The Behavior and Performance of Individual Investors in Japan
人们的行为的英语作文
Peoples behavior is a complex and multifaceted subject that can be explored from various angles in an English essay.Here are some key points that could be included in an essay about peoples behavior:1.Cultural Influence:Discuss how cultural norms and values shape the behavior of individuals within different societies.For example,the concept of respect for elders in Asian cultures versus the more egalitarian approach in Western societies.2.Social Conditioning:Explore the idea that peoples behavior is often a result of social conditioning from an early age.This could include the influence of family,peers,and media.3.Personality Traits:Analyze how individual personality traits,such as introversion or extroversion,can affect behavior in different social situations.4.Emotional States:Discuss the impact of emotions on behavior.For instance,how anger can lead to aggressive behavior or how happiness can make someone more sociable.5.Situational Factors:Examine how the context or situation can influence behavior.For example,people might act differently in a professional setting compared to a casual social gathering.6.Ethical Considerations:Reflect on the role of ethics in guiding behavior.Discuss how moral values can influence decisionmaking and actions.7.Conformity and NonConformity:Explore the concept of conformity,where individuals behave in a manner that aligns with the group,and nonconformity,where individuals choose to act differently.8.The Role of Education:Discuss how education can influence behavior by imparting knowledge,values,and critical thinking skills that shape decisionmaking.9.Behavioral Psychology:Delve into psychological theories that explain human behavior, such as operant conditioning,cognitive dissonance,or the stages of moral development proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg.10.The Impact of Technology:Consider how technological advancements,particularly in the realm of social media,have changed the way people interact and behave.11.Stress and Coping Mechanisms:Discuss how stress can affect behavior and thecoping mechanisms people use to deal with challenging situations.12.Behavioral Change:Explore the process of behavioral change,including the factors that motivate individuals to change their behavior and the strategies that can support lasting change.13.Legal and Moral Boundaries:Discuss the intersection of legal and moral boundaries in shaping behavior,and how societal expectations and laws can influence what is considered acceptable behavior.14.The Influence of Role Models:Reflect on the impact that role models,such as celebrities,athletes,or political figures,can have on shaping the behavior of others.15.Future Predictions:Speculate on how behavior might evolve in the future, considering factors such as technological advancements,globalization,and changing societal values.When writing an essay on peoples behavior,its important to provide specific examples, cite relevant research or theories,and maintain a clear and logical structure.Additionally, a balanced perspective that acknowledges the complexity of human behavior and the various factors that influence it will make the essay more compelling and insightful.。
!!学生参与促进发展
Student Involvement: A Developmental Theory for Higher EducationAlexander W. AstinA student development theory based on student involvement is presented and described, and the implications for practice and research are discussed.Even a casual reading of the extensive literature on student development in higher education can create confusion and perplexity. One finds not only that the problems being studied are highly diverse but also that investigators who claim to be studying the same problem frequently do not look at the same variables or employ the same methodologies. And even when they are investi-gating the same variables, different investigators may use completely different terms to describe and discuss these variables.My own interest in articulating a theory of student development is partly practical—I would like to bring some order into the chaos of the literature—and partly self-protective. I and increasingly bewildered by the muddle of f indings that have emerged from my own research in student development, research that I have been engaged in for more than 20 years.The theory of student involvement that I describe in this article appeals to me for several reasons. First, it is simple: I have not needed to draw a maze consisting of dozens of boxes interconnected by two-headed arrows to explain the basic elements of the theory to others.Second, the theory can explain most of the empirical knowledge about environmental influences on student development that re-searchers have gained over the years. Third, it is capable of embracing principles from such widely divergent sources as psychoanalysis and classical learning theory. Finally, this theory of student involvement can be used both by researchers to guide their investigation of student development—and by college administrators andOriginally published July 1984. Alexander W . Astin, Graduate School of Education, University of California,Los Angeles.faculty—to help them design more effective learning environments.BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE THEORY Let me first explain what I mean by involvement,a construct that should not be either mysterious or esoteric. Quite simply, student involvement refers to the amount of physical and psycho-logical energy that the student devotes to the academic experience. Thus, a highly involved student is one who, for example, devotes considerable energy to studying, spends much time on campus, participates actively in student organizations, and interacts frequently with faculty members and other students. Conversely,a typical uninvolved student neglects studies,spends little time on campus, abstains from extracurricular activities, and has infrequent contact with faculty members or other students.These hypothetical examples are only intended to be illustrative; there are many other possible forms of involvement, which are discussed in detail below.In certain respects the concept of involve-ment closely resembles the Freudian concept of cathexis, which I learned about in my former career as a clinical psychologist. Freud believed that people invest psychological energy in objects and persons outside of themselves. In other words, people can cathect on their friends,families, schoolwork, and jobs. The involvement concept also resembles closely what the learning theorists have traditionally referred to as vigilance or time-on-task. The concept of effort,although much narrower, has much in common with the concept of involvement.To give a better sense of what I mean by the term involvement , I have listed below the results of several hours that I spent recentlyDevelopmental Theorylooking in dictionaries and a thesaurus for words or phrases that capture some of the intended meaning. Because involvement is, to me, an active term, the list uses verb forms.attach oneself tocommit oneself todevote oneself toengage ingo in forincline towardjoin inpartake ofparticipate inplunge intoshow enthusiasm fortackletake a fancy totake an interest intake ontake part intake totake upundertakeMost of these terms are behavioral in meaning. I could have also included words and phrases that are more “interior” in nature, such as value, care for, stress, accentuate, and emphasize. But in the sense that I am using the term, involvement implies a behavioral compo-nent. I am not denying that motivation is an important aspect of involvement, but rather I am emphasizing that the behavioral aspects, in my judgment, are critical: It is not so much what the individual thinks or feels, but what the individual does, how he or she behaves, that defines and identifies involvement.At this stage in its development, the involve-ment theory has five basic postulates:1.Involvement refers to the investment ofphysical and psychological energy in various objects. The objects may be highly gen-eralized (the student experience) or highly specific (preparing for a chemistryexamination).2.Regardless of its object, involvement occursalong a continuum; that is, different students manifest different degrees of involvement ina given object, and the same student mani-fests different degrees of involvement in different objects at different times.3.Involvement has both quantitative andqualitative features. The extent of a student’s involvement in academic work, for instance, can be measured quantitatively (how many hours the student spends studying) and qualitatively (whether the student reviews and comprehends reading assignments or simply stares at the textbook and day-dreams).4.The amount of student learning and personaldevelopment associated with any edu-cational program is directly proportional to the quality and quantity of student involve-ment in that program.5.The effectiveness of any educational policyor practice is directly related to the capacity of that policy or practice to increase student involvement.These last two propositions are, of course, the key educational postulates, because they provide clues for designing more effective educational programs for students. Strictly speaking, they do not really qualify as postulates, because they are subject to empirical proof. Indeed, much of the recommended research on involvement (dis-cussed below) would be designed to test these two propositions.TRADITIONAL PEDAGOGICAL THEORIESA major impetus for the development of the student involvement theory was my exasperation at the tendency of many academicians to treat the student as a kind of “black box.” On the input end of this black box are the various policies and programs of a college or university; on the output end are various types of achievement measures such as the GPA or scores on standardized tests. It seemed that something was missing: someAstin (1984)mediating mechanism that would explain how these educational programs and policies are translated into student achievement and development.I am not implying that the actions and policies of most faculty members and admini-strators are not guided by some kind of educa-tional theory. But usually any such theory is only implicit in their actions; it is seldom stated formally or examined critically. Even when college personnel are aware of the theories that guide their actions, they seem to accept them as gospel rather than as testable propositions. In any event, it may be useful to examine these implicit pedagogical theories and to show how the theory of student involvement can help tie them more directly to student developmental outcomes. I have identified three implicit pedagogical theories, labeled for simplicity the subject-matter, the resource, and the individualized (or eclectic) theories.The Subject-Matter TheoryThe subject-matter theory of pedagogy, which could also be labeled the content theory, is popular among college professors. According to this theory, student learning and development depend primarily on exposure to the right subject matter. Thus, a “liberal education” consists of an assortment of “worthwhile” courses. Indi-vidual courses, in turn, are evaluated in terms of the content reflected, for example, in course syllabi. Indeed, in most colleges and universities teaching performance is evaluated by inspecting the professor’s course syllabi. Given this strong emphasis on course content, it is not surprising that proponents of this theory tend to believe that students learn by attending lectures, doing the reading assignments, and working in the library. To the extent that written and oral presentations by the student are used as learning tools, they generally focus on the content of the reading or the lecture.In the subject-matter approach to learning, those professors with the greatest knowledge of a particular subject matter have the highest prestige. Indeed, because of this emphasis on specialized knowledge, this approach seems to encourage the fragmentation and specialization of faculty interests and to equate scholarly expertise with pedagogical ability.But perhaps the most serious limitation of the subject-matter theory is that it assigns students a passive role in the learning process: The “knowledgeable” professor lectures to the “ignorant” student so that the student can acquire the same knowledge. Such an approach clearly favors highly motivated students and those who tend to be avid readers and good listeners. Students who are slow readers or who have no intrinsic interest in the subject matter of a particular course are not well served by this approach. In fact, recent attempts to expand educational opportunities for underprepared students have probably been hindered by the continued adherence of most faculty members to the subject-matter theory of learning (Astin, 1982).The Resource TheoryThe resource theory of pedagogy is a favorite among administrators and policymakers. Used here, the term resources includes a wide range of ingredients believed to enhance student learning: physical facilities (laboratories, libraries, and audiovisual aids), human resources (well-trained faculty members, counselors, and support personnel), and fiscal resources (finan-cial aid, endowments, and extramural research funds). In effect, the resource theory maintains that if adequate resources are brought together in one place, student learning and development will occur. Many college administrators believe that the acquisition of resources is their most important duty.One resource measure that is particularly popular is the student-faculty ratio. Many administrators believe that the lower the ratio, the greater the learning and personal develop-ment that will occur. But the resource theory has qualitative as well as quantitative aspects, such as the belief that increasing the proportion of “high-quality” professors on the faculty (quality in this instance is defined primarily in terms of scholarly productivity and national visibility) will strengthen the educational environment. Actually, many research-oriented institutions could probably afford to hire more faculty members ifDevelopmental Theorythey were less committed to recruiting and retaining faculty members who are highly visible in their disciplines. In short, such policies involve a trade-off between quantity and quality.The resource theory of pedagogy also tends to include the belief that high-achieving students are a resource, that large numbers of such students on the campus enhance the quality of the learning environment for all students. Acting on this belief, many institutions invest substantial financial resources in the recruitment of high-achieving students.The resource theory has two principal limitations. First, certain resources, such as bright students and prestigious faculty, are finite. As a result, the institutional energies expended in recruiting high-achieving students and presti-gious faculty serve merely to redistribute these finite resources rather than to add to the total pool of such resources. In other words, a successful faculty or student recruitment program may benefit a particular institution, but the benefit comes at the expense of other institutions. As a consequence, widespread acceptance of the resource theory as it applies to faculty and students tends, paradoxically, to reduce the total resources available to the entire higher education community.The second problem with this approach is its focus on the mere accumulation of resources with little attention given to the use or deploy-ment of such resources. For instance, having established a multimillion-volume library, the administration may neglect to find out whether students are making effective use of that library. Similarly, having successfully recruited a faculty “star,” the college may pay little attention to whether the new faculty member works effec-tively with students.The Individualized (Eclectic) TheoryThe individualized theory—a favorite of many developmental and learning psychologists (Chickering & Associates, 1981)—assumes that no single approach to subject matter, teaching, or resource allocation is adequate for all students. Rather, it attempts to identify the curricular content and instructional methods that best meet the needs of the individual student. With its emphasis on borrowing what is most useful from other pedagogical approaches, this flexible approach could also be termed eclectic.In contrast to the subject-matter approach, which generally results in a fixed set of curricular requirements (i.e., courses that all students must take), the individualized approach emphasizes electives. Most college curricula represent a mixture of the subject-matter and individualized theories; that is, students must take certain required courses or satisfy certain distributional requirements but also have the option of taking a certain number of elective courses.But the individualized theory goes far beyond curriculum. It emphasizes, for instance, the importance to the student of advising and counseling and of independent study. The philosophy underlying most student personnel work (guidance, counseling, selective placement, and student support services) implicitly incor-porates the individualized or eclectic theory of student development.The individualized approach is also associ-ated with particular instructional techniques such as self-paced instruction. This theory has led some educators to espouse the “competency-based” learning model (Grant et al., 1979), whereby common learning objectives (compe-tencies) are formulated for all students, but the time allowed to reach these objectives is highly variable and the instructional techniques used are highly individualized.The most obvious limitation of the indivi-dualized theory is that it can be extremely expensive to implement, because each student normally requires considerable individualized attention. In addition, because there are virtually no limitations to the possible variations in subject matter and pedagogical approach, the indi-vidualized theory is difficult to define with precision. Furthermore, given the state of research on learning, it is currently impossible to specify which types of educational programs or teaching techniques are most effective with which types of learners. In other words, although the theory is appealing in the abstract, it is extremely difficult to put into practice.Astin (1984)THE PLACE OF THE THEORY OF STUDENT INVOLVEMENTIn what way does the theory of student involve-ment relate to these traditional pedagogical theories? I believe that it can provide a link between the variables emphasized in these theories (subject matter, resources, and indivi-dualization of approach) and the learning outcomes desired by the student and the pro-fessor. In other words, the theory of student involvement argues that a particular curriculum, to achieve the effects intended, must elicit sufficient student effort and investment of energy to bring about the desired learning and develop-ment. Simply exposing the student to a particular set of courses may or may not work. The theory of involvement, in other words, provides a conceptual substitute for the black box that is implicit in the three traditional pedagogical theories.The content theory, in particular, tends to place students in a passive role as recipients of information. The theory of involvement, on the other hand, emphasizes active participation of the student in the learning process. Recent research at the precollegiate level (Rosenshine, 1982) has suggested that learning will be greatest when the learning environment is structured to encourage active participation by the student.On a more subtle level, the theory of student involvement encourages educators to focus less on what they do and more on what the student does: how motivated the student is and how much time and energy the student devotes to the learning process. The theory assumes that student learning and development will not be impressive if educators focus most of their attention on course content, teaching techniques, laboratories, books, and other resources. With this approach, student involvement—rather than the resources or techniques typically used by educators—becomes the focus of concern.Thus, the construct of student involvement in certain respects resembles a more common construct in psychology: motivation. I personally prefer the term involvement, however, because it implies more than just a psychological state; it connotes the behavioral manifestation of that state. Involvement, in other words, is more susceptible to direct observation and measure-ment than is the more abstract psychological construct of motivation. Moreover, involvement seems to be a more useful construct for edu-cational practitioners. “How do you motivate students?” is probably a more difficult question to answer than “How do you get students involved?”The theory of student involvement is qualitatively different from the developmental theories that have received so much attention in the literature of higher education during the past few years. These theories are of at least two types: those that postulate a series of hier-archically arranged developmental stages (e.g., Heath, 1968; Kohlberg, 1971; Loevinger, 1966; Perry, 1970) and those that view student develop-ment in multidimensional terms (e.g., Brown & DeCoster, 1982; Chickering, 1969). (For recent, comprehensive summaries of these theories see Chickering & Associates, 1981; Hanson, 1982.) Whereas these theories focus primarily on developmental outcomes (the what of student development), the theory of student involvement is more concerned with the behavioral mech-anisms or processes that facilitate student development (the how of student development). These two types of theories can be studied simultaneously (see “Research Possibilities”section below).Student Time as a ResourceCollege administrators are constantly pre-occupied with the accumulation and allocation of fiscal resources; the theory of student involve-ment, however, suggests that the most precious institutional resource may be student time. According to the theory, the extent to which students can achieve particular developmental goals is a direct function of the time and effort they devote to activities designed to produce these gains. For example, if increased knowledge and understanding of history is an important goal for history majors, the extent to which students reach this goal is a direct function of the time they spend at such activities as listening to professors talk about history, reading books about history, and discussing history with other students. Generally, the more time students spendDevelopmental Theoryin these activities, the more history they learn.The theory of student involvement explicitly acknowledges that the psychic and physical time and energy of students are finite. Thus, educators are competing with other forces in the student’s life for a share of that finite time and energy. Here are the basic ingredients of a so-called “zero-sum” game, in which the time and energy that the student invests in family, friends, job, and other outside activities represent a reduction in the time and energy the student has to devote to educational development.Administrators and faculty members must recognize that virtually every institutional policy and practice (e.g., class schedules; regulations on class attendance, academic probation, and participation in honors courses; policies on office hours for faculty, student orientation, and advising) can affect the way students spend their time and the amount of effort they devote to academic pursuits. Moreover, administrative decisions about many nonacademic issues (e.g., the location of new buildings such as dormitories and student unions; rules governing residency; the design of recreational and living facilities; on-campus employment opportunities; number and type of extracurricular activities and regulations regarding participation; the fre-quency, type, and cost of cultural events; roommate assignments; financial aid policies; the relative attractiveness of eating facilities on and off campus; parking regulations) can significantly affect how students spend their time and energy. RELEVANT RESEARCHThe theory of student involvement has its roots in a longitudinal study of college dropouts (Astin, 1975) that endeavored to identify factors in the college environment that significantly affect the student’s persistence in college. It turned out that virtually every significant effect could be rationalized in terms of the involvement concept; that is, every positive factor was likely to increase student involvement in the undergraduate experience, whereas every negative factor was likely to reduce involvement. In other words, the factors that contributed to the student’s remaining in college suggested involvement, whereas those that contributed to the student’s dropping out implied a lack of involvement.What were these significant environmental factors? Probably the most important and pervasive was the student’s residence. Living in a campus residence was positively related to retention, and this positive effect occurred in all types of institutions and among all types of students regardless of sex, race, ability, or family background. Similar results had been obtained in earlier studies (Astin, 1973; Chickering, 1974) and have been subsequently replicated (Astin, 1977, 1982). It is obvious that students who live in residence halls have more time and oppor-tunity to get involved in all aspects of campus life. Indeed, simply by eating, sleeping, and spending their waking hours on the college campus, residential students have a better chance than do commuter students of developing a strong identification and attachment to under-graduate life.The longitudinal study also showed that students who join social fraternities or sororities or participate in extracurricular activities of almost any type are less likely to drop out. Participation in sports, particularly inter-collegiate sports, has an especially pronounced, positive effect on persistence. Other activities that enhance retention include enrollment in honors programs, involvement in ROTC, and participation in professors’ undergraduate research projects.One of the most interesting environmental factors that affected retention was holding a part-time job on campus. Although it might seem that working while attending college takes time and energy away from academic pursuits, part-time employment in an on-campus job actually facilitates retention. Apparently such work, which also includes work-study combinations, operates in much the same way as residential living: The student is spending time on the campus, thus increasing the likelihood that he or she will come into contact with other students, professors, and college staff. On a more subtle psychological level, relying on the college as a source of income can result in a greater sense of attachment to the college.Retention suffers, however, if the studentAstin (1984)works off campus at a full-time job. Because the student is spending considerable time and energy on nonacademic activities that are usually unrelated to student life, full-time work off campus decreases the time and energy that the student can devote to studies and other campus activities.Findings concerning the effects of different types of colleges are also relevant to the theory of involvement. Thus, the most consistent finding—reported in almost every longitudinal study of student development—is that the student’s chances of dropping out are sub-stantially greater at a 2-year college than at a 4-year college. The negative effects of attending a community college are observed even after the variables of entering student characteristics and lack of residence and work are considered (Astin, 1975, 1977). Community colleges are places where the involvement of both faculty and students seems to be minimal. Most (if not all) students are commuters, and a large proportion attend college on a part-time basis (thus, they presumably manifest less involvement simply because of their part-time status). Similarly, a large proportion of faculty members are em-ployed on a part-time basis.The 1975 study of dropouts also produced some interesting findings regarding the “fit”between student and college: Students are more likely to persist at religious colleges if their own religious backgrounds are similar; Blacks are more likely to persist at Black colleges than at White colleges; and students from small towns are more likely to persist in small than in large colleges. The origin of such effects probably lies in the student’s ability to identify with the institution. It is easier to become involved when one can identify with the college environment.Further support for the involvement theory can be found by examining the reasons that students give for dropping out of college. For men the most common reason is boredom with courses, clearly implying a lack of involvement. The most common reason for women is marriage, pregnancy, or other responsibilities, a set of competing objects that drain away the time and energy that women could otherwise devote to being students.The persister-dropout phenomenon provides an ideal paradigm for studying student involve-ment. Thus, if we conceive of involvement as occurring along a continuum, the act of dropping out can be viewed as the ultimate form of noninvolvement, and dropping out anchors the involvement continuum at the lowest end.Because of the apparent usefulness of the involvement theory as it applied to the earlier research on dropping out, I decided to investigate the involvement phenomenon more intensively by studying the impact of college on a wide range of other outcomes (Astin, 1977). This study, which used longitudinal data on several samples totaling more than 200,000 students and ex-amined more than 80 different student outcomes, focused on the effects of several different types of involvement: place of residence, honors programs, undergraduate research participation, social fraternities and sororities, academic involvement, student-faculty interaction, athletic involvement, and involvement in student govern-ment. In understanding the effects of these various forms of involvement it is important to keep in mind the overall results of this study: College attendance in general seems to strength-en students’ competency, self-esteem, artistic interests, liberalism, hedonism, and religious apostasy and to weaken their business interests.Perhaps the most important general con-clusion I reached from this elaborate analysis was that nearly all forms of student involvement are associated with greater than average changes in entering freshman characteristics. And for certain student outcomes involvement is more strongly associated with change than either entering freshman characteristics or institutional charac-teristics. The following is a summary of the results for specific forms of involvement. Place of ResidenceLeaving home to attend college has significant effects on most college outcomes. Students who live in campus residences are much more likely than commuter students to become less religious and more hedonistic. Residents also show greater gains than commuters in artistic interests, liberalism, and interpersonal self-esteem. Living in a dormitory is positively associated with。
青年亚文化
周三1．Image you are a policy maker. (i) What issues do you think leaders should consider when planning for youth development in 21st century China? Why? (ii) Give 2 or 3 practical recommendations for the development of youth research in China.想象你是一个政策的制定者，在为21世纪对中国青年发展中，你觉得领导者们需要注意些什么问题？为什么？并为中国年轻一代的发展调查提供两到三个实际性的意见？Creativity is the power for national advancement and it should be highlighted for training methods .For training objects, the differences among teenager-indiviuals ,family environments ,economic conditions and education levels which will lead to youth differences should be paid attention to.Teenagers Internet addiction problems. As a new media and an approach to getting information, Internet has taken up an increasingly important place in people’s daily life, study and work. Unfortunately, it is obviously that Internet has brought negative effects that teenagers are addicted to online games and even they develop the IAD( Internet Addition Disorder), which has become a difficult social problem. If addicted to online games, they will lack of interpersonal communication and tend to be autistic, which will do certain harm totheir physiological and metal health. “Attack, combat and competition”are the main components in online games, and the fierce exciting contents obscure their moral cognitionand weaken the difference between virtual game and real life. Teenagers will misunderstand it is reasonable to hurt others through it. At present, the problems of moral disorder, deviant behavior and illegal criminal activity are gradually increasing and Internet is called electronic heroin. We should do as follows.1) strengthen the network moral education for teenagers, form the good habit of onlinesurfing and make students realize the harmfulness of IAD and constrain their own behaviorconsciously. 2) Establish and improve the youth counseling agencies. We should discover adolescents’ psychological problems and then do the counseling, preventing teenagers with negative psychological characteristics from becoming addicted to online games and developing the IAD.《中国21世纪培养青少年发展战略-褚平》中国青年政治学院学报，2002年1月《China to cultivate teenagers development strategy in the 21st century-Zhupin》在培养方法上需要突出创新性，创新是一个民族进步的动力。
表演才艺的英语作文
表演才艺的英语作文Performing talents is a delightful experience that can bring joy to both the performer and the audience. Heres a detailed English composition on showcasing ones talents through various forms of performance.Title The Joy of Performing TalentsFrom the moment we are born we are surrounded by the beauty of human expression. The ability to perform is a gift that can be cultivated and shared with others. Whether its through music dance acting or any other form of art performing ones talents is a way to connect with others on a deeper level.IntroductionThe world of performance is vast and varied. It offers a platform for individuals to express themselves creatively and emotionally. For me the journey of performing began at a young age and it has been a significant part of my life ever since.Body Paragraph 1 The BeginningMy first encounter with performing was in a school play. I was cast as a minor character but the thrill of being on stage was electrifying. The weeks of rehearsal the camaraderie among the cast and the final applause from the audience were experiences that left an indelible mark on me.Body Paragraph 2 The Development of SkillsAs I grew older I explored various forms of performance. I took up piano lessons which allowed me to delve into the world of music. The discipline required to master an instrument taught me patience and perseverance. I also joined a dance class where the rhythm and movement became an extension of my emotions.Body Paragraph 3 The Impact of PerformancePerforming has not only been a source of personal joy but also a means to inspire others.Through my performances I have been able to touch the hearts of the audience evoke emotions and sometimes even change perspectives. The feedback and appreciation I receive are incredibly rewarding and motivate me to continue honing my skills.Body Paragraph 4 Overcoming ChallengesThe path of a performer is not without its challenges. There have been moments of selfdoubt stage fright and the pressure to perform flawlessly. However these challenges have also been opportunities for growth. They have taught me the importance of preparation resilience and the ability to learn from mistakes.ConclusionIn conclusion performing ones talents is a journey of selfdiscovery and selfexpression. It is a way to communicate with the world without words to share stories and to create shared experiences. For me the joy of performing is in the process itselfthe preparation the performance and the connection with the audience. It is a journey that I cherish and look forward to continuing for many years to come.This composition provides a comprehensive view of the experience of performing talents from the initial spark of interest to the ongoing journey of growth and development. It highlights the personal fulfillment and the impact that performing can have on both the performer and the audience.。
The Importance of Being a Good Motivator
The Importance of Being a Good Motivator Being a good motivator is crucial in various aspects of life, whether it be in the workplace, at home, or within a community. The ability to inspire and encourage others can have a significant impact on their performance, well-being, and overall success. As a leader, friend, or family member, being a good motivator can help create a positive and supportive environment, leading to greater productivity, stronger relationships, and a sense of fulfillment. In this essay, we will explore the importance of being a good motivator from different perspectives, including the benefits it brings to individuals, teams, and organizations. From an individual perspective, being a good motivator can make a world of difference in someone's life. Whether it's a colleague struggling with a project, a friend facing a personal challenge, or a family member pursuing a goal, the support and encouragement of a good motivator can provide the necessary pushto overcome obstacles and achieve success. When someone feels motivated and inspired, they are more likely to stay focused, work harder, and maintain apositive attitude, leading to personal growth and a sense of accomplishment. As a good motivator, one has the power to instill confidence and determination in others, helping them to believe in themselves and their abilities. In the context of a team or organization, the role of a good motivator becomes even more critical.A motivated team is a productive team, and a productive team is essential for the success of any organization. A good motivator can help create a positive work environment, boost morale, and foster a sense of unity among team members. By recognizing and appreciating the efforts of others, providing constructive feedback, and setting clear goals, a good motivator can help individuals and teams perform at their best. Moreover, a good motivator can also inspire creativity and innovation, as individuals feel empowered to take risks and think outside the box. Furthermore, being a good motivator can also have a ripple effect, impacting not only those directly influenced but also the overall culture and atmosphere of a community or organization. When individuals feel motivated and supported, they are more likely to pass on that positive energy to others, creating a chain reactionof inspiration and encouragement. This can lead to a more cohesive and harmonious community, where individuals are willing to help and support each other, leadingto a more fulfilling and enriching experience for everyone involved. On the other hand, the absence of motivation can have detrimental effects on individuals, teams, and organizations. Without proper encouragement and support, individuals may feel disengaged, uninspired, and unappreciated, leading to decreased productivity, low morale, and a negative work environment. This can ultimately result in high turnover rates, decreased performance, and a lack of innovation within an organization. In a personal context, the absence of motivation can lead tofeelings of self-doubt, lack of fulfillment, and a sense of stagnation, hindering personal growth and success. In conclusion, being a good motivator is essentialfor personal, professional, and communal growth and success. The ability toinspire and encourage others can have a profound impact on their well-being, performance, and overall satisfaction. Whether it's providing support to a colleague, motivating a team, or fostering a positive community, the role of a good motivator is invaluable. By recognizing the importance of being a good motivator and actively cultivating this skill, individuals can create a more positive, productive, and fulfilling environment for themselves and those around them.。
The Importance of Being a Good Motivator
The Importance of Being a Good Motivator Motivation is a crucial aspect of human behavior and performance. It is the driving force that compels individuals to take action, achieve goals, and strive for success. Being a good motivator is essential in various aspects of life, whether it be in the workplace, in personal relationships, or even in self-motivation. The ability to inspire and encourage others can have a significant impact on their morale, productivity, and overall well-being. In this essay, we will explore the importance of being a good motivator from different perspectives, and how it can positively influence individuals and the environment around them. From a professional standpoint, being a good motivator is essential for effective leadership and management. A leader who can inspire and motivate their team members is more likely to see improved performance, higher productivity, andbetter overall job satisfaction. Employees who feel motivated are more engaged in their work, leading to increased creativity, innovation, and a positive work environment. Moreover, a good motivator can help individuals overcome challenges and obstacles, fostering a resilient and determined workforce. This, in turn, can lead to higher retention rates and lower turnover, as employees are more likely to stay committed to an organization where they feel motivated and valued. In addition to the workplace, being a good motivator is also crucial in personal relationships. Whether it be with family, friends, or significant others, the ability to inspire and encourage others can strengthen bonds and create a supportive and nurturing environment. A good motivator can provide emotional support, offer guidance, and instill confidence in others, helping them navigate through difficult times and achieve their goals. By being a source of motivation, individuals can feel empowered to pursue their dreams and aspirations, knowingthat they have someone cheering them on every step of the way. Furthermore, being a good motivator is essential for self-motivation and personal growth. Individuals who can motivate themselves are more likely to set and achieve their goals, overcome challenges, and maintain a positive outlook on life. Self-motivation is a key factor in resilience and mental well-being, as it allows individuals to bounce back from setbacks and stay focused on their aspirations. By cultivating self-motivation, individuals can become more confident, independent, and proactive inpursuing their dreams and aspirations. From a psychological perspective, motivation plays a significant role in shaping human behavior and decision-making. Motivation is driven by a combination of internal and external factors, such as personal values, beliefs, and the influence of others. A good motivator can tap into these factors, understanding what drives individuals and using that knowledge to inspire and encourage them. By understanding the unique motivations of others, a good motivator can tailor their approach to effectively connect with and influence others, leading to more meaningful and impactful interactions. In conclusion, being a good motivator is essential in various aspects of life, from the workplace to personal relationships and self-motivation. The ability toinspire and encourage others can have a significant impact on their morale, productivity, and overall well-being. By understanding the importance of motivation and cultivating the skills to be a good motivator, individuals can create a positive and empowering environment for themselves and those around them. Whether it be in a professional or personal setting, the ability to motivate others is a valuable skill that can lead to greater success, fulfillment, and happiness.。
职业和组织行为的英语作文
职业和组织行为的英语作文Title: The Role of Profession and Organizational Behavior in the Modern Workplace。
Introduction:In the modern workplace, the role of profession and organizational behavior plays a crucial role in shaping the success and growth of individuals and organizations alike. This essay explores the significance of a profession and the impact of organizational behavior on the overall functioning and productivity of an organization.Body:1. The Role of Profession:A profession refers to a specialized field of work that requires specific knowledge, skills, and expertise. It provides individuals with a sense of purpose and identity,allowing them to contribute to society in a meaningful way. Professions often have ethical codes and standards that guide the behavior and conduct of professionals. By adhering to these standards, professionals ensure the integrity and credibility of their work.2. Professionalism and Ethical Behavior:Professionalism is characterized by a high level of competence, integrity, and ethical behavior. Professionals are expected to demonstrate these qualities in their interactions with colleagues, clients, and the wider community. Ethical behavior ensures that professionals act in the best interests of their clients and maintain the trust and confidence of those they serve.3. Organizational Behavior:Organizational behavior refers to the study of how individuals and groups behave within an organization. It encompasses various aspects such as communication, leadership, motivation, and decision-making. Understandingand managing organizational behavior is essential for creating a positive work environment and achieving organizational goals.4. The Importance of Organizational Behavior:Effective organizational behavior fosters a healthy and productive work culture. It promotes teamwork, collaboration, and open communication, which leads to increased employee satisfaction and engagement. When employees feel valued and supported, they are more likely to perform at their best, resulting in improvedproductivity and organizational success.5. Leadership and Organizational Behavior:Leaders play a crucial role in shaping organizational behavior. A good leader inspires and motivates employees, sets clear goals, and provides guidance and support. By promoting a positive work culture and leading by example, leaders can influence the behavior and attitudes of their team members, ultimately impacting the overallorganizational behavior.6. Impact of Organizational Behavior on Performance:Organizational behavior directly affects the performance and productivity of an organization. A positive work environment encourages innovation, creativity, and problem-solving, leading to better outcomes. On the other hand, negative organizational behavior, such as conflicts, lack of communication, and resistance to change, can hinder progress and result in decreased productivity.Conclusion:Profession and organizational behavior are integral components of the modern workplace. A profession provides individuals with a sense of purpose and identity, while organizational behavior influences the overall functioning and productivity of an organization. By promoting professionalism, ethical behavior, and positive organizational behavior, individuals and organizations cancreate a conducive work environment that fosters growth, success, and satisfaction.。
The Importance of Being a Good Motivator
The Importance of Being a Good Motivator Being a good motivator is essential in both personal and professional settings. Whether it's leading a team, supporting a friend, or inspiring oneself, motivation plays a crucial role in achieving goals and overcoming obstacles. The ability to motivate others and oneself is a valuable skill that can lead to success, productivity, and overall well-being. In this essay, we will explore the importance of being a good motivator from various perspectives, including leadership, personal development, and mental health. From a leadership standpoint, being a good motivator is a fundamental aspect of effective management. A leader who can inspire and encourage their team members is more likely to foster apositive and productive work environment. Motivated employees tend to be more engaged, committed, and willing to go the extra mile to achieve organizational goals. This, in turn, can lead to higher levels of performance, increased job satisfaction, and lower turnover rates. Leaders who possess strong motivational skills can influence the morale and overall success of their teams, making it a critical trait for effective leadership. On a personal level, the ability to motivate oneself is equally important. Self-motivation is the driving force behind setting and achieving personal goals, pursuing passions, and overcoming challenges. It requires a combination of self-discipline, positive mindset, and the ability to stay focused and determined in the face of adversity. A good motivator understands the power of self-talk, setting realistic goals, and celebrating small victories along the way. Cultivating self-motivation can lead to a more fulfilling and purposeful life, as individuals are empowered to take control of their own destiny and pursue their aspirations. In the realm of mental health, motivation plays a significant role in shaping one's overall well-being. Individuals who strugglewith motivation may experience feelings of apathy, lack of direction, and a sense of stagnation in their lives. This can have detrimental effects on mental health, leading to issues such as depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem. On the other hand, those who are able to harness motivation as a tool for personal growth and resilience are more likely to experience greater levels of happiness, fulfillment, and a sense of accomplishment. Motivation can be a powerful force in overcoming mental health challenges and building resilience in the face of adversity.Furthermore, being a good motivator involves understanding the unique needs and motivations of others. Not everyone responds to the same incentives or methods of encouragement. It requires empathy, active listening, and the ability to tailor motivational strategies to fit the individual or team. By recognizing and acknowledging the strengths, weaknesses, and aspirations of others, a good motivator can effectively inspire and support those around them. This personalized approach to motivation can lead to stronger relationships, increased trust, and a more cohesive and supportive community. In conclusion, the importance of being a good motivator cannot be overstated. Whether in a leadership role, on a personal journey of self-improvement, or in the context of mental health, the ability to inspire and encourage oneself and others is a valuable skill with far-reaching implications. By recognizing the significance of motivation and cultivating the necessary skills to be a good motivator, individuals can unlock their full potential, foster positive environments, and contribute to the well-being of those around them. Ultimately, the impact of being a good motivator extends beyond individual success, shaping the dynamics of teams, communities, and the world at large.。
2015-高表面面积介孔Pt _二氧化钛空心链高效甲醛分解在环境温度
Journal of Hazardous Materials 301(2016)522–530Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJournal of HazardousMaterialsj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /j h a z m atHigh-surface area mesoporous Pt/TiO 2hollow chains for efficient formaldehyde decomposition at ambient temperatureLifang Qi a ,c ,Bei Cheng a ,Jiaguo Yu a ,d ,∗,Wingkei Ho b ,∗∗aState Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Material Synthesis and Processing,Wuhan University of Technology,Luoshi Road 122#,Wuhan 430070,PR China bDepartment of Science and Environmental Studies and Centre for Education in Environmental Sustainability,The Hong Kong Institute of Education,Tai Po,N.T.Hong Kong,PR China cDepartment of Construction and Materials Engineering,Hubei University of Education,Gaoxin Road 129,Wuhan 430205,PR China dDepartment of Physics,Faculty of Science,King Abdulaziz University,Jeddah 21589,Saudi Arabiah i g h l i g h t s•High-surface area mesoporousPt/TiO 2hollow chains were synthesized.•The catalytic activity for decomposi-tion of HCHO at room temperature was evaluated.•Pt nanoparticles markedly enhanced the catalytic activity of Pt/TiO 2cata-lysts.•Pt/TiO 2hollow chains exhibited much higher catalytic activity than Pt/P25TiO 2.•The mechanism for the high catalytic activity of Pt/TiO 2hollow chains was presented.g r a p h i c a la b s t r a cta r t i c l ei n f oArticle history:Received 12July 2015Received in revised form 8September 2015Accepted 13September 2015Available online 15September 2015Keywords:Catalytic oxidation HCHO removal Mesoporous TiO 2Hollow spheres Indoor air qualitya b s t r a c tRoom-temperature catalytic decomposition of formaldehyde (HCHO)is considered as one of the most main methods for the removal of indoor HCHO due to its facile reaction conditions.Herein,high-surface area mesoporous Pt/TiO 2hollow chains were synthesized in high yield by using a simple microwave–hydrothermal route,followed by a combined NaOH-assisted NaBH 4-reduction deposition of Pt nanoparticles on the as-obtained TiO 2surface.The catalytic activity for HCHO decomposition was evaluated at room temperature.The prepared Pt/TiO 2hollow chains with an optimal Pt loading of 0.5wt.%exhibited high catalytic activity and recyclability.The apparent reaction rate constant of HCHO oxida-tion over this catalyst was approximately 1.42×10−3ppm −1min −1,exceeding that of the commercial Degussa P25TiO 2with equal Pt content (k =5.36×10−4ppm −1min −1)by a factor of approximately 2.65.The high catalytic activity of the Pt/TiO 2hollow chains could be mainly attributed to the hollow chain-like structure,high specific surface area,numerous mesopores,and high pore volume of TiO 2support.Consequently,the catalysts exhibited high adsorption capacity for HCHO,fast diffusion and transport of gas molecules,and good contact between gases and active sites.These characteristics enhanced the catalytic activity.©2015Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.∗Corresponding author at:State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Material Synthesis and Processing,Wuhan University of Technology,Luoshi Road 122#,Wuhan 430070,PR China.Fax:+862787879468.∗∗Corresponding author.E-mail addresses:jiaguoyu@ (J.Yu),keithho@.hk (W.Ho)./10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.09.0260304-3894/©2015Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.L.Qi et al./Journal of Hazardous Materials301(2016)522–5305231.IntroductionIn the past decades,the increased awareness that indoor air pollutants and new potential sources of airborne toxic chemicals are significant health hazards has raised a concern for indoor air quality given that people generally spend80–90%of their time indoors.Formaldehyde(HCHO)emitted from buildings and dec-orative materials is one of the major indoor air pollutants[1–6]. Long-term exposure to HCHO with concentrations exceeding safety limitations may cause serious health problems such as eye,skin, nose,and throat irritation,as well as coughing,chest pains,asthma, bronchitis,and even nasopharyngeal cancer and leukemia[1–6]. International Ageny for Research on Cancer(IARC)has classfied HCHO as a human carcinogen Group1[4].Therefore,eliminating HCHO from indoor air to meet the stringent environmental regu-lations and human health needs is highly urgent.Several methods on the removal of indoor HCHO have been proposed[6–17].The thermal catalytic oxidation(TCO)is one of the most promising approaches because it completely decomposes HCHO into harm-less CO2and H2O at low operating temperature without extra energy supply[6,17].Conventional TCO catalysts include transi-tion metal oxides(Ti,Mn,Fe,Al,Ce,Co,and Ni)and supported noble metal(Pt,Au,Pd,and Ag)catalysts[14–30].The Pt-containing catalysts have attracted much attention because of their excellent catalytic oxidation of HCHO at room temperature[6,17–24].HCHO can be completely oxidized into CO2and H2O at room temperature using Pt/TiO2[17–20],Pt/Al2O3[21],Pt/MnO2[23],and Pt/NiO[24]. However,for practical and commercial application,the design and development of efficient and feasible catalysts for indoor HCHO purification remains a challenge.For Pt-containing catalysts,the particle sizes and dispersion of Pt,as well as the effect of mass transport,are key factors in HCHO catalytic oxidation,and these factors are closely related to the specific surface area and microstructures of the supports[29,30]. Various nanostructures,such as nanowires,nanorods,nanotubes, nanoflakes,hollow spheres,mesoporous structure,and hierarchi-cal porous structures,have been fabricated in the past decades. Among them,materials with mesoporous structure are extensively studied due to their high BET surface area,large pore volume, and well-organized pore channels,which permit the pollutant molecules to easily access the active sites without obstruction of diffusion[31,32].Recently,hollow-structured materials have attracted considerable attention because of their low density,high surface area,large cavity volume,and good surface permeability [33–39].These materials are widely applied in catalysis,adsorption, separation,drug delivery,lithium–ion batteries,chemical stor-age,and lightfillers[33–39].Hollow-structured materials display good performances in photocatalytic H2production[33]and pollu-tant degradation[34],dye-sensitized solar cells[35],lithium–ion batteries[36,37],and HCHO adsorption[38].For HCHO catalytic oxidation,mesoporous hollow-structured materials are good can-didates for catalyst supports because a hollow structure and a high-surface-area mesoprous support not only facilitate the fast diffusion and transport of reactants and products,but they also provide more active sites for HCHO adsorption and Pt nanoparti-cle(NP)deposition,which are crucial for HCHO catalytic oxidation. Several studies have confirmed that hollow-structured spherical materials with mesopores exhibit higher catalytic activity for HCHO oxidative decomposition than materials without such structure [21,24].In recent years,extensive studies on fabrication of hollow-structured materials have been performed,and many approaches have been presented.A one-pot template-free method has been confirmed to be simple and viable for the large-scale fabrication of hollow-structured materials.This method overcomes the draw-backs of the frequently employed template-directed approach such as complex and time-consuming procedures,high cost,and low yields.Thus,synthetic approaches based on in situ“inside-out”dis-solution recrystallization processes involving chemically induced self-transformation and Ostwald ripening are apparently particu-larly attractive[40–43].To date,various transition metal oxides,such as TiO2,MnO2, and Fe2O3,have been used as support in fabricating noble metal catalysts.TiO2is one of the most versatile supports because of its biological and chemical inertness,nontoxicity,availability,long-term stability,and low cost[30].Numerous studies have confirmed the high catalytic activity of Pt/TiO2for oxidative decomposi-tion of HCHO[17–20,30].However,the most widely investigated Pt/TiO2catalysts were usually synthesized using TiO2NPs as sup-ports.Zhang et al.prepared a highly efficient Pt/TiO2catalyst using anatase TiO2NPs as support material and found that alkali metal ions on the catalyst surface significantly enhanced its catalytic activity for HCHO oxidation[19].Nie et al.employed commercial Degussa P25TiO2NPs to prepare Pt/TiO2catalyst and reported that NaOH modification could promote the catalytic activity of Pt/TiO2[17].Given the advantages of hollow and mesoporous struc-tures,hollow-structured Pt/TiO2catalyst with mesopores may be inferred to exhibit relatively high catalytic activity toward HCHO oxidation.To the best of our knowledge,high-surface area meso-porous Pt/TiO2hollow chains have not been reported nor used for oxidative decomposition of HCHO.In this study,high-surface area mesoporous Pt/TiO2hollow chains were successfully synthe-sized for thefirst time by one-pot template-free chemically induced self-transformation method under microwave–hydrothermal con-dition,followed by a combined NaOH-assisted NaBH4-reduction deposition of Pt NPs on the as-obtained TiO2hollow chains.The pre-pared0.5%Pt/TiO2hollow chains exhibited excellent stability and catalytic activity toward HCHO oxidative decomposition at ambi-ent temperature.Especially,the mass of the catalyst used in this study was only one third of the amount of reported catalyst[17]. In addition,the employed microwave–hydrothermal method for producing TiO2hollow chains is a time-saving,low-cost,and ver-satile technique[44,45].The different advantages of this technique over the conventional hydrothermal method include the uniform heating from the exterior to the interior of materials without any hotspot or energy loss in the atmosphere,high heating rate,and high quality of the prepared products[44,45].The proposed syn-thetic method can also be applied to the preparation of other high-quality catalysts for indoor HCHO elimination.2.Experimental2.1.Sample preparationAll reagents from Shanghai Chemical Regent Factory of China were used as received without further purification.Deionized water was used in all experiments.Pt/TiO2hollow chains were prepared by a modifiedfluoride-induced self-transformation approach[42].In a typical synthesis, 0.36g of Ti(SO4)2was dissolved in30mL of deionized water under magnetic stirring.After stirring for approximately30min,0.043g of NH4HF2and0.045g of urea were sequentially added to the solu-tion.After another10min,the obtained clear solution was then transferred to a Teflon-lined double-walled digestion vessel,fol-lowed by microwave–hydrothermal treatment at180◦C for1h. The microwave-assisted experiments were performed in an MDS-6(Sineo,Shanghai,China)microwave digestion system,and the microwave power was800W during the synthesis.After the reac-tion,the white precipitates were collected by centrifugation.The precipitates were sequentially washed thrice with NaOH aqueous solution(1M),deionized water,and ethanol,and then dried at 80◦C for12h.For comparison,the obtained TiO2sample was also524L.Qi et al./Journal of Hazardous Materials301(2016)522–530Fig.1.Schematic diagram of reactor for room-temperature catalytic decomposition of formaldehyde:(1)organic glass reactor,(2)fan,(3)glass petri dish with catalyst, (4)glass slide cover,(5)fine wire,(6)door,(7)sampling port,(8)injection port,(9)fine wire port,(10)sample recovering port,(11)gas pipeline,(12)Photoacoustic IR Multigas Monitor,(13)cable,and(14)computer.ground by ball milling method.In a typical procedure,2.5g of the as-prepared TiO2sample wasfirst mixed with10mL of ethanol and then milled by planetary ball milling(QM-3SP04)with60 agate balls(6–10mm in diameter)in a hardened agate jar(80mL in volume)for2h.After milling,the precipitates were collected by centrifugation and then dried in an oven at80◦C for12h.The obtained sample was labelled as G.Pt-supported catalysts were prepared using a combined NaOH-assisted impregnation of supports with Pt precursor and NaBH4-reduction process[17].In a typical preparation,0.8g of the TiO2samples was dispersed in10mL of H2PtCl6aqueous solution with different concentrations under vigorous stirring.After stirring for1h,4.0mL of a mixed aqueous solution containing NaOH(0.5M) and NaBH4(0.1M)were quickly added into each suspension and vigorously stirred for another1h.Then,the suspensions were cen-trifuged to obtain black precipitates.The precipitates werefinally washed with deionized water once and dried in an oven at80◦C for12h.The nominal weight percentage ratios of Pt-to-support( R Pt-nominal)were0,0.05,0.1,0.5,and1.0wt.%,and the obtained samples were denoted as R0,R0.05,R0.1,R0.5,and R1,respectively. For comparison,Pt-supported catalysts were also prepared using the as-prepared G and commercial Degussa P25TiO2as supports under similar conditions,and the corresponding obtained samples were labeled as G0.5and COMP.The real weight percentage of Pt in the samples(R Pt-real)was measured by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry(ICP-AES)using an Optima4300DV spectrometer(PerkinElmer).The detailed experimental conditions for preparation of all samples are presented in Table1.2.2.CharacterizationThe X-ray diffraction(XRD)patterns of the samples were obtained on a D/Max-RB X-ray diffractometer(Rigaku,Japan) using Cu K␣irradiation at a scan rate of0.05◦2Âs−1.Scan-ning electron microscopy(SEM)images were collected on an S-4800field-emission SEM(FESEM,Hitachi,Japan).Transmission electron microscopy(TEM)and high-resolution TEM(HRTEM) micrographs were obtained on a JEM-2100F TEM(JEOL,Japan). Brunauer–Emmett–Teller(BET)specific surface area(S BET),pore volume(V pore),and the average pore size(d pore)of the sam-ples were measured by nitrogen adsorption using a Micromeritics Tristar II3020nitrogen adsorption apparatus(USA)[46].X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS)measurements were conducted on an ESCALAB210spectrometer(VG Scientific,UK)with Mg K␣source and a charge neutralizer.The Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR)spectra of the samples were recorded using KBr disks containing each sample on a Shimadzu IRAffinity-1FTIR spectrom-eter(Shimadzu,Japan).In situ diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform(DRIFT)spectra were recorded on a Nicolet6700FTIRFig.2.XRD patterns of the samples.spectrometer(Thermo Fisher Scientific,USA).The sample wasfirst placed on a sample cell within an atmospherically controllable chamber and subsequently pretreated in aflow of dried air at150◦C for1h prior to analysis.The analysis was performed in30mL min−1 of78ppm HCHO/O2at ambient temperature.The spectra were col-lected from4000cm−1to1000cm−1with a resolution of4cm−1 and an accumulation of32scans.The background spectrum was subtracted from each spectrum.2.3.Catalytic activity testThe catalytic activity for HCHO oxidation was performed in a dark organic glass box covered by a layer of aluminum foil on its inner wall at ambient temperature.The experimental setup is shown in Fig.1.The procedure is similar to our previous work[17]. In a typical experiment,0.1g of catalyst was initially dispersed on the bottom of a glass Petri dish with a diameter of7.0cm.The dish containing the sample was placed at the bottom of a reac-tor with a volume of approximately4.4L[(17×16×16)cm3]and then covered with a glass slide.The reactor wasfinally sealed and injected with a certain amount of condensed HCHO solution(38%). A5W fan that was pre-placed on the bottom of reactor continu-ously functioned during the whole reaction.The concentrations of gaseous HCHO and CO2were detected online using a Photoacoustic IR Multigas Monitor(INNOVA air Tech Instruments Model1412). The dish containing the sample was covered to ensure the isolation of the catalyst from HCHO vapor until the adsorption/desorption equilibrium within the reactor was reached and the concentration of HCHO vapor was stable.The initial concentration of HCHO vapor after adsorption/desorption equilibrium was controlled at about 260±5ppm.Each experiment was performed for at least1h.The catalytic performances of the Pt-containing samples were quantita-tively evaluated by comparing the apparent reaction rate constants. The catalytic oxidation of HCHO follows a pseudo-second-order kinetics with respect to the concentration of HCHO(C t),and its kinetics may be expressed as follows:1C t−1C0=kt(1)where k is the apparent reaction rate constant,and C0and C t are the initial and reaction concentrations of HCHO,respectively.The plot of1/C t versus t is linear and the slope is k.The correlation coefficients(R2)are higher than0.96,indicating the good linear plots.Table1lists the k of HCHO oxidation over each Pt-containing sample.L.Qi et al./Journal of Hazardous Materials301(2016)522–530525 Table1Physical properties and catalytic activities of the as-prepared samples.Samples Main R Pt-nomial R Pt-real S BET V pore d pore k×104 composition[wt%][wt%][m2g−1][cm3g−1][nm][ppm−1min−1] R0TiO2002830.608.5–R0.05TiO2/Pt0.050.0341360.308.80.65R0.1TiO2/Pt0.10.0851340.308.90.96R0.5TiO2/Pt0.50.4811320.298.914.2R1TiO2/Pt 1.00.93897.80.249.815.4G0.5TiO2/Pt0.50.4661290.309.6 6.03COMP TiO2/Pt0.50.45340.90.1817.4 5.363.Results and discussion3.1.Structure and morphologyXRD was used to investigate the effects of R Pt on the phase structure of the as-prepared samples.Fig.2shows a comparison of the XRD patterns of the samples prepared at different R Pt values. Similar XRD patterns were observed for all samples,suggesting that the deposition of Pt NPs did not evidently affect the phase structure of the samples.All diffraction peaks of the samples could be indexed to the pure anatase phase of TiO2[JCPDS No.21-1272,space group: I41/amd(141)].For all Pt-containing samples,no diffraction peak of Pt was observed primarily because of the low loading amount, small particle size,and good dispersion of the Pt NPs[20,47].Fig.3shows the SEM and TEM micrographs of the Pt/TiO2hol-low chains prepared at R Pt=0.5(R0.5).Fig.3a shows that R0.5 exhibits a chain-like structure,which is composed of closely con-nected spherical particles with diameters ranging from250nm to 500nm.The higher magnification SEM micrograph in Fig.3b shows that the rough external surface of R0.5is composed of numerous particles with diameters of more than10nm.The TEM micrograph in Fig.3c reveals the hollow nature of R0.5and further confirms that the shell wall of R0.5is composed of agglomerated polyhedral anatase TiO2NPs.The HRTEM micrograph(inset in Fig.3c)indi-cates that Pt NPs(marked by white circles)with sizes ranging from 1.8nm to4.0nm were evenly deposited and dispersed on the sur-face of TiO2support.The HRTEM micrograph(Fig.3d)exhibits that the lattice fringes of0.227nm in the white circle is consistent with the lattice spacing of the(111)planes of metallic Pt,confirming that the black dots marked by white circles are Pt NPs.This result demonstrates that Pt NPs were successfully deposited on the sur-face of TiO2.For HCHO catalytic oxidation,metallic Pt was better than PtO and PtO2because more reactive sites were provided[20].Fig.4shows the nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms and the corresponding pore-size distribution curves of R0and R0.5.The isotherms for the two samples(Fig.4a)are of type IV according to the Brunauer–Deming–Deming–Teller classification,indicating the presence of mesopores[46].The shapes of the hysteresis loops are of type H2,suggesting the presence of ink-bottle-like pores with narrow necks and wider bodies[46],which originated from the aggregation of the primary TiO2particles.Thisfinding is consis-tent with the SEM and TEM results(Fig.3).Compared withR0, Fig.3.(a and b)FESEM,(c)TEM,high-magnification TEM(inset in c),and(d)HRTEM micrographs of R0.5.526L.Qi et al./Journal of Hazardous Materials301(2016)522–530 Fig.4.(a)Nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms and(b)the correspondingpore-size distribution curves of R0and R0.5.R0.5shows much lower adsorption in the whole relative pressurerange,implying the lower V pore of the latter.The correspondingpore-size distribution curves(Fig.4b)further confirm the presenceof mesopores(peak pore at approximately7.4nm)in R0and R0.5.The detailed pore parameters and S BET values of the samples arelisted in Table1.All Pt/TiO2samples(R Pt>0)had much smallerS BET and V pore than pure TiO2sample(R Pt=0),and these charac-teristics decreased gradually with increasing R Pt.This phenomenoncan be elucidated as follows.First,the density of the Pt/TiO2sam-ples increased with increasing R Pt because of the higher densityof Pt(21.45g cm−3)than that of TiO2(3.84g cm−3)given that theS BET(m2g−1)and V pore(cm3g−1)are expressed per gram of thesample.Second,Pt NPs and Na+from NaBH4and NaOH probablycovered the surface of TiO2and partially blocked the mesopores,thus resulting in the decrease in the S BET and V pore[20].Table1also shows that the d pore of the Pt/TiO2samples increased slightlywith increasing R Pt.This phenomenon can be understood as fol-lows.First,the reaggregation of TiO2NPs during the drying process,which was enhanced by interparticle dehydration through the for-mation of hydrogen bonds between chemisorbed hydroxyl groupson the surface of the TiO2NPs,created more large pores in the sam-ples.Second,small pores were probably partially blocked by Pt NPsduring the Pt-loading process.3.2.Chemical compositionThe surface element composition and chemical status of the as-prepared samples were analyzed by XPS.The XPS survey spectra of R0.5(not shown)indicates the presence of Ti,O,Pt,Na,and C ele-ments with photoelectron peaks appearing at binding energy(BE)Fig.5.(a)High-resolution XPS spectrum of Pt4f for R0.5;High-resolution XPS spectra of(b)Ti2p and(c)O1s for R0and R0.5.L.Qi et al./Journal of Hazardous Materials301(2016)522–530527Fig.6.FTIR spectra of R0and R0.5.of458.4(Ti2p),529.8(O1s),70.9(Pt4f),61.7(Na2s),and284.8eV(C1s),respectively.The C1s peak at284.8eV is attributed to theresidual carbon from the urea reactant and the adventitious hydro-carbon from the XPS instrument itself.The Na2s peak at61.7eVis due to the residual Na+because of the NaOH and NaBH4reac-tants.The high-resolution XPS spectrum of Pt4f(Fig.5a)shows twopeaks at70.9and74.3eV,which indicate metallic Pt.The3.33eVdifference between the BE of Pt4f7/2and Pt4f5/2peaks is alsocharacteristic of metallic Pt4f states.This result further confirmsthe presence of metallic Pt NPs in R0.5.The binding energy of Pt4f7/2for the metallic Pt is usually approximately71.2eV,whichis much higher than that for the Pt NPs in R0.5.This result is attributed to the electron transfer from TiO2to Pt resulting from the strong metal–support interaction[17,20].Fig.5b shows the high-resolution XPS spectra of Ti2p for R0and R0.5.The binding energy of Ti2p3/2shifted from458.7eV for R0to458.4eV for R0.5.This negative shift is mainly due to the partial reduction of TiO2to Ti3+ during the NaBH4reduction process.The high-resolution XPS spec-tra of O1s for the two samples(Fig.5c)can befitted into two peaks. The peaks at530.0and529.6eV for R0and R0.5,respectively,are assigned to the TiO2lattice oxygen(Ti O Ti),and the peaks at 531.4and530.6eV for R0and R0.5,respectively,are attributed to the oxygen of surface hydroxyl(Ti OH).Compared with R0,a neg-ative shift for O1s was also observed.This phenomenon is probably due to the dissociative adsorption of O2molecule to oxygen vacan-cies at the Pt TiO2interface,which were generated during the reduction process.The surface atomic ratio of Ti OH to Ti O Ti for R0.5(34.5%)is higher than that for R0(24.0%)because R0.5was pre-pared under alkaline condition,which led to the chemisorption of more hydroxyl groups on the surface of TiO2.The surface hydroxyl groups have many lone electron pairs,which would transfer from the O of hydroxyl groups to Ti and O of TiO2,also resulting in the obvious negative shifts of the BE for Ti2p and O1s.3.3.FTIR spectral analysisThe existence of hydroxyl groups on the surface of R0and R0.5 was further confirmed by the FTIR spectra.R0and R0.5exhibit sim-ilar FTIR spectra(Fig.6).The absorption bands centered at3437and 1637cm−1are attributed to the stretching and bending vibrations of Ti–OH,indicating the presence of Ti–OH.Further observation shows that R0.5contains more Ti OH than R0,which is consis-tent with the above XPS result.According to previous studies,the hydroxyl groups on the surface of catalysts are beneficial for HCHO elimination[21,48,49].The strong and broad bands in the range of400–1000cm−1are assigned to the special vibration of TiO2Fig.7.Variations in the concentration of(a)HCHO and(b) CO2as functions of reaction time over the samples.[50].The bands around2370and1388cm−1are ascribed to the stretching vibration of pared with R0,R0.5shows a higher amount of CO2because of its alkaline preparation condition.3.4.Catalytic activity and mechanismThe catalytic activities for HCHO oxidation over the Pt/TiO2 hollow chains prepared at different R Pt values and COMP were compared and shown in Fig.7,and the corresponding k values are listed in Table1.R Pt evidently affected the catalytic activity of Pt/TiO2samples.At R Pt=0,R0shows negligible catalytic activ-ity.The observed decrease in HCHO concentration(approximately 20.7ppm)is mainly attributed to the physical adsorption of HCHO on the surface of R0,and the adsorbed HCHO could not be oxidized into CO2.The introduction of a small amount of Pt NPs signifi-cantly enhanced the catalytic activity of the Pt/TiO2sample.At R Pt=0.05,the catalytic activity of R0.05was markedly improved. After reaction for60min,the HCHO concentration decreased to 136.9ppm,but CO2increased to133.6ppm.The corresponding k was determined to be6.50×10−5ppm−1min−1.With increas-ing R Pt,the catalytic activity of Pt/TiO2samples further increased. At R Pt=0.1(R0.1),the HCHO concentration decreased to96.4ppm, and CO2reached270.7ppm.The corresponding k increased to 9.60×10−5ppm−1min−1,which indicates further enhancement in the catalytic activity.This phenomenon is due to the increase in the active sites on the Pt NPs with increasing Pt-loading amount.At R Pt=0.5(R0.5),HCHO concentration declined to17.1ppm,and the corresponding CO2increased to410.1ppm.The k value for HCHO oxidation over R0.5reached1.42×10−3ppm−1min−1,far exceed-ing that of R0.1.At R Pt=1(R1),no obvious increase in the catalytic activity was observed(k=1.54×10−3ppm−1min−1).A high R Pt528L.Qi et al./Journal of Hazardous Materials301(2016)522–530Fig.8.Dynamic changes in the in situ DRIFT spectra of R0.5in aflow of HCHO/O2at ambient temperature.during the preparation would result in the aggregation of Pt NPsand the growth of Pt grains,and thus no significant increase wouldoccur in the active sites on Pt NPs[17,51].A compromise betweenhigh catalytic activity and low cost should be reached for practicalapplication.Therefore,R0.5can be recommended as an effectivecatalyst for HCHO elimination at ambient temperature.In addi-tion,commercial Degussa P25TiO2has been proved to be usefulcatalyst support for HCHO catalytic oxidation[17,20].For compar-ison,COMP was synthesized and used for HCHO decomposition.The result shows that HCHO concentration decreased to29.0ppm,and accordingly, CO2reached383.5ppm over COMP.The cat-alytic activity of R0.5exceeded that of COMP(k=5.36×10−4ppm−1 min−1)by a factor of approximately2.65times.The high catalytic activity of R0.5can be attributed to its hollow chain-like structure with higher S BET and V pore,a large number of mesopores,good dis-persion of Pt NPs,and the favorable(or close)contact between Pt and TiO2.As previously mentioned,the hollow chain-like structure with numerous mesopores and large surface area not only facili-tates the diffusion and transport of gas molecules,but also provides more active sites for adsorption of HCHO molecules,thus enhancing the catalytic activity.To confirm the above analysis on the high catalytic activity of R0.5,the as-prepared TiO2hollow chains(R0)wasfirst ground in a planetary ball mill to obtain the G sample and subsequently loaded with Pt NPs using the same method to obtain the G0.5sample(see Section2).The SEM micrographs of G0.5(not shown)exhibit that only a small amount of hollow chains were destroyed during the ball-milling process.The nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms and the corresponding pore-size distribution curves of G0.5(not shown)are similar to that of R0.5.Both results suggest that the ball-milling treatment slightly destroyed the microstructure of Pt/TiO2 hollow chains.The catalytic activity of G0.5toward HCHO oxida-tion was also evaluated,and the corresponding k values are listed in Table1.The catalytic activity of G0.5(k=6.03×10−4ppm−1min−1) is lower than that of R0.5although both samples have similar S BET values and V pore values(Table1).This phenomenon is due to fact that the diffusion and transport of gas molecules were more dif-ficult in the pores produced by the aggregated TiO2nanocrystals and the contact between the gas molecules and the active sites on Pt NPs worsened because of the decrease in the hollow chain-like structure of TiO2support.These results further confirm the impor-tance of hollow chain-like architecture in enhancing the catalytic activity toward HCHO oxidation.The underlying mechanism of HCHO catalytic oxidation over R0.5was investigated using in situ DRIFT spectra(Fig.8)at ambient Fig.9.Variations in the concentration of(a)HCHO and(b) CO2as functions of reaction time over the recycled R0.5catalyst in tests repeated once a day within7 d.temperature.After exposing R0.5to HCHO/O2for5min,two bands [approximately3500and1677cm−1for(OH)and␦(H O H), respectively]were observed,indicating the formation of H2O dur-ing HCHO exposure.With increasing HCHO exposure time,the intensity of the two bands increased gradually because HCHO was further oxidized and more H2O was produced.In addition to these bands,new bands assigned to formate species[2865cm−1 for(CH),1601cm−1foras(COO),and1350and1314cm−1for s(COO)]and dioxymethylene species[1466cm−1for␦(CH2)and 1108cm−1for(CO)]appeared and became dominant with increas-ing reaction time[16,51–55].Based on these results and those from previous studies[17,56,57],the underlying mechanism for HCHO catalytic oxidation over R0.5is proposed.First,HCHO and O2are adsorbed on the surface of R0.5.Afterward,the adsorbed HCHO is rapidly oxidized into dioxymethylene species and then formate species,resulting in failure to detect bands associated with HCHO. The formed formate species are gradually decomposed into CO species,which is considered as the rate-determining step.Finally, the produced CO species react with O2to generate the gas phase CO2rapidly.The stability and recycling performance of catalysts are cru-cial for their practical application.To evaluate the stability of R0.5, the experiment for HCHO catalytic decomposition over R0.5was repeated once per day for7d.The removal rate of HCHO(Fig.9)and the generation rate of CO2in each repeated cycle did not exhibit any significant loss compared with that in thefirst cycle,which indi-cates the high stability and catalytic activity of R0.5during HCHO oxidative decomposition.In addition,this study may provide some new insights into the development of advanced catalysts with high S BET and hollow chain-like architecture to improve their catalytic。
我本是高山英语影评80字作文
我本是高山英语影评80字作文Unfortunately, I don't have enough information to write a 1000-word English review for the movie "I Am a Mountain". However, I can provide you with a brief outline and some suggestions to help you write your own review.Outline for the Review:1. Introduction: Begin by introducing the movie and its main theme. You can mention the director, cast, and any notable achievements or accolades the movie has received.2. Plot Summary: Provide a brief overview of themovie's plot, focusing on the main characters and their journeys. Avoid revealing too many spoilers.3. Themes and Messages: Discuss the central themes and messages of the movie. How does it explore the idea of being a mountain? Are there any environmental or social messages?4. Performance Evaluation: Evaluate the performances of the actors, particularly the lead actor/actress. How did they convey the emotions and challenges of their characters?5. Direction and Cinematography: Discuss the director's vision and the cinematography used in the movie. Were there any visually stunning or innovative sequences?6. Soundtrack and Music: Evaluate the soundtrack and music used in the movie. Did they enhance the emotional impact of the scenes?7. Comparison to Other Works: If possible, compare "I Am a Mountain" to other similar movies or works of art. How does it differ or stand out?8. Personal Reflection: End the review with your personal thoughts and feelings about the movie. Did it resonate with you? What did you learn from it?Suggestions for Writing:Use Detailed Language: Use descriptive language to bring the movie to life for your reader.Incorporate Critical Analysis: Don't just describe the movie; provide your own thoughts and analysis.Support Your Arguments: Use examples and quotes from the movie to support your opinions.Proofread and Edit: Make sure your review is free of grammar and spelling errors.Remember, writing a review is not just about summarizing the movie; it's about sharing your unique perspective and insights. Have fun with it!。
《需要和动机》课件
Enhancing Motivation
1
Intrinsic Motivation
Explore various techniques, such as fostering a sense of purpose, autonomy, and mastery, to enhance intrinsic motivation among employees.
On Organizational Performance
Explore how motivated employees contribute to improved teamwork, innovation, and overall organizational success.
Understanding Employee Motivation
Team Building
Explore team-building activities and initiatives that foster trust, collaboration, and a positive team culture, leading to increased motivation.
Positive Work Environment
Discover the significance of creating a positive work environment that nurtures motivation, well-being, and overall employee satisfaction.
Discover the power of recognition and rewards in motivating employees, boosting morale, and fostering a positive work environment.
The Importance of Being a Good Motivator
The Importance of Being a Good Motivator Being a good motivator is essential for success in both personal and professional aspects of life. Whether it's in a leadership role, as a friend, or even as a family member, the ability to motivate others can make a significant impact on their lives. In this essay, I will explore the importance of being a good motivator from various perspectives, including the impact it has on individuals, teams, and organizations. From an individual perspective, being a good motivator can have a profound impact on someone's self-esteem and confidence. When someone feels motivated and inspired, they are more likely to push themselves to achieve their goals and overcome obstacles. This can lead to a greater sense of fulfillment and satisfaction in their personal and professional lives. For example, a mentor who provides encouragement and support to a mentee can help them develop the confidence to pursue their dreams and aspirations. This can lead to a positive ripple effect, as the motivated individual may then go on to inspire and motivate others in their own lives. From a team perspective, a good motivator can help create a positive and productive work environment. When team members feelmotivated and engaged, they are more likely to collaborate effectively and work towards common goals. This can lead to improved performance, increased creativity, and a stronger sense of camaraderie within the team. A leader who is able toinspire and motivate their team members can help create a culture of positivityand success within the organization. This can ultimately lead to higher levels of employee satisfaction and retention, as well as improved business outcomes. From an organizational perspective, the ability to motivate employees is crucial for driving innovation and achieving long-term success. A motivated workforce is more likely to be proactive, adaptable, and willing to take on new challenges. This can lead to a competitive advantage for the organization, as motivated employees are more likely to go above and beyond to deliver exceptional results. Additionally, a positive and motivating work culture can help attract top talent and retain high-performing employees. This can ultimately lead to improved organizational performance and a stronger reputation in the marketplace. In conclusion, the importance of being a good motivator cannot be overstated. Whether it's in a personal, team, or organizational setting, the ability to inspire and motivateothers can have a profound impact on their lives. From boosting individual confidence to driving organizational success, the benefits of being a good motivator are far-reaching. As such, it is crucial for individuals in leadership positions, as well as those in personal relationships, to cultivate their skills as motivators in order to bring out the best in themselves and others.。
大学生完美主义_自尊与学业拖延的关系_陈陈
Johnson ，＆ McCown，1995 ； Lay，1986 ） 。 学业拖延 是拖延在学校情境中的表现， 与学习任务的完成有 关。有学者认为， 学业拖延是对要在预期时间内完 成的学习任务的一种自愿延迟， 即使知道这种延迟 会带来 不 良 后 果 （ Senécal，Koestner，＆ Vallerand， 1995 ； Solomon ＆ Ｒothblum， 1984 ； Steel， 2007 ） 。也 有学者将学业拖延理解为因个体迟迟不着手一项最 终必须 完 成 的 任 务 而 经 历 到 的 情 绪 不 适 （ Lay ＆ Schouwenburg ， 1993 ） 。 学业拖延在大学生中普遍存在。国外有学者指 出， 大约 30% 至 60% 的本科生报告了有规律的对学 习任务， 如准备考试、 写学期论文或完成每周阅读任 Upham，2011 ） 。 务的拖延 （ Ｒabin，Fogel，＆ Nutter国内也有学者指出， 我国不同区域、 类别高校中的大 学生 普 遍 存 在 学 业 拖 延 现 象 （ 庞 维 国， 韩 贵 宁， 2009 ） 。鉴于学业拖延会影响大学生的学习表现 ， 阻碍其学习进步， 增加其压力并降低生活质量， 国内 外学者做了大量工作来研究是什么因素导致大学生 学业拖延产生并使之维持 （ Ｒabin et al． ，2011 ； 田 2011 ） 。 芊， 邓士昌， 自上 世 纪 80 年 代 起 ， 国外学者们陆续从人 格、 认知 、 情 绪、 成就动机和执行功能等角度来概
* 基金项目： 教育部人文社科研究项目（ 10YJCXLX002 ） ； 江苏省教育厅高校哲学社会科学研究项目（ 211060A5103 ） ． Email： chenchen@ njnu． edu． cn 通讯作者： 陈陈，
The Importance of Being a Good Motivator
The Importance of Being a Good Motivator Being a good motivator is crucial in various aspects of life, whether it be in the workplace, at home, or in social settings. The ability to inspire and encourage others can lead to improved performance, increased morale, and stronger relationships. In this essay, we will explore the importance of being a good motivator from different perspectives, including the impact on individuals, teams, and organizations. From an individual standpoint, being a good motivator can have a profound effect on someone's confidence and self-esteem. When someone feels supported and encouraged, they are more likely to push themselves to achieve their goals and overcome challenges. This can be especially important in a work environment, where individuals may face high-pressure situations or demanding tasks. A good motivator can provide the necessary encouragement and support to help individuals navigate through these challenges and ultimately succeed. Moreover, being a good motivator can also foster a positive and supportive team environment. When team members feel motivated and inspired, they are more likelyto collaborate effectively and work towards common goals. This can lead to increased productivity, better problem-solving, and a stronger sense of camaraderie among team members. A good motivator can create a culture ofpositivity and resilience within a team, which can ultimately lead to greater success and satisfaction for everyone involved. In addition to its impact on individuals and teams, being a good motivator is also essential for the success of organizations as a whole. A motivated workforce is more likely to be engaged, committed, and passionate about their work. This can lead to higher levels of productivity, lower turnover rates, and a more positive organizational culture. In today's competitive business environment, organizations that prioritize motivation and encouragement are more likely to attract and retain top talent, as well as outperform their competitors. Furthermore, being a good motivator is not only beneficial in professional settings but also in personal relationships. Whetherit's with family, friends, or romantic partners, the ability to inspire and uplift others can strengthen bonds and create a more supportive and loving environment. Being a good motivator in personal relationships can lead to improved communication, a deeper sense of trust, and a greater sense of fulfillment for allparties involved. It's important to note that being a good motivator does not necessarily mean being overly positive or ignoring challenges and setbacks. In fact, a good motivator acknowledges the difficulties and obstacles thatindividuals or teams may face but provides the necessary support and guidance to help overcome them. This can involve offering constructive feedback, setting realistic goals, and providing resources or assistance when needed. In conclusion, being a good motivator is essential for individuals, teams, and organizations to thrive and succeed. The ability to inspire, encourage, and support others can lead to improved performance, stronger relationships, and a more positive andproductive environment. Whether it's in the workplace, at home, or in social settings, the impact of being a good motivator is undeniable and can ultimately lead to greater success and fulfillment for everyone involved.。
behavioural analysis
behavioural analysis[Behavioural Analysis]Introduction:Behavioural analysis is a psychological approach that involves studying, understanding, and interpreting human behaviour. This field of study aims to observe and analyze human actions, reactions, and patterns to gain insights into their thoughts, emotions, and personality traits. By examining behaviour, psychologists, researchers, and practitioners can better understand the motives, intentions, and underlying processes of individuals. In this article, we will explore different aspects of behavioural analysis, including its methods, applications, and significance.Methodology:Behavioural analysis employs several methods to study human behaviour. These methods include direct observation, interviews, surveys, and experiments. Direct observation involves carefully observing and noting down behavioural patterns in specific settings. Researchers may conduct structured or unstructured interviews to gather information about individuals' experiences, perspectives, and attitudes. Surveys are another common method that employsquestionnaires to collect data on a larger scale. Lastly, experiments are conducted to test hypotheses and explore cause-and-effect relationships between specific variables and behaviour.Applications:Behavioural analysis finds applications in various fields, including psychology, sociology, education, marketing, and criminal justice. Psychologists use this approach to diagnose and treat mental health conditions. Understanding patterns and triggers behind certain behaviours allows therapists to develop more effective treatment plans. Moreover, behavioural analysis is relevant in education as it helps identify learning difficulties, behavioural disorders, and social challenges among students. Teachers can then adapt their teaching methodologies to accommodate these individual needs.In the marketing industry, behavioural analysis plays a pivotal role in understanding consumer purchasing behaviour. By studying consumer habits, preferences, anddecision-making processes, companies can design targeted marketing campaigns and develop products that align with customers' needs and wants. In the criminal justice system,behavioural analysis contributes significantly to crime investigation and profiling. Detectives and criminal profilers analyze crime scenes, offender behaviour, and eyewitness accounts to predict the characteristics and motivations of criminals. This aids in the apprehension and prevention of future crimes.Significance:Behavioural analysis is significant as it provides valuable insights into human behaviour, enabling professionals to make informed decisions and implement effective strategies. By understanding the factors that influence behaviour, individuals can gain self-awareness and make positive changes in their lives. The knowledge acquired through behavioural analysis also helps society in general by fostering better understanding and empathy towards others.Behavioural analysis allows researchers to explore the complex interaction between biology, cognition, and the environment. It aids in uncovering the underlying reasons for certain behaviours, including biases, attitudes, and beliefs. This understanding is crucial in addressing societal issues such as discrimination, prejudice, and inequality.Moreover, behavioural analysis helps in predicting andpreventing harmful or deviant behaviours. By identifying risk factors and early warning signs, professionals can intervene and provide necessary support to individuals at risk. For example, in the field of mental health, behavioural analysis assists in identifying warning signs of potential self-harm or suicide. This enables mental health professionals to take appropriate measures to prevent tragedy and provide the necessary care and intervention.Conclusion:Behavioural analysis is a comprehensive approach that delves into the intricacies of human behaviour. Through various methods, this field of study unlocks valuable insights into the motives, intentions, and underlying processes that drive our actions and reactions. The applications of behavioural analysis span across multiple disciplines, all helping us gain a better understanding of ourselves and others. By recognizing the significance of behavioural analysis, we can cultivate a more empathetic and inclusive society while effectively addressing individual and societal challenges.。
奥苏贝尔学习动机理论对小学数学教学的启示
The Science Education Article CollectsTotal.437 October2018（B）总第437期2018年10月（中）摘要学习动机对于学生虽然是非智力因素，但它却是影响学生学习的重要因素之一，直接关联着课堂教学效果，因此学习动机一直都是教育心理学和教育工作者所关心的重点问题。
美国心理学家奥苏贝尔认为学习动机主要由认知内驱力、自我提高内驱力和附属内驱力三部分组成。
本文旨在通过对奥苏贝尔学习动机理论的分析和理解，进而结合小学数学教学中存在的问题提出关于小学数学教学的若干建议。
关键词学习动机小学数学教学启示The Enlightenment of Ausubel's Learning Motivation Theory on Primary Mathematics Teaching//Yang Ping Abstract Learning motivation is seen as a non-intellectual fac-tor,but it is one of the important factors affecting students'learn-ing.It is directly related to classroom teaching effects.Therefore, learning motivation has always been a key issue of educational psychology and educators.American psychologist Ausubel be-lieves that the motivation for learning is mainly composed of cog-nitive drive,self-improvement drive and subsidiary drive.This paper aims to put forward some suggestions on mathematics teaching in primary schools through the analysis and understand-ing of Ausubel's learning motivation theory and the problems ex-isting in primary mathematics teaching.Key words learning motivation;primary mathematics teaching; enlightenment奥苏贝尔认为学习动机包括三方面内容，即认知内驱力、自我提高内驱力和附属内驱力。
纽约教育厅
NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENTMISSIONTo raise the knowledge, skill, and opportunity of all the people in New York.VISIONWe will provide leadership for a system that yields the best educated people in the world.REGENTS GOALS1. All students will meet high standards for academic performance and personalbehavior and demonstrate the knowledge and skills required by a dynamic world.2. All educational institutions will meet Regents high performance standards.3. The public will be served by qualified, ethical professionals who remain currentwith best practice in their fields and reflect the diversity of New York State.4. Education, information, and cultural resources will be available and accessible toall people.5. Resources under our care will be used or maintained in the public interest.6. Our work environment will meet high standards.PROGRAM DESCRIPTION HANDBOOKOVERVIEWThe Program Description Handbook is a companion document to the Education Department's Budget Proposal Summary. The Handbook provides narrative descriptions of the various Department programs. The Program Description Handbook contains the following information:PROGRAM: The program’s technical and familiar name plus any acronyms. DESCRIPTION: A brief description of the program and the population which itserves.REGENTS GOALS: Any of the six Regents goals which the program addresses. AUTHORITY: The statutory and/or regulatory provisions establishing theprogram.FUNDING SOURCE(S): The Program Description Handbook should not be used fordefinitive fiscal information. General program funding from allsources is shown (for the most recent prior year) to provide ageneral sense of overall program size. If more than one fundingsource is provided, the approximate percentage of each source isindicated. For more definitive, up-to-date and detailed fiscalinformation, the Budget Proposal summary should beconsulted.CONTACT OFFICE: The office and voice, fax and/or e-mail address where informationregarding the program may be obtained.Due to spending control restrictions the Program Description Handbook will no longer be printed. 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工作自主性、技能多样性与员工创造力:基于个性特征的调节效应模型
工作自主性、技能多样性与员工创造力：基于个性特征的调节效应模型王端旭;赵轶【摘要】基于工作特征模型合理优化工作设计是企业管理者提升员工创造力的重要途径,文章通过对236名企业员工的问卷调查,实证研究工作自主性和技能多样性对员工创造力的影响,并从“人一职”匹配理论视角探讨学习目标取向和创意自我效能感的调节效应.结果表明:工作自主性和技能多样性均对员工创造力有正向预测作用；创意自我效能感越强,工作自主性与创造力的正相关性越弱,技能多样性与创造力的正相关性越强.文章最后总结了研究结果的理论和实践意义,并指出了未来的研究方向.【期刊名称】《商业经济与管理》【年(卷),期】2011(000)010【总页数】8页(P43-50)【关键词】工作自主性;技能多样性;学习目标取向;创意自我效能感;员工创造力【作者】王端旭;赵轶【作者单位】浙江大学管理学院,浙江杭州310058;浙江大学管理学院,浙江杭州310058【正文语种】中文【中图分类】F270一、引言员工创造力(Employee Creativity)是指员工开发或改进新的产品、实践、服务和工作流程的能力[1-2]。
在日益激烈的市场竞争中，企业管理者已将自主创新能力视为企业核心竞争力的关键要素，并试图通过优化工作设计激发员工创造力以促进团队和组织创新[3-4]。
虽然近20年来学者们持续研究工作特征(Job Characteristics)与员工创造力之间的关系，并已经取得重要进展[5-7]，但仍存在有待回答的理论问题。
首先，即使工作特征中的工作自主性维度对于员工创造性绩效产出的促进作用已经得到广泛证实[8]，然而一直没有解释研究发现的企业员工特别是研发人员自身并不希望得到过多工作自主性的现象[9]。
其次，探讨技能多样性与员工创造力关系的文献较少，而技能多样性这一工作特征维度与Amabile(1996)提出的创造力构成成分中的相关领域技能和创造力相关技能都存在密切联系[1]。
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The behavior and performance of individual investors in JapanKenneth A. Kim a and John R. Nofsinger b,*a School of Management, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USAb College of Business and Economics, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USANovember 2002______________________________________________________________________________ AbstractWe examine the behavior and performance of individual investors in Japan. In empirical tests using market level data, we find that Japanese individual investors own risky and high book-to-market stocks, trade frequently, make poor trading decisions, and buy recent winners. Further, these behaviors and characteristics appear to vary depending on the bull or bear market conditions. As such, we believe our results provide important additional insights into the behaviors of individual investors. Interestingly, we also observe that it is primarily during a bull market where individuals tend to hold high book-to-market stocks, as opposed to a bear market where they exhibit an inclination toward high beta stocks. Overall, the poor performance by individual investors can largely be explained by this tendency to hold value stocks during advancing markets and high risk stocks during declining stocks. Finally, the fact that these behaviors reveal themselves at the market level also represents an important finding.Key words: Individual investors; OverconfidenceJEL classification: G11; G14; G15; D70______________________________________________________________________________ _____________________* Corresponding author: Tel: (509) 335-7200, Fax: (509) 335-3857, john_nofsinger@. We thank seminar participants at SUNY-Buffalo, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, the University of Tokyo, George Washington University, the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, the 2001 Midwest Finance Association meeting, and the 2001 FMA meeting for comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this paper. We are also particularly grateful to Akiyoshi Horiuchi, Qinghai Wang, and Yishay Yafeh for comments and discussions. The usual disclaimer applies.The behavior and performance of individual investors in Japan______________________________________________________________________________ AbstractWe examine the behavior and performance of individual investors in Japan. In empirical tests using market level data, we find that Japanese individual investors own risky and high book-to-market stocks, trade frequently, make poor trading decisions, and buy recent winners. Further, these behaviors and characteristics appear to vary depending on the bull or bear market conditions. As such, we believe our results provide important additional insights into the behaviors of individual investors. Interestingly, we also observe that it is primarily during a bull market where individuals tend to hold high book-to-market stocks, as opposed to a bear market where they exhibit an inclination toward high beta stocks. Overall, the poor performance by individual investors can largely be explained by this tendency to hold value stocks during advancing markets and high risk stocks during declining stocks. Finally, the fact that these behaviors reveal themselves at the market level also represents an important finding.Key words: Individual investors; OverconfidenceJEL classification: G11; G14; G15; D70______________________________________________________________________________The behavior and performance of individual investors in Japan 1. IntroductionWe study the behavior and performance of individual investors in Japan. The purpose of our study is to contribute to the expanding literature that argues, and finds, that individuals are overconfident and that their overconfidence causes them to make mistakes. For example, Barber and Odean (2000) and Odean (1998) argue that individual investors are overconfident and as a result, individuals will trade too much, hold risky stocks, and underreact to information. Similarly, Wang (2000) shows that overconfidence causes investors to trade aggressively, and have higher expected returns and experience higher price variance. There are also models that suggest that the degree of overconfidence will vary over time (Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam (2001) and Gervais and Odean (2001)). These models contend that bull markets in particular can foster overconfidence. For example, Gervais and Odean (2001) posit that during bull markets, individual investors will attribute too much of their success to their own abilities, which makes them even more overconfident. In addition, Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam (2001) predict that as a result of investor overconfidence, the tendency for mispricing fundamentals may be greater during bull markets.The benefits of studying Japanese individual investors are twofold: First, we wish to study individual investor behavior from a culture that is entirely distinct from Western culture. That is, we investigate whether the overconfident behaviors identified for U.S. investors are also found in a non-U.S. setting. Culture can breed overconfidence at varying levels (e.g., see Yates, Zhu, Ronis, Wang, Shinotsuka, and Toda (1989)) and there is some evidence that suggests that people raised in Asian cultures exhibit more overconfidence than people from the U.S. (e.g., Yates, Lee, and Bush (1997)). This contention has useful implications for our purposes as1Barber and Odean (2001) specifically suggest identifying a category of people who are prone to overconfidence to identify overconfident behaviors (e.g., they study males). Therefore, a study on Japanese individual investors, in and of itself, potentially represents an excellent opportunity to assess and to identify the behavior of overconfident investors.Second, the Japanese market experienced a long bull run from 1984 to 1989, which is characterized by double-digit growth in every year, and a long bear market after the 1990 market crash. These dramatically contrasting subperiods provide us with the unique opportunity to test Gervais and Odean’s (2001) contention that bull markets especially encourage overconfident behaviors and Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam’s (2001) prediction that overconfidence effects are more prevalent during periods of high valuation.In our paper, our empirical approach is as follows. First, we attempt to identify the behavior and performance of Japanese individual investors using our full sample time period. We use aggregate market data to conduct our tests. Specifically, we identify stocks with varying degrees of individual ownership to detect the behavior and preferences of individual investors. We find that stocks with the highest levels of individual investor ownership are riskier, as measured by systematic risk and firm size, have larger book-to-market ratios, and experience frequent trading. Curiously, we also find that these stocks with high individual investor ownership underperform those stocks with low individual ownership. This result is curious for two reasons. First, on average, stocks with high systematic risk should be expected to perform well over time. Second, stocks with high book-to-market ratios (i.e., value stocks) have been shown to outperform low book-to-market stocks. Individual ownership tilts toward both value stocks and stocks with higher systematic risk, yet they underperform.2Next, we also identify stocks with different degrees of year-to-year changes in the level of individual ownership. Here, we find that stocks that experience the greatest increase in individual ownership earn a negative 12% abnormal return during the year, while stocks that experience the greatest decrease in individual ownership earn a positive 19% abnormal return. That is, during the year that individuals buy and sell, we observe striking evidence that purchased stocks dramatically underperform sold stocks, suggesting that individual investors are making poor buying and selling decisions. To gain additional insight into their buying and selling behavior, we examine the past performance of these bought and sold stocks and we find that stocks that experience significant increases in individual ownership (purchased stocks) were past winners. This is consistent with individuals underreacting to ‘relevant’ information. However, stocks that experience significant decreases in individual ownership (sold stocks) were also past winners. This finding is not consistent with an underreaction explanation, but it is consistent with the disposition effect (see Shefrin and Statman (1985)), which causes investors to be pre-disposed to selling their winners and holding their losers.Next, we test to see if these behaviors are stronger during a bull market where overconfidence is posited to flourish, as individuals have more opportunities and chances of being right and as valuations are high. Overall, we do find that their tendencies with regard to their preferences and actions, particularly with regard to trading activity, are especially manifested during the bull market period (1984-89).Finally, because we can compare individual investor behavior during a bull market versus a bear market, we also take this opportunity to provide some empirical evidence for a recent theoretical model. Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam (2001) describe overconfident investors as undervaluing fundamental information (e.g., earnings and dividends announcements)3in such a way that they can move prices away from fundamental value, thus affecting fundamental-to-price ratios (e.g., book-to-market is one such ratio). If such mispricing occurs, then stocks with low market valuations relative to their fundamental values are more likely to experience high returns. In contrast, when investors are not overconfident, the book-to-market (BM) effect may disappear allowing the predictive power of more systematic risk measures (such as beta) to play a larger role in predicting expected returns. In our investigation, we find a strong positive relation between individual ownership and BM during the bull market, but not during the bear market. In contrast, we find that individual ownership and beta have a strong positive relation in the bear market, but not during the bull market. Taken together, this evidence can be viewed as supporting Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam (2001) that the existence of overconfident investors ‘causes’ the mispricing of fundamentals. Therefore, we believe our findings provide an important empirical link between investors and price ratios. In this regard, we add to the debate on the return predictability of beta and BM (e.g., see Daniel, Titman, and Wei (2001)). Furthermore, these behaviors solve the curious mystery previously identified. That is, how can investors tilt toward both value firms and stocks with high systematic risk and still underperform? We find here that individuals tilt toward value stocks during the bull market and toward higher systematic risk stocks during bear markets. In other words, Japanese individual investors take the opposite position of what a rational ‘market timer’ would do, which would be to take high systematic risks during a bull market and low risks during a bear market.The rest of our paper proceeds as follows: In the next section, we discuss the behavior of individual investors. In section 3, we describe our data. Section 4 outlines our empirical approach and presents findings. Section 5 investigates the comparative behavior of individual4investors during a bull and bear market. Finally, the last section offers a summary and conclusion.2. The behavior of individual investors2.1 Individual investors as being overconfidentThere is now an abundant literature that theoretically argues that individuals are overconfident and that this overconfidence will be exhibited in their investing behavior. For example, several researchers have formulated trading models where a type of trader is mistaken about either the precision of his knowledge and/or his assessment of the riskiness of the expected return. Although these models take different approaches in modeling overconfidence, they make similar predictions about how overconfident individuals behave. Specifically, individuals are posited to: (1) own riskier portfolios because they underestimate the risks (see Benos (1998), De Long et al. (1990a), Kyle and Wang (1997), Odean (1998), and Wang (1998)); (2) misprice fundamental information causing market prices to be different than their fundamental valuation (see Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam (2001)); (3) trade frequently because they are certain of their abilities and they are not tentative (see Benos (1998), Kyle and Wang (1997), Odean (1998), and Wang (1998, 2000)); and (4) underreact to (or are slow to respond to) more relevant information, which leads to buying (selling) past winners (losers) (see De Long et al. (1990b), Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam (1998), Hirshleifer, Subrahmanyam, and Titman (1994), and Odean (1998)).Empirical tests on the behavior of individual investors have been done predominately on U.S. individual investor portfolios. The empirical evidence from individual investor portfolios supports the predictions of the overconfidence models. For example, using a sample of portfolio holdings of 78,000 U.S. households over the 1991-97 period, Barber and Odean (2000, 2001)5and Odean (1999) show that overconfident individual investors trade too much and hold high-risk portfolios. In an attempt to identify the prior performance of stocks that individual investors trade, Bange (2000) finds that individuals buy (sell) past winners (losers), which is also consistent with overconfident behavior. As argued by Barber and Odean (2001) and Odean (1998), overconfident investors believe too much in their ability to interpret anecdotal and ambiguous information so they will often be slow to acknowledge and process statistical and relevant information (such as corporate earnings) and the information of others (such as rational informed investors). As a result, overconfident investors will underreact to information, which is consistent with buying (selling) past winners (losers).Although not directly linked to the overconfidence models, two other findings are applicable. In his examination of overconfident individual investors, Odean (1999) shows that excessive trading is especially problematic for traders because the stocks they purchased underperform the stocks they sold. Apparently, overconfident investors are not only harmed by trading costs, but also by poor choices. The other important finding is that investors are sometimes disposed to selling their winners and holding their losers—a behavior that Shefrin and Statman (1985) call the “disposition affect.” They suggest that investors may sell winners to realize gains because they want to experience pride, but that they will hold onto losers because they don’t want to feel regret.Even though the overconfidence literature, and with it the individual investor literature, continues to grow, very little has been done in empirically assessing the behavior of overconfident individuals in non-U.S. settings, especially with regard to investing behavior. We feel that this neglect is significant, especially because out-of-sample tests usually yield the most compelling evidence in support of theoretical models and existing empirical evidence. We6believe that Japanese individuals, in particular, can provide important additional insight into the behavior of overconfident individuals.2.2 Japanese individual investors as being overconfidentPsychologists have found that different groups of people experience different levels of cognitive biases in different situations. For example, in masculine tasks such as investment decision-making, men are more overconfident then women (Lundeberg, Fox, and Puncochar (1994) and Barber and Odean (2001)). Additionally, overconfidence can be learned through successful actions (Wolosin, Sherman, and Till (1973) and Gervais and Odean (2001)). For example, Christoffersen and Sarkissian (2002) find that overconfidence characteristics are associated with high-performing U.S. mutual funds located in financial centers.Differences in cognitive biases between groups arise from the different environments in which their experiences occur.The difference in environments can be quite dramatic between cultures. These differences are frequently expressed in cognitive studies as an individualism-collectivism continuum (Hofstede (1980)). Asian cultures tend to be based on a more socially collective paradigm than Western cultures. In Asian cultures, family or other group members will step in to help out any group member who encounters a large catastrophic loss. In the individualist Western cultures, a person making a risky decision will be expected to personally bear the adverse consequences of their decisions. Collective oriented societies allow for the social diversification of risky decisions in a similar manner to the purchase of an insurance policy. Therefore, since the impact of a catastrophic loss is different between the Asian and Western cultures, the perception of this type of risk may be different. Stulz and Williamson (2001) argue7that these cultural differences effect investor protection. Investors are likely to behave differently under different investor protection environments.Additionally, since cognitive biases may be learned, the differences in cultural life experiences and education may cause differences in overconfidence. For example, according to Yates et al. (1989), the Chinese education system encourages students to follow traditions and precedents rather than to criticize them. The American education system encourages students to challenge others’ and their own opinions. They suggest that this “critical” thinking style of Western cultures reduce the tendency to be overconfident.Do differences in culture lead to differences in overconfidence? Initial indications from the psychology literature suggest that Asian cultures have a higher degree of overconfidence than Western cultures. However, the literature is sparse. In a recent review article Weber and Hsee (2000) conclude that... “The bottom line is that the topic of culture and decision making has not received a lot of attention from either decision researchers or cross-cultural psychologists, (page 34).” A few studies are applicable, however. In studies of general knowledge, Asians (China and Taiwan were studied) are found to be more overconfident than Americans (see Yates, Lee, and Shinotsuka (1996) and Yates, Lee, and Bush (1997)). Studies of risk perception also find that people in Asian cultures (China, Japan, and Hong Kong were test groups) are less risk adverse and more overconfident then people in Western cultures (United States, Germany, and Poland were test groups) (see Kleinhesselink and Rosa (1991), Weber and Hsee (1998), and Keown (1989)).1 Based on these studies, therefore, it is not surprising that Ito (1990) observes overconfidence specifically for Japanese individuals. In Ito’s (1990) study, Japanese individuals 1 There are also important implications of cultural differences in risk perceptions for finance. This study expands the overconfidence literature to an Asian culture, Japan. However, many other interesting questions arise. One function of a stock market is to spread the risk of equity ownership among market participants. How will the globalization of stock markets be affected by the differences is risk perception in different countries? How should8were surveyed about their predictions of the future yen/dollar exchange rate. Both importers and exporters made forecasts that reflected “wishful expectations.” Therefore, studying Japanese individual investors should prove useful to assess and to identify overconfident behaviors. As argued by Barber and Odean (2001), when studying overconfident behavior, it is important to study a group of people who are prone to overconfidence.2.3 Overconfidence and market impactIn contrast to prior empirical studies on individual investors, which primarily rely on individual portfolio data, we examine the behavior and performance of individual investors using aggregate market data. Recent models, such as those of Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam (2001), Gervais and Odean (2001), Hirshleifer (2001), and Barberis and Huang (2001), make predictions of how cognitive biases can affect the aggregate market in terms of, for example, asset pricing and return predictability. Therefore, according to Odean (1998) and Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam (2001), investor behavior should be observable in market level data. However, despite their contention, there has been very little research that examines the effect of cognitive biases on the aggregate market. We mention several notable exceptions. DeBondt and Thaler (1985) investigate the notion that investors are poor Baysian decision-makers. They find evidence that markets overreact in the long term, three to five years. A second paper is a study of overconfidence and aggregate market volume by Statman and Thorely (2001). Examining the U.S. stock market, they find that high trading volume follows high stock return periods. Their results are consistent with the predictions of Gervais and Odean (2001) and Odean (1998) overconfidence models. However, neither study empirically links investors (or one type of investor) with market level findings.global markets be designed to take advantage of one group’s ability to take more of one type of risk and less of another? How is risk sharing affected between groups of shareholders in international cross-listing?9The way we attempt to identify the behavior of overconfident individual investors, using aggregate market data, is as follows. We examine firms with different levels, and with different changes, of individual ownership to detect and to assess the behavior of individual investors. We will also repeat these tests by differentiating between bull and bear market periods to see if individual investors behave differently under different economic conditions.3. DataOur monthly stock returns, annual individual share-ownership, and financial statement data for Japanese firms come from the Pacific-Basin Capital Markets (PACAP) Research Center. For each firm, annual ownership data is reported at the end of each fiscal year (usually March 31) for the years 1975-1997. The sample of firms with ownership data, monthly returns, market-capitalization, and book-to-market ratio varies from 826 (in 1975) to 1,758 (in 1997). The total sample comprises 33,877 firm-years of data. The PACAP ownership and returns data have been used in numerous other studies on the Japanese markets, with some studies specifically focusing on the interrelationship between ownership and returns. For example, Kim and Nofsinger (2002) use this data to investigate institutional herding while emphasizing the influence of conglomerate governance structures (i.e., the keiretsu). Kang and Stulz (1997) use this data to identify Japanese firms with high foreign ownership to study the home bias phenomenon.In Japan, all shares are registered. According to Japan’s Commercial Code, a firm must report their shareholder profile (i.e., the number of shares owned by different owner-types) in their formal annual report, yuka-shoken hokokusho or yu-ho (the U.S.’s 10-K equivalent), and in their annual corporate disclosure report, tan-shin, to the stock exchanges. The yu-ho and the tan-shin must be filed within three and two months after the fiscal-year end, respectively. There is also a semi-annual report, chukan-kessan hokokusho, but the shareholder profile data is only in10the annual report. If investors don’t wish to go through each firm’s yu-ho, then the most timely and easy way to obtain exhaustive corporate financial information is to subscribe to a database from an independent private firm. These database vendors claim that they can compile and store data into their online databases for client subscribers, usually brokerage firms, as soon as the data are released. Toyo Keizai and Nikkei are the two major Japanese firms that provide this service. The PACAP-Japan database used in our study is an academic database, and its ownership data was provided by Toyo Keizai.2We define individual ownership as the fraction of total shares outstanding for the firm owned by individual investors.3 The change in ownership for the year is the fraction of ownership at the end of the year less the fraction at the beginning of the year. Thus, if individuals owned 10% of a firm at the beginning of the year and 15% of the firm at the end of the year, we record the change for the year as 0.05.Two methods of calculating abnormal returns are used. First, an abnormal return is computed as a market-adjusted return using the Japanese equal-weighted market index. The abnormal return for each month during the year is the firm's return less the return on the market index. Our second abnormal return is a size and book-to-market adjusted return. Here, we sort each firm, for each year, into ten portfolios by their book-to-market equity ratio. We then use these deciles, along with our capitalization deciles, to create 100 size and book-to-market portfolios. The abnormal return for each month is the firm’s return less the return from one of 2 The details outlined here are based on extensive discussions with numerous officials from Toyo Keizai and the Japan Securities Research Institute.3 Specifically, we use data item JAF80 of the PACAP Database, which is entitled “Shares owned by Individuals & Others.” In discussions with TSE officials, ‘others’ include unincorporated associations such as investment clubs (which are virtually still non-existent in Japan) or some non-profit organizations (a zaidan is one such example, they provide financial assistance to foreigners who wish to study in Japan and they operate on donations which are invested in stocks for the dividend income.) TSE officials contend that the ownership stake of ‘others’ is insignificant. In fact, using aggregate annual summary data from both the TSE Fact Book (1997) and Japan11the 100 portfolios for which the firm belongs. Annual abnormal returns are the compounded monthly abnormal returns.We have five other firm-specific variables, which include three measures of risk (volatility, beta, and a market capitalization decile), a book-to-market ratio, and a trading volume measure. Volatility is calculated as the standard deviation of monthly returns measured over the year. Beta is calculated for each year from the market model where we regress each firm’s 12 monthly returns onto the equal-weighted market return. Firms’ market capitalization are measured at the beginning of the year and sorted into deciles, where decile 10 (1) denotes firms with the largest (smallest) market capitalization. The book-to-market ratio, measured each year, is the book value of equity divided by the market value of the shares outstanding. Finally, trading volume is defined as the number of shares traded during the month divided by the total shares outstanding for the firm. This standardized monthly volume is then averaged for the year and reported as mean monthly turnover.4. Empirical results4.1 Levels of individual investor ownershipAll firms are sorted into 10 portfolios based on the fraction of individual ownership at the beginning of each fiscal year (which predominately begins in April). The characteristics of these portfolios are reported in Table 1. Individual investors own 11.5%, on average, of the firms in the portfolio with the smallest individual investor ownership (Decile 1). By design, ownership monotonically increases through Decile 10, which reports those individual investors own 60.6% of each of these firms, on average. The statistic in the second to the last column reports the F-value from a test that the mean level of ownership is equal across all ten portfolios. The statisticSecurities Research Institute (1996), our own estimation is that over 99 percent of the investments in this category are held by individuals. Our database also specifies ownership by the government, institutions, and foreigners.12。