1.2 sub-branches (scope) of phonetics1)Articulatory phonetics----the study of the production of speech sounds2)Acoustic phonetics----the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3)Auditory phonetics----the study of the perception of speech sounds2 Speech organs (vocal organs)They refer to the parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.The three cavities of the vocal tract: the pharynx (pharyngeal cavity), the mouth (oral cavity), and the nose (nasal cavity). The air- stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities, resulting in the production of various sounds.2.1 The pharyngeal cavityLarynx: at the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam’s apple 喉结. This is the first place where sound modification might occur.2.2 The oral cavityThe oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification.Tongue: the most flexibleUvula, the teeth and the lipsHard palate, soft palate (velum)Alveolar ridge: the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth Various obstructions created within the oral cavity lead to the productionof various sounder [p] [b]; [s] [z]; [k] [g]2.3 The nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected to the oral cavity at the back of the mouth .The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum (soft palate) can be draw back to close the passage so that the air can only go through the mouth and produce vowels and most consonants. The passage can also be left open to allow air to exit through the nose and produce nasal consonants [m] [n] [g]3 Classification of English speech sounds3.1 the criteria of Classification （p 29）The basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while the letter is obstructed in one way or another.Consonants are produced by constructing or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of the air in the oral cavity. The speech sounds will divide into two categories: vowels and consonants.3.2 Classification of English speech sounds3.2.1 Consonants(24):sounds produced by constricting and obstructing the vocal tract at some place.3.2.2V owels(20): sounds produced with no obstruction.a) vowels (monophthong)—vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation.b)vowels (diphthongs)----vowels where there is an audible change of qualityc)Semi-vowels ( semi-consonants) : the sounds produced with little obstruction.(also called glides or transition sounds) e.g. yet wet hot 4 Description of English speech sounds4.1 description of English consonants4.1.1 ( criteria) Three parameters to identify a consonant:1) in terms of voicing, state of vocal cords: voiced VS voiceless, others2)in terms of manner of articulation, manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished3) in terms of place of articulation, place of articulation: place in themouth where obstruction occurs4.1.2 Description1) in terms of voicing(state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless)V oiced: [b] [d] [g] [v] [z] [ð] [ζ] [dζ]V oiceless: [p] [t] [k] [f] [s] [θ] [∫] [t∫]Others:[r] [l] [m] [n] [η] [w] [j] [h]2) in terms of manner of articulation(1) Stops (6) 爆破音:[p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g](a) the closing phase , complete closure of the two articulators,(b) the holding or compressing phase,( c) the releasing/plosive phase.(2)Nasals(3) 鼻音:[m] [n] [η]with the oral cavity blocked at the lips, alveolar ridge and the velum respectively.(3)Fricatives(9) 擦音:[f] [v] [s] [z] [θ] [ð] [∫] [ζ] [h]A fricative is produced when there is close approximation of twoarticulators so that the airstreams is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced.(4)Approximants (3): [w, r, j]an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstreams is produced.(5)Lateral (1): [l]obstruction of the airstreams is released at the side of the tongue. (6)Affricates (2): [t∫, d3]in the production of which a stop is followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same time of articulation.3) in terms of place of articulation(1) Bilabial 双唇音: [p] [b] [m] [w](2)labiodentals 唇齿音: [f] [v](3) dental 齿音: [θ] [ð],(4) alveolar 齿龈音: [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [r] [l](5)palatal 腭音: [∫] [ζ] [t∫] [dζ] [j](6)velar 软腭音: [k] [g] [η](7)glottal 喉音: [h]Details see Table 2.1 A chart of English consonants (Hu, 2007: 35)4.1.3 Identifying English consonants: (three-term description):[ ] voiceless, bilabial, stop; [ ] voiced, bilabial, stop.[ ] voiceless, velar, stop; [ ] voiced, velar, stop;[ ] glottal, fricative, [ ] alveolar, lateral...4.2 Description of English vowelsV owels are produced without obstruction so no turbulence or total stoppings of the air can be perceived. the quality of vowels depend on position of tongue and the shape of lips.4.2.1 Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description:1) the height of tongue raising: high, middle, low2) the position of highest part of the tongue :front, central, back3) the length or tenseness of the vowel : tense vs. lax or long vs. short4) lip-rounding (the shape of the lips ) : roundedvs. unrounded4.2.2 description1) according to the height of tongue raising: high, middle, lowhigh vowels: [i:] [u:] [i] [u]mid vowels: [e] [][] (//传统的读法) []low vowels: [æ] [] [] [a :]2 ) according to the position of highest part of the tonguefront vowels: [i:] [i] [e] [æ]central vowels: [э:] [э]back vowels: [u:] [u] [o] [o:] [∧] [a :]3) according to the length of the soundshort vowels: (Lax or short vowels) those without colon [i] [e] [æ] [] [] [u] []long vowels: ( Tense vowels) those marked with a colon(冒号)[i:] [э:] [u:] [][a:] including the diphthongs [ei] [ai] [au] [i] [] [ i] [] []4) according to the shape of lipsUnrounded: [i:] [i] [e] [æ] [][] [] [a :]Rounded: [u:] [u] [][]4.2.3 Diphthongs(8)diphthongs including: [ei] [ai] [au] [i] [] [ i] [] []4.2.4 Identifying English vowels: all the single vowels[ ] central lax unrounded vowel,[ ] central tense unrounded vowel;[ ] high back lax rounded vowel[ ] back mid lax rounded vowel.[ ] mid back lax unrounded vowel.[ ] low back lax rounded vowel.5 Transcription5.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet)IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 on the basis ofthe phonetic alphabet proposed at the time. It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The Danish grammarian Jespersen first proposed the idea in 1886.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996.The basic principle: using a separate letter selected from major European languages for each distinctive sound and the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.5. 2 phonetic transcription 标音法a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way. There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds5.2.1 Broad transcriptionBroad transcription is transcription with letter-symbols only.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.5.2.2 Narrow transcription1) Narrow transcription is transcription with letter-symbols togetherwith the diacritics.This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.2)Diacritics:(at p 29,37,38) A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a sound value different from that of the same letter without the mark.。
语言学简明教程Chapter_2
2.2 Phonetic Transcription
The IPA (The International Phonetic Alphabet)
In 1888, the International Phonetic Association devised the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.
Roman small letters: [b, p, s, z, k, g] Greek letters: [θ, ε] Letters upside down [ə,Λ] Obsolete letters: [ð, ʒ, ∫] 2 letters together: [t ∫, d з, æ ] Diacritics: [ph , ł, po]
18
Place of articulation
bilabial: / p, b, m/ labiodental: / f, v/
dental: / θ, ð / alveolar: / t, d, l, n, s, z / palatal : / j, ∫, з / velar: / k, g, ŋ / palatal-alveolar: / t ∫, d з / glottal: [h]
6
More about IPA:
Байду номын сангаас
语言学_Chapter 2_Phonetics
Amazing Question!
All Questions Are Welcome
Interesting Question!
Serious question!
Questions from students
Understand Macroscopically
• The target of the chapter?
2.2.1 A Definition
• Phonetics studies the phonic medium of
language concerning how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
3 branches
Three Branches of Phonetics
Organs of speech Consonants: Articulation and Classification Vowels: Articulation and Classification Sound transcriptions
2.1.3 Characteristics of English Speech Sounds • Answer the following questions: • 1. How many vowels are there in English? How to
2.2.4 Vowels: Articulation & Classification
Voice
Sounds may be either voiced or voiceless, the vocal folds are either vibrating or not.
简明语言学教程第2章Chapter 2-Phonology
[j]: the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of
the tongue [t] [d]: the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the velar ridge [θ] [ð ]: partial obstruction between the upper front teeth and the tip of
Classification of vowels
1. According to the position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back vowels front vowel: the front part of tongue maintains the highest
semi-open vowels: [ə] [ɔ:]
The place of articulation
1. Bilabial; 2. Labiodental; 3. Dental or interdental; 4. Alveolar; 5. Palato alveolar; 6. Palatal; 7. Velar; 8. Uvular; 9. Glottal.
[t] [d]
[f]
[v]
[k] [g]
Fricatives
Affricates
VL
VD VL VD
[θ]
[ ð]
[s]
[z]
([tʃ] ) ([dʒ])
[ʃ]
[ʒ] [ tʃ ] [ dʒ ]
[h]
Nasals
语言学Chapter2(2)phonetics
Give the phonsounds
[s] [z] [k]
Assimilation rules:
Word-final alveolars become dental before dental fricatives;
Word-final /t,d,s,z/ become palato-alveolar affricates (/t,d/) or fricatives(/s,z/) before /j/ and /j/disappears;
that pen /..p pen/ that boy/..p b../ that man /..p m../
Word-final /d/ become voiced bilabial before bilabial consonants /p, b,m/;
good pen /gub pen/
Word-final /t,d/ become velar before velar plosives;
2)the openness of the mouth
close vowels: [i:] [i] [u:] and [u]; semi-close vowels: [e] and [3;] semi-open vowels: [ə] and [Չ:] open vowels: [æ] [a] [] [Չ ]
live bird v ß
Word-final /l/ is non-velarised if followed by an initial vowel;
fill it
Word-final /t/ become bilabial before bilabial consonants /p, b,m/;
语言学第二章要点
Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）. 2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
熊伟栋语言学2.1_Phonetics
glides bilabial
滑音
glottal
Classification of consonants
The description of English consonants
Place manner Stops or plosives Fricatives Affricates Nasals Voicing VL VD VL VD VL VD VD Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
From the hearer’s points of view:
Auditory Phonetics
It concerned about how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.
From the way sounds travel:
Acoustic Phonetics
Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view:
Phonetics
Articulatory Phonetics has the longest history. Auditory Phonetics
Liquids
Glides
VD
VD
The description of English consonants
Place manner Stops or plosives Fricatives Affricates Voicing VL VD Bilabial [p] [b] Labiodental Dental Alveo-lar [t] [d] Palatal Velar Glottal [k] [ɡ ]
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2.2 Consonants and vowels
Preview questions: 1. What are consonants and vowels? 2. What is the major difference between consonants and vowels? 3. In what ways can we describe consonants and vowe.4 Competence and performance
Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)
Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language (语言 能力) Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations (语言运用)
3. In terms of the state of the vocal cords: A. voiced: consonants produced when the vocal cords are closed, and the airstream causes them to vibrate again each other. B. voiceless: consonants produced when vocal cords are apart, and air passes through easily.
Chapter Two Speech Sounds
What is Phonetics?
Phonetics (语音学) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Classification of speech sounds
1. Consonants: are produced ‘by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction’. 声道紧闭或声道变窄的程度达到气流无法 排出，一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦。 2. Vowels: By contrast, a vowel is produced without such ‘stricture’ so that ‘air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose’.
Review Questions
1. What are the main functions of language? 2. What is the main difference between prescriptive study and descriptive study? 3. What is the difference between langue and parole? 4. What is the main difference between competence and performance? 5. What is the main difference between langue and parole?
1. Speech organs 2. Descriptions of English consonants and vowels
2.1
How speech sounds are made?
Preview questions
1. What are the three cavities of the vocal tract? 2. What is the definition of IPA?
an instant or a relatively long period; – (b) they may narrow the space considerably; – (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.
1. In terms of manner of articulation: Ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished:
– (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for
Phonetics Vs Phonology
1. Phonetics: speech sounds It is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. 2. Phonology: sound systems It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Chomsky
Differences between competence and performance
Competence
It enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities; It is stable.
Langue-parole Langue is a social product and a set of conventions for a community Saussure looks at language from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view Competence-performance Competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual N. Chomsky deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.
Main contents in Chapter 2
Phonetics Speech sounds Sounds Phonology Sound systems 1. Phoneme, phone, allophone ClickPhonological 2. to add Title processes
2. In terms of place of articulation: The point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant:
Description of consonants
14 咽 腔
2.1.2 The IPA
International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 2005.
Performance
Performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors; it is not stable.
A speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.
The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of the airstream. All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).
2.2.1 Descriptions of consonants
2.1.1 Organs of speech