耶鲁公开课笔记4
耶鲁大学公开课《死亡》详细笔记
PHIL 176 Death Professor Shelly Kagan（第一课没什么实质内容，可以略过）教授在第一课列举了这门课将要讨论的一些问题：1．人能否幸免于死2．人是什么？“我”是什么？3．有没有来生？4．自杀一定是恶的吗？……然后他摆出了自己的观点：1．不存在灵魂2．永生并不是好事情3．对死亡的恐惧是很正常的4．自杀在特定情境下有可能是理性的，并且在道德上是正当的……他希望通过这门课：学生能够自己独立思考。
他不是要灌输给学生这些观点，而是要引导学生运用自己的理性，无论是支持还是反对这些观点，都要有合理的根据，给出论证。
第二课要回答“我能否幸免于死”“我死后我是否还存在”，就需要先回答：“我”是什么？或人是什么？什么叫“幸免于死”？什么叫“活着”？一个人过了一段时间仍然是这个人，这是怎么一回事？……反驳：有人认为这个问题是混淆概念造成的，根本毫无意义，因为1．如果“死亡”的意思是生命的结束的话，那么2．“是否来生”就相当于“生命结束之后是否还有生命”，这就好比“碗里的饭吃完后碗里还有饭吗”，那么3．“是否有来生”或“我能否幸免与死”的答案当然就是否定的（因为很明显这些提问自相矛盾），这能从问题里直接得到答案。
△回应：1．如果，“死亡”指的是身体的死亡（即一系列的生理过程）；那么，2．之前的问题将变成“我的身体死后我是否还存在”，这和“生命结束之后是否还有生命”不同，不能从提问中直接得到答案。
YYets3．所以，在这个意义上提问和回答“我能否幸免与死”是有意义的。
要回答“我能否幸免于死”（在上面的那个理解下），就需要先弄清楚：“我”是什么？“我”是什么东西组成的？或者人是什么？人由什么组成？一般来说，有两种主流观点：一、二元论(Dualism)◎1．人是由身体和心灵（灵魂）两部分组合而成严格说来，人的本质是灵魂，它与某具肉身密切联系着；“我”就是指我的灵魂，尽管与我的身体紧密联系着。
2．身体和心灵是完全不同的两种东西，身体是物质的，灵魂是非物质的（不是由原子、分子构成的）3．心灵指挥身体，“身体反作用于心灵”4．死亡就是指身体的死亡，灵魂离开肉体（?）二、物理主义(Physicalism)○1．人只有身体，尽管2．这个身体能够实现多种功能3．人就是一个物理对象，一个纯物质的存在4．谈论心灵，实际上就是谈论大脑（或大脑的功能），正如微笑就是特殊的肌肉运动5．死亡就是指身体丧失了正常功能第三课二元论与物理主义的分歧：是否存在灵魂？证明事物存在的方法：1．通过五感获得的经验证据来证明但是，灵魂是非物质的（如果二元论正确的话），我们无法通过感官来感觉到灵魂。
med 4耶鲁大学公开课-生物医学工程
Frontiers of Biomedical Engineering: Lecture 4 TranscriptJanuary 24, 2008<< backProfessor Mark Saltzman: So, we're going to continue talking today about DNA. In particular, we're going to focus today on sort of how to manipulate and use DNA in some applications, and this is a huge area of science and technology. You know this, you can - it's hard to pick up a newspaper or a news magazine without hearing some new application of DNA technology. What I'm going to do is focus on a couple basic things that turn out to be really important for general applications, and then I'll talk not in too much detail about a few applications of DNA that you're probably familiar with to try to give you a framework to hang this on.This, I think Chapter 3, describes fairly well the things we'll talk about today. You've probably already noticed that there's some material that's set aside from the text in boxes, and I encourage you to particularly look at those boxes for this chapter. There's one on DNA fingerprinting, for example, that gives you a little bit more detail about that specific technique; another one on production of therapeutic proteins. I'll talk about these both a bit today but I encourage you to read those for more information.I want to start where we left off last time. We talked about the structure of DNA, how it works in terms of a physical chemical model of the DNA molecules. We talked about base pairing and how that leads to this process of hybridization or very specific matching between complimentary strands. We talked very superficially about the biological process going from DNA to protein, so the process of transcription, RNA processing, and translation to produce a protein. I ended with this picture that shows you a little bit about control of gene expression. The important concept is that, while every cell in your body has the capability of making all the proteins that are needed throughout your body, not every cell is doing that at any given time. Only certain genes are being expressed and it's the family of genes that are being expressed in a cell, likewise the family that are not being expressed, that determines what a cell is like, how it functions. What's called the phenotype of a cell and we'll talk more about this next week when we start talking about cells and a little bit about cell physiology.There are multiple mechanisms that a cell can use to decide which genes it is expressing at any one time and which ones are not expressed. I showedyou this in this picture here and those levels of control can be at the level of transcription. There are molecules in cells that give the DNA the signal that it's time to transcribe and express a gene, those are called transcription factors, we'll talk about them a bit later. There's interfering with RNA processing, and I'm going to talk about that in the next couple of slides because there's a couple of new methods for - or potentially interfering with gene expression in living animals that have been developed based on changing - interfering with DNA transcription and the ability of messenger RNA to be translated. You could interfere at these later levels as well, for example, by augmenting RNA degradation. If the messenger RNA for protein is not present in a cell, then that can't be translated, obviously, and the protein can't be made.These two new medical therapies that I mentioned are based on interfering with the biology of RNA, and one is older than the other and the older one is called anti-sense therapy. When you think about a gene or a transcript, the messenger RNA copy of a gene, you know that for every sequence of a nucleic acid there's a complimentary sequence. Now of the two complimentary sequences, one of them encodes the gene. One of them has the right sequence of codons to specify the amino acid sequence of the protein, and the other one has a complimentary sequence. You know from our discussion last time that these two complimentary strands are not mirror images of one another, they're not identical, they're complimentary. They face in the opposite direction and you could predict the properties of one from base pairing rules of the other but they're not the same. One of the strands encodes the protein, encodes for the protein, the other does not. The one that does is called the sense strand and the other one is called the anti-sense strand, anti meaning it's the compliment and it will hybridize to the sense.What if you knew what the sequence of a gene was? A gene, let's say it's the gene for insulin. I'll use that one as the example because it's a familiar one to most people and you know that the protein insulin is made only in your pancreas and certain cells of the pancreas. So that means those cells are continually making messenger RNA and that messenger RNA is being converted into protein. Well, what if you knew the sequence for the messenger RNA that made insulin and you designed another single stranded DNA or RNA molecule that was the exact opposite, or the exact compliment, I should say, of that strand? So you made somehow an anti-sense polynucleotide to the insulin gene or some fraction of the insulin gene.Well, that anti-sense strand is shown here as the red and the cell is naturally making the blue or sense strand of messenger RNA for a particular protein. If somehow you could take your anti-sense molecules that you've made and you could get them into cells, then by this process ofhybridization they would naturally form a pair like this. They would naturally hybridize and form a duplex, or a double stranded nucleic acid. When it's double stranded this gene can't be translated, because you have to have the single strand in order for the transfer RNA to bind and for this process of translation to take place. What you could do then, if you could deliver these red colored molecules here is you could stop specifically the expression of this particular gene in these particular cells.Now, what are the challenges there? You've got to be able to make this stuff and you've got to be able to make it in large quantities and we'll talk about how to make nucleic acids in large quantities a little bit later in the lecture. You've also got to get it into the cell. It turns out that getting large molecules like this, particularly large charged molecules like nucleic acids, inside of cells is not so easy. We'll talk about that a little bit later as well. In fact, we'll talk about that concept throughout the course because one of the big challenges of making these sort of new biological therapies work in people to treat diseases is getting the right molecules into the right cells, at the right period of time.Now I gave you the example of insulin and you probably wouldn't want to stop insulin production. That might not be a good thing to do. What if this is a gene that's causing a cell to be cancerous? It was a gene that was causing a cell to be malignant and to divide without control, for example. Then you could imagine blocking gene expression would be a therapy.Student: [inaudible]Professor Mark Saltzman: You wouldn't want to stop insulin, for example. In fact what you might prefer to do is start insulin production and we'll talk about ways to do that in just a minute. These are ways to stop a gene from being expressed, and there turns out there's lot of applications in that, lots of diseases result from the unwanted expression of certain kinds of genes and cancer is probably the best example of that, but there are many.A newer version of this that works in a similar way but a different way is called RNA interference, and it turns out that this is a natural mechanism that cells have. It's a mechanism that they have evolved in order to prevent foreign genes from entering a cell and being expressed. You have mechanisms inside your natural mechanisms inside your cell that allow the cells to degrade unwanted RNA sequences. Those mechanisms are calledRNA interference. You might have heard about this because it's been quite an active area of science.It turns out to activate RNA interference, you deliver double stranded RNA. Certain double stranded RNA sequences will cause in the cell a process of degradation of very specific RNA sequence. This involves mechanisms that are still being understood, but if you've studied some biology or read about this you've heard about the protein complex called Dicer. Dicer is an internal cellular mechanism for degrading RNA's. You might have also heard about the RISC complex, or the RNA silencing complex, and these are the biological mechanisms that are involved here and only shown by orange arrows on this slide. The end result is you can design now very specific double stranded RNA sequences, that when delivered into cells again will activate this process of natural degradation of an existing messenger RNA. Of course, if you degrade the messenger RNA at a rapid rate than you'll stop expression of the cells.Now the nice thing about this is that the degradation mechanisms seem to persist for some period of time, beyond the time at which you deliver the double stranded RNA; whereas, obviously, this mechanism here is only going to exist for as long as the anti-sense sequence is present. So this might be a longer lasting, more permanent form of elimination of expression of a particular gene.I just wanted to introduce those concepts because you've read about them; we'll be talking more about RNA interference in particular as we go on through the course. The rest of the time I want to talk about expression of genes, of new genes. Taking foreign genes, genes that aren't naturally expressed or might not even exist inside a cell and putting them there and putting them there in a way where they work, and by work meaning the gene gets expressed or translated into a protein.I'm going to start by talking about a very specific and interesting form of double stranded DNA called a plasmid and plasmids occur in nature. Plasmids turn out to be one of the most powerful and simplest examples of a vector, what's called a vector for delivering DNA into a cell. Now the challenge is not just to get the DNA that encodes a gene into a cell, the challenge is to get it into the cell in a form where the cell can use it, can express it and make proteins from it. The plasmid has some features which allow it to do that. Now to start with, the plasmid is usually shown in a diagram like this as a circle. It's a double stranded circular piece of DNA, meaning that the 3尧, 5尧 ends that hang off are joined back together again to form a continuous loop. Again, these plasmids occur naturally in nature; they were discovered particularly in micro-organisms have plasmids that confer biological properties onto them.This particular example of a plasmid has several regions. Now, in your book, there's an example of plasmid where I've given you the exact sequence of nucleotides that makes up the whole double stranded DNA molecule. I just give you one of those, right, because you could write down the other one because you know the other complimentary sequence from base pairing? One of the things about these plasmids that makes them very useful is that their entire base pair sequences is known. So you know everywhere on this picture you could write down exactly what the sequence of nucleotides are that make up this vector.This region here of this particular plasmid is called the ori or origin of replication. Remember we talked about how DNA replicates itself and that there are enzymes, DNA polymerase that bind to the double stranded DNA, separate it, denature it locally, and then start the process of replication. One of the properties that you would like a plasmid to have is you'd like for cells to be able to replicate it, to make more copies of it. That way you could deliver a small number of vectors and they could amplify into a large number of vectors. So having a place that the cell knows - where the cell knows how to replicate is important and so plasmids have an origin of replication.The blue region here is a gene. It's a gene that's on the plasmid, and this particular gene confers a specific biological property to cells that have the plasmid and can use it properly. The property it gives here is called AMP R or resistance to Ampicillin. Ampicillin is an antibiotic. Antibiotics are chemicals, usually small organic molecules that will kill micro-organisms like bacteria. If a cell has a gene that makes it resistant to Ampicillin, that means that that micro-organism can survive being exposed to this normally deadly chemical without dying. This is one of the biological properties, the naturally occurring properties of plasmids, is that they exist in microbial populations and they confer on them resistance from toxins that would ordinarily kill them. So being a micro-organism that got a plasmid that give you resistance to an antibiotic would be a good thing - that gave you resistance to something that naturally killed cells like you in your environment would be a good thing. We're going to use that Ampicillin resistance in technological ways and I'll describe that in a minute.The rest of this, this sort of beige part of the molecule here is called the polylinker part. This is where - this is the region of the plasmid where we're going to insert the DNA that we're interested in. We're going to have DNA that we would like to make lots of copies of, or we're going to have DNA that we would like to get expressed in a cell, and we're going to put it in this region that's called the polylinker. How we do that willbe clear in a few minutes, but this polylinker as is described down here is a site where you can clone in genes.Let's assume that we have this plasmid cloning vector and we have some pieces of DNA that we would like to put into a plasmid that we would like to make copies of. DNA cloning, or any kind of cloning just means 'making copies of'. So the process of cloning DNA is taking a few strands of DNA of a gene that you're interested in and making many copies of them, that's cloning, you like to make identical copies. This vector is going to allow us to do this.The first step in the process is to take our plasmid which we've selected, and to insert the gene that we want into it. For a minute just assume that we can do this and I'm going to show you how to do it on the next slide. The first step is to take the DNA fragments that we're interested in and put them into this vector by basically cutting open the double stranded DNA and inserting the gene that we like in the region where we've cut. Then we're going to take the newly formed vectors that now are recombinant, they're combined from at least two different sources. The sources are: one, the plasmid vector that we've picked, and the second is these genes that for some reason we're interested in. They might have come from two completely different places, from two completely different species from different parts of the world, and they're put together in a new way and that's why it's called recombinant DNA. Then we're going to take these plasmid vectors and we're going to somehow put them in contact with cells in such a way that the cells ingest the DNA and they use it.In this particular example here we're exposing these plasmids to bacterial cells. That's shown in this diagram as little colonies of bacteria that are growing on a plate. You've probably seen agar plates, if you smear a solution that's contaminated with bacteria on it, then that bacteria will grow on this agar rich medium and you'll get many, many copies of the bacteria that you've smeared at low density onto the plate. That's a way of culturing or propagating bacteria. Well, if you do that under the situation where you've put your plasmid into these micro-organisms then you're going to have little colonies that grow many copies of the bacterial cells. Hopefully each one of those cells is containing one or more of the plasmids that you're interested in and those are being copied as well. So what you get on the plate is many copies of the small number of plasmids that you've put in.Now how do you find those colonies on a plate that have the plasmid that you want? Well, that's a trick and there are multiple ways to do that. One way is to allow these bacteria to grow on a plate that is loaded with antibiotics like Ampicillin. If this plate has Ampicillin in it, then theonly cells that would be able to grow here are cells that have resistance to Ampicillin. If you selected the cells right than the only ones that have that resistance to Ampicillin are the ones that successfully got your plasmid and are using this Ampicillin resistant gene. You could imagine strategies where you have multiple resistance genes on a plasmid, resistance to Ampicillin, to Penicillin, to Erythromycin for example, and you design strategies for separating out which cells are carrying the plasmid that you're interested in. This process of using a biological event like resistance to Ampicillin in order to pick out the cell population that you're interested in is called selection. If we grew these cells on a plate loaded with Ampicillin and we could select cells that have Ampicillin resistance, and this process of selection and cell culture is very important and we'll talk about it more next week.How did we put our gene fragments into this plasmid DNA in order to make multiple copies of it, or to clone the gene? Well, it involves several steps. The first step is we had to be able to take this circular DNA and cut it to create a site for our new gene to be added. That cutting is done by special proteins called restriction enzymes. Restriction enzymes are just a kind of enzyme, enzymes are protein molecules that make a chemical reaction go faster, and the chemical reaction that restriction enzymes do is cutting DNA. They do that in a very special way in that they - restriction enzymes are able to identify a particular sequence of bases in a gene.There's whole families of restriction enzymes. There are hundreds, thousands of them known now, and each one has a specific character and one aspects of its character is that it only binds and cuts at a particular sequence of DNA. This particular restriction enzyme here recognizes this sequence, GAATTC. When it sees that sequence in a double stranded DNA it will bind there and it will cut. Now another property of restriction enzymes is that they always cut the DNA in the same way. In this case, this particular restriction enzyme cuts symmetrically like this, but not at the same point. It doesn't cut straight across the double stranded DNA but it cuts in this jagged fashion. That is, it cuts between the G and the A here, and it cuts between the G and the A here. When it cuts it leaves sticky ends or un-base paired single stranded regions on each end of the part its cut and that's just a property of many restriction enzymes; not all, some cut blunt, just right down the middle. Most restriction enzyme also recognize symmetric sequences of DNA, GAATTC for example. If you do the base pairing goes exactly the same sequence backwards down here. That's an example of symmetric sequence and it happens that most restriction enzymes also recognize those spaces.If you cut and you open up a segment of DNA then you've left these sticky ends, for example, and these sticky ends are capable of recognizing each other by the process of hybridization. These will naturally want to reform and they'll want to reform to re-establish this base pairing. They could be pasted back together, and the pasting process takes advantage of this natural process of complimentary hybridization. This gives you a biological mechanism for cutting, using restriction enzymes, and then you denature so that it falls apart, and then you renature so that it comes back together.Cutting involves enzymes called restriction endonucleases or restriction enzymes, which I've already mentioned and they have names. Restriction enzymes have names, the particular one that does this function here is called EcoRI. The names all look - they're all italicized and they're capital letters and small letters so that they won't be easy for you to understand, but they are - if you know the nomenclature, easy to understand. This restriction enzyme was found in a natural source, it was found in a micro-organism called E. coli. The first three letters of E. Coli are Eco, so Eco. It was found in strain R, a particular strain of E. coli, and it was the first one found, so EcoRI . There's a nomenclature that's evolved for this.Now we know so much about these, they've turned out to be so useful in biotechnology. There are whole catalogs that you go to and buy restriction enzymes. You can look up in the catalog. What are the properties of this restriction enzymes? What base sequence does it recognize? How does it cut? What concentration do I need to use to achieve that? So if you have plasmid where you know all the base pairings than you could go through that plasmid and say I want to cut it right here. What restriction will do that? Or you could ask the question, I have this restriction enzyme, at what regions on this plasmid will it cut?The pasting back together occurs partly naturally by this process of hybridization, but hybridization only re-establishes the base pairing. You know that these molecules are also linked in another way, by the phosphate bonds that connect the 3尧 and the 5尧 carbons of adjacent nucleotides. That doesn't heal naturally but can be reformed by other enzymes called ligases, ligases re-established the phosphate bonds.How would I put a gene that I'm interested in into a plasmid? Well the first step would be to cut open the plasmid with a particular restriction enzyme, and then what if I take that same restriction enzyme and I cut up the DNA that I'm interested in. If I cut both the plasmid and my DNA of interest with the same restriction enzyme I'm going to end up with the same sticky ends on both molecules. Now if I put them in contact with oneanother, the plasmid that's been opened and fragments of the DNA - special fragments that I've produced with the same restriction enzyme, they'll have the same sticky ends, they will naturally hybridize with one another.I apply ligase, and I've got the plasmid that I had before but now with my gene, colored green here, inserted.Student: [inaudible]Professor Mark Saltzman:That's a really good question because if I open this up, why wouldn't it just reform with itself, why would it want to have this in here? The answer is it will want to reform with itself, and if I have these in solution than how many reform with itself and how many reform with the molecule I'm interested probably depends on the relative concentrations of both in the solution and what conditions I have it at. It's a statistical process. Some are going to reform and some are going to reform with the gene in, and some probably aren't going to reseal at all under the conditions that I've used. Not every plasmid in your test tube is going to have the right gene inserted in the right way.One way that you can look for that gene that you want is by making the cut in your plasmid inside of a gene that encodes for some property like resistance to an antibiotic. If this reforms, so the plasmid reforms back to its native state, that resistance will be recovered. So bacteria that get an unloaded plasmid are going to have resistance to antibiotics. If your gene goes in, you've interrupted the gene for antibiotic resistance and those new organisms aren't going to be resistant to antibiotic anymore. So you could use sort of negative selection in order to find the ones that you want. I don't know if that makes sense or not but -Student: [inaudible]Professor Mark Saltzman:Some do, but there's an advantage to having the sticky end there and that you can put things back on, but there are also methods to chemically produce a sticky end where you can take blunt ends and you could add specific nucleotides onto one of the DNA chains by either doing chemistry on a 3尧 or the 5尧 end and create your own sticky end. Sometimes a blunt cut is useful if you want to sort of grow a sticky end of your choice on it. You're starting to see that there's all different ways that one could take advantage of this fairly simple process of cutting and pasting. That's why molecular biology, one of the reasons why it's turned out to be such a powerful tool, because if you can think creatively you can find all different ways to using these very simple principles to recombine molecules, to make unique new DNA sequences.Where does the DNA sequence come from? I want to spend a little time talking about that. Say we've got a human gene that we want to make and let's say it's the human gene for insulin that we want to produce now. All the cells in your body have the gene for insulin in them. Only cells in the pancreas, some cells in the pancreas are making insulin. One way I could try to find the gene for human insulin is to take any cells from any of us, skin cells let's say, and I could identify where on the chromosomal DNA that insulin is likely to occur. I could cut that up into fragments, and I could search in these fragments to try to find the one that has the insulin gene on it.Now the problem with that is a problem I mentioned before, that most human genes are not just a straight sequence from beginning to end of the protein that you're interested in. There are encoding regions called exons and those are interrupted by non-coding regions called introns. If I cut up just DNA from the chromosome, what's called genomic DNA, then I'm going to have both exons and introns within the fragments that I create. That might be a good way to do it but it's going to be more of a challenge because you might - you're going to have a lot of these non-coding sequences that are in the way.An alternate way is to go to the cell that's making the protein that you want. If it's making the protein you want, it must be producing messenger RNA with that gene one it. That messenger RNA that's being used has already gone through the RNA splicing mechanism and so the introns have already been removed. If I could isolate that messenger RNA - messenger RNA is just a copy of the DNA from which it came - so if I could do the process of reverse transcription, that is instead of transcription which goes from DNA to RNA, if I could go backwards from RNA to DNA, I could recover a DNA version of the gene that I'm interested in.It turns out that we can do that now because we have an enzyme called reverse transcriptase, which is able to take single stranded messenger RNA and make DNA out of it. Now you've heard about reverse transcriptase someplace before, right? Anybody heard of reverse transcriptase?Student: [inaudible]Professor Mark Saltzman: HIV, HIV is a natural virus that contains an enzyme in it. Why does it contain reverse transcriptase in it? Because HIV is an RNA virus and if it enters your cell the only way it can replicate, it can put its DNA into your cells, is by first making DNA out of its RNA genome. We're going to talk more about this later.。
《耶鲁大学公开课：死亡》笔记讲解学习
《耶鲁大学公开课：死亡》笔记《耶鲁大学公开课：死亡》笔记我们可以把这第一种观点称为二元论物质实体。
命令肉体。
但另一方面，灵魂也会受到肉体的反作用。
一方面，我们言谈间好像灵魂是有处所的，我们说灵魂在肉体中。
另一方面，也许这都是幻觉，也许灵魂根本没有任何处所，也许我有一个处所的感受，实际上只是我从我的肉体获得的所有感觉输人形成的幻觉。
我们还有物理主义者的观点。
物理主义者也相信心灵，但是他们认为，心灵只是一种谈论肉体能力的方式。
物理主义者当然不相信二元论者信奉的非物质的灵魂。
所以为了区分清楚，我将说物理主义者根本不相信灵魂。
他们相信心灵，但是不相信灵魂。
第三章灵魂存在的论证对于我们看不见(又听不见、尝不到，也无法用内感官观察到)的东西，我们该如何去证明它们的存在呢?最重要的方法也许是这样的:有时我们合理地设定存在某种我们看不见的东西，以便去解释我们都认同其存在的其他事情。
关于最佳解释推论，在此要强调一下。
我们可以合理地相信某事物，不仅是因为我们需要靠它提供某种解释，而是由于它能提供我们可以得到的最佳解释。
的肉体的生命。
纯粹的机器不能思考、推理，也没有信念和欲望。
即使是在解释思考、推理和计划时，好像我们也并不需要诉诸灵魂。
如果我真的有自由意志，那我就不可能受制于决定论法则。
换句话说，受制于决定论法则的东西不可能拥有自由意志。
这两者是不相容的。
也许能够想象出来某种事物，并不一定代表该事物具有逻辑上成立的可能性。
想象力是逻辑成立可能性的正确向导，也就是说，但凡我们能够想象出来，便具有逻辑上成立的可能。
没准想象力是逻辑成立的可靠向导，但凡能想象出来的，就具有逻辑成立的可能。
即使我们同意柏拉图的理念存在，即使我们也同意灵魂存在并且可以被思考，·我们还没有得到任何充分的理由去相信灵魂一定是不朽的。
因此，柏拉图的第一个论证—由理念本质引起的论证—我认为是站不住脚的。
组成部分的事物可以被毁灭。
事实上，柏拉图本人在其他对话录中，反对灵魂的单纯性。
美国耶鲁金融开放课程笔记
美国耶鲁金融开放课程笔记1．He actually has publication already他发表过文章2．Behavioral finance行为经融学3．She is shown here standing precariously on a cliff她摇摇欲坠的站在悬崖边4．Astronomy is incidently oneinterset of mine too天文恰巧也是我的爱好之一5．I’m proud of my alumni毕业生6．It’s not infrequent有的时候7．If I would like to be poet and what have to do with finance如果我当诗人，跟金融何干？Well，It probably ends up having something to do with finance他将与金融有关Vocational course业务知识underpinning of something基础8．It’s powerful force that goes behind the scene它是一种潜在的很大的力量I hope I candraw that out in this course 我希望能找出它He was on leave请假了9．I assume that next fall he will be teching 251 course下个秋季他会来上课Repetition重复self-containedcourse自成一体的课程10．His course is more tuned into theroretical detail than mine他的课比我的更倾向于理论细节11．I think this course is vocational preparation in a sense从某种意义上来讲，这门课与就业有关12．I pride myself on fact that people who takethis course find ituseful in their subsequent live 选我课的人会发现在以后的生活中会用到这些知识13．Maybe I turning you off bysaying that可能那样说到你们胃口The textbook is very detailed这本教材非常详细14．I first assigned t his book in 2000我2000年第一次指定该书为教材15．It’s filling gaps in my knowledge它弥补了我知识的缺陷This book is tough going这本书很难读16．Idon’t want you to drop out 我不希望你中途退学17．The book in sense that you need to know all key terms and key point关键词和关键点Fair game in my exam考试中会考到Clickable things可点击网络连接and things are on reserve in library在图书馆里可看到18．It’s very soild book about finance非常完备的财经书He has a remarkable intellect 他很有才华19，stock for long run长期股票投资20．They signed us all up for chest x-ray alphabetically他们让我们按字母顺序排队照头胸I standed in line with him我和他一起排队21．a funny coincidence is that -----巧合的是They are shelving book alphabetically按字母顺序放书22．It sold over half million copies卖了超过5万本It‘s been a perennial classic她已成为ie经典general treaties of finace综合性财经著作It’s readable and not as intense as other’s 很好读，不想别的很难23．Irrational exuberance非理性繁荣that is a phrase was coined by UUI是UUI创造的词汇24．Stock boom and bust股票暴涨暴跌25．Thebook came out at peak of housing market这本书在楼市峰点时出版的Bookstore fulfill an important functionTrying-struggling to survive很艰难得生存26．Give me little capsule descryption of you把你们每个人的简要描述给我I have something to prod my menmory让我想起一些事Notably psychology，sociology社会学，主要有---anthropology人类学，Last couple decades最近几十年27.Maybe I am biased because 我有点偏见２８。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论笔记
1.Introduction2.Foundations:This is Your Brain3.Foundations:Freud4.Foundations:Skinner5.What Is It Like to Be a Baby:The Development of Thought6.How Do We Communicate?:Language in the Brain, Mouth and the Hands7.Conscious of the Present;Conscious of the Past: Language(cont.);Vision and Memory8.Conscious of the Present;Conscious of the Past: Vision and Memory(cont.)9.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Love(Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey)10.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Evolution and Rationality11.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Emotions,Part I12.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Emotions,Part II13.Why Are People Different?:Differences14.What Motivates Us:Sex15.A Person in the World of People:Morality16.A Person in the World of People:Self and Other, Part I17.A Person in the World of People:Self and Other, Part II18.What Happens When Things Go Wrong:Mental Illness,Part I19.What Happens When Things Go Wrong:Mental Illness,Part II20.The Good Life:Happiness第一节课Introduction教材：彼得•格雷的《心理学》第五版阅读书目：格雷•马库斯《诺顿读本》心理学研究领域：1、神经科学2、发展心理学（研究人类如何成长、发育以及学习）3、认知心理学（用计算机方法研究心理学）4、社会心理学（研究人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流）5、临床心理学（心理健康、心理疾病）如今，经济学和博弈论已经成为理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法。
耶鲁公开课笔记4
美国耶鲁大学网络公开课《金融市场》视频笔记4耶鲁大学网络公开课《金融市场》由罗伯特.J.希勒（Robert J. Shiller）教授主讲。
共26课（集），每课时长均为一个多小时，配有字幕。
[第4课] 多元化投资组合和辅助性的金融机构（时长1小时07分）本课内容是多元化投资组合（Portfolio Diversification），辅助性的金融机构（Supporting Financial Institutions），尤其是共同基金（Mutual Funds）。
希勒介绍，这也是他长期研究的一类课题。
希勒相信，世界需要更多的多元化投资组合。
这也许会让人们觉得有点怪，但希勒认为这是绝对正确的。
埃米特.汤普森也研究过这类起因的相同课题，即，为了帮助世界上的穷人，可以通过多元化投资组合来改进。
希勒说他完全就是这样认为的。
（世界上）有大量的人类困难，都可以通过多元化（分散）投资来解决。
本课要讲的，不仅只适用于安逸的富人，而对每一个人都适用。
实际上这还是关于风险的问题。
当任何人遇到惨境时，那都是某些随机遇到的结果。
当人们在生活中陷入实际麻烦时，那是由于一系列糟糕事件将人们推到不幸的境地。
金融风险管理常常就是防止发生这种不幸情况的部分（措施）。
本节课将从一些数学问题讲起，是对第二节课的继续。
希勒在第二节课讲过关于风险分摊的原理，今天接着拓展到某些方面，即，将略微集中到投资组合问题。
先讲怎样构建一个投资组合，其中有哪些数学问题，由此引入到资产定价模型，这个模型是金融中许多思考的基石。
关于这一部分内容，在耶鲁的其他课程会讲得详细些，尤其像约翰.吉纳科普洛斯（John Geanakoplos）讲的经济类251号课程（Econ 251）。
从这节课可以获得基本要点。
下面从基本概念开始讲。
希勒说他只用最简单的术语来讲述。
1首先，定义什么是投资组合。
投资组合是指人们所拥有资产的集合。
如金融资产、有形资产（tangible assets），这都是你的财富。
耶鲁大学心理学导论(第四课)
心理学导论第四课我想在这节课的开始先回头讲讲弗洛依德I actually want to begin by going back to Freud解决一下上节课遗留的几个问题and hitting a couple of loose ends.我周三上课的时候跳过了部分内容There was a point in my lecture on Wednesday where I skipped over some parts.我当时说"没时间讲了" 就跳过没讲I said, "We don't have time for this" and I just whipped past it.可整个周末我都因此而寝食难安And I couldn't sleep over the weekend. I've been tormented.我不该跳过它们所以现在我要讲一下I shouldn't have skipped that and I want to hit--先告诉大家我当时为什么跳过没讲Let me tell you why I skipped it.我所跳过的是关于The discussion I skipped was the discussion of"我们为何会有无意识" 的讨论why we would have an unconscious at all.我当时正在讲So, I was talking about在科学上颇有名望的弗洛依德理论the scientifically respectable ideas of Freud 我想给大家讲一些新的and I want to talk about some new ideas关于"无意识为何会存在"的理论about why there could be an unconscious.我之所以没讲是因为Now, the reason why I skipped it is我不能肯定这是考虑这个问题的最佳方式I'm not sure this is the best way to look at the question.正如我们将会在这门课中了解到的As we will learn throughout the course,尤其是绝大多数的大脑活动by far the vast majority of what our brains do, 绝大多数的心理活动the vast majority of what our minds do,其实都是无意识的是无法察觉到的is unconscious and we're unaware of it.因此问题或许不该是So the right question to ask may not be,"为什么有些心理活动是无意识的""Why are some things unconscious?"而应该是"为什么心理活动的一小部分but rather, why is this tiny subset of mental life--为什么这一小部分是有意识的"why is this conscious?另一方面On the other hand,这些关于无意识功能的主张these claims about the utility of unconsciousness, 是很具有煽动性很有趣的I think, are provocative and interesting.所以我想很快地来给你们大家讲一下So I just wanted to quickly share them with you.那么从进化的观点来看So, the question is, from an evolutionary standpoint,要问的问题便是"无意识为何得以进化""Why would an unconscious evolve?"一些心理学家与生物学家们所给出的答案And an answer that some psychologists and biologists have given是欺骗is deception.大多数动物都会有一些欺骗行为So, most animals do some deception.而广义上的欺骗是以愚弄的方式And deception defined broadly is simply使他人相信虚假之事to act or be in some way认为虚假之事是真实的that fools others into believing or thinking或是使他人对虚假之事做出反应or responding to something that's false.举一个欺骗的实例There's physical examples of deception.当黑猩猩受到威胁When threatened, chimpanzees--它们的毛发会竖起来their hair stands up on end使得他们看上去更加强壮and that makes them look bigger从而使其他黑猩猩误以为它们to fool others to thinking they're more dangerous 比原先想象中更加危险than they are.在深海中生活着琵琶鱼There's an angler fish at the bottom of the ocean这种鱼的头顶会长出鱼竿状的长刺that has a rod sticking up from the top of its head用于引诱和捕获其他鱼类with a lure to capture other fish让它们误认为那是食物to fool them in thinking that this is something edible 然后它们自己就被吃掉了and then to themselves be devoured.总的来说灵长类动物特别是人类But humans, primates in general but particularly humans,都是欺骗大师are masters of deception.我们不断地利用我们的心理We use our minds行为和动作and our behaviors and our actions去哄骗他人相信那些虚假的事情continually to try to trick people into believing what's not true.比如我们总是试着去欺骗他人We try to trick people, for instance,使他人相信我们比实际更加into believing that we're强壮聪明性感tougher, smarter, sexier,更加可靠或是更加值得信赖等等more reliable, more trustworthy and so on, than we really are.社会心理学中也有很大一部分内容And a large part of social psychology在关注我们向他人展现自己的方式concerns the way in which we present ourselves 人们会尽力使积极印象最大化to other people so as to make the maximally positive impression即使留下的印象是虚假的even when that impression isn't true.但同时At the same time,though,我们也进化出了很好的欺骗检测机制we've also evolved very good lie detection mechanisms.因此不仅存在着要求我对你说谎So not only is there evolutionary pressure for me的进化压力to lie to you,比如如果我们之间存有冲突 for me to persuade you for instance, that if we're going to have a conflict-当你威胁我时if you are threatening me我会说"别吓唬我我可不是吃素""Don't threaten me, I am not the sort of man you could screw around with"而且还存在着要求你辨别谎言的进化压力But there's evolutionary pressure for you to look你会说 "不你肯定不行and say, "No. You are the sort of man you could screw around with.我看得出来的"I can tell."那么怎样才能成为一个好骗子呢So how do you become a good liar?无意识在这里扮演了重要的角色And here's where the unconscious comes in.我们假定The hypothesis is:最好的谎言是能够骗到我们自己的谎言the best lies are lies we tell ourselves.一个行骗高手在通常情况下You're a better liar, more generally,会对自己所说的谎言深信不疑if you believe the lie that you're telling.阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克的一个故事 This could be illustrated很好地阐释了这个道理with a story about Alfred Hitchcock.故事是这样的The story goes--他痛恨与童星共事但又时常被迫合作He hated working with child actors but he often had to.有一次And the story goes--和他合作的一个小演员竟哭不出来He was dealing with a child actor who simply could not cry.最后他沮丧极了走到那个小演员身边And, finally frustrated, Hitchcock went to the actor,俯下身子凑到他耳边说leaned over, whispered in his ear,"你爸妈刚把你丢在这了"Your parents have left you他们再也不回来了"and they're never coming back."那孩子立刻泣不成声The kid burst into tears.希区柯克说"开拍" 录制顺利进行Hitchcock said, "Roll'em" and filmed the kid.如果你能看到那个孩子你一定会说And the kid, if you were to see him, you'd say, "天呐这孩子看起来真伤心啊""That's--Boy, he's--he really looks as if he's sad"因为他本来就伤心because he was.如果我在这里举行一个竞赛If I had a competition谁最能将痛苦表演的和真的一样where I'd give $100,000 to the person谁就能拿到10万美元who looks the most as if they are in pain,那么最好用的一招莫过于拿根笔it is a very good tactic to take a pen狠狠地戳进你的腹股沟and jam it into your groin因为此时的你看上去真的because you will look extremely persuasively足以使他人相信你非常痛苦as if you are in pain.如果我想让你相信我爱你If I want to persuade you that I love you,永远都不离开你你什么都可以信任我would never leave you, you can trust me witheverything,或许最好的策略便是我自己对此深信不疑it may be a superb tactic for me to believe it.所有对于无意识进化的解释And so, this account of the evolution of the unconscious便是某些动机和目标is that certain motivations and goals,尤其是那些邪恶的动机和目标particularly sinister ones,最好是无意识的are better made to be unconscious因为如果个体察觉不到because if a person doesn't know他们所拥有的动机和目标的话they have them这些动机和目标也就不会被他人识破they will not give them away.这个我们先放在这里等到我们探讨And this is something I think we should return to later on社会交往与社会关系的时候再回头来看when we talk about social interaction and social relationships.弗洛依德的另一个故事--One other thing on Freud--其实是个恶搞他的故事just a story of the falsification of Freud.周日我带我的小儿子去玩回家的路上I was taking my younger child home from a play date on Sunday他突然问我and he asked me out of the blue,"你为什么不能和你的父母结婚?""Why can't you marry your mother or your father?"向一个孩子解释这个问题其实挺困难的Now, that's actually a difficult question to ask-- to answer for a child,但我还是尽力给了他一个答案but I tried my best to give him an answer.之后我又想到弗洛依德的理论And then I said--then I thought back on the Freud lecture然后我就问他and so I asked him,"如果你谁都能娶你会选择娶谁?""If you could marry anybody you want, who would it be?"我想根据俄狄浦斯情结imagining he'd make explicit the Oedipal complex他会毫不犹豫地选择他的妈妈and name his mother.不过出乎意料的是他想了一会说Instead, he paused for a moment and said, "我想娶一只驴子"I would marry a donkey和一大包花生"and a big bag of peanuts."他的父母都是心理学家Both his parents are psychologists他恨透了这些问题and he hates these questions所以他会时不时的忽悠我们一下and at times he just screws around with us.好了Okay.上一堂课我们从弗洛依德讲起Last class I started with Freud现在我要开始讲斯金纳了and now I want to turn to Skinner.斯金纳的理论And the story of Skinner and science与弗洛依德的理论有些不同is somewhat different from the story of Freud.弗洛依德是精神分析的Freud developed and championed提出者与拥护者the theory of psychoanalysis by himself.就像是一个科学发明的专利享有者It is as close as you could find in science to a solitary invention.显然他利用了各种资源Obviously, he drew upon all sorts of sources还总结了前人的成果and predecessors但精神分析依然被认为but psychoanalysis is identified是由弗洛伊德提出的as Freud's creation.行为主义则不同Behaviorism is different.行为主义学派Behaviorism is a school of thought远在斯金纳提出他的理论之前就已经存在that was there long before Skinner,受到了众多心理学家的拥护championed by psychologists比如约翰·华生like John Watson, for instance.斯金纳算是这一学派中的晚辈了Skinner came a bit late into this但是何斯金纳能够被我们所熟知but the reason why we've heard of Skinner能够声名远播的原因就在于and why Skinner is so well known他将这些观点进行了一番整理is he packaged these notions.他扩展了先前的观点He expanded upon them;并将它们出版发行he publicized them;他科学地发展了这些观点he developed them scientifically并同时将这些观点呈现给了and presented them both to the scientific community 学术界和社会大众and to the popular community.在上世纪60到70年代之间的美国社会And sociologically in the 1960s and 1970s, in the United States,行为主义极为盛行behaviorism was incredibly well known斯金纳也得以名声大噪and so was Skinner.他就像现在上脱口秀的明星一样有名He was the sort of person you would see on talk shows.他的书登上了畅销榜首His books were bestsellers.言归正传行为主义的核心Now, at the core of behaviorism由三个非常极端又很有趣的观点组成are three extremely radical and interesting views.第一个观点是它非常强调学习的作用The first is a strong emphasis on learning.行为主义的观点认为The strong view of behaviorism你的知识你的一切is everything you know, everything you are,都是经验的产物is the result of experience.人性是根本不存在的There's no real human nature.相反人类是具有无限可塑性的Rather, people are infinitely malleable.约翰·华生有一段非常有名的话There's a wonderful quote from John Watson这段话是约翰·华生根据and in this quote john Watson is paraphrasing耶稣会所宣扬的一段著名鼓吹改写而来a famous boast by the Jesuits.耶稣会曾宣称The Jesuits used to claim,"给我一个孩子待他7岁之时"Give me a child until the age of seven我会将他锻造成一个男人"and I'll show you the man,"也就是说他们能够把一个孩子that they would take a child培养成他们想要的任何样子and turn him into anything they wanted.华生将此鼓吹加以扩展他说到And Watson expanded on this boast,给我一打健全的婴儿Give me a dozen healthy infants,只要给予合适的条件well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up 我就可以and I'll guarantee to take any one at random把他们变成and train them to become any type of specialist I might select 医生律师艺术家企业家—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant,乃至乞丐和小偷chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief,而不用去考虑他的天赋倾向regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, 能力祖先的职业与种族abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.你们可以从中看出Now, you could imagine— you could see in this这是一个极具感染力的观点a tremendous appeal to this view因为在某种意义上because Watson has华生是一个极端的平等主义者an extremely egalitarian view in a sense.如果不存在人性If there's no human nature,那么一群人因种族或性别then there's no sense in which one group of humans 优于另一群的人的说法by dint of their race or their sex便纯属无稽之谈could be better than another group.华生明确地指出了这一点And Watson was explicit.人类的自然属性并不存在任何差异None of those facts about people will ever make any difference.个体差异源于他所受到的不同教育与待遇What matters to what you are is what you learn and how you're treated.因此华生断言And so, Watson claimed他只需通过一定的方式he could create anybody in any way simply便能将婴儿培养成各种类型的人by treating them in a certain fashion.行为主义的第二个观点A second aspect of behaviorism是反心理主义was anti-mentalism.我的意思是And what I mean by this is行为主义者沉迷于"科学"的理念之中the behaviorists were obsessed with难以自拔the idea of doing science他们主要针对的是弗洛依德and they felt, largely in reaction to Freud,他们认为那些所谓的内在心理状态that claims about internal mental states如欲望意愿目标情感等等like desires, wishes, goals, emotions and so on, 都是不科学的are unscientific.这些不可见定义模糊的东西These invisible, vague things不能被划入严谨的科学范畴里can never form the basis of a serious science.因此行为主义者的目标And so, the behaviorist manifesto是建立一门科学would then be to develop a science将一切不可观测的事情都排除在外without anything that's unobservable取而代之的是应用and instead use notions诸如刺激反应强化惩罚like stimulus and response and reinforcement and punishment以及表示现实世界和客观事件的环境and environment that refer to real world 之类的概念来进行研究and tangible events.最后行为主义者认为Finally, behaviorists believed生物种群之间并不存在太大的差别there were no interesting differences across species.行为主义者可能会承认人类能够做到A behaviorist might admit that a human can do things一些老鼠或鸽子无法做到的事情that a rat or pigeon couldn't但他们或许只会说but a behaviorist might just say,"它们只不过是在一般性联想学习能力上"Look. Those are just general associative powers有所差异而已"that differ"甚至他们干脆否认Or they may even deny it.他们会说 "人和老鼠根本没有区别They might say, "Humans and rats aren't different at all.只不过相较于老鼠It's just humans tend to live人类生活在刺激更加丰富的环境中罢了"in a richer environment than rats."从这个理论观点中From that standpoint, from that theoretical standpoint, 可以得出一种研究方法comes a methodological approach即如果人类与动物并无差别which is, if they're all the same那你就能通过研究非人类动物的学习过程then you could study human learning 来研究人类的学习过程by studying nonhuman animals.这也是行为主义者的常用研究方法And that's a lot of what they did.好了下面我们来讲讲Okay. I'm going to frame my introduction— my discussion 行为的三个主要的学习原则of behaviors in terms of the three main learning principles这三个学习原则被认为能够解释that they argue can explain所有的人类心理活动all of human mental life,所有的人类行为all of human behavior.之后我还想讲讲对行为主义的反对And then, I want to turn to objections to behaviorism但这三个原则是非常重要的but these three principles are powerful也是很有意思的and very interesting.第一个原则是习惯化The first is habituation.这是最简单的学习形式This is the very simplest form of learning.它在学术上被描述为And what this is is technically described as由于重复暴露在刺激环境中a decline in the tendency to respond to stimuli 而造成对该刺激反应倾向的降低that are familiar due to repeated exposure."喂""Hey!""喂""Hey!"突如其来的噪音吓了大家一跳The sudden noise startles but as it—但听到第二声的时候就没那么吃惊了as you hear it a second time it startles less.第三遍时就变成我自己在这犯傻了The third time is just me being goofy.这是因为你对这些事情已经习惯了It's just--It's--You get used to things.习惯化在我们的日常生活中随处可见And this, of course, is common enough ineveryday life.我们习惯了钟的滴答声和车来人往的噪音We get used to the ticking of a clock or to noise of traffic但这却是一种非常重要的学习形式but it's actually a very important form of learning我们不妨试想一下无法进行习惯化的情形because imagine life without it.试想你在生活中无法习惯任何事情 Imagine life where you never got used to anything,要有人突然跳出来向你挥手where suddenly somebody steps forward and waves their hand你肯定吓得惊叫 "哇"and you'd go, "Woah,"然后他们再跟你挥手你又惊叫"哇"and then they wave their hand again and you'd go, "Whoah,"然后你就不停地--and you keep--或是在你听到响亮的钟摆声后很惊奇地说And there's the loud ticking of a clock and you say,"嗯""Hmmm."但实际上人类和动物都不会这个样子And that's not the way animals or humans work.你会习惯于很多事情You get used to things.而习惯化实际上也是至关重要的And it's actually critically important to get used to things因为这是一种非常有用的适应机制because it's a useful adaptive mechanism可以让你注意到新鲜事物to keep track on new events and objects.能够注意到新鲜事物的出现是非常重要的It's important to notice something when it's new因为你需要确定它是否会对你造成伤害because then you have to decide whether it's going to harm you,需要确定如何去处理这个新鲜刺激how to deal with it, to attend to it,但你不能一直去注意它but you can't keep on noticing it.事实上And, in fact,如果它在环境中出现的时间足够长久的话you should stop noticing it你就不该再去一直注意它了after it's been in the environment for long enough.所以习惯化算是一种学习So, this counts as learning是因为这种学习是基于经验而发生的because it happens through experience.习惯化是通过经验而进行学习的一种方式It's a way to learn through experience, 是通过经验改变你思维方式的一种方法to change your way of thinking through experience.而且它还是非常有用的And also, it's useful因为危险刺激会吸引到你的注意because harmful stimuli are noticed但当某物被视为环境的一部分时but when something has shown itself to be part of the environment你便不会再去注意到该物体you don't notice it anymore.习惯化的存在非常重要原因有很多The existence of habituation is important for many reasons.原因之一就是One thing it's important for is聪明的发展心理学家们将习惯化clever developmental psychologists have used habituation作为研究人类as a way to study people,研究诸如非人类动物或是婴儿这样creatures who can't talk无法进行言语表达的生物like nonhuman animals,的一种方式and young babies.等我们在周三探讨发展心理学时And when I talk on Wednesday about developmental psychology我会向大家讲述心理学家们I'll show different ways应用习惯化in which psychologists have used habituation来研究婴儿心理的不同的方法to study the minds of young babies.学习的第二种形式The second sort of learning被称为经典条件作用is known as classical conditioning.一般来说And what this is in a very general sense经典条件作用是指在一个刺激is the learning of an association和另一个刺激之间形成联结between one stimulus and another stimulus,这里的刺激是一个专业术语where stimulus is a technical term意思是环境中出现的事件meaning events in the environment比如某种味道声音或景观like a certain smell or sound or sight.经典条件作用是巴甫洛夫提出的It was thought up by Pavlov.这便是巴甫洛夫的那条著名的狗This is Pavlov's famous dog这是一个科学研究中的意外and it's an example of scientific serendipity.在研究的最初巴甫洛夫Pavlov, when he started this research,对学习行为毫无兴趣had no interest at all in learning.他研究的是唾液的分泌He was interested in saliva.为了弄到唾液他找来了几条狗And to get saliva he had to have dogs.他给狗套上了一些装置And he had to attach something to dogs来收集狗的唾液用以研究so that their saliva would pour out so he could study saliva.他研究唾液分泌的初衷我们不得而知No idea why he wanted to study saliva,但他却因为这个研究而有所发现but he then discovered something.他的做法是What he would do is给狗喂食让狗分泌唾液he'd put food powder in the dog's mouth to generate saliva.他注意到But Pavlov observed that当给它喂食的人when somebody entered the room进屋时who typically gave him the food powder,狗便开始分泌唾液the dog--the food powder saliva would start to come out.稍后And later on if you—在喂食前或者喂食过程中right before or right during you give the dog some food 你摇铃you--you ping a bell铃声就会加速唾液的分泌the bell will cause the saliva to come forth.这是他在研究时所使用的仪器And, in fact, this is the apparatus that he used forhis research.他通过区分两种条件作用He developed the theory of classical conditioning两种刺激反应关系by making a distinction between two sorts of conditioning, 提出了经典条件作用理论two sorts of stimulus response relationships.一个是无条件作用One is unconditioned.无条件作用是指An unconditioned is when an unconditioned stimulus无条件刺激会引起无条件反应gives rise to an unconditioned response.这是我们的本能And this is what you start off with.如果有人用棍子戳你So, if somebody pokes you with a stick and you say,你会因为疼而叫出来"Ouch," because it hurts,戳的动作和你的喊叫the poking and the "Ouch"这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反射is an unconditioned stimulus causing an unconditioned response.这些行为无需学习You didn't have to learn that.巴甫洛夫给狗喂食When Pavlov put food powder in the dog's mouth狗会分泌唾液and saliva was generated,这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反应that's an unconditioned stimulus giving rise to an unconditioned response.但学习会在条件刺激与条件反应之间But what happens through learning is that another association develops建立起另一种联结that between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.比如So when Pavlov, for instance--比如在条件作用形成之前Well, when Pavlov, for instance, started before conditioning只是简单的存在着无条件刺激即食物there was simply an unconditioned stimulus, the food in the mouth,以及无条件反应即唾液and an unconditioned response, saliva.此时的铃声什么都不是The bell was nothing.只是一个中性刺激The bell was a neutral stimulus.但是如果铃声和食物多次同时出现But over and over again, if you put the bell and the food together,很快铃声便也能促使狗分泌出唾液pretty soon the bell will generate saliva.开始时呈现无条件刺激And now the bell--When--You start off with the unconditioned stimulus,会出现无条件反应unconditioned response.当条件刺激与非条件刺激When the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus同时且多次反复出现are brought together over and over and over again,条件刺激很快也能引起条件反应pretty soon the conditioned stimulus gives rise to the response.这就是所谓的And now it's known as the conditioned stimulus条件刺激引起了条件反应giving rise to the conditioned response.这在教材中已有详细的叙述This is discussed in detail in the textbook但我还是想给你们but I also--I'm going to give you—如果一下子理解不了也不用担心Don't panic if you don't get it quite now.我会再多给你们举些例子I'm going to give you further and further examples.这里的意思是说So, the idea here is,无条件刺激与条件刺激的反复匹配repeated pairings of the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus会引起条件反应will give rise to the response.但强化尝试和非强化尝试是不一样的And there's a difference between reinforced trials and unreinforced trials.强化尝试是指条件刺激A reinforced trial is when the conditioned stimulus 与无条件刺激同时出现的时候and the unconditioned stimulus go together.简单地说You're--and to put it in a crude way,你在让狗知道you're teaching the dog铃声和食物是一起出现的that the bell goes with the food.非强化尝试是只有食物而没有铃声的时候An unreinforced trial is when you get the food without the bell.这就不需要你去教了You're not teaching the dog this.事实上条件反射形成以后And, in fact, once you teach an animal something, 如果得不到强化if you stop doing the teaching条件反应就会逐渐消失the response goes away这就是消退and this is known as extinction.这里有张图标But here's a graph.图标记录了分泌出的唾液量If you get--They really count the number of cubic centimeters of saliva.经过训练当狗听到铃声The dog is trained so that when the bell comes on—我讲错了Actually, I misframed it.重讲一遍I'll try again.当铃声和食物形成了联系When the bell comes connected with food,狗会因为铃声的出现而分泌大量唾液there's a lot of saliva.非强化反应是有铃声但却没食物的时候An unreinforced response is when the bell goes on but there's no food.想想你就是那条狗So, it's like--Imagine you're the dog.有人喂你食物So, you get food in your mouth,"铃声食物"Bell, food,铃声食物"bell, food,"而现在只有"铃声"and now "Bell."但等到下次你再听到"铃声"的时候But next you get "Bell, bell, bell."你就不会再去等待食物You give it up.不再分泌唾液You stop.不再对铃声进行反应You stop responding to the bell.教材中讨论了一件奇怪的事情A weird thing which is discussed in the textbook is 如果你稍等一会if you wait a while在几个小时之后用铃声重新去尝试and then you try it again with the bell after a couple of hours,狗会重新开始分泌唾液the saliva comes back.这种现象叫做自发恢复This is known as spontaneous recovery.经典条件作用似乎是关于动物的So, this all seems a very technical phenomena 科学现象related to animals and the like但其实典条件作用发生but it's easy to see how it generalizes及其相关概念都简单易懂and how it extends.刺激泛化是个很有意思的概念One interesting notion is that of stimulus generalization.刺激泛化是And stimulus generalization is the topic《诺顿读本》中一篇文章的主题of one of your articles in The Norton Reader, 作者为约翰·华生著名的行为主义者the one by Watson, John Watson, the famous behaviorist,他记述了一项奇怪的实验who reported a bizarre experiment对象则是一名叫做小阿尔伯特的婴儿with a baby known as Little Albert.实验是这样的And here's the idea.小阿尔伯特原本喜欢老鼠Little Albert originally liked rats.实际上我要给你们看一段In fact, I'm going to show you a movie小阿尔伯特原先喜欢老鼠时的录像of Little Albert originally liking rats.看到吧他很好没问题See. He's okay. No problem.现在华生做了件有意思的事情Now, Watson did something interesting.小阿尔伯特正在和老鼠玩耍As Little Albert was playing with the rat,"噢我喜欢老鼠""Oh, I like rats, oh,"华生走到婴儿身后Watson went behind the baby—教材中是这么说的this is the--it's in the chapter—重击那里的金属棒and banged the metal bar right here .婴儿"啊"了一声开始大哭The baby, "Aah," screamed, started to sob.好了Okay.这里的无条件刺激是什么What's the unconditioned stimulus?有人知道吗Somebody.那个响声重击金属棒发出的声音The loud noise, the bar, the bang.无条件反应是什么What's the unconditioned response?哭泣悲伤以及痛苦Crying, sadness, misery.这样做导致的结果就是And as a result of this,小阿尔伯特开始惧怕老鼠Little Albert grew afraid of the rat.那么条件刺激又是什么老鼠So there--what would be the conditioned stimulus? The rat.条件反应又是什么恐惧很好What would be the conditioned response? Fear. Excellent.而且这种恐惧还会扩散到其他的事物上Moreover, this fear extended to other things.这段影片看上去很奇怪So, this is a very weird也没什么说服力and unpersuasive clip.但关键是这段影片试图说明But the idea is--the clip is to make the point 恐惧是会扩散到小白兔身上去的that the fear will extend to a rabbit, a white。
耶鲁大学心理学导论笔记__讲师：Paul_Bloom
耶鲁大学开心理学导论笔记讲师：Paul Bloom1.Introduction 导论2. Foundations: This is Your Brain 这是你的大脑3. Foundations: Freud 弗洛伊德4. Foundations: Skinner 斯金纳5. What Is It Like to Be a Baby: The Development of Thought 思维发展历程6. How Do We Communicate?: Language in the Brain, Mouth and the Hands 我们如何交流7. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Language (cont.); Vision and Memor当前意识8. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Vision and Memory (cont.) 意识的呈现9. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Love (Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey) 进化和情感10. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Evolution and Rationality 进化情感理性11. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part I 进化情感理性①12. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part II进化情感理性②13. Why Are People Different?: Differences 人们为什么会有差异14. What Motivates Us: Sex 什么激发我们性15. A Person in the World of People: Morality 一个人在这个世界上道德16. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part I 一个人在这个世界上①17. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part II 一个人在这个世界上②18. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part I 精神病①19. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part II 精神病②20. The Good Life: Happiness 最好的生活—高兴第一节课Introduction教材：彼得•格雷的《心理学》第五版阅读书目：格雷•马库斯《诺顿读本》心理学研究领域：1、神经科学2、发展心理学（研究人类如何成长、发育以及学习）3、认知心理学（用计算机方法研究心理学）4、社会心理学（研究人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流）5、临床心理学（心理健康、心理疾病）如今，经济学和博弈论已经成为理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法。
耶鲁大学《聆听音乐》公开课笔记(1-4课)PDF版
耶鲁大学公开课《聆听音乐》笔记（第1—4课）讲师：Craig Wright职业：耶鲁大学音乐教授学位：伊斯曼音乐学校钢琴乐音乐史双学士（1966）、哈佛大学音乐学博士（1972）学习资料1、教科书《聆听音乐》（第五版）Dr. Craig Wright著；余志刚、李秀军译；三联书店2012年4月出版（附光盘1张“聆听练习”）；大16开彩印，定价：88元；2、聆听指南：6张CD/套装（收录了150多个音乐作品选段的听力训练是本课的核心内容）可以从网上下载。
目 录第1课 导论第2课 乐器与音乐风格第3课 节奏：音乐的基础第4课 节奏：爵士 流行和古典第一课 导论关键词古典音乐（classical music）流行音乐（popular music）旋律（melody）大调（major）小调（minor）音高（pitch）主音高（home pitch/tonic pitch）两个维度（dimensions）时长/值（time/duration）拍子（beat）为什么听古典音乐第一、帮助人们放松、舒缓压力，这可能是主要的原因；第二、帮助人们集中精力，让听众全神贯注起来；第三、古典音乐提供了一个美好世界的意象，绚丽而庄严的庇护所，或许甚至还有爱的慰藉。
有时候它象征着世上也许会有一些事物超凡脱俗，还有诸如上帝之类的比我们人类更伟大的存在，引发我们去思考客观世界。
这就是伟大艺术的价值，无与伦比的文学、诗歌、绘画、音乐。
它展示了人类所能及之事，人类精神所能承载之力。
它们指引着我们、预示着可能有那么一些超越我们自身的精神存在，指引我们思考并不断追寻自己在这世上存在的意义。
流行音乐与古典音乐区别1、古典音乐（莫扎特作品选段）旋律感强烈；流行音乐（Rave′Til Dawn选段）完全没有旋律，不停地反复、节奏、鼓点，强烈的脉动；2、古典音乐的演奏乐器发出的声音与流行乐的合成音效是截然不同的。
音乐是一种听觉感知的呈现，你不可能像对待英语或历史考试那样，在考试前一天晚上将音乐中的信息或声音死记硬背以便应付考试。
2024版耶鲁大学公开课《心理学导论》笔记
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遗忘规律及提高记忆方法
遗忘规律
德国心理学家艾宾浩斯研究发现，遗忘在学 习之后立即开始，而且遗忘的进程并不是均 匀的。最初遗忘很快，以后逐渐缓慢。
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提高记忆方法
包括反复复习、尝试回忆、多样化练习、合 理安排学习时间等。此外，还可以通过联想
记忆、形象记忆等技巧来提高记忆效果。
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认知偏差与决策失误
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注意概念及影响因素
注意的定义
指心理活动对一定对象的指向和集中，是 伴随着感知觉、记忆、思维、想象等心理 过程的一种共同的心理特征。
VS
注意的影响因素
包括刺激物的强度、对比度、新颖性、运 动变化等物理特征，以及个体的需要、兴 趣、情感、经验和知识结构等主观因素。
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记忆类型与加工过程
记忆类型
记忆加工过程
根据信息保持时间的长短，可分为感觉记忆、 短时记忆和长时记忆。
包括编码、存储和提取三个阶段。编码是对 输入信息进行加工处理，使之转化为易于存 储和提取的形式；存储是将编码后的信息保 存在大脑中；提取则是将存储的信息从大脑 中取出来，以供使用。
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采取主动措施来解决问题或缓解 压力，如寻求帮助、制定计划、
调整心态等。
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接受与适应
当无法改变压力源时，接受现实 并适应环境，通过调整自己的态 度和行为来减轻压力。
寻求社会支持
与家人、朋友或专业人士交流， 分享自己的感受和压力，获得情 感支持和建议。
培养健康的生活方式
保持充足的睡眠、均衡的饮食和 适量的运动，有助于缓解身体和
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耶鲁公开课笔记导言
美国耶鲁大学网络公开课《金融市场》视频笔记0在网易公开课网站（/movie/2010/6/I/V/M6GQE36A8_M6HSGHKIV.html），由YYeTs人人影视团队（www. ）为美国耶鲁大学网络公开课《金融市场》视频作了字幕翻译，非常有利于网民的学习，可以领略美国教授上课的风格、逻辑和思路。
在进入笔记之前，对著名的耶鲁大学先做一个简单的小记。
耶鲁大学位于美国东海岸长湾海峡的纽黑文市，在纽约的东北部，从纽约有火车抵达。
耶鲁大学始建于1701年，是美国历史上建立的第三所大学，第一所是哈佛大学，第二所是威廉玛丽学院。
耶鲁大学与哈佛大学、普林斯顿大学齐名，历年来共同角逐美国大学和研究生院前三名的位置。
现为常青藤联盟的成员之一。
耶鲁大学由三个主要的学术部分组成：耶鲁学院（本科），艺术和科学研究生院和专业学校。
大约有11,250名学生就读耶鲁大学。
耶鲁的杰出毕业生中共有5位美国总统，并且创下连续3届总统都出自耶鲁的记录：第41任总统乔治·赫伯特·沃克·布什、第42任总统比尔·克林顿以及美国第43任总统小布什。
有关数据表明，耶鲁校友自1789年以来，在美国内阁中占9%；美国最高法院大法官有10余位；还成为众多著名大学的创始人或第一任校长，如普林斯顿大学、康奈尔大学、约翰·霍普金斯大学、哥伦比亚大学、芝加哥大学等，因此戴上了“美国学院之母”的桂冠。
在经济学方面：1975年，在耶鲁大学已任教5年的美籍荷兰经济学家特亚林·科普曼斯（Tjalling Koopmans，1910年8月28日-- 1985年2月26日），在耶鲁期间完成重大研究Koopmans' theorem，将数理统计学成功运用于经济计量学，对资源最优分配理论做出贡献，获得诺贝尔经济学奖。
1981年，曾任教于哈佛大学与耶鲁大学的著名经济学家詹姆士·托宾（James Tobin，1918年3月5日－2002年3月11日），为诺贝尔经济学奖得主。
耶鲁大学公开课博弈论笔记(博弈论24讲)
博弈论作业（博弈论24讲）数应专业一、1、理性人：指代这一类人，他们只关心自己的利益。
2、如果选择a的结果严格优于b，那么就说a相对于b来说是一个严格优势策略。
结论：不要选择严格略施策略。
3、理性人的理性选择造成了次优的结果4、举例：囚徒困境、宿舍卫生打扫问题、企业打价格战等5、协和谬误收益很重要，“如欲得之，必先知之”6、要学会换位思考，站在别人的立场上看别人会怎么做，在考虑自己受益的同时，要注意别人会怎么选择二、1、打渔问题、全球气候变暖与碳排放问题2、博弈的要素：参与人、策略集合、收益3、如果策略a严格劣于策略b，那么不管他人怎么选择，b总是更好的选择4、军队的入侵与防卫问题5、所有人都从1到100中选个数字，最接近所有人选的数字的均值的2/3者为胜，这个数字是多少呢？作为理性人，每个人都会选择67（100*2/3）以下的数，进一步假设你的对手也是理性的，你会选择45（100*4/9）以下的数……依据哲学观点，如果大家都是理性程度相当的，那么最后数字将为1，然而结果却是9，这说明博弈的复杂性6、共同知识与相互知识的区别三、1、利用迭代剔除法领悟中间选民问题2、迭代剔除法就是严格下策反复消去法，不断地把劣势策略剔除出去，最后只剩下相对优势的策略3、中间选民问题就是，在两党制中，政党表述施政纲领要吸引位于中间位置的选民，他们认为在选举中处于中间标度可以吸引左右两边的选民，并以此获得胜利。
4、中间选民问题理论成立的条件是有两个参与人；政治立场能使选民相信。
5、由此延伸出来的还有加油站选址问题，两家加油站不是在不同的路口选址，而是在不确定哪个位置较佳的时候会选在同一处，这也是“中间选民定理”的凸显6、在迭代剔除法不能运用时，比如说该博弈中博弈方1和2均没有严格下策，可以用二维坐标系画出选择策略之后的收益分布四、1、罚点球：一个经过模型简化的点球模型：罚球者可以选择左路，中路，右路3种路线去踢点球，门将可以选择向左扑救或者向右扑救（门将没有傻站着不动的option）。
耶鲁博弈论24讲全笔记
耶鲁博弈论24讲全笔记第一部分：博弈论的基础知识1、博弈论的定义及其在现实生活中的应用《耶鲁博弈论24讲全笔记》“1、博弈论的定义及其在现实生活中的应用”博弈论，这个引人入胜的学科，是一门研究决策问题的独特学科。
它的基本思想在于，把复杂多变的真实世界简化为具有明确规则和目标的多人决策问题。
在这个世界里，每一个参与者都需要根据其他参与者的策略来调整自己的决策，以期达到各自的目标。
博弈论起源于棋类游戏，如国际象棋和围棋，这些游戏的规则明确，且每个玩家都有可能成为赢家或输家。
然而，博弈论的应用远不止于此。
在现实世界中，博弈论的原理被广泛应用于政治、经济、生物、国际关系等多个领域。
在政治领域，博弈论可以帮助我们理解权力平衡和国际关系。
例如，囚徒困境就是一个经典的博弈论模型，它描述了两个囚犯因共同犯罪而受审的情况。
在这个情境中，两个囚犯都需要做出决策，是否选择揭发对方。
这个模型不仅可以解释为什么有时候合作会带来更大的利益，也可以揭示为什么有时候，即使个人利益最大化的选择也会导致集体的非最优结果。
在经济领域，博弈论更是具有广泛的应用。
例如，拍卖中的博弈论可以帮助我们理解为什么拍卖可以带来高昂的成交价，以及为什么有时候最低价拍卖可以带来最大的社会利益。
此外，博弈论还可以帮助我们理解市场垄断、价格竞争等复杂的市场行为。
在生物学领域，博弈论被用来解释生物种群的进化策略，如猎物的捕食者与被捕食者之间的动态关系。
在医学领域，博弈论也被用来理解和预测疾病的发展和传播。
总的来说，博弈论是一种独特的思考方式，它可以帮助我们理解真实世界中的决策和策略行为。
它的应用广泛，无论是在政治、经济、生物还是其他领域，都可以找到博弈论的应用实例。
通过学习博弈论，我们可以更好地理解真实世界中的决策过程，并找到更优的决策策略。
2、博弈的参与者、策略和结果《耶鲁博弈论24讲全笔记》是一本介绍博弈论的经典教材，第二讲“博弈的参与者、策略和结果”是其中的重要部分。
耶鲁大学公开课 1-17课_《聆听音乐》笔记
耶鲁大学公开课《聆听音乐》讲师：Craig Wright职业：耶鲁大学音乐教授学位：哈佛大学博士学士钢琴乐音乐史双学位第一课：导论流行音乐与古典音乐：古典音乐旋律感强烈。
音乐与语言：颞叶是处理音乐和语言的听觉中枢。
额叶是短期记忆中枢，用于记忆曲子。
顶叶记忆肌肉工作。
读谱用到视觉中枢。
即兴创作并表演音乐是一个复杂的过程，是多个中枢协同工作的结果。
音乐和语言从本质上都是声音，非常接近。
学习听音乐就像学习语言，要将听力练习每天进行，逐渐同化。
示范曲目贝多芬第五交响曲(命运交响曲)贝多芬第九交响曲(欢乐颂)德彪西月光贝多芬第五交响曲VS 贝多芬第九交响曲表达出的情绪，前者焦虑不安消极，后者和谐安全积极。
一：大调和小调。
前者是小和弦，后者是大和弦。
二：前者跳跃，后者连续。
三：前者不断向下，后者基本稳定的回旋。
德彪西月光节拍舒缓，没有鼓点，甚至难以确定节拍。
走向是徐徐向下，直到一小段结束才返回到高处，形成了一个情绪的堆积和小高潮。
音乐的两个维度：音高和时长。
音高相当于纵轴，时长相当于横轴。
理查施特劳斯查拉图斯特拉如是说用管弦乐表现人类力量的觉醒。
使用的乐器是管风琴，接下来是小号，以及打击乐。
二拍子和三拍子二拍子和三拍子是最常见的音乐节奏单元。
二拍子是|强弱|强弱|，三拍子是|强弱弱|强弱弱|。
转调选择一个音高，然后整体转到另一个音高。
第二课乐器与音乐风格示范曲目贝多芬第五交响曲柴可夫斯基第一钢琴协奏曲理查施特劳斯查拉图斯特拉本课介绍了不同的音乐风格，交响曲，协奏曲，交响诗。
以及不同的乐器铜管，弦乐，木管。
贝多芬第五交响曲——交响乐交响乐一般有四个乐章，乐章是交响乐中相对独立的部分，与其他乐章和谐统一。
通常是：一个简短的开始的第一乐章，一个缓慢的抒情的第二乐章，由舞曲衍生的第三乐章，迅速强势的起总结作用的第四乐章。
主题还是动机？theme or motivation主题和动机都属于旋律的范畴，动机是较为短小的，主题是比较长而抒情的。
耶鲁大学《聆听音乐》公开课笔记(9-12课)
耶鲁大学公开课《聆听音乐》笔记（第9—12课）目录第09课奏鸣曲式：莫扎特和贝多芬第10课奏鸣曲式和主题以及主题变奏第11课曲式：回旋曲式、奏鸣曲式、主题变奏曲第12课客席指挥：布鲁克青年交响乐团第九课奏鸣曲式：莫扎特和贝多芬关键词曲式（form）反复（repetition）对比（contrast）主题与变奏（theme and variations）奏鸣曲-快板式（sonata-allegro form）弦乐四重奏（string quartet）协奏曲（concerto）三部曲式（ternary form）关系大调（relative major）回旋曲式（rondo form）赋格（fugue）固定低音（ostinato）呈示部（exposition）连接部（transition or bridge）发展部（development）再现部（recapitulation）尾声（coda）导引这节课我们探讨音乐形式的问题。
曲式对于所有音乐都是很重要的，它能让我们跟上一首乐曲的步伐，更形象地比喻，可以让我们在音乐之旅中明白我们身处何方。
曲式对所有音乐同等重要，无论是流行还是古典音乐。
我们周身充斥着各种复杂的素材，像音乐这种素材。
我们尝试着去理解它们的含义，甚至可以判定出它特定的结构，因而我们趋向于用建筑结构或诸如此类的事物来进行类比。
我们将进入大脑的信息分类整理，音乐带给我们的种种情绪反应是通过简单的模式达到效果的。
音乐家们喜欢运用曲式，因为曲式能告诉他们接下来如何做，怎么做更合适。
当你掌握了一种曲式并屡试不爽，它被其它音乐人经年累月地使用，你可能更倾向于使用它，以使你的听众跟随着你的音乐。
曲式曲式就是乐曲的结构形式。
曲调在发展过程中形成各种段落，根据这些段落形成的规律性，而找出具有共性的格式便是曲式。
流行音乐的曲式教授：对于流行音乐的曲式，弗雷德里克·埃文思同学给了一个很满意的答案，即主歌与副歌的结构，无论是在舒伯特的德文艺术歌曲中，还是在我们陌生的音乐中。
耶鲁大学心理学导论笔记讲师PaulBloom
耶鲁大学心理学导论笔记讲师PaulBloom1.Introduction 导论2. Foundations: This is Your Brain 这是你的大脑3. Foundations: Freud 弗洛伊德4. Foundations: Skinner 斯金纳5. What Is It Like to Be a Baby: The Development of Thought 思想开展历程6. How Do We Communicate?: Language in the Brain, Mouth and the Hands 我们如何交流7. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Language (cont.); Vision and Memor以后看法8. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Vision and Memory (cont.) 看法的出现9. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Love (Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey) 退化和情感10. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Evolution and Rationality 退化情感理性11. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part I 退化情感理性①12. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part II退化情感理性②13. Why Are People Different?: Differences 人们为什么会有差异14. What Motivates Us: Sex 什么激起我们性15. A Person in the World of People: Morality 一团体在这个世界上品德16. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part I 一团体在这个世界上①17. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part II 一团体在这个世界上②18. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part I 肉体病①19. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part II 肉体病②20. The Good Life: Happiness 最好的生活—快乐第一节课Introduction教材：彼得•格雷的«心思学»第五版阅读书目：格雷•马库斯«诺顿读本»心思学研讨范围：1、神经迷信2、开展心思学〔研讨人类如何生长、发育以及学习〕3、认知心思学〔用计算机方法研讨心思学〕4、社会意思学〔研讨人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流〕5、临床心思学〔心思安康、心思疾病〕如今，经济学和博弈论曾经成为了解人类思想和人类行为的重要方法。
耶鲁公开课--博弈论笔记
耶鲁公开课—博弈论笔记第一节、名词解释优势策略（Dominant strategy ）：不论其他局中人采取什么策略，优势策略对一个局中人而言都是最好的策略。
即某些时候它胜于其他策略，且任何时候都不会比其他策略差。
注：1、“优势策略”的优势是指你的这个策略对你的其他策略占有优势，而不是无论对手采用什么策略，都占有优势的策略。
2、采用优势策略得到的最坏的结果不一定比采用另外一个策略得到的最佳的结果略胜一筹。
严格劣势策略(strictly dominated strategy)：被全面的严格优势策略压住的那个策略，也就是说不是严格优势策略以外的策略。
弱劣势策略：原来不是严格劣势策略，但是经过剔除严格劣势策略后，这个策略就成了严格劣势策略。
例：囚徒困境囚徒到底应该选择哪一项策略，才能将自己个人的刑期缩至最短两名囚徒由于隔绝监禁，并不知道对方选择；而即使他们能交谈，还是未必能够尽信对方不会反口。
就个人的理性选择而言，检举背叛对方所得刑期，总比沉默要来得低。
试设想困境中两名理性囚徒会如何作出选择：若对方沉默、背叛会让我获释，所以会选择背叛。
若对方背叛指控我，我也要指控对方才能得到较低的刑期，所以也是会选择背叛。
二人面对的情况一样，所以二人的理性思考都会得出相同的结论——选择背叛。
背叛是两种策略之中的支配性策略。
因此，这场博弈中唯一可能达到的纳什均衡，就是双方参与者都背叛对方，结果二人同样服刑2年。
例：协和谬误20世纪60年代，英法两国政府联合投资开发大型超音速客机，即协和飞机。
该种飞机机身大、装饰豪华并且速度快，其开发可以说是一场豪赌，单是设计一个新引擎的成本就可能高达数亿元。
难怪政府也会被牵涉进去，竭力要为本国企业提供更大的支持。
项目开展不久，英法两国政府发现：继续投资开发这样的机型，花费会急剧增加，但这样的设计定位能否适应市场还不知道；但是停止研制也是可怕的，因为以前的投资将付诸东流。
随着研制工作的深入，他们更是无法做出停止研制工作的决定。
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美国耶鲁大学网络公开课《金融市场》视频笔记4耶鲁大学网络公开课《金融市场》由罗伯特.J.希勒（Robert J. Shiller）教授主讲。
共26课（集），每课时长均为一个多小时，配有字幕。
[第4课] 多元化投资组合和辅助性的金融机构（时长1小时07分）本课内容是多元化投资组合（Portfolio Diversification），辅助性的金融机构（Supporting Financial Institutions），尤其是共同基金（Mutual Funds）。
希勒介绍，这也是他长期研究的一类课题。
希勒相信，世界需要更多的多元化投资组合。
这也许会让人们觉得有点怪，但希勒认为这是绝对正确的。
埃米特.汤普森也研究过这类起因的相同课题，即，为了帮助世界上的穷人，可以通过多元化投资组合来改进。
希勒说他完全就是这样认为的。
（世界上）有大量的人类困难，都可以通过多元化（分散）投资来解决。
本课要讲的，不仅只适用于安逸的富人，而对每一个人都适用。
实际上这还是关于风险的问题。
当任何人遇到惨境时，那都是某些随机遇到的结果。
当人们在生活中陷入实际麻烦时，那是由于一系列糟糕事件将人们推到不幸的境地。
金融风险管理常常就是防止发生这种不幸情况的部分（措施）。
本节课将从一些数学问题讲起，是对第二节课的继续。
希勒在第二节课讲过关于风险分摊的原理，今天接着拓展到某些方面，即，将略微集中到投资组合问题。
先讲怎样构建一个投资组合，其中有哪些数学问题，由此引入到资产定价模型，这个模型是金融中许多思考的基石。
关于这一部分内容，在耶鲁的其他课程会讲得详细些，尤其像约翰.吉纳科普洛斯（John Geanakoplos）讲的经济类251号课程（Econ 251）。
从这节课可以获得基本要点。
下面从基本概念开始讲。
希勒说他只用最简单的术语来讲述。
1首先，定义什么是投资组合。
投资组合是指人们所拥有资产的集合。
如金融资产、有形资产（tangible assets），这都是你的财富。
第一条基本原则是，只关注整个投资组合。
不要成为像渔夫那样的人，为曾经抓过一条大鱼而炫耀。
这里在说生计问题，看的是抓到鱼的总量。
所以，对于一次巨大的成功，没有什么可值得骄傲。
这就是第一条非常基本的原则。
因此，当谈到投资组合管理时，其意思就是管理能带来经济利益的任何事情。
这个理论的基本想法是，通过投资组合中的收益均值和方差，来度量投资的收益率。
当然，在任何给定的时间段的收益率，就是投资组合收益的增长比例。
这也可能是一个负数，表示收益减少了。
其原则是：当给定方差时，希望预期收益率要尽可能的高；当给定收益率时，希望投资组合的收益方差要尽可能的低。
由于高的预期收益率是好事，所以，当一个投资组合的预期收益率为12%时，就比收益率为10%的要好；而另一方面，都不想要高的方差，因为那是风险。
所以，这两个参数都至关重要。
在实际中，不同的人会有不同的选择，即，为获得高的预期收益，选择能承受多大的风险。
最终，任何人都会同意，在一定的前提下，当比较具有相同方差的两个投资组合时，都会要预期收益率高的投资组合；当比较具有相同预期收益率的两个投资组合时，都会要方差小的投资组合。
更直观的来解释，假设我们有很多只不同的股票，可以放入一个投资组合中，并假设这些股票都是相互独立的，即这些股票不存在相关性，在第二节课时讲过相关性。
这里要讲一下等权重的投资组合（equally-weighted portfolio）。
假设有n个相互独立的资产，可以是股票；每一项资产的收益率标准差为σ，且都相同；这些资产的预期收益率为r。
还有平方根定律（the square root rule），说的是，投资组合的标准差为：σportfolio =σ/ n1/2这是特例，因为假设了这个投资组合里的资产是相互独立的，而这不是实际情况。
2这像一个保险，在人寿保险中，当对人的寿命作保险时，作保险的就假设，每个人的死亡都是相互独立的。
将作保险的情境转换为投资组合管理的问题，可以看到是一样的想法。
这里所假设的特例，是指一个等权重的投资组合。
这是一个很重要的要点，看看上面写出的非常简单的数学式子，投资组合的收益率为r，（投资组合的标准差σportfolio为每项资产的）标准差σ除以n的平方根。
如果人们生活在这样的世界，就可以做到最佳的事情，即，尽可能增大n，由此就能大幅度地减小投资组合的标准差。
而且，从预期收益率的角度来看，这样做的成本为零。
在这个简单的例子中，可以取n为100或1000，或可取的任意数。
假如能够找到10000项独立的资产，就可将这个投资组合的风险降到几乎为零，因为10000的平方根是100，无论单个的标准差是多大，除以100以后就变得确实很小了。
如果能找到这样相互独立的资产，就能在很大程度上缩小这个投资组合的方差。
这就是投资多元化的基本原则。
这也是设想所有投资经理一直在做的事情。
下面由此特例引向更普遍一些，举出真实的案例。
在现实世界中，不存在资产是独立的问题，不同的股票会一起上涨和下跌，不会像上面所讲的理想世界。
但是，对于我们所做事情的某些范围内，还是要以这样的思路来考虑现实世界中的多元化。
考虑建立这样的一个投资组合，其中的各项资产不是相互独立，而是相互关联。
请注意，这里去掉了“相互独立”的假设，下面还要去掉其他的一些假设。
假设资产的预期收益率不是相同的，方差也不是相同。
下面以两项资产为例来说明，即n=2，这两项资产不是独立的，或说不需要是独立的。
第一项资产的预期收益率为r1；收益率标准差为σ1；第二项资产的预期收益率为r2；收益率标准差为σ2；这些是分析的输入参数。
要注意，已经说过，这些参数不是独立的。
所以，需要有收益之间的协方差（covariance），即r1和r2之间的协方差cov(r1,r2),也称作σ12。
3下面计算这个投资组合的均值（mean）和方差（variance）或标准差（standard deviation）。
因为对不同的投资组合，标准差都是方差的平方根。
从刚才讲的简单特例来推论，这里不假设具有相等的权重，假设用于投资的数额，其可大可小都没关系，就设为1美元；当在资产1投入x1美元，则剩下的（1- x1）美元投入到资产2；这里不严格规定x1是个正数，正如大家所知或应该知道，你可以拥有负量值的资产，称为做空（shorting them）。
你可以给你的经纪人打电话，告诉他，我要做空一号股票（to short stock number one），那经纪人要做的事，就是代表你借进股份，然后卖掉，这样你就拥有了负值的股份。
所以，x1可以是任何数。
注意：x2=1- x1，因此，x1+ x2=1。
现在就可以计算这个投资组合的均值和方差了，都是简单的运算,是前面讲过的。
投资组合的均值和方差将取决于x1。
如果令x1=1，投资组合的均值和方差就是资产1的均值和方差值；如果令x1=0，投资组合的均值和方差就与资产2的均值和方差值相等；但是，如果x1是在0与1之间的任意值，那么均值和方差就会是这两项资产各自均值和方差的综合结果。
即，投资组合的预期收益率r = Σxi *ri （i = 1---n）= x1r1 + x2 r2（本例子n=2）= x1 r1 +（1 - x1）r2（本例子x1+ x2=1）投资组合的方差σ2 = x12σ12 + x22σ22 + 2 x1x2σ12= x12σ12 +（1 - x1）2σ22 + 2 x1（1 - x1）σ12其中x1可选为任意值，可以是从负无穷到正无穷的数。
以上公式表明，只要给出x1的任意值，就可以计算出r是多少；σ2是多少。
根据这些数据，由此就能描绘出投资中所具有的各种机会。
4下面要解出r 和x1的等式，并用r来改写方差的式子，得出投资组合的方差为预期收益率的函数。
即，（由第一式可得）r - r2 = x1（r1 -r2）x1 =（r -r2）/（r1 -r2）代入第二式，就得出投资组合的方差是预期收益率r的函数。
以上就是我们需要的所有基础数学。
通过这些式子，还能得出所谓的投资组合的边界（希勒在屏幕上示出图例）。
该例子有两项资产，Y轴表示预期年收益率r，X轴表示投资组合收益的标准差σ，所形成的曲线有点像双曲线形状（顶点横对着Y轴），存在最小方差的投资组合（即这个顶点），即这点的σ值是（曲线上σ值）最小的。
沿着这条曲线，表示有许多其他可能的投资组合。
曲线所包含的各个点，表示各项初始资产。
例如，这个点表示一号资产，那个点表示二号资产。
根据各项资产的预期收益率和标准差在哪，就能看到如何（投资）更好，如（顶点的）方差值就比（刚才假设的那两点资产的）方差值要小。
前面刚提过的等权重例子，是指两项资产具有相同时预期收益率、相同的方差。
而不相同的情况更加普遍。
以上就是预期收益率和有效组合边界的问题。
希勒示出用实际数据计算的一个图例。
图中有一条曲线（粉色线）是两项资产（股票和政府债券）的投资组合，是用刚才讲的公式，计算出了这两项资产不同组合的有效边界。
在曲线上不同的点，是希勒采用从1983年到2006年的数据代入公式计算出来的，计算出那个时间段的股票平均收益率和债券平均收益率。
这些债券是长期政府债券，由于是长期债券，就存在不确定性和变化性。
希勒先计算出σ1、σ2、r1和r2，再代入刚才讲的公式，就得到了这条曲线。
曲线示出，投资组合的收益标准差作为投资组合预期收益率的一个函数。
从曲线上，可以得到任何组合，也就是通过选择投资组合的一个配置，在曲线上就有相应的一个点。
例如，在曲线上的这一点，是一个100%债券的组合，在这个时间段里，这个投资组合5的预期收益率是9%多一点，而标准差是9%多一点。
在曲线上的这一点，是一个100%股票的组合，这个投资组合的平均收益率或预期收益率要高得多，大约为13%，但是，其收益的标准差也高得多，大约为16%。
这是两种单一的投资组合情况，意味着投资者只投资债券，或只投资了股票。
曲线上也示出了其它一些各种组合的收益。
在投资组合方差最小的点上，这个组合的预期收益标准差是最小的，这个组合在样本期是25%的股票和75%的债券。
还有其他的组合，例如这一点，是50%的股票和50%的债券，在这点的上面，也可以取到超过100%股票的投资组合，比如取150%股票的投资组合，这意味着，取了一个杠杆化的投资组合，需要借贷。
如果你有1美元用于投资，同时能借到0.5美元，投资了价值1.5美元的股票，就会落到这个点（150%股票）上，将会获得非常高的收益，但也具有更多的风险。
（因为）借钱买股票将会有风险。
你也可以选择下面的一个点，高于100%债券的组合，怎样做呢？你可在股市做空，卖掉价值0.5美元的股票，购买价值1.5美元的债券，就能落到这点上了。