曼昆《经济学原理宏观精选》期末复习
(完整版)曼昆宏观经济学精要笔记
(完整版)曼昆宏观经济学精要笔记-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1宏观经济学讲义整理N·格里高利·曼昆第一章宏观经济学的科学一、宏观经济学：1、一个核心问题——政府应该而且能够干预经济吗？2、两个流派3、三大模型4、四大目标二、曼昆宏观：1、宏观应该是一个整体2、年轻、不完善的学科3、三大指数：①经济增长(GDP) ②通货膨胀（CPI）③失业率三、三种价格情况1、价格刚性2、价格粘性3、价格弹性第二章宏观经济学的数据一、三大数据1、国内生产总值（GDP ）：一国的总收入及其用于产品与服务产出的总支出 2、消费物价指数（CPI ）：衡量物价水平 3、失业率：失业者在劳动力中的比例 二、存量与流量存量（stock ）：时点上的数量，如个人的财富、失业者人数、经济中的资本量、政府的债务等。
流量（flow ）：每一单位时间内的数量，如GDP 、个人的收入和支出、失去工作的人的数量、经济中的投资量、财政预算赤字等 三、计算GDP 的注意事项 ①二手车并不包含在GDP 中 ②存货属于GDP ③住房在GDP 之中 ④耐用品不属于GDP⑤那些非生产性活动以及地下交易、黑市交易等不计入GDP 中，如家务劳动、自给自足性生产、赌博和毒品的非法交易等 ⑥股票不是GDP 四、GDP 平减指数名义GDP:按现期价格衡量的产品与服务的价值。
实际GDP:按一组不变价格衡量的产品与服务的价值。
GDP 平减指数=GDP名义实际GDP五、支出的组成部分 Y C I G NX =+++注意：①投资可以是正可以是负，如存货减少，存货投资就是负的。
②转移支付不是CDP 的一部分 六、收入的其他衡量指标①国名生产总值（GNP ）=GDP+来自外国的要素支付 -面向外国的要素支付 ②国名净产值（NNP ）=GDP -折旧 ③国民收入（NI ）=NNP -间接企业税④个人收入（PI ）=国民收入-公司利润-社会保险税-净利息+股息+政府对个人的转移支付+个人利息收入⑤个人可支配收入（DPI ）=个人收入-个人税收和非税收支出 七、消费物价指数 CPI 衡量如： CPI=()()()()525200622006⨯+⨯⨯+⨯现期苹果价格现期桔子价格苹果价格桔子价格 注：CPI 是拉斯拜尔指数，GDP 平减指数是帕氏指数 八、失业率、劳动力参与率 失业率=100%⨯失业人数劳动力劳动力参与率=100%⨯劳动力成年人口第三章 国民收入：源自何处，去向何方一、生产函数(),Y F K L =1、规模报酬不变：(),zY F zK zL =2、长期和短期分析 长期：(),Q F K L = 短期：(),Q F K L =3、齐次生产函数（规模报酬不变） 如，1Q AK L αα-=()(),,F zK zL zF K L = 4、要素市场与企业的均衡分析W MPL P =(劳动的边际产量=实际工资) 二、国民收入 1、欧拉定理劳动：L W MP P =( WP 为实际工资，即真实的价格，真实的货币供给) 资本：K LMP P =2、进一步，柯布-道格拉斯函数（α为资本的份额） 1Y AK L αα-=∴ (1)L Y MP Lα=- K Y MP Kα= ⇒1L K MP MP αα-=,即长期中国民收入在资本和劳动之间的划分大体上式不变的。
曼昆宏观经济学-复习要点
复习要点第23章 一国收入的衡量—GDP微观经济学(microeconomics)研究个别家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及它们如何在市场上相互交易。
宏观经济学(macroeconomics)研究整个经济，包括通货膨胀、失业率和经济增长。
一 GDP1 定义：国内生产总值 (gross domestic product ， GDP) 是在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与劳务的市场价值。
2 组成：GDP （用Y 代表）被分为四个组成部分：消费（C ）、投资（I ）、政府购买（G ）、净出口（NX ）：Y = C ＋ I ＋ G ＋ NX3 实际GDP 与名义GDP ：实际GDP=名义GDP-通货膨胀率，衡量的是生产的变动，而不是物价的变动。
4 GDP 平减指数： 100⨯=GDPGDP GDP 实际名义平减指数，是经济学家用来检测经济平均物价水平，从而监测通货膨胀率的一个重要指标。
（GDP deflator ）5 GDP 与经济福利：➢ 由于GDP 用市场价格来评价物品与劳务，它就没有把几乎所有在市场之外进行的活动的价值包括进来，特别是，GDP 漏掉了在家庭中生产的物品与劳务的价值。
➢ GDP 没有包括的另一种东西是环境质量。
➢ GDP 也没有涉及收入分配。
二 衡量收入的其他指标：➢ 国民生产总值(GNP)：是一国永久居民(称为国民)所赚到的总收入。
它与GDP 的不同之处在于：它包括本国公民在国外赚到的收入，而不包括外国人在本国赚到的收入。
➢ 国民生产净值(NNP)：是一国居民的总收入(GNP)减折旧的消耗。
➢ 国民收入、个人收入、个人可支配收入第24章 生活费用的衡量—CPI一 CPI1 定义：消费物价指数 (consumer price index ，CPI) 是普通消费者所购买的物品与劳务的总费用的衡量标准2 计算：定义篮子 → 找出价格 → 计算费用 → 选择基年并计算指数 → 计算通货膨胀率 消费者物价指数=基年一篮子的价格格一篮子物品与劳务的价*100 1001122⨯-=CPICPI CPI 年底年第年第年的通货膨胀率第 3 衡量生活费用过程中存在的问题替代倾向新产品的引进无法衡量的质量变动。
曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理.
1Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives?Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put in place. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knivesin steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketplace do?The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting intheir own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.2Q1How is economics like a science?Economics is like a science because economists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to run controlled experiments. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments.Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea of“efficiency”?The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production possibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A in Figure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good.Q7What is the difference between a positive and a normative statement? Give an example of that.Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptiveand make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example.Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. Normative:The government should keep the growth rate of money low.3Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ.Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative opportunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm, or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they can't have a comparative advantage in every good.Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2.A nation will export goods for which it has a comparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producing those goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilities frontiers.4Q5Propeye’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinach an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeye’s demand curve for spinach?Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him.Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income.Q8 Dose a change in producers’technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve?A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to a movement along the supply curve.Q9 Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market towards its equilibrium.The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied.If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below theequilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage.Sellers can raise their price without losing customers.That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.Q11 Describe the role of prices in market economies.Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leadssuppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.5Q2 List and explain the four determinants of the price elasticity of demand discussed in the chapter.The determinants of the price elasticity of demand include how available close substitutes are, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, how broadly defined the market is, and the time horizon. Luxury goods have greater price elastic ties than necessities, goods with close substitutes have greater elastic ties, goods in more narrowly defined markets have greater elastic ties, and the elasticity of demand is higher the longer the time horizon.Q4 On a supply-and-demand diagram, show equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers.Figure 1 presents a supply-and-demand diagram, showing equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers. Total revenue equals the equilibrium price times the equilibrium quantity, which is the area of the rectangle shown in the figure.Figure 16Q2Which causes a shortage of a good—a price ceiling or a price floor? Which causes a surplus?A shortage of a good arises when there is a binding price ceiling. A surplus of a good arises when there is a binding price floor.Q6How does a tax on a good affect the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold?A tax on a good raises the price buyers pay, lowers the price sellers receive, and reduces the quantity sold.Q7What determines how the burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers? Why?The burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers depending on the elasticity of demand and supply. Elasticity represents the willingness of buyers or sellers to leave the market, which in turns depends on their alternatives. When a good is taxed, the side of the market with fewer good alternatives cannot easily leave the market and thus bears moreof the burden of the tax.7Q1Explain how buyer’s willingness to pay, consumer’surplus, and the demand curve are related.Buyers' willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and aboveQ2 Explain how seller’s costs, producer’s surplus, and the supply curve are related.Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related.The height of the supply curve represents thecosts of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price minus each sellers' costs.Figure 413Q2 Give an example of an opportunity cost that accountant might not count as a cost. Why would the accountant ignore the cost?An accountant would not count the owner ’ opportunityscost of alternative employment as an accounting cost. Anexample is given in the text in which Helen runs a cookie business, but she could instead work as a computer programmer.Because she's working in her cookie factory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. The accountant ignores this opportunity cost because no money flow occurs. But the cost is relevant to Helen's decision to run the cookie factory.Q3What is marginal product, and what does it means if it is diminishing? Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input.Diminishing marginal productmeans that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Q8Defind economies of scale and explain why they might arise. Define diseconomies of scale and explain why then might arise.Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies of scale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of coordination problems inherent in a large organization.14Q2Draw the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price, explain how the firm chooses the level of output thatmaximizes profit. Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm.For a given price (such as P * ), the level of output thatmaximizes profit is the output where marginal cost equals price ( *Q ), as long as price is greater than average variable costat that point (in the short run), or greater than average total cost (in the long run).Figure 2Q6 Does a firm ’s price equal marginal cost in the short run, in the long run, or both? Explain.The firm's price equals the minimum of average total cost only in the long run. In the short run, price may be greaterthan average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or price may be less than average total cost, in which casethe industry, which will lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raise the price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits nor losses. At that point, priceequals average total cost.15Q3Why is monopolist’s marginal revenue less than the price of its goods? Can marginal revenue be negative? Explain.A monopolist's marginal revenue is less than the price of its product because:(1) its demand curve is the market demand curve, so (2) to increase the amount sold, the monopolist must lower the price of its good for every unit it sells. (3) Thiscut in prices reduces revenue on the units it was already selling.A monopolist's marginal revenue can be negative because to get purchasers to buy an additional unit of the good, the firm must reduce its price on all units of the good. The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases revenue, but the decline inprice decreases revenue. The overall effect depends on the elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative.isQ4 Draw the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curve for a monopolist. Show the profit-maximizing level of output. Show the profit-maximizing price.Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing level of output, then shows the profit-maximizing price, P m.The intersection of the Q m . The demand curveFigure 116Q1If a group of sellers could form a cartel, what quantity and price would they try to set?If a group of sellers could form a cartel, they would try to set quantity and price like a monopolist. They would set quantity at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and set price at the corresponding point on the demand curve.Q5What is the prisoners’dilemma and what does it have to do with oligopoly?The prisoners' dilemma is a game between two people or firms that illustrates why it is difficult for opponents to cooperate even when cooperation would make them all better off. Each person or firm has a great incentive to cheat on any cooperative agreement to make himself or itself better off.17Q2 Draw a diagram of the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. How is price related to average total cost? How is price related to marginal cost?In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantity Q1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR 2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, atwhich point the price ( P2) equals average total cost ( ATC), so profits are now zero.Figure 223Q1 Explain why an economy’s income must equal its expenditure.An economy's income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyer and a seller.Thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers.24Q2 Describe the three problems that make the consumer price index an imperfect measure of the cost of living.The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are:(1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods,which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.25Q2List and describe four determinants of productivity.The four determinants of productivity are:(1) physical capital, which is the stock of equipment and structures that areused to produce goods and services; (2) human capital, which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided by nature; and (4) technological knowledge, which is society derstanding of ’thes bestun ways to produce goods and services.Questions are chosen from problems and applications.Chapter 1: Q9By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. If you divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than itwould take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores.Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers.Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine, and they exchange some wine for some clothes.Chapter 2: Q2a. Figure 6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter.It is bowed out because when most of the economy’ s resources are being usedto produce butter, the frontier is steep and when most of the economyare being used to produce guns, the frontier is very flat.When the economy is producing a lot of guns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to make guns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing a lot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used to make butter, so each unit of guns given upyields a small increase in the production of butter.Thus, the production possibilities frontier is steep.b. Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside the production possibilities frontier.Point B is feasible but inefficient because it’ s inside the production possibilities frontier.Figure 6c. The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butter.The Doves might choose a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.d.If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount, the Hawks would get abigger peace dividend because the production possibilities frontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a result, the reduction of a given number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in the quantity of butter produced than when starting at point D.Chapter 3: Q4a.Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, the opportunity cost of a car is 15bushels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of a bushel of wheat is 1 /15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of each other.b.See Figure 4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce a total of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier.If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce a total of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the production possibilities frontier.Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same, the production possibilities frontier is a straight line.If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devoted to car production.That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who will produce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushelsper worker). This is shown as point A on Figure 4.c.If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues to consume 10 million cars, then Canadawill need to produce a total of 20 million cars. So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels of wheat per car, it will be able to consume 200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as point B in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets thesame number of cars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.Figure 4Chapter 4: Q1a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. This can be seen in Figure 6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for oranges. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.b.People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so demand for Caribbean hotelrooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are morepleasant. The result, as shown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figure shows.Figure 6a Figure 7bc. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected.Since much oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8.The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of gasoline.With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will notfind Cadillacs as attractive.In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them.The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 9.The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.Figure 8c Figure 9cChapter 5: Q2a. For business travelers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(2,000 -1,900)/1,950]/[(250 - 200)/225] = 0.05/0.22 = 0.23. For vacationers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(800 - 600)/700] / [(250 - 200)/ 225] = 0.29/ 0.22 = 1.32.b.The price elasticity of demand for vacationers is higher than the elasticity for business travelers because vacationerscan choose more easily a different mode of transportation (like driving or taking the train). Business travelers are less likely to do so since time is more important to them and their schedules are less adaptable.Chapter 6: Q2a. The imposition of a binding price floor in the cheese market is shown in Figure 3. In the absence of the price floor, the price would be P1 and the quantity would be Q1. With the floor set at P f , which is greater than P1, the quantity demanded is Q2, while quantity supplied is Q3 , so there is a surplus of cheese in the amount Q3–Q2 .b.The farmers ’ complaint that their total revenue has declined is correct if demand is elastic. With elastic demand, the percentage decline in quantity would exceed the percentage rise in price, so total revenue would decline.c.If the government purchases all the surplus cheese at the price floor, producers benefit and taxpayers lose. Producers would produce quantity Q3 of cheese, and their total revenue would increase substantially. But consumerswould buy only quantity Q2 of cheese, so they are in the same position as before. Taxpayers lose because they would be financing the purchase of the surplus cheese through higher taxes.曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理.Figure 3aChapter 7: Q8a.The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, asshown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases.The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amountB +C+D.Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below theprice). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G.So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G–B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the pricereduces producer surplus. Since consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G –B, total surplusrises by C + D + F + G.Figure 14A Figure 15bb.Since adding machines are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that peoplesubstitute computers for adding machines, shifting the demand for adding machines to the left, as shown in Figure 15.The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of adding machines.Consumer surplus inthe adding-machine market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C–B.Producer surplus changes from areaC +D +E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Adding machine producers are sad about technological advance in computersbecause their producer surplus declines.c.Since software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The resultis an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B,a net change of A –C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C+D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’ s richest men, since his company prod software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理.Figure 16Chapter 13: Q4a.The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:Hours Fish Fixed Cost Variable Cost Total Cost Marginal Product0 $10 $0 $10 ---1 10 10 5 15 102 18 10 10 20 83 24 10 15 25 64 28 10 20 30 45 30 10 25 25 2b.Figure 7 graphs the fisherman's production function. The production function becomes flatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginal product.Figure 7b Figure 8cc.The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing.Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It slopes up because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish. Chapter 14: Q9a. Figure 9 illustrates the situation in the U.S. textile industry. With no international trade, the market is in long-run equilibrium. Supply intersects demand at quantity Q1 and price $30, with a typical firm producing output q1.Figure 9b.The effect of imports at $25 is that the market supply curve follows the old supply curve up to a price of $25, then becomes horizontal at that price. As a result, demand exceeds domestic supply, so the country imports textiles from other countries.The typical domestic firm now reduces its output from q 1 to q 2, incurring losses, since the large fixed costs imply that average total cost will be much higher than the price.c. In the long run, domestic firms will be unable to compete with foreign firms because their costs are too high.All the domestic firms will exit the industry and other countries will supply enough to satisfy the entire domestic demand.Chapter 15: Q4a.Figure 5 illustrates the market for groceries when there are many competing supermarkets with constant marginalcost. Output is Q C, price is P C, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is zero, and total surplus is area A.Figure 5a Figure 6b b. If the supermarkets merge, Figure 6 illustrates the new situation. Quantity declines from Q C to Q M and price rises to P M . Area A in Figure 5 is equal to area B + C + D + E + F in Figure 6. Consumer surplus is now area B + C, producersurplus is area D + E, and total surplus is area B + C + D + E. Consumers transfer the amount of area D + E to producersand the deadweight loss is area F.Chapter 16: Q2a.OPEC members were trying to reach an agreement to cut production so they could raise the price.b.They were unable to agree on cutting production because each country has an incentive to cheat on any agreement. The turmoil is a decline in the price of oil because of increased production.c.OPEC would like Norway and Britain to join their cartel so they could act like a monopoly.Chapter 23: Q1a.Consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by a household.Investment increases because a house is an investment good.Consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, but investment decreases because the carin Ford ’ s inventory had been counted as an investment good until it was sold.Consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household.Government purchases increase because the government spent money to provide a good to the public.Consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household, but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.Investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.Chapter 24: Q4a.Since the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI.b.The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals theimprovement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality, so consumers are worse off. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost.Chapter 25: Q4The opportunity cost of investing in capital is the loss of consumption that results from redirecting resources towards investment. Over-investment in capital is possible because of diminishing marginal returns. A country can "over-invest" in capital if people would prefer to have higher consumption spending and less future growth. The opportunity cost of investing in human capital is also the loss of consumption that is needed to provide the resources for investment. A country could "over-invest" in human capital if people were too highly educated for the jobs they could get for example, if the best job a Ph.D. in philosophy could find is managing a restaurant.。
曼昆中级宏微观经济学复习要点解析
曼昆中级宏微观经济学复习要点解析宏微观经济学复习要点1、一级、二级和三级价格歧视的特征（15）一级价格歧视：又称完全差别定价，即根据消费者的每个单位商品的边际效用定价，并随商品消费量的增加而逐个降低商品的价格。
一级差别定价的两个严格条件是：完全垄断和完全信息。
二级价格歧视：非线性定价法，即平均价格随销售量的变化而变化。
三级价格歧视：厂商将顾客分成不同的类型，并对不同类型的顾客收取不同的价格，这便是三级价格歧视。
2、供给的变动和供给量的变动，需求的变动和需求量的变动（图）（4）商品本身价格变动所引起的需求量的变化称为需求量的变动，它在需求曲线图上表现为在一条既定的需求曲线上点的位置移动。
当商品本身的价格不变时，由于其他因素的变动引起的需求量的变化，称为需求的变动。
它在图形上表现为需求曲线的左右移动。
供给量的变动是对应于价格变化供给量的变化情况，它表现为沿同一供给曲线上点的移动，而供给的变动是由于价格以外其他因素的变化引起的，它表现为供给曲线的左右移动。
3、征税对价格的影响（图）（6）对买者征税时，抑制了市场活动，因为它使该物品在新的均衡时销售量减少了；同时，买者与卖者共同分摊了税收负担，在新的均衡时买者为该物品支付得多了，而卖者得到的少了。
对卖者征税时，供给曲线向上（或曰向左）移动，均衡数量减少，均衡价格上升，即买者比原来支付得多了，卖者比原来得到的少了。
税收同样抑制了市场活动。
4、机会成本、会计成本、显性成本、隐性成本、边际成本、总成本、平均成本、可变成本、平均可变成本、固定成本、平均固定成本函数、计算、相互位置关系（13）机会成本：是指一定生产要素被用于生产某种产品时所放弃的、用于生产另一种产品时可能获得的最大收益。
机会成本又称为经济成本。
会计成本：是通过一种资源交易价格或转换时发生的资金的历史支出对成本进行界定的；经济成本是指生产投入能在别的最佳用途上获得的报酬。
会计成本通常是指显性成本，而经济成本（全部机会成本）既包括显性成本，又包括隐性成本。
曼昆《经济学原理》复习资料
《经济学原理》期末复习提纲一、题型名词辨析（4分×5=20分）选择题（1分×20=20分）判断题（2分×10=20分）计算题（10分×2=20分）论述题（10分×2=20分）二、知识点第1章•理解稀缺性、经济学、机会成本、边际、激励以及市场失灵、外部性和通货膨胀等术语的含义稀缺性：社会资源的有限性。
社会拥有的资源是有限的，所以不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与劳务。
经济学：研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源经济学家研究：人们如何作出决策；人们如何与他人相互交易；影响整体经济的力量和趋势机会成本：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西边际变动：对行动变化微小的增量调整市场失灵：市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况外部性：一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响通货膨胀：物价总水平的上升•熟悉经济学的十大原理1、人们面对权衡取舍，有所得必有所失，要兼顾公平与效率。
2、所得的成本就是放弃的东西，真正的成本不是会计成本，而是机会成本。
3、增量大小的比较决定选择，边际分析是经济学分析的关键。
4、人们根据刺激做出决策，并随刺激的变化而进行调整。
5、交换可以使有关各方都得到好处。
6、市场可以最大限度地提高经济效率。
7、政府可以弥补市场的局限，如市场失灵、外部性和垄断等。
8、一国生产能力的大小决定国民生活水平的高低。
9、货币发行过多可能造成通货膨胀。
10、短期中，失业和通胀之间有替代关系。
•领会“天下没有免费的午餐”这句话的含义做出决策要求我们在一个目标与另一个目标之间权衡取舍。
（大炮vs黄油；环境vs收益；效率vs公平）第2章•理解循环流向图与生产可能性边界这两个模型的内容循环流向图：说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型 p21生产可能性边界：表示一个经济在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产量的各种组合的图形。
表明了社会所面临的一种权衡取舍，但随着时间的推移，可以改变。
曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册...
曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册...第32章开放经济的宏观经济理论32.1复习笔记1．开放经济的宏观经济模型的两个假设（1）经济的GDP是既定的，⽤真实GDP衡量的⼀个经济物品与劳务的产量是由⽣产要素供给和所得到的投⼊变为产出的⽣产技术决定的。
（2）经济物价⽔平是既定的，物价⽔平的调整使货币的供求平衡。
2．开放经济的可贷资⾦市场开放经济的可贷资⾦市场中，可贷资⾦的供给来⾃国民储蓄（S），可贷资⾦的需求来⾃国内投资（I）和资本净流出（NCO）。
由于资本净流出既可以是正的，也可以是负的，所以它既可以增加，也可以减少由国内投资引起的可贷资⾦需求。
可贷资⾦的供给量和需求量取决于真实利率。
真实利率对国民储蓄和国内投资和资本净流出均有影响。
利率调整使可贷资⾦的供给与需求平衡。
在均衡利率时，可贷资⾦供给正好与需求平衡。
3．外汇市场真实汇率是由外汇市场上的供给与需求决定的。
外汇的供给来⾃资本净流出。
由于资本净流出不取决于真实汇率，所以，外汇供给曲线是垂直的。
外汇的需求来⾃净出⼝。
由于较低的真实汇率刺激了净出⼝（从⽽增加了为这些净出⼝⽀付需求的外汇量），需求曲线向右下⽅倾斜。
在均衡的真实汇率时，⼈们为购买外国资产⽽供给的外汇数量正好与⼈们为购买净出⼝⽽需求的外汇数量平衡。
4．开放经济中的均衡（1）资本净流出：两个市场之间的联系在可贷资⾦市场上，供给来⾃国民储蓄，需求来⾃国内投资和资本净流出，⽽且真实利率使供求平衡。
在外汇市场上，供给来⾃资本净流出，需求来⾃净出⼝，⽽且真实汇率使供求平衡。
资本净流出是联系这两个市场的变量。
在可贷资⾦市场上，资本净流出是需求的⼀部分。
在外汇市场上，资本净流出是供给的来源。
资本净流出的关键决定因素是真实利率。
图32-1表⽰利率和资本净流出之间的这种负相关关系。
这条资本净流出曲线表⽰可贷资⾦市场和外汇市场之间的联系。
图32-1资本净流出如何取决于利率（2）两个市场的同时均衡在图32-2（a）中，可贷资⾦的供给和需求决定了真实利率。
曼昆宏观经济学复习提纲(学霸整理地)
宏观经济学复习提纲题型：1、单项选择题（1*20=20）2、名词解释（3*5=15）3、计算题（12*3=36）4、分析题（9+10+10或6+10+13.29）第一章宏观经济学的科学1、宏观经济学的研究对象（总体）：宏观经济学是对整体经济——包括收入的增长、价格的变动和失业率的研究。
2、研究内容（三变量、四大问题）：GDP、CPI、失业率（变量）失业、通货膨胀、经济增长、国际收支（问题）3、微观经济学与宏观经济学的学科区别（研究对象、研究问题、研究方法、中心理论）。
第二章宏观经济学的数据1、国内生产总值概念及计算规则：给定时期的一个经济体内生产的所有最终产品和服务的市场价值。
（P20）（1）GDP是市场价值.而非产量。
（2）GDP只计入本期生产的产品和劳务的价值.不包括已有产品的产权转让（3）GDP的计算包含了对上一年存货的处理（4）GDP指最终产品的价值而非中间产品的价值.最终产品价值由价值的增值之和构成2、国民收入核算中的五个总量（GDP/GNP.NNP/NDP、NI、PI、DPI）：（1）NNP=GNP-折旧；NDP=GDP-折旧（2）NI=NNP-企业间接税+政府对企业的补贴（转移支付）（3）PI=NI-公司未分配利润-企业所得税-社会保险税-净利息+政府对个人的转移支付+个人利息收入+股息（4）DPI=PI-个人所得税3、国民收入核算的基本方法（支出法）：GDP=C+I+G+NX4、名义GDP 与实际GDP 的换算（CPI\GDP 平减指数）：（1）实际GDP=报告期产量*基期价格=报告期名义GDP ×（基期价格/报告期价格）（2）消费物价指数：是物价总水平的一种衡量指标.也称零售物价指数和生活费用指数.表示固定一篮子消费品的费用相对于基年同样一篮子消费品的费用。
是反映消费品（包括服务）价格水平变动状况的一种价格指数.一般用加权平均法来编制。
（3）GDP 平减指数：又称为GDP 的隐含价格平减指数.等于名义GDP 和实际GDP 的比率.GDP 平减指数=名义GDP/实际GDP.反映了经济中物价总水平所发生的变动。
曼昆《经济学原理》宏观部分重点整理
23一国收入得衡量一、经济得收入与支出·GＤP衡量:经济中所有人得总收入与用于经济中物品与劳务产出得总支出.·对一个整体经济而言，收入必定等于支出。
·GDP衡量货币流量.·两种计算GDＰ方法:加总家庭对于物品与劳务得总支出或加总企业支付工资、租金与利润得总收入.一、国内生产总值得衡量1、国内生产总值：在某一既定时期一个国家内生产得所有最终物品与劳务得市场价值。
2、几点说明·ＧDＰ使用市场价格。
·GDP不包括非法生产与销售得东西与家庭内得生产与消费。
·ＧDP只包括最终物品得价值。
·GDP包括有形得物品与无形得劳务。
·ＧDＰ不包括过去(一年或一个季度之外)生产得东西得交易。
·用两种算法算出得GＤP差额为统计误差.3、其她收入衡量指标·国民生产总值GＮP：一国永久居民所赚到得总收入.= GDP + 本国公民在国外赚到得收入—外国人在本国赚到得收入·国民生产净值NNＰ:= GＮP –折旧(经济中设备与建筑物存量得磨损或消耗）·国民收入:一国居民在物品与劳务生产中赚到得总收入。
= NNP –间接得企业税+ 企业补贴·个人收入：家庭与非公司制企业得到得收入。
= 国民收入–留存收益(公司获得但未支付给其所有者得收入) —公司所得税–对社会保障得支付+ 家庭从其持有得政府债券中得到得利息收入+ 家庭从政府转移支付项目中得到得收入三、ＧＤP组成部分·GDP = 消费＋投资+ 政府购买+ 净出口= Ｃ＋I + Ｇ+ NX = Y·消费:家庭除购买新住房之外用于物品与劳务得支出.·投资:用于资本设备、存货与建筑物得支出,包括家庭用于购买新住房得支出。
·政府购买（政府消费支出与总投资）:地方、州与联邦政府用于物品与劳务得支出。
·转移支付:改变家庭收入却没有反映经济得生产，不用于交换现期生产得物品与劳务,不计入政府购买。
(完整版)曼昆宏观经济学原理答案
第一篇导言复习题第一章宏观经济学的科学1、解释宏观经济学和微观经济学之间的差距，这两个领域如何相互关联？【答案】微观经济学研究家庭和企业如何作出决策以及这些决策在市场上的相互作用。
微观经济学的中心原理是家庭和企业的最优化——他们在目的和所面临的约束条件下可以让自己的境况更好。
而相对的，宏观经济学研究经济的整体情况，它主要关心总产出、总就业、一般物价水平和国际贸易等问题，以及这些宏观指标的波动趋势与规律。
应该看到，宏观经济学研究的这些宏观经济变量是以经济体系中千千万万个体家庭和企业之间的相互作用所构成的。
因此，微观经济决策总是构成宏观经济模型的基础，宏观经济学必然依靠微观经济基础。
2、为什么经济学家建立模型？【答案】一般来说，模型是对某些具体事物的抽象，经济模型也是如此。
经济模型可以简洁、直接地描述所要研究的经济对象的各种关系。
这样，经济学家可以依赖模型对特定的经济问题进行研究；并且，由于经济实际不可控，而模型是可控的，经济学家可以根据研究需要，合理、科学的调整模型来研究各种经济情况。
另外，经济模型一般是数学模型，而数学是全世界通用的科学语言，使用规范、标准的经济模型也有利于经济学家正确表达自己的研究意图，便于学术交流。
3、什么是市场出清模型？什么时候市场出清的假设是适用的？【答案】市场出清模型就是供给与需求可以在价格机制调整下很快达到均衡的模型。
市场出清模型的前提条件是价格是具有伸缩性的（或弹性）。
但是，我们知道价格具有伸缩性是一个很强的假设，在很多实际情况下，这个假设都是不现实的。
比如：劳动合同会使劳动力价格在一段时期内具有刚性。
因此，我们必须考虑什么情况下价格具有伸缩性是合适的。
现在一般认为，在研究长期问题时，假设价格具有伸缩性是合理的；而在研究短期问题时，最好假设价格具有刚性。
因为，从长期看，价格机制终将发挥作用，使市场供需平衡，即市场出清，而在短期，价格机制因其他因素制约，难以很快使市场出清。
(完整word版)曼昆经济学原理复习大纲(超全)
宏观经济学：研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。
实证表述：试图描述世界是什么样子的观点（描述性，科学家）。
规范表述：试图描述世界应该是什么样子的观点（规范性，政策顾问）。
科学家试图去解释世界，政策顾问试图去改善世界。
经济学家意见分歧的原因：1.科学判断的不同（征税是根据收入还是消费）
第九章应用：国际贸易（重点）
世界价格：一种物品在世界市场上所通行的价格。
出口国分析：
当一国允许贸易并成为一种物品的出口者时，国内该物品生产者的状况变好了，而国内该物品消费者的状况变坏了。
从赢家收益超过了输家损失的意义上说，贸易使一国的经济福利增加了。
进口国分析：
当一国允许贸易并成为一种物品的进口国时，国内该物品消费者的状况变好了，而国内该物品生产者的状况变坏了。
需求量：买者愿意并且能够购买的一种物品的数量。
需求定理：认为在其他条件不变时，一种物品的价格上升，对该物品的需求量减少的观点。（其他条件：决定需求的非价格因素）
市场需求是个人需求之和。
需求曲线的移动（重点）：（需求增加需求减少）
a.收入
正常物品：在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量增加的物品。
低档物品：在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量减少的物品。
富有弹性：价格上升，总收益减少。
单位弹性：价格上升，总收益不变。
尽管线性需求曲线的斜率是不变的，但弹性并不是不变的。这是因为斜率是两个变量变动的比率，而弹性是两个变量变动的百分比的比率。
在价格低而数量高的各点上，需求曲线是缺乏弹性的；在价格高而数量低的各点上，需求曲线是富有弹性的。
需求收入弹性：衡量一种物品需求量对消费者收入变动反应程度的指标。（正常物品是正数，低档物品是负数）
曼昆《经济学原理(宏观经济学分册)》知识梳理及习题(像经济学家一样思考)【圣才出品】
第2章像经济学家一样思考2.1 知识结构导图2.2 考点难点归纳考点1：两个简单的经济模型（1）循环流量图循环流量图是经济组织的简要表述，表明了物品和劳务、生产要素以及货币支付在家庭和企业之间的流动。
经济决策由家庭和企业做出。
家庭和企业在物品与服务市场（在这个市场上，家庭是买者而企业是卖者）以及生产要素市场（在这个市场上，企业是买者而家庭是卖者）上相互交易。
外面一圈的箭头表示货币的流向，里面一圈的箭头表示相应的物品与服务的流向。
典型的循环流量图如图2-1所示。
图2-1 循环流量图（2）生产可能性边界生产可能性边界表示一个经济在可获得的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产品的产量的各种组合的图形。
经济可以在生产可能性边界上或该边界内的任何一点上进行生产，但不能在该边界以外任何一点上进行生产。
生产可能性边界上（而不是该边界以内）的点代表有效率的生产水平。
生产可能性边界也表明了用另一种物品来衡量一种物品的机会成本。
技术进步使生产可能性边界向外移动，从而增加了经济所能生产的产量。
考点2：微观经济学与宏观经济学微观经济学研究家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及它们在某个市场上的相互交易。
宏观经济学研究整体经济现象。
例如，联邦赤字、失业率和提高人们生活水平的政策。
微观经济学和宏观经济学是密切相关的。
由于整体经济的变动产生于千百万个人的决策，所以，不考虑相关的微观经济决策而去理解宏观经济的发展是不可能的。
尽管微观经济学与宏观经济学之间存在固有的联系，但这两个领域仍然是不同的。
由于微观经济学和宏观经济学探讨不同的问题，所以，它们有时采用相当不同的方法。
【名师点读】微观经济学与宏观经济学是西方经济理论的两个分支，所考查的对象和依据的理论等各不相同，考生应深刻理解微观经济学和宏观经济学之间的区别与联系，为以后经济知识的学习奠定良好的基础，同时有助于更清晰、更准确地运用相关经济理论去分析和解决实际问题。
考点3：实证分析与规范分析实证分析即实证表述，是描述经济现象“是什么”以及社会经济问题实际上是如何解决的一种分析方法。
曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理.
1Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives?Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put in place. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knives in steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketplace do?The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting in their own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.2Q1How is economics like a science?Economics is like a science because economists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to run controlled experiments. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments.Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea of “efficiency”? The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production possibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A in Figure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good.Q7What is the difference between a positive and a normative statement? Give an example of that.Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptive and make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example. Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. Normative: The government should keep the growth rate of money low.3Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ.Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative opportunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm, or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they can't have a comparative advantage in every good.Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2.A nation will export goods for which it has a comparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producing those goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilitiesfrontiers.4Q5Propeye’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinach an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeye’s demand curve for spinach?Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him. Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income.Q8 Dose a change in producers’ technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve?A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to a movement along the supply curve.Q9 Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market towards its equilibrium.The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below the equilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price without losing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.Q11 Describe the role of prices in market economies.Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.5Q2 List and explain the four determinants of the price elasticity of demand discussed in the chapter.The determinants of the price elasticity of demand include how available close substitutes are, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, how broadly defined the market is, and the time horizon. Luxury goods have greater price elastic ties than necessities, goods with close substitutes have greater elastic ties, goods in more narrowly defined markets have greater elastic ties, and the elasticity of demand is higher the longer the time horizon.Q4 On a supply-and-demand diagram, show equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers.Figure 1 presents a supply-and-demand diagram, showing equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers. Total revenue equals the equilibrium price times the equilibrium quantity, which is the area of the rectangle shown in the figure.Figure 16Q2Which causes a shortage of a good—a price ceiling or a price floor? Which causes a surplus?A shortage of a good arises when there is a binding price ceiling. A surplus of a good arises when there is a binding price floor.Q6How does a tax on a good affect the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold?A tax on a good raises the price buyers pay, lowers the price sellers receive, and reduces the quantity sold.Q7What determines how the burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers? Why?The burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers depending on the elasticity of demand and supply. Elasticity represents the willingness of buyers or sellers to leave the market, which in turns depends on their alternatives. When a good is taxed, the side of the market with fewer good alternatives cannot easily leave the market and thus bears more of the burden of the tax.7Q1Explain how buyer’s willingness to pay, consumer’ surplus, and the demand curve are related.Buyers' willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, which equals each buyer's willingness to pay less the price of the good.Q2 Explain how seller’s costs, producer’s surplus, and the supply curve are related.Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price minus each sellers' costs.Figure 413Q2 Give an example of an opportunity cost that accountant might not count as a cost. Why would the accountant ignore the cost?An accountant would not count the owner’s opportunity cost of alternative employment as an accounting cost. An example is given in the text in which Helen runs a cookie business, but she could instead work as a computer programmer. Because she's working in her cookie factory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. The accountant ignores this opportunity cost because no money flow occurs. But the cost is relevant to Helen's decision to run the cookie factory.Q3What is marginal product, and what does it means if it is diminishing? Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input. Diminishing marginal product means that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Q8Defind economies of scale and explain why they might arise. Define diseconomies of scale and explain why then might arise.Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies of scale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of coordination problems inherent in a large organization.14Q2Draw the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price, explain how the firm chooses the level of output that maximizes profit. Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price (such as P*), the level of output that maximizes profit is the output where marginal cost equals price (Q*), as long as price is greater than average variable cost at that point (in the short run), or greater than average total cost (in the long run).Figure 2Q6 Does a firm’s price equal marginal cost in the short run, in the long run, or both? Explain.The firm's price equals the minimum of average total cost only in the long run. In the short run, price may be greater than average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or price may be less than average total cost, in which case the firm is making losses. But the situation is different in the long run. If firms are making profits, other firms will enter the industry, which will lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raise the price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits nor losses. At that point, price equals average total cost.15Q3Why is monopolist’s marginal revenue less than the price of its goods? Can marginal revenue be negative? Explain.A monopolist's marginal revenue is less than the price of its product because: (1) its demand curve is the market demand curve, so (2) to increase the amount sold, the monopolist must lower the price of its good for every unit it sells. (3) This cut in prices reduces revenue on the units it was already selling.A monopolist's marginal revenue can be negative because to get purchasers to buy an additional unit of the good, the firm must reduce its price on all units of the good. The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases revenue, but the decline in price decreases revenue. The overall effect depends on the elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve is inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative.Q4 Draw the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curve for a monopolist. Show the profit-maximizing level of output. Show the profit-maximizing price.Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. The intersection of the marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing level of output, Q m. The demand curve then shows the profit-maximizing price, P m.Figure 116Q1If a group of sellers could form a cartel, what quantity and price would they try to set?If a group of sellers could form a cartel, they would try to set quantity and price like amonopolist. They would set quantity at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and set price at the corresponding point on the demand curve.Q5What is the prisoners’ dilemma and what does it have to do with oligopoly? The prisoners' dilemma is a game between two people or firms that illustrates why it is difficult for opponents to cooperate even when cooperation would make them all better off. Each person or firm has a great incentive to cheat on any cooperative agreement to make himself or itself better off.17Q2 Draw a diagram of the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. How is price related to average total cost? How is price related to marginal cost?In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantity Q1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, at which point the price (P2) equals average total cost (ATC), so profits are now zero.Figure 223Q1 Explain why an economy’s income must equal its expenditure.An economy's income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyer and a seller. Thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers.24Q2 Describe the three problems that make the consumer price index an imperfect measure of the cost of living.The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are: (1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods, which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.25Q2List and describe four determinants of productivity.The four determinants of productivity are: (1) physical capital, which is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services; (2) human capital, which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided by nature; and (4) technological knowledge, which issociety’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services.Questions are chosen from problems and applications.Chapter 1: Q9By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. If you divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than it would take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores.Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine, and they exchange some wine for some clothes. Chapter 2: Q2a. Figure 6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter. It is bowed out because when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce butter, the frontier is steep and when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce guns, the frontier is very flat. When the economy is producing a lot of guns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to make guns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing a lot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used to make butter, so each unit of guns given up yields a small increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is steep.b. Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside the production possibilities frontier. Point B is feasible but inefficient because it’s inside the production possibilities frontier.Figure 6c. The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butter. The Doves might choose a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.d. If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount, the Hawks would get a bigger peace dividend because the production possibilities frontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a result, the reduction of a given number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in the quantity of butter produced than when starting at point D.Chapter 3: Q4a. Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, the opportunity cost of a car is 15 bushels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of a bushel of wheat is 1/15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of eachother.b. See Figure 4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce a total of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce a total of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the production possibilities frontier. Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same, the production possibilities frontier is a straight line.If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devoted to car production. That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who will produce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushels per worker). This is shown as point A on Figure 4.c. If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues to consume 10 million cars, then Canada will need to produce a total of 20 million cars. So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels of wheat per car, it will be able to consume 200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as point B in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets the same number of cars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.Figure 4Chapter 4: Q1a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. This can be seen in Figure 6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for oranges. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so demand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are more pleasant. The result, as shown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figure shows.Figure 6a Figure 7bc. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Sincemuch oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of gasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will not find Cadillacs as attractive. In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.Figure 8c Figure 9c Chapter 5: Q2a. For business travelers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(2,000 - 1,900)/1,950]/[(250 - 200)/225] = 0.05/0.22 = 0.23. For vacationers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(800 - 600)/700] / [(250 - 200)/225] = 0.29/0.22 = 1.32.b. The price elasticity of demand for vacationers is higher than the elasticity for business travelers because vacationers can choose more easily a different mode of transportation (like driving or taking the train). Business travelers are less likely to do so since time is more important to them and their schedules are less adaptable. Chapter 6: Q2a. The imposition of a binding price floor in the cheese market is shown in Figure 3. In the absence of the price floor, the price would be P1 and the quantity would be Q1. With the floor set at P f, which is greater than P1, the quantity demanded is Q2, while quantity supplied is Q3, so there is a surplus of cheese in the amount Q3– Q2.b. The farmers’ complaint that their total revenue has declined is correct if demand is elastic. With elastic demand, the percentage decline in quantity would exceed the percentage rise in price, so total revenue would decline.c. If the government purchases all the surplus cheese at the price floor, producers benefit and taxpayers lose. Producers would produce quantity Q3 of cheese, and their total revenue would increase substantially. But consumers would buy only quantity Q2 of cheese, so they are in the same position as before. Taxpayers lose because they would be financing the purchase of the surplus cheese through higher taxes.Figure 3aChapter 7: Q8a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Since consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.Figure 14A Figure 15bb. Since adding machines are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that people substitute computers for adding machines, shifting the demand for adding machines to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of adding machines. Consumer surplus in the adding-machine market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Adding machine producers are sad about technological advance in computers because their producer surplus declines.c. Since software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The result is anincrease in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richest men, since his company produces a lot of software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.Figure 16Chapter 13: Q4a. The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:Hours Fish FixedCost VariableCostTotalCostMarginalProduct0 $10$0$10 ---1 10 105 15102 18 10 10 20 83 24 10 15 25 64 28 10 20 30 45 30 10 25 25 2function becomes flatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginal product.Figure 7b Figure 8c c. The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing.Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It slopes up because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time?each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish.Chapter 14: Q9a. Figure 9 illustrates the situation in the U.S. textile industry. With no international trade, the market is in long-run equilibrium. Supply intersects demand at quantity Q1 and price $30, with a typical firm producing output q1.Figure 9b. The effect of imports at $25 is that the market supply curve follows the old supply curve up to a price of $25, then becomes horizontal at that price. As a result, demand exceeds domestic supply, so the country imports textiles from other countries. The typical domestic firm now reduces its output from q1 to q2, incurring losses, since the large fixed costs imply that average total cost will be much higher than the price.c. In the long run, domestic firms will be unable to compete with foreign firms because their costs are too high. All the domestic firms will exit the industry and other countries will supply enough to satisfy the entire domestic demand.Chapter 15: Q4a. Figure 5 illustrates the market for groceries when there are many competing supermarkets with constant marginal cost. Output is Q C, price is P C, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is zero, and total surplus is area A.Figure 5aFigure 6bb. If the supermarkets merge, Figure 6 illustrates the new situation. Quantity declines from Q C to Q M and price rises to P M. Area A in Figure 5 is equal to area B + C + D + E + F in Figure 6. Consumer surplus is now area B + C, producer surplus is area D + E, and total surplus is area B + C + D + E. Consumers transfer the amount of area D + E to producers and the deadweight loss is area F.Chapter 16: Q2a. OPEC members were trying to reach an agreement to cut production so they could raise the price.b. They were unable to agree on cutting production because each country has an incentive to cheat on any agreement. The turmoil is a decline in the price of oil because of increased production.c. OPEC would like Norway and Britain to join their cartel so they could act like a monopoly.Chapter 23: Q1a. Consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by a household. Investment increases because a house is an investment good.Consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, but investment decreases because the car in Ford’s inventory had been counted as an investment good until it was sold.Consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household. Government purchases increase because the government spent money to provide a good to the public.Consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household, but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.Investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.Chapter 24: Q4a. Since the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI.b. The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals the improvement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality, so consumers are worse off. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost.Chapter 25: Q4The opportunity cost of investing in capital is the loss of consumption that results from redirecting resources towards investment. Over-investment in capital is possible because of diminishing marginal returns. A country can "over-invest" in capital if people would prefer to have higher consumption spending and less future growth. The opportunity cost of investing in human capital is also the loss of consumption that is needed to provide the resources for investment. A country could "over-invest" in human capital if people were too highly educated for the jobs they could get?for example, if the best job a Ph.D. in philosophy could find is managing a restaurant.。
曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理..doc
1Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives?Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put inplace. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knivesin steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketplace do?The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting in theirown self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.2Q1How is economics like a science?Economics is like a science because economists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to run controlled experiments. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments.Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea o“f e fficiency”?The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production possibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A inFigure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good.Q7What is the difference between a positive and a normative statement? Give an example of that.Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptiveand make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example. Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. Normative: The government should keep the growth rate of money low.3Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ.Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative opportunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm,or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they can't have a comparative advantage in every good.Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2.A nation will export goods for which it has a comparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producingthose goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilities frontiers.4Q5Propeye’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinach an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeye’s demand curve for spinach?Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him. Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income.Q8 Dose a change in producer’s technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve?A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to a movement along the supply curve.Q9 Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market towards its equilibrium.The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below theequilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price without losing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.Q11 Describe the role of prices in market economies.Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.5Q2 List and explain the four determinants of the price elasticity of demand discussed in the chapter.The determinants of the price elasticity of demand include how available close substitutes are, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, how broadly defined the market is, and the time horizon. Luxury goods have greater price elastic ties than necessities, goods with close substitutes have greater elastic ties, goods in more narrowly defined markets have greater elastic ties, and the elasticity of demand is higher the longer the time horizon.Q4 On a supply-and-demand diagram, show equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers.Figure 1 presents a supply-and-demand diagram, showing equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers. Total revenue equals the equilibrium price times the equilibrium quantity, which is the area of the rectangle shown in the figure.Figure 16Q2Which causes a shortage of a goo—d a price ceiling or a price floor? Which causes a surplus?A shortage of a good arises when there is a binding price ceiling. A surplus of a good arises when there is a binding price floor.Q6How does a tax on a good affect the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold?A tax on a good raises the price buyers pay, lowers the price sellers receive, and reduces the quantity sold.Q7What determines how the burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers? Why?The burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers depending on the elasticity of demand and supply. Elasticity represents the willingness of buyers or sellers to leave the market, which in turns depends on their alternatives. When a good is taxed, the side of the market with fewer good alternatives cannot easily leave the market and thus bears more ofthe burden of the tax.7Q1Explain how buyer’s willingness to pay, consume’r surplus, and the demand curve are related.Buyers' willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and abovethe price, which equals each buyer's willingness to pay less the price of the good.Q2 Explain how seller’s costs, produce’r s surplus, and the supply curve are related.Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents thecosts of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the priceminus each sellers' costs.Figure 413Q2 Give an example of an opportunity cost that accountant might not count as a cost. Why would the accountant ignorethe cost?An accountant would not count the owner ’ ospportunity cost of alternative employment as an accounting cost .An example is given in the text in which Helen runs a cookie business, but she could instead work as a computer programmer.Because she's working in her cookie factory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. The accountant ignores this opportunity cost because no money flow occurs. But the cost is relevant toHelen's decision to run the cookie factory.Q3What is marginal product, and what does it means if it is diminishing?Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input. Diminishing marginal product means that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Q8Defind economies of scale and explain why they might arise. Define diseconomies of scale and explain why thenmight arise.Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies of scale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity ofoutput increases, which occurs because of coordination problems inherent in a large organization.14Q2Draw the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price, explain how the firm choosesthe level of output that maximizes profit. Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price (such as P* ), the level of output that * maximizes profit is the output where marginal cost equals price ( Q ), as long as price is greater than average variable costat that point (in the short run), or greater than average total cost (in the long run).Figure 2Q6 Does a firm’s price equal marginal cost in the short run, in the long run, or both? Explain.The firm's price equals the minimum of average total cost only in the long run. In the short run, price may be greaterthan average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or price may be less than average total cost, in which casethe firm is making losses. But the situation is different in the long run. If firms are making profits, other firms will enterthe industry, which will lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raisethe price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits nor losses. At that point, priceequals average total cost.15Q3Why is monopolist’s marginal revenue less than the price of its goods? Can marginal revenue be negative? Explain.A monopolist's marginal revenue is less than the price of its product because: (1) its demand curve is the market demand curve, so (2) to increase the amount sold, the monopolist must lower the price of its good for every unit it sells. (3) This cutin prices reduces revenue on the units it was already selling.A monopolist's marginal revenue can be negative because to get purchasers to buy an additional unit of the good, the firmmust reduce its price on all units of the good. The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases revenue, but the decline in price decreases revenue. The overall effect depends on the elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve is inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative.Q4 Draw the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curve for a monopolist. Show the profit-maximizing level of output. Show the profit-maximizing price.Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. The intersection of the marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing level of output, Q m . The demand curve then shows the profit-maximizing price, P m.Figure 116Q1If a group of sellers could form a cartel, what quantity and price would they try to set?If a group of sellers could form a cartel, they would try to set quantity and price like a monopolist. They would set quantity at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and set price at the corresponding point on the demand curve.Q5What is the prisoners’d ilemma and what does it have to do with oligopoly?The prisoners' dilemma is a game between two people or firms that illustrates why it is difficult for opponents to cooperate even when cooperation would make them all better off. Each person or firm has a great incentive to cheat onany cooperative agreement to make himself or itself better off.17Q2 Draw a diagram of the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. How is price related to average total cost? How is price related to marginal cost?In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantityQ1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, at which point the price ( P2) equals average total cost ( ATC), so profits are now zero.Figure 223Q1 Explain why an economy’s income must equal its expenditure.An economy's income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyer and a seller. Thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers.24Q2 Describe the three problems that make the consumer price index an imperfect measure of the cost of living.The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are: (1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods,which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.25Q2List and describe four determinants of productivity.The four determinants of productivity are: (1) physical capital, which is the stock of equipment and structures that areused to produce goods and services; (2) human capital, which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquirethrough education, training, and experience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided by nature; and (4) technological knowledge, which is society derstanding of’t hes b u e n s t ways to produce goods and services.Questions are chosen from problems and applications.Chapter 1: Q9By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. If you divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than itwould take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores.Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine,and they exchange some wine for some clothes.Chapter 2: Q2a. Figure 6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter. It is bowed out because when most ofthe economy ’ s resources are being ustoedproduce butter, the frontier is steep and when most of the economyare being used to produce guns, the frontier is very flat. When the economy is producing a lot of guns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to make guns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase inthe production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing a lot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used to make butter, so each unit of guns given upyields a small increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is steep.b. Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside the production possibilities frontier. Point B is feasible but inefficient because it ’ s inside the production possibilities frontier.Figure 6c. The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butter. The Doves might choose a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.d. If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount, the Hawks would get abigger peace dividend because the production possibilities frontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a result, the reduction of a given number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in the quantity of butter produced than when starting at point D.Chapter 3: Q4a. Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, the opportunity cost of a car is 15 bushels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of a bushel of wheat is 1 /15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of each other.b. See Figure 4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce a total of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce a total of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the production possibilities frontier. Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same, the production possibilities frontier is a straight line.If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devoted to car production. That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who will produce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushels per worker). This is shown as point A on Figure 4.c. If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues to consume 10 million cars, then Canadawill need to produce a total of 20 million cars. So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels of wheat per car, it will be able to consume 200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as point B in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets the same number of cars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.Figure 4Chapter 4: Q1a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. This can be seen in Figure 6 as a shift to theleft in the supply curve for oranges. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so demand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are more pleasant. The result, as shown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figure shows.Figure 6a Figure 7bc. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Since much oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of gasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will notfind Cadillacs as attractive. In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.Figure 8c Figure 9cChapter 5: Q2a. For business travelers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(2,000 - 1,900)/1,950]/[(250 - 200)/225] = 0.05/0.22 = 0.23. For vacationers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(800 - 600)/700] / [(250 - 200)/ 225] = 0.29/ 0.22 = 1.32.b. The price elasticity of demand for vacationers is higher than the elasticity for business travelers because vacationerscan choose more easily a different mode of transportation (like driving or taking the train). Business travelers are less likely to do so since time is more important to them and their schedules are less adaptable.Chapter 6: Q2a. The imposition of a binding price floor in the cheese market is shown in Figure 3. In the absence of the price floor, the price would be P1 and the quantity would be Q1. With the floor set at P f, which is greater than P1, the quantity demanded is Q2, while quantity supplied is Q3, so there is a surplus of cheese in the amount Q3 – Q2.b. The farmers ’complaint that their total revenue has declined is correct if demand is elastic. With elastic demand, the percentage decline in quantity would exceed the percentage rise in price, so total revenue would decline.c. If the government purchases all the surplus cheese at the price floor, producers benefit and taxpayers lose. Producers would produce quantity Q3 of cheese, and their total revenue would increase substantially. But consumers would buy only quantity Q2 of cheese, so they are in the same position as before. Taxpayers lose because they would be financing the purchase of the surplus cheese through higher taxes.Figure 3aChapter 7: Q8a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, asshown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases.The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B+ C + D.Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below theprice). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G –B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the pricereduces producer surplus. Since consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplusrises by C + D + F + G.Figure 14A Figure 15bb. Since adding machines are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that peoplesubstitute computers for adding machines, shifting the demand for adding machines to the left, as shown in Figure 15.The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of adding machines. Consumer surplus inthe adding-machine market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from areaC +D +E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Adding machine producers are sad about technological advance in computersbecause their producer surplus declines.c. Since software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown inFigure 16. The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the softwaremarket changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C+ D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world ’ s richest men, since his company prod software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.Figure 16Chapter 13: Q4a. The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:Hours Fish Fixed Cost Variable Cost Total Cost Marginal Product0 $10 $0 $10 ---1 10 10 5 15 102 18 10 10 20 83 24 10 15 25 64 28 10 20 30 45 30 10 25 25 2b. Figure 7 graphs the fisherman's production function. The production function becomes flatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginal product.Figure 7b Figure 8cc. The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing.Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It slopes up because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish.Chapter 14: Q9a. Figure 9 illustrates the situation in the U.S. textile industry. With no international trade, the market is in long-run equilibrium. Supply intersects demand at quantity Q1 and price $30, with a typical firm producing output q1.Figure 9b. The effect of imports at $25 is that the market supply curve follows the old supply curve up to a price of $25, thenbecomes horizontal at that price. As a result, demand exceeds domestic supply, so the country imports textiles from other countries. The typical domestic firm now reduces its output from q 1 to q 2, incurring losses, since the large fixed costs imply that average total cost will be much higher than the price.c. In the long run, domestic firms will be unable to compete with foreign firms because their costs are too high. All the domestic firms will exit the industry and other countries will supply enough to satisfy the entire domestic demand.Chapter 15: Q4a. Figure 5 illustrates the market for groceries when there are many competing supermarkets with constant marginalcost. Output is Q C, price is P C, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is zero, and total surplus is area A.Figure 5a Figure 6bb. If the supermarkets merge, Figure 6 illustrates the new situation. Quantity declines from Q C to Q M and price rises toP M . Area A in Figure 5 is equal to area B + C + D + E + F in Figure 6. Consumer surplus is now area B + C, producer surplus is area D + E, and total surplus is area B + C + D + E. Consumers transfer the amount of area D + E to producersand the deadweight loss is area F.Chapter 16: Q2a. OPEC members were trying to reach an agreement to cut production so they could raise the price.b. They were unable to agree on cutting production because each country has an incentive to cheat on any agreement.The turmoil is a decline in the price of oil because of increased production.c. OPEC would like Norway and Britain to join their cartel so they could act like a monopoly.Chapter 23: Q1a. Consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by a household.Investment increases because a house is an investment good.Consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, but investment decreases because the car inFord ’ s inventory had been counted as an investment good until it was sold.Consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household.Government purchases increase because the government spent money to provide a good to the public.Consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household, but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.Investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.Chapter 24: Q4a. Since the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI.b. The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals the improvement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality,so consumers are worse off. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost.Chapter 25: Q4The opportunity cost of investing in capital is the loss of consumption that results from redirecting resources towards investment. Over-investment in capital is possible because of diminishing marginal returns. A country can "over-invest" in capital if people would prefer to have higher consumption spending and less future growth. The opportunity cost of investing in human capital is also the loss of consumption that is needed to provide the resources for investment. A country could "over-invest" in human capital if people were too highly educated for the jobs they could get for example, if the best job a Ph.D. in philosophy could find is managing a restaurant.精品文档。
曼昆版宏观经济学期末考试重点
单选20判断|名词解释（提过的名词解释）10计算（两大题 30分）细致分步给分公式论述 40分（2大题）有把握画图课后习题 ppt习题第23章1.国内生产总值（GDP）答：在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品和劳务的市场价值。
GDP包括有形的物品，也包括无形的劳务。
GDP 只包括现期生产的物品，不包括过去生产的物品。
GDP 衡量的生产价值局限于一个国家的地理范围之内，不管是由本国的国民还是住在本国的外国人生产。
通常是一年或一个季度（3个月）。
用支出法计算的国内生产总值等于消费、投资、政府支出和净出口之和。
列出 GDP 的四个组成部分。
各举一个例子。
答：GDP 的四个组成部分是消费（C ）、投资（ I ）、政府购买（G ）和净出口（ NX ）。
（1）消费是家庭用于物品与劳务的支出，如汤姆一家人在麦当劳吃午餐。
（2）投资是资本设备、存货、新住房和建筑物的购买，如通用汽车公司建立一个汽车厂。
（3）政府购买包括地方政府、州政府和联邦政府用于物品与劳务的支出，如海军购买了一艘潜艇。
（4）净出口等于外国人购买国内生产的物品与劳务（出口）减国内购买的外国物品与劳务（进口）。
国内企业卖给另一个国家的买者，如波音公司卖给中国航空公司飞机，增加了净出口。
2.名义 GDP和真实GDP怎样区分答：名义 GDP：用当年的价格来评价经济中的物品与劳务生产的价值。
它没有考虑通货膨胀因素。
由于通货膨胀等原因，价格可能会发生强烈变化，名义 GDP 并不能反映实际产量的变动。
它没有经过通货膨胀校正。
真实GDP：用不变的基年价格来评价经济中的物品与劳务生产的价值。
它经过通货膨胀校正。
3.GDP 平减指数（定义、计算）答：GDP 平减指数是名义的 GDP 和真实的 GDP 的比率，它是经济学家用来考察经济平均物价水平的一个衡量指标。
用公式表示为： GDP平减指数= （名义GDP/真实GDP）*100第24章1．消费物价指数CPI（计算、步骤、存在问题、（数据问题）怎样利用CPI进行货币的转换）答：指普通消费者购买的物品与劳务总费用的衡量指标。
经济学原理曼昆(宏观部分问题详解)
第八篇宏观经济学的数据第二十三章一国收入的衡量复习题 1 ．解释为什么一个经济的收入必定等于其支出? 答：对一个整体经济而言，收入必定等于支出。
因为每一次交易都有两方：买者和卖者。
一个买者的 1 美元支出是另一个卖者的1 美元收入。
因此，交易对经济的收入和支出作出了相同的贡献。
由于GDP 既衡量总收入135 又衡量总支出，因而无论作为总收入来衡量还是作为总支出来衡量，GDP 都相等.2 ．生产一辆经济型轿车或生产一辆豪华型轿车，哪一个对GDP 的贡献更大？为什么? 答：生产一辆豪华型轿车对GDP 的贡献大。
因为GDP 是在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与劳务的市场价值。
由于市场价格衡量人们愿意为各种不同物品支付的量，所以市场价格反映了这些物品的市场价值。
由于一辆豪华型轿车的市场价格高于一辆经济型轿车的市场价格，所以一辆豪华型轿车的市场价值高于一辆经济型轿车的市场价值，因而生产一辆豪华型轿车对GDP 的贡献更大.3 ．农民以2 美元的价格把小麦卖给面包师。
面包师用小麦制成面包，以3 美元的价格出售。
这些交易对GDP 的贡献是多少呢? 答：对GDP 的贡献是3 美元。
GDP 只包括最终物品的价值，因为中间物品的价值已经包括在最终物品的价格中了.4 ．许多年以前，Peggy 为了收集唱片而花了500 美元。
今天她在旧货销售中把她收集的物品卖了100 美元.这种销售如何影响现期GDP? 答：现期GDP 只包括现期生产的物品与劳务，不包括涉及过去生产的东西的交易。
因而这种销售不影响现期GDP.5 ．列出GDP 的四个组成部分。
各举一个例子.答：GDP 等于消费(C)+投资(I)+政府购买(G)+净出口(NX) 消费是家庭用于物品与劳务的支出，如汤姆一家人在麦当劳吃午餐.投资是资本设备、存货、新住房和建筑物的购买，如通用汽车公司建立一个汽车厂.政府购买包括地方政府、州政府和联邦政府用于物品与劳务的支出，如海军购买了一艘潜艇.净出口等于外国人购买国内生产的物品(出口)减国内购买的外国物品(进口)。
曼昆版宏观经济学期末考试重点
曼昆版宏观经济学期末考试重点单选20判断|名词解释（提过的名词解释）10计算（两⼤题30分）细致分步给分公式论述40分（2⼤题）有把握画图课后习题ppt习题第23章1.国内⽣产总值（GDP）答：在某⼀既定时期⼀个国家内⽣产的所有最终物品和劳务的市场价值。
GDP包括有形的物品，也包括⽆形的劳务。
GDP 只包括现期⽣产的物品，不包括过去⽣产的物品。
GDP 衡量的⽣产价值局限于⼀个国家的地理范围之内，不管是由本国的国民还是住在本国的外国⼈⽣产。
通常是⼀年或⼀个季度（3个⽉）。
⽤⽀出法计算的国内⽣产总值等于消费、投资、政府⽀出和净出⼝之和。
列出GDP 的四个组成部分。
各举⼀个例⼦。
答：GDP 的四个组成部分是消费（C ）、投资（I ）、政府购买（G ）和净出⼝（NX ）。
（1）消费是家庭⽤于物品与劳务的⽀出，如汤姆⼀家⼈在麦当劳吃午餐。
（2）投资是资本设备、存货、新住房和建筑物的购买，如通⽤汽车公司建⽴⼀个汽车⼚。
（3）政府购买包括地⽅政府、州政府和联邦政府⽤于物品与劳务的⽀出，如海军购买了⼀艘潜艇。
（4）净出⼝等于外国⼈购买国内⽣产的物品与劳务（出⼝）减国内购买的外国物品与劳务（进⼝）。
国内企业卖给另⼀个国家的买者，如波⾳公司卖给中国航空公司飞机，增加了净出⼝。
2.名义GDP和真实GDP怎样区分答：名义GDP：⽤当年的价格来评价经济中的物品与劳务⽣产的价值。
它没有考虑通货膨胀因素。
由于通货膨胀等原因，价格可能会发⽣强烈变化，名义GDP 并不能反映实际产量的变动。
它没有经过通货膨胀校正。
真实GDP：⽤不变的基年价格来评价经济中的物品与劳务⽣产的价值。
它经过通货膨胀校正。
3.GDP 平减指数（定义、计算）答：GDP 平减指数是名义的GDP 和真实的GDP 的⽐率，它是经济学家⽤来考察经济平均物价⽔平的⼀个衡量指标。
⽤公式表⽰为：GDP平减指数= （名义GDP/真实GDP）*100第24章1．消费物价指数CPI（计算、步骤、存在问题、（数据问题）怎样利⽤CPI进⾏货币的转换）答：指普通消费者购买的物品与劳务总费⽤的衡量指标。
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曼昆《经济学原理（宏观）》期末复习提纲 第24-25章• 掌握消费物价指数（CPI ）与生产物价指数（PPI ）的计算方法； 通货膨胀：指经济中物价总水平的上升消费物价指数（CPI ）：普通消费者购买的物品与劳务总费用的衡量指标。
每年一篮子物品与劳务的价格要除以基年一篮子物品与劳务的价格，然后把这个比率乘以100，所得出的数字就是消费物价指数。
通货膨胀率：从前一个时期以来物价总水平变动的百分比 第二年通胀率=生产物价指数（PPI ）：企业购买的一篮子物品与劳务的费用的衡量指标。
由于企业最终要把它们的费用以更高消费价格的形式转移给消费者，所以生产物价指数变动将领先于消费物价指数，因此可以预测消费物价指数的变动。
• 理解CPI 是高估还是低估生活费用？为什么？替代倾向。
一篮子的数量权重不变，但实际上便宜物品一直在替代昂贵物品，CPI 高估了从某一年到下一年生活费用的增加。
新产品的引进。
新产品的出现并不能在一篮子物品中反映出来，所以物价指数不能反映公众享受到的福利。
无法衡量的质量变动。
物品质量变动不能在货币价值中反映出来，物价指数不能反映生活质量的变动。
CPICPI-CPI 第一年第一年第二年因此，CPI高估了真实的通货膨胀。
•了解CPI与GDP平减指数的差异；消费物价指数与GDP平减指数的变动并不完全一致，因为前者只指消费者的支出，后者指所有的商品和劳务，进口影响消费物价指数而不影响GDP平减指数；且两者的权重不同，GDP平减指数一直随GDP构成的变动而自动地改变物品与劳务的组合，而消费物价指数用固定的一篮子物品。
指数化：当一美元购买力根据法律或合约自动按照通货膨胀校正时被称为通货膨胀的指数化。
•掌握生产率的含义以及决定生产率的各种要素；生产率：一个工人每小时工作时间所生产的物品与劳务的数量。
生产率的决定因素：物质资本、人力资本、自然资源和技术知识物质资本：用于生产物品与劳务的设备与建筑物存量人力资本：工人通过教育、培训和经验而获得的知识与技能自然资源：由自然界提供的用于生产物品与劳务的投入，如土地、河流和矿藏。
技术知识：社会对生产物品与劳务的最好方法的了解。
•理解“一个国家的生活水平取决于生产物品和劳务的能力”的原理。
一个经济的国内生产总值（GDP）同时衡量经济中所有人赚到的总收入和经济中物品与劳务产量的总支出。
一个经济的收入是该经济的产出。
一个国家只有生产出大量物品与劳务，它才能享有更高的生活水平。
第26-27章•了解金融市场的类型与主要参与者；金融体系：经济中促使一个人的储蓄与另一个人的投资相匹配的一组机构金融机构分为两种类型——金融市场和金融中介机构金融市场：储蓄者可以通过它直接向借款人提供资金的金融机构。
两种最重要的金融市场是债券市场和股票市场。
债券市场：专门交易企业债券和政府债券的市场债券：一种债务证明书，规定借款人对债券持有人负有债务责任的证明。
债券的三个特点：1)期限——债券到期之前的时间长度。
债券的利率部分取决于它的期限，长期债券风险高、利率高。
2)信用风险——借款人不能支付某些利息或本金的可能性，这种不能支付成为拖欠。
3)税收待遇——税法对待债券所赚到的利息的方式股票市场：专门买卖股票的市场股票：代表企业的所有权，也代表对企业所获得利润的索取权。
与债券相比，股票既提供高风险，又提供潜在的高收益。
股票市场上股票交易的价格是由其供求状况决定的。
由于股票代表公司所有权，所以，股票的需求（以及其价格）反映了人们对公司未来盈利性的预期。
股票指数：计算一组股票价格的平均数，可用于监视整个股票价格水平。
企业筹资出售股票为股本筹资；出售债券为债务筹资。
金融中介机构：储蓄者可以间接地向借款者提供资金的金融机构，它们是借贷双方的中介和桥梁。
两种最重要的金融中介机构——银行和共同基金。
银行：吸收储蓄者的存款贷放给借款人，赚取存贷款利差。
银行可以给存款人提供支票，作为交换媒介进行交易。
共同基金：是一个向公众出售股份，并用收入来购买各种股票、债券、或者它们的某种组合的机构。
共同基金持有人接受这种资产组合相关的所有风险与收益。
如果资产组合价值上升，持股人受益；反之则损失。
共同基金的优点：可以使钱不多的人也能进行多元化投资，降低风险；可以使普通人享有专业资金管理者的服务。
•理解国民收入帐户恒等式以及储蓄和投资的含义（它适用于每个家庭和企业吗？）；重要的恒等式Y=C+I+G+NX封闭经济（不与其他经济交易的经济）的净出口等于零，所以Y=C+I+G 对此等式移项，得Y-C-G=I等式左端是在消费和政府购买之后留下的总收入，称为国民储蓄（简称储蓄），所以该式又可以表达为S=I 储蓄等于投资也可以是S=Y-C-G或者S=（Y-T-C）+（T-G）储蓄因此等于私人储蓄与公共储蓄之和私人储蓄（Y-T-C）是家庭在支付了税收和消费之后剩下的收入量公共储蓄（T-G）是政府在支付其花费后剩下来的税收收入量，政府税收大于支出为预算盈余，反之则为预算赤字。
该等式表明通过金融市场可以在整体上实现社会的储蓄等于投资。
储蓄等于投资的机制：个人存款银行或买股票的储蓄未必等于另一个人购买厂房设备的投资，但是，投资者可以通过金融机构借到不足的资金，这就能在总量上实现投资等于储蓄。
•理解可贷资金市场的供给（储蓄）和需求（投资）及其均衡；可贷资金市场：假定存在这样一个市场，所有的储蓄都进入这个市场，所有的投资都借自这个市场。
这个市场的利率既是储蓄的收益，又是借款的成本。
可贷资金：人们选择储蓄并贷出不用于自己消费的所有收入。
可贷资金市场的供给与需求：供给来自那些有额外收入，并想储蓄和贷出的人。
其方式可以是直接的买债券，也可以是间接的存款。
需求来自希望借款进行投资的家庭和企业，包括抵押贷款购置住房或购买设备建立工厂。
可贷资金的供求取决于实际利率。
·挤出：由于政府借款所引起的投资减少•能够利用供求曲线分析各类政策（譬如，存款利息政策）对可贷资金市场均衡的影响；•掌握用现值来衡量货币的时间价值，掌握风险的概念并区分特有风险、总风险。
金融学：研究在一定时期内，如何配置资源和应对风险，作出决策的学科。
现值：用现行利率带来一定量未来货币所需要的现在货币量。
现值的概念说明：接受现在一定量货币比接受未来等量货币更为可取；不同时点上的货币价值的比较要转换成现值进行。
如果一个项目的现值超过成本，企业就应该投资这个项目。
货币的时间价值是按照复利计算的，其公式为FV=PV（1+r）t如果将未来的货币转换成现在的货币，其公式为PV=FV/（1+r）t风险厌恶：对坏事的厌恶大于对可比的好事的喜欢，边际效用递减多元化：通过用大量不相关的小风险代替一种风险来减少风险。
特有风险：只影响一个经济主体的风险总风险：同时影响所有经济主体的风险股票有价证券的风险随股票数量的增加而大大降低，但完全消除风险是不可能的。
多元化可以消除特有风险——与某公司相关的不确定性，但是不能消除总风险——与影响所有公司的整个经济相关的不确定性。
投入股票越多，风险和收益就越大。
第28章•理解政府是如何统计劳动力与失业指标的；劳动力（成年人）=就业人数+失业人数失业率=失业人数/（就业人数+失业人数）劳动力参工率=劳动力/成年人口失业指标并没有反映所有的失业者，特别是那些没有工作，找不到工作失去信心的工人，没有反映在失业统计中。
失业大多是短期的，而在任何一个时间所观察到的大多数失业是长期的。
经济中大部分失业问题是由少数长期没有工作的工人造成的。
•注意区分自然失业、周期性失业以及摩擦性失业、结构性失业等概念；正常失业率就是自然失业，它为劳动力市场的不完善所造成，可以分成摩擦性失业、求职性失业、结构性失业、技术性失业、季节性失业和古典性失业。
周期性失业：与自然失业率背离的失业，它为总需求不足所造成。
摩擦性失业：由于工人找到最适于自己嗜好和技能的工作需要时间而引起的失业。
解释较短的失业持续时间。
摩擦性失业不可避免，因为经济在发展，产业结构在调整，劳动力也要随之在不同产业之间转移，这个转移的过程就是摩擦性失业。
失业保障：当工人失业时为他们提供部分收入保护的政府计划。
这在一定程度上提高了摩擦性失业，因为工人缺乏足够的就业刺激。
结构性失业：由于某些劳动市场上可得到的工作岗位数量不足以为每个想工作的人提供工作而引起的失业。
解释较长的失业持续时间。
当工资由于某些原因高于使供求均衡的水平时，就产生了这种失业。
高于均衡工资的三个可能原因：最低工资法、工会和效率工资。
工会：与雇主就工资和工作条件进行谈判的工人协会。
工会通过集体谈判和罢工，将工资提高得超过均衡水平，从而使就业的局内人得到好处，没有就业的局外人承受损失。
工会的存在既有提高工资，造成资源配置低效率的一面；也有保护工人利益，形成乐观有效的工人队伍的一面。
•了解最低工资法是如何造成古典性失业的；•了解效率工资理论。
效率工资：企业为了提高工人生产率而支付的高于均衡水平的工资。
效率工资高于均衡水平，它在增加企业成本的同时，也提高了效率；而且高效率的收益大于工资成本的上升。
效率工资有利于工人的健康，降低工人的流动性，提高工人的努力程度，可以选择高素质的工人。
第29章•理解货币的含义和货币的三项职能；货币：经济中人们经常用于向其他人购买物品与劳务的一组资产。
货币的三种职能：交换媒介、计价单位和价值储藏。
交换媒介：当买者在购买物品与劳务时给予卖者的东西计价单位：人们用来表示价格和记录债务的标准价值储藏：人们可以用来把现在的购买力转变为未来的购买力的东西流动性：一种资产可以兑换为经济中交换媒介的容易程度。
货币是最具流动性的资产。
商品货币：以有内在价值的商品为形式的货币。
（黄金、香烟）法定货币：没有内在价值、由政府法令而作为通货使用的货币。
（纸币美元）美国经济中的货币主要有现金和支票。
信用卡不包括在货币量的所有衡量中，结算卡上的账户余额包括在货币量的衡量中。
现金：公众手中持有的纸币钞票和铸币活期存款：储户可以随时开支票的银行账户余额•理解货币的创造过程与乘数效应，并能计算货币乘数与货币供给量；准备金：银行得到但没有贷出去的存款。
准备率：银行作为准备金持有的存款比例。
美联储规定银行持有的准备金量的最低水平，称为法定准备金率。
银行可以持有高于法定最低量的准备金，称为超额准备金。
货币乘数：银行体系用1美元准备金所产生的货币量。
是准备率的倒数M = 1/R，所以银行创造多少货币量取决于准备率。
•了解美联储管理货币供给的三个主要工具：公开市场活动、准备金率、贴现率。
中央银行：为了监督银行体系和调节经济中货币量而设计的机构。
公开市场活动：美联储买卖美国政府债券。
是最常用的货币政策工具。
中央银行高价买进国债，收益率下降，货币供给量增加，利率下降；反之中央银行低价卖出国债，利率上升，货币供给量减少。