Invitations to Linguistics(II)
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1-3章
胡壮麟语言学重难点Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
1. 语言的定义特征1.1. 任意性1.2. 二重性1.3. 创造性1.4. 移位性1.5. 文化传递性1.6. 互换性2. 语言的功能1.1. 信息功能1.2. 人际功能1.3. 施为功能1.4. 感情功能1.5. 寒暄功能1.6. 娱乐功能1.7. 元语言功能3. 微观语言学3.1. 语音学3.2. 音系学3.3. 形态学3.4. 句法学3.5. 语义学3.6. 语用学4. 宏观语言学4.1. 心理语言学4.2. 社会语言学4.3. 应用语言学4.4. 计算语言学4.5. 神经语言学5. 重要概念及其区分5.1. 描写式&规定式5.2. 共时&历时5.3. 语言&言语5.4. 语言能力&语言应用5.5. 唯素的&唯位的5.6. 传统语法&现代语法5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为Chapter 2 Speech Sounds常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。
语言学导论 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
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Descriptive（描写式）vs. Prescriptive（规定式） ♦ Descriptive:a lingustics study that aims to describe and analyze the language ople actually use.
♦ Prescriptive:a linguistics study that aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language.i.e.,to tell people what they should say or what they should not say.
Example
▪ Jack said I love you to Rose in the street.
The relationship between langue and parole ● The parole must depend on langue, and without parole, there would not be any existing significance for langue. Langue and parole are interdependent. They together constitute language.
C ha pte r 1 Invita tions to Linguistics
1.9 Im porta nt D istinctions in Linguistics
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contents
• Descriptive vs. Prescriptive • Synchronic vs. Diachronic • Langue vs. Parole • Competence vs. Performance
语言学教程课后习题答案第一章资料(最新整理)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazellesin the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, someguidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associativemeaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。
语言学导论 综合试题
Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Define the following terms.design features synchronic diachronic prescriptive descriptive arbitrariness duality displacement metalanguage competence phatic communion macrolinguistics performance langue parole II. Choose the best answer.1. Linguistics is the scientific study of __________.A. a particular languageB. the English languageC. human languages in generalD. the system of a particular language2. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives. Which function does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. CreativityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. ArbitrarinessB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. ______ is the study of how language works in social interaction.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. Cognitive linguisticsD. Neurolinguistics11. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang12. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___.A. prescriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. descriptiveD. psycholinguistic13. The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___.A. semanticsB. pragmaticsC. sociolinguisticsD. psycholinguistics14. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is ______.A. arbitraryB. non-arbitraryC. logicalD. non-productive15. The study of how words are combined to form sentences is called _______.A. phoneticsB. morphologyC. syntaxD. semantics16. ______ is the study of the linguistic meaning of words and sentences.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SyntaxD. MorphologyⅢ. Blank-filling.1. Language is a system of ________ ________ symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics is generally defined as the ________ study of ________.3. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ________; if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, it is said to be ________.4. In modern linguistics, ________ study seems to enjoy priority over ________ study. The reason is that successful studies of various states of a language would be the foundations of a historical study.5. Langue refers to the ________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the ________ of langue in actual use.6. Chomsky de fines competence as the ideal user’s ________ of the rules of his language, and performance, the actual ________ of this knowledge in linguistic communication.7. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”. This famous quotation from Shakespeare illustrate that language has the design feature of ________.8. The property of ________ of language provides a speaker with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.9. Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, one of ________, and the other of ________. This double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.10. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use language,but they are not mutually intelligible, which shows that language is culturally ________.11. Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the __________ it is associated with.12. When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas, its function is ______________ function.13. The features that define our human languages can be called __________ features.14. Saussure took a __________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a __________ point of view.IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language. ( )2. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems. ( )3. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages. ( )4. Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are all born with the ability to acquire language and the details of a language system are genetically transmitted. ( )5. Only human beings are able to communicate. ( )6. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist. ( )7. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language. ( )8. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms. ( )9. Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study. ( )10. Language is arbitrary by nature but it is not completely arbitrary. （）11. Language is the instrument of thought, record of facts, and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud. This indicates that language has an expressive function. （）12. A baby’s babbling, widespread use of verbal dueling, poetry writing as well as self-singing all show that language can be used to amuse the speaker.（）13. The most important sociological use of language is the recreational function, by which people establish and maintain their status in society.（）Ⅴ. Questions.1. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order?Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.2. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence?3. There are many expressions in language which are meta-lingual or self-reflexive, namely, talking about talk and thinking about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?4. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who do you speak to?(B) Whom do you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven’t done anything.(B) I haven’t done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.5. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004）Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units canbe formed out of a small number of elements –for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 40 in the case of the English language.And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.6. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.。
(完整word版)语言学教(胡壮麟版)英文目录
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1why Study Language1.2what Is Language1.3 Design Features Language1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 Creativity1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of Language1.5functions of Language1.5.1 Informantive1.5.2 Interpersonal Function1.5.3 Performative1.5. 4 Emotive Function1.5.5 Phatic Communion1.5.6 Recreational Function1.5.7 Metalingual Function1.6 What Is Linguistics?1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics1.7.2 Phonology1.7.3 Morphology1.7.4 Syntax1.7.5 Semantics1.7.6 Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.9 Important Distinction in Linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive Vs. Prescriptive1.9.2 Synchronic Vs. Diachronic1.9.3 Langue & Parole1.9.4 Competence and PerformanceChapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?2.1.1 Speech Organs2.1.2 The IPA2.2 consonants and Vowels2.2.1 Consonants2.2.2 V owels2.2.3 The Sounds of English2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription2.3.2 Phonemes2.3.3 Allophones2.4 Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features2.4.1 Assimilation2.4.2 Epenthesis, Rule Ordering, and the Elsewhere Condition2.4.3 Distinctive Features2.5 Suprasegmentals2.5.1 The Syllable Structure2.5.2 Stress2.5.3 Intonation2.5.4 ToneChapter 3 From Morpheme To Phrase3.1 What Is Morpheme3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology3.1.2 Types of Morphemes3.1.3 Morphological Change and Allomorph 3.2 What Is Word?3.2.1Word and Lexical Items3.2.2 Classification of Words3.3 Word Formation (1): From Morpheme to Word3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation3.3.2The Derivational Way of Formation 3.4 Word Formation (2): Lexical Change3.5 Word Group and PhraseChapter 4 From Word To Text4.1 Syntactic Relation4.1.1The Positional Relation4.1.2Relation of Substitubility4.1.3Relation of Co-Occurrence4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction4.2.1 Immediate Constituents4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination4.3 Syntactic Function4.3.1Subject4.3.2Predicate4.3.3Object4.3.4The Relation between Classes and Functions 4.4 Category4.4.1 Number4.4.2 Gender4.4.3 Case4.4.4 Agreement4.5 Phrase,clause,sentence4.5.1 Phrase4.5.2 Clasue4.5.3 Sentence4.6 Recursiveness4.6.1Conjoining4.6.2 Embedding4.7 Beyond the Sentence4.7.1 Sentential Connection4.7.2 CohesionChapter5 meaning5.1 Meanings of MEANING5.2 The Referential Theory5.3 Sense Relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential Analysis5.5 Sentence Meaning5.5.1 An Integrated Theory5.5.2 Logical SemanticsChapter 6 Language and Cognition6.1 What Is Cognition?6.2 What Is Psycholinguistics?6.2.1 Language Acquisition6.2.2 Language Comprehension6.2.3 Language Production6.3 What Is Cognitive Linguistics?6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations6.3.2 Categorization6.3.3 Image Schemas6.3.4 Metaphor6.3.5 Metonymy6.3.6 Blending TheoryChapter 7 Language, Culture and Society7.1 Language and Culture7.1. 1How Does Language Relate To Culture7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis7.1.3 Case Studies7.1.4 To Which Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom7.2 Language and Society7.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Society7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective7.2.3 What Should We Know About Sociolinguistics?7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get From Sociolinguistics?7.3 Cross-Culture Communication7.3.1 What Should We Know All About Cross-Culture Communication?7.3.2 Case Studies7.4 SummaryThe Chapter 8 Language in Use8.1 Speech Act Theory8.1.2 Performatives and Constatives8.1.3 A Theory of Illocutionary Act 8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature 8.3 Post-Gricean Development8.3.1 Relevance Theory8.3.2 The Q- And R-Principles8.3.3 The Q-, I- And M-Principles9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language9.2.1 Foregrounding and Grammatical Form9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 9.3 The Language in Poetry9.3.1 Sound Patterning9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning9.3.4 Conversational Forms of Metre and Sound9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry9.4 The Language in Fiction9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point Of View9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation9.4.3 Prose Style9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction 9.5 The Language in Drama9.5.1 How Should We Analyse Drama9.5.2 Analysing Dramatic Language9.5.3 How to Analyse Dramatic Texts?9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature9.6.1 Theoretical Background9.6.2An Example of Cognitive Analysis10.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs CALL10.1.2 Phases of CALL Development10.1.3 Technology10.2 Machine Translation10.2.1 History of Development10.2.2 Research Methods10.2.3 MT Quality10.2.4 MT and the Internet10.2.5 Speech Translation10.2.6 MT and Human Translation10.3 Corpus Linguistics10.3.1 Definition10.3.2 Criticism and Revival of Corpus Linguistics10.3.3 Concordance10.3.4 Text Encoding and Annotation10.3.5 The Roles and Corpus Data10.4 Computer Mediated Communication10.4.1 Mail and News10.4. 2 PowerPoint10.4.3 Blog10.4.4 Chatroom10.4.5 Emoticons and SmileysChapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 11.2 Linguistics and Language Learning11.2.1 Grammar and Language Learning11.2.3 Input and Language Learning11.2.4 Interlinguage in Language Learning11.3linguistics and Language Teaching11.3.1 The Discourse-Based View of Language Teaching11.3.2 The Universal Grammar and Language Teaching 11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design11.4.1 A Clarification of Terms: Syllabus and Curriculum11.4.2 Theoretical Views behind Syllabus Design11.4.3 Types of Syllabus11.4.4 Components of Syllabus11.4.5 Current Trends in Syllabus Design11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA)11.5.2 Error Analysis (EA)11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching11.6.1Types of Corpora11.6.2What Uses Can We Make Of Corpora?11.7 SummaryChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction12.1the Plague School12.1.1 Introduction12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 12.2 The London School12.2.1 Malinowski’s Theory12.2.2 Firth’s Theory12.2.3 Holliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 12.3 American Structuralism12.3.1 Early Period: Boas and Sapir12.3.2 Bloomfield’s Theory12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar12.4.1 The Innateness Hypothesis12.4.2 What Is Generative Grammar12.4.3 The Classical Theory12.4.4 The Standard Theory12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory12.4.6 The Government and Binding Theory12.4.7 The Minimalist Theory And After12.4.8 Chomsky’s Fundamental Contribution12.5 Revisionist or Rebels12.5.1 Case Grammar12.5.2 Generative Semantics。
语言学重点章节介绍
语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。
错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。
因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。
Lecture2- the nature of language
Origin of Language
WHERE
DOES language come from?
Origin of Language
This is a time-honored question. No definite agreement has been reached on this issue. But several hypotheses (speculations) have been proposed:
Functions of Language
Functions of Language Examples I have got a knife. how are you? That’s fantastic! you are fired!
Linguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc. They summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language.
Functions of Language （Halliday）
① Ideational function: Jakobson’s referential function ② Interpersonal function: Jakobson’s emotive, conative, and phatic ③ Textual function: Jakobson’s metalingual function, poetic function
英语语言学笔记
第一章【2 】Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures1. language1.1 Why study language?为什么进修说话A tool for communication交换的对象An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生涯和人道中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.假如不能完整懂得说话的本质和构造,我们就会对人类的本质一窍不通.1.2 What is language?什么是说话1.2.1 different senses of language 说话的不赞成义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A webster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 经由过程言语来交换的才能c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning isattributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交换思惟和感到的一套声音及这些声音互相联合的体系d. the written representation of such a system 体系的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简练的界说:说话是言语交换的一种方法.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiosticand communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broadunderstanding of human interaction including such associated factors asnonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes usfrom animals.因为说和写的交换方法是一种有目标的行动,所以说话是适用性的;因为说话是社会符号,说话的交换只能在所有参与者广泛懂得了人类的那些非言语的暗示,念头,社会文化脚色等等互相接洽关系的身分之后才能有用进行,是以说话又是社会的,商定俗成的.说话使人类差别于动物.1.2.2 definitionsLanguage is a system of arbitraryvocalsymbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal(receiver or listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically,rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the tablecleaned. (×) bkli (×)Why do we say language is arbitrary?Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which thesesounds refer. This explains and is explained by the fact that differentlanguage have different words for the same object, it is good illustration of thearbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacit agreement of utterance andconcept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. Atypical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous quotationfrom shakepeare’s play:” Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name wouldsmell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样喷鼻的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms tosymbolize what they wish to refer to.Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later thanthe spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn tospeak and listen before they write or read also indicates that language isprimarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 说话的构造特点Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决议了人类说话性质的特点.例如随意率性性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?随意率性性a. arbitrariness【 'ɑːbɪtrərɪnɪs】---- arbitrariness(随意率性性): one design feature of humanlanguage,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationship to their meaning.(人类说话的本质特点之一,指说话符号的情势与意义之间没有天然的接洽.) It was discussed by Saussure first.The linkbetween them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning说话的音和义之间的随意率性性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 说话的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系.A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language therefore is largely arbitrary.b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang ” ”crash” ”roar ” ” rumble ” ”cakle”, which are motivated in a certain sense.”onomatopoeia拟声词---words that sound like the sounds they describe那些发音像它们的描述的声音的词c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either.“type ” and ”write ”are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type -writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say “arbitrariness”is a matter of degree.arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.随意率性性和拟声可以同时起感化.Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.夏季傍晚,群蝇嗡嗡地非.(2) Arbitrary at the syntactic level 句法上的随意率性性According to systematic-functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. 对于体系功效说话学家和美国功效说话学家来说,说话在句法上长短随意率性的.Syntax-----it refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.句法就是根据语法安排造句之法.(3) Aribrtary and convention随意率性性和商定性The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.说话学上的符号和它的意义之间是商定俗成的关系.The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.随意率性性的相不和,即商定性.conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.Arbitrainess of langauge makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.随意率性性付与说话潜在的创造力,而说话的商定性又使进修说话变得辛苦.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash) For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality【djuː'ælətɪ】 (二重性):--- one design feature of human language, which refers tothe property of having two levels of structures , such as units of the primary levelare composed of elements of the secondarylevel and each of the two levels hasits own principles of organization.(人类说话的本质特点之一,指失去两层构造的这种特点,底层构造是上层构造的构成成分,每层都有自身的组合规矩.)duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.Dog: woof (but not “w-oo-f ” )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number ofsound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economy经济原则Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all language so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.). At the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.According to HUZHUANGLIN, language is a system of two sets of structures or two levels, one of sound and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic words /units, and these units of meaning can be arrangedand rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.这些意义单位构成很多个句子.(Note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!).Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No anmial communication system enjoys this duality.To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.说到说话的二重性,我们必须留意说话的等级性.lic. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretationof new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) non-humansignals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.creativity(创造性): one design feature of human language ,by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. (指说话的能产性,因为说话有二重性和递归性.)productivity----productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language , including those that has never heard before , but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.人们可以或许应用说话华夏有的规矩来懂得从未碰着过的说话符号的特点.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the lo cation is really ‘new’ .In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source,and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message wasconveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the freefood. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’t locate the food. Theproblem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set ofsignals, all of which related to horizonta distance. The bee cannot create a‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.No one has never said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he canunderstand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, productivity never goes outside the language, thus productivity is also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky) Productivity is unique to human language. 创造性是人类说话的举世无双的特点.d. displacement(移位性): one design feature of human language, which means humanlanguage enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts whichare not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.(指人类说话可以让应用者来表示在措辞时(时光和处所)并不消失的物体,时光和不雅点.) Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of thisnectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The otherbees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Beecommunication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, itmust be the most recent food source.Displacement , as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does thingspresent. In other words, one can refer to real or unreal things, things of thepast, of the present, of the future.人类说话可以被用来指不在当时当地产生的工作,这就使得人类可以或许谈论很多工作而不受时空限制.Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak, that means language has the feature of displacement.Language itself can be talked about too. When a man , for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something thatis occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however,you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now andthere. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee’ssystem, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it’s anunspeakable tiny sharee. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next isdescribed as cultural transmission.This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic bas is, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system.（人类进修说话的才能有遗传基本,但任何具体的说话体系都必须经由过程传授和进修才能获得,这解释说话具有文化传递性,它不是靠人类的本能而获得的.）If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫体系的.f. interchangeability 交换性interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog /dogs is /are “speaking” and which listening.What features of human language have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?Arbitrariness----a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of.Duality----a feature totally lacking in any animal communication.Creativity----animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.Displacement----no animal can talk about things removed from the immediate situation. Cultural transmission-----details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communication.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them.Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did no t make the linguists circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not enen when he is taken back and taught to do so.1.4 Origin of language 说话的来源1.5 functions of language 说话的功效Jakobson defined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact. 雅科布逊界说了言语行动的六个要素：措辞者,受话者,语境,信息,语码,接触.Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:Referential function-----to convey message and information所指功效：传达信息Poetic function -----to indulge in language for its own sake 诗学功效：完整就说话而说话Emotive function ----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions 情感功效：表达立场.感到和情感Cognitive function ----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties 意动功效：经由过程敕令和请求去说服和影响他人Phatic function ----to establish communion with others 交感功效：与他人建议交换Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings 元说话功效：弄清意图.词语和意义They correspond to such communication elements as context ,message, addresser, addressee, contact and code. 它们与一些交换运动的元素相对应,如语境,信息,措辞者,受话者,接触和语码等.Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:韩礼德提出说话元功效的理论,即说话有：Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;概念功效：建构了经验模子和逻辑关系Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships 人际功效：反应了社会关系textual functions----creates relevance to context. 语篇功效：创立了说话与语境的关系Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development, that is , instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.他经由过程不雅察儿童说话的成长提出了说话的七种功效,他们是对象功效,掌握功效,表达功效,交互功效,自指性功效,教诲功效和想象功效.Function(功效): the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle informative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.(用说话交换,思虑等.说话功效包括信息功效,人际功效,施为功效,情感功效,交感性功效,娱乐性功效和元说话功效.)language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.According to Wang Gang (1988), language has three main functions:a tool of communications,a tool whereby people learn about the world;a tool by which people creat art.1.5.1 Informative function信息功效What is the informative function?Language serves an “informative function” when used to tell something , characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true or false. According to P. Grice’s “cooperative principle”, one ought not to violate the “maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.Informative function is also called ideational function i n the framework of functional grammar. 在功效语法的框架中,信息功效也被称为概念功效.Halliday notes that “language serves for the expression of ‘content ’”: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. 韩礼德指出“说话为表达‘内容’办事：这个‘内容’就是措辞者的真实的经验世界,包括他自我意识的内部世界.“It requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us. 它须要人类的批示从其他的不同角度对待事物,而不是按照说话提醒给我们的那样去做.1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功效1.5.3 Performative function 施为功效This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration , etc, are perfomatives.1.5.4 Emotive function 情感功效1.5.5 Phatic communion 交感性谈话phatic communion(交感性谈话): one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language.(人类说话的功效之一,指说话的社会交互性.)broadly speaking, phatic function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.概况地说,交感性功效是指那些有助于解释,保持人际关系的表达,如俚语,打趣,行业话,礼仪性的外交,社会地域方言的转化等等.The phatic function refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather in English and cloting in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language(e.g., “how are you?” “fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don’t say “hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “hi” , you ruin your friendship.1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐性功效What is the evocative function? 什么是娱乐性功效？The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e. you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issuer but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.5.7 Metalingual function 元说话功效metalanguage(元说话): certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.用以讲述或描述另一说话等的说话或一套符号.What is the direct function?The “direction function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Mos t imperative sentences perform this function. E.g. “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J.Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”What is the interrogative function? 什么是疑问功效？When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc. according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g. “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s /listener’s answer.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!”;Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative funciton to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evoluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.6.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general. 说话学是对说话进行科学地研讨的学科.它所研讨的并不是某种特定的说话,而是人类所有的说话的共性.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conductedwith reference to some general theory of language structure.Observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryA linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of language, but toinvestigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a languag varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how aperson learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.Explain the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigates not any particular language, but language in general. Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating some hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principle: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.(1)Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study andgive them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned.(2) Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of thetotal statement.(3) Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when is is possible.(4). Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguistshould be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguistics说话学的重要分支Lingusitics should include at least five branches, namely:phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, senmantic and pragmatic.说话学至少包括五个分支：语音.形态.句法.语义.和语用.General lingusitics 通俗说话学-------the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods appliable in any linguistic study. 把说话作为一个整体来研讨的学科被称为通俗说话学,它是说话学研讨中摸索人类说话的广泛性质和纪律的学科.1.7.1 phonetics 语音学-----studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech , the description and classification of speech sounds , words and connected speech, etc. 研讨语音,包括言语的产生（也就是言语在实际中如何形成,传递和接收）,言语的声音,语音的描述和分类,词语和话语衔接等等.Phonetics----The study of sounds used in linguistic community led to establishment of a brach of linguistics called phonetics. How speech are produced and classified.1.7.2 phonology 音系学（音位学）-----studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. English has approximately forty-five phonemes. 研讨的是语音和音节的构造,散布和序列,它将音位视为起止点,来处理说话的语音体系.音位是语音的最小的说话学单位,它可以或许区分意义的不同.英语精确有45个音位.Phonology------how sounds form systems and unction to convey meaning in communication.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.语音学是研讨在言语中人类嗓音所能发出的语音,而音系学则是研讨这些语音中能形。
Linguistics A Course Book 2
Linguistics A Course BookChapter1. Invitations To Linguistics1.9 Important Distinctions in Linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveDescriptive is a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.Prescriptive is a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to do. The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.thedistinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.1.9.2 Synchronic VS. Diachronic.A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually , but not neccessarily , the present) as its point of observation.diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.1.9.3 Langue & ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the realization of language in all actual use or the actual or actualized language.1.9.4 Competence and PerformanceCompetence: a language user's underlying knowledge about the systemof rules. Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.chapter 2 speech soundswe can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology. phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. naturally , the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process:articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. acoustic phonetics is thestudy of the physical properties of speech sounds. perceptual or auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.2.1 How Speech Sounds are Made?2.1.1 Speech OrgansSpeech organs, also known as vocal organs, are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.It is striking to see how much of the human body is involved in the production of speech: the lungs,the trachea(or windpipe), the throat,the nose,and the mouth.2.1.2 The IPAThe first version of the international phonetic alphabet was published in August 1888. Its main principle were that there should be aseparate letter foreach distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.2.2 Consonants and VowelsIn the description of sound segments,a basic distinction is made between consonants and vowels. consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract,or by a narrowing which is also marked that air can not escape without producing audible friction. by contract, a vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escape in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose. the distinction between them lies in the obstruction of airstream.2.2.1 ConsonantsIn the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved.The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished(1).Stop( plosive): e.g. [p, b, t, d, k, g](2). Nasal: e.g. [m, n,ŋ](3). Fricative: e.g. [f, v,θ,ð,s,z,ʃ,ʒ,h](4). Approximant: e.g. [w ,r ,j](5) Lateral: e.g. [l](6) Trill: e.g. [r](7). Tap and Flap[ʃ](8). Affricate: e.g. [tʃ ,dʒ ,ts]The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant ismade.(1)Bilabial[p,b ,m ,w](2)labiodenta[f ,v ](3)dentalə[θ,ð](4)alveolar[t ,d ,n ,s ,z ,r,l](5)postal veolar[ʃ ,ʒ](6)retroflex[s,εə](7)palatal[j ,ɔ](8)velar[k ,g ,ŋ](9)uvular[r](10)pharyngeal[h ,tr](11)glottal [h]2.2.2 vowelsAs exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart ,are provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.2.2.3 The SoundS of EnglishThe consonants of English can be described in the following way./p/: voiceless bilabial stop./b/: voiced bilabial stop./s/: voiceless alveolar fricative./z/: voiced alveolar fricative.We can now describe the English vowels in this way [i:] high front tense unrounded vowel[u] high back lax rounded vowel[ə]mid central lax unrounded vowel[ɔ]low back lax rounded vowel。
《普通语言学》第3次课剖析
（第 3 次课） 第一章 走进语言学（3） （Invitations to Linguistics）
1.5 语言的功能 1.6 什么是语言学？ 1.7 语言学的主要分支
1.5 语言的功能
罗曼.雅可布森（18961982） 语言功能框架 1. 所指功能 (referential) 2. 诗学功能 (poetic) 3. 情感功能 (emotive) 4. 意动功能 (conative) 5. 寒暄功能 (phatic) 6. 元语言功能 (metalingual)
雅格布逊（Jackbson）认为，语言像任何符 号系统一样，首先为了交际。雅格布逊定义 了言语事件的六个要素：发话人，受话人， 语境，信息，语码，接触。六个功能：情感 功能，意动功能，所指功能，诗学功能，元 语言功能和寒暄功能。
韩礼德（Halliday）系统功能语言学中 —— 语言元功能理论 1. 概念元功能；2. 人际元功能；3. 语篇元功能
Halliday 认为 “ 语言确定并维持社会规则，这 包括由语言本身所确定的交际角色，…通过人 际功能，不同社会群体之间的界限得以分明， 作为个体的人也得到确定和强化，因为语言在 帮助人与人的互动中，语言不断表达和发展作 为个体的人的特性。” 语言具有表达身份即存在的功能，语言具有明 确身份即存在的功能。
韩礼德认为：“语言为表达内容服务，内容
就是讲话者在现实世界中的经验，也包括他 在主观世界中的经验…在执行这种功能的过 程中，语言将经验结构化，并且确定了我们 看待事物的方式，所以除了遵循语言给予我 们的暗示之外，想从其他角度看待事物是要 费些脑筋的。”
看图识动物
看图识生活用品
看图识数
看图识蔬菜
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic系统性, arbitrary任意性, vocal口头, symbolic 符号性and most importantly human specific.To give the briefest definition, language is a means of verbal communication.Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.II. The Design features of language (语言的区别性特征)Design features refer to the defining properties of human languages that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.A framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett.1.Arbitrariness (任意性)The widely accepted meaning of this feature which was discussed by Saussure（索绪尔）first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.It is the core feature(核心特征) of language, which refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. It is not entirely arbitrary atall levels. Some words, such as the ones created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree.其他书表述：Language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical relationship between meanings and sounds. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2. Duality (二重性)Duality refers to the property of having twolevels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of two levels has its own principles of organization. The property of duality only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements (e.g. sounds, letters) and units (e.g. words).其他书表述：Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which is meaningless.Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language.3.Creativity (创造性)Creativity, sometimes also “productivity”, means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.Also called design features (C. F.Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics, 1958)4.Displacement（移位性）Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.5.Cultural Transmission (文化传递性)Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity(遗传).While human capacity of language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.6.Interchangeability (互换性)Interchangeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive message, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.III. Origin of language1.Bilical account (圣经记载)Language was God’s gift to human beings.2.The bow-wow theory (“汪汪”理论) Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack,cuckoo.3.The pooh-pooh theory (“噗噗”理论) Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expression of pain or joy. Oh, Ah, Aiyo4.The ye-he-ho theory (“哟-嘿-吼”理论)Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour oreffort-lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.5.The evolution theory (进化理论)Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.IV. Functions of languageJakobson (雅格布逊) established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely: referential(conveymessage and information), poetic (indulge in language for its own sake), emotive(to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative(to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic(to establish communion with others) and metalingual function (to clear up intensions and meaning).Halliday(韩礼德) proposes a theory of metafuncions of language, that is, language has IDEATIONAL（意念）, INTERPERSONAL（人际） and TEXTUAL （语篇）functions. Ideational function constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context.rmative function （信息功能）Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. The informative function is regarded as the most important function. Declarative sentences(陈述句) serve this function.It is the major role of language. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite (先决条件) of social development.It is also called the ideational function (意念功能) in the framework of functional grammar(功能语法).2.Interpersonal function (人际功能)The interpersonal function is considered asthe most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.In the framework of function grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address others andrefer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.3.Performative function (施为功能)The performative function of language is primarily used to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quiet formal and even ritualized(仪式化).（the Royal Wedding）4.Emotive function (感情功能)The emotive function of language is oneof the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Son of Bitch他妈的，他姥姥的5.Phatic function (寒暄功能)The term PHATIC COMMUNION originates from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. （a Polish anthropoligist）This function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social andregional dialects.おはようございます。
语言学作业 第一章
语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. 2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.The grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actually synchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances in concrete situations.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance.5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set of conventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of generative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic ordiachronic orientation just from the titles?1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language? What is linguistics?Language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language? (Competence) 2) how is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use? (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of language?The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”?1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.⏹He came in and sat down.⏹He sat down and came in.⏹He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.⏹Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.⏹Conventionality of language makes learning a languagelaborious.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds I. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________. 4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but they focus ondifferent aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy two conditions, oneis they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itslanguage does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of ________________,information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has___________, ____________ and _____________ functions.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctive features.1) [l] [ł ] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [ð] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [bʌi t]bide [ba i d]tie [ta i]rice [rʌi s]rise [ra i z]by [ba i]type [tʌi p]bribe [b r aib] sigh [s a i]wife [wʌi f]wives [wa i vz]die [d a i]tyke [tʌi k]time [ta i m]why [wa i]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B?2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B?3) Are [ʌi] and [a i] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives?5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in the dialectsof English shown in the data?(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to be phonetictranscriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ?。
语言学总复习
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Stop （Plosive） 塞音（爆破音）
[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]
Nasal 鼻音 [m] [n] [ŋ]
Fricative 擦音 [f] [v] [θ] [s] [z] [∫] [З]
Approximant 中通音 [ j ] [r] [w]
Lateral
Syntactic category: 能在句子中起相同作用 的词构成相同的句法范畴。句法范畴不同于 词类，两个属于不同词类的词可能属于同一 句法范畴。
man, earth, wind, car, anger
Bound Morphemes: cannot occur as separate words
recollection re/collect/ion
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Root（词根） : is the basic form of
a word which cannot be further
What is displacement?
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7. The origin of language. 8. What functions does language have? 9. What is Linguistics? 10. What are the main branches of linguistics? 11. Important distinctions in Liguistics.
analyzed without total loss of
identity.
Stem（词干）: may consist of a
single root morpheme or plus one
胡壮麟《语言学教程》
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）学习指导前言其实我的这一个语言学学习指导系列本来没有想做得这么大的，最初只是我买了一本语言学教程的辅导资料，发现里面有的名词解释总结得很不错，所以就想整理一下各章的名词解释。
后来觉得既然是整理，光整理名词解释，还不如对知识点做一个较全面的学习指导材料。
结果就此一发而不可收，终于形成了现在的这一整套资料。
不明白是什么的朋友们可以参考考研论坛外语版的相关帖子。
本资料主要分为三部分，第一部分为各章节提纲笔记，第二部分为重点章节测试题，第三部分为测试题参考答案。
整理这一套资料真得很劳心费力，希望能够对大家有所帮助。
在考研论坛上，我所有的相关资料都设置了阅读权限和K币，一个是为了防止盗用，但更重要的不是为了限制什么，只是希望大家在能够很容易得到资料的同时，也能够想到要付出一些，将来考上研了以后能够回到这里，与后来的研友们分享一些所能够得到的信息，资源共享，信息交流，这才是考研论坛的本意。
也希望大家在以后复习语言学的时候，能够想到冰暖茶在这门课程上作的小小的努力，如果大家都能成功，我的努力就是值得的。
需要说明的是，我在整理资料的过程中，得到了ksguobw, lxm1000w, micronannan, 天使精灵（排名不分先后）等朋友的资源共享和大力协助，在此对他们以及一贯支持冰暖茶的朋友们表示感谢！由于水平有限，加之时间仓促，疏漏之处在所难免，欢迎各位读者批评指正。
冰暖茶2006年11月目录前言 (1)目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon………………………………………………………………………………14Chapter 4 Syntax………………………………………………………………………………21Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind………………………………………………………29Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society………………………………………………………35Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer……………………………………………………………49Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching………………………………………53Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguist ics………………………………………59第二部分重点章节测试题……………………………………………………………………67Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology……………………………………………………………70Test Three Morphology…………………………………………………………………………73Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics……………………………………………………………………………79Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theor ies and Schools of Modern Linguistics………………………………………88第三部分测试题参考答案……………………………………………………………………91参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship totheir meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the s tudy of a language through the course of its history. E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence isstable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emic[These two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohong’s book, I can understand them better, bu t because they are vaguely mentioned in Hu’s book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. – icywarmtea]Being etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investiga tor’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Romanalphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English, [ ] are stops and [ ] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English, [ ] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes [ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [ ] is the only lateral in E nglish.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls ofthe pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network免费考研网。
语言学导论 语言学教程修订版 胡壮麟
An Introduction to Linguistics语言学导论胡壮麟主编《语言学教程》（修订版）北京：北京大学出版社2001年Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1Why study language?●Languages are the best mirror of the human mind. --Leibniz(莱布尼兹1646-1716)psychology mind/brain pedagogy cognitive science●The three basic questions that concern Chomsky are:(i) What constitutes knowledge of language?(ii) How is knowledge of language acquired?(iii) How is knowledge of language put to use?1.2What is language?●Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. – Sapir（萨丕尔1884-1939)●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.-- Wardhaugh（沃道）● A language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length andconstructed out of a finite set of elements. – Chomsky（乔姆斯基1928 -）● A language is a system for meanings. – Halliday（韩礼德1925 -）We shall define language as ―meaning potential‖: that is, as sets of options, or alternatives, in meaning, that are available to the speaker-hearer. -- Halliday1.3Design features of language●Design features Concept introduced by C. F. Hockett in the 1960sof a set of key properties of language not shared or not known to be shared, as a set, with systems of communication in any other species. Their number and names vary from one account to another; but all include, as among the most important, the properties of duality, arbitrariness, and productivity.1.3.1Arbitrariness任意性: The property of language by which there is in general nonatural (i.e. logical) relation between the form of a single lexical unit and itsmeaning. 书book livre rose motivated 理据sheep cow moo moo quackoink bedroomWhat‘s in a name? that which we ca ll a roseBy any other name would smell as sweet. – Shakespeare(莎士比亚1564-1616)名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。
Invitations to Linguistics
1.2 What is Language?
• • • Webster’s New World Dictionary: a. human speech b. the ability to communicate by human speech • c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings • d. the written representation of such a system •
上课前的话
1. 《英语语言学概论课程》的总 体教学目的： 发展语言意识，培养理性思维
• 2. 什么是语言学及其语言学的研究内容 • 语言学： the scientific study of human language • 语言学的研究内容： 语言本体研究及其语言与其他学科 的交叉研究
• 3. 语言学学习应注意的方面
• Language is hierarchical. • Bolinger and Sears: “Stratification is the physical manifestation of the „infinite use of finite means‟, the trait that most distinguishes human communication and that provides its tremendous resourcefulness.” • The advantage of duality lies in the great productive power our language is endowed with.
语言学作业
22. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.
A. sense B. sounds
C. objects D. ideas
27. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,
A. Bloomfield B. de Saussure C. Chomsky D. Hymes
17. According to _____, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.
C. interpersonal relationship D. performative functions
5. Which of the following is NOT a theory about the origin of language?
A. The bow-wow theory B. The pooh-pooh theory
15. The distinction between langue and parole was put forward by _____.
语言学作业 第一章
语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. 2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.The grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actually synchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances in concrete situations.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance.5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set of conventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of generative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic ordiachronic orientation just from the titles?1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language? What is linguistics?Language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language? (Competence) 2) how is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use? (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of language?The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”?1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.⏹He came in and sat down.⏹He sat down and came in.⏹He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.⏹Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.⏹Conventionality of language makes learning a language—laborious.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________. 4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but they focus ondifferent aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy two conditions, oneis they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itslanguage does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of ________________,information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has___________, ____________ and _____________ functions.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctive features.1) [l] [ł ] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [ð] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [bʌi t]bide [ba i d]tie [ta i]rice [rʌi s]rise [ra i z]by [ba i]type [tʌi p]bribe [b r aib] sigh [s a i]wife [wʌi f]wives [wa i vz]die [d a i]tyke [tʌi k]time [ta i m]why [wa i]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B?2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B?3) Are [ʌi] and [a i] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives?5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in the dialectsof English shown in the data?(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to be phonetictranscriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ?。
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What is linguistics?
Scope of linguistics Some important distinctions
What is language?
Design features of language Functions of language Origins of language
What does linguistics study?
Production, transmission, and perception of speech sounds Phonetics
Micro-linguistics
Scope phoneme Rules of sound patterning;
[9a] Don’t say X. [9b] People do not say X.
Prescriptive: It is prescribing how things ought to be. Descriptive: It is describing how things are. Modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammar was strongly prescriptive.
What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the science of language , alternatively, the scientific study of language. Why is it scientific?
A branch of humanities and social science. It has a set of established theories, methods and branches. It does not study a specific language but language in general. It is based on the systematic investigation of linguistics data（written and spoken）.
Socio-linguistics:. Anthropological linguistics Computational linguistics Applied linguistics
Some Important Distinctions
Prescriptive(规定式 VS descriptive（描述 规定式) 规定式 （ 式）
II. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible.
How do you understand the distinction between langue and parole? Howห้องสมุดไป่ตู้do you understand the distinction between competence and performance? How is two distinctions above similar to and different from each other? (华中科技大学 2001) (华中科技大学
According to Chomsky, the task of a linguist is to determine the data of performance, the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user. Chomsky’s distinction of competence and performance is related to the distinction of Saussure, but he does not accept the view of seeing language as a mere systematic inventory of terms. It should refer to the underlying competence as a system of generative process.
Langue and Parole
Made by Saussure（Father of modern linguistics） Abstract vs. concrete:
langue(语言),is the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. parole（言语）, the actual phenomena or data of linguistics, refers to the realization of language in actual use, the concrete use of the conventions and the application of rules. Stable vs. varying Langue is stable. It does not change frequently. But parole is not. It varies from person to person and from situation to situation.
The distinction is for the systemic study of language. The objects of linguists is the langue of each community.
Competence and Performance
Made by Chomsky Noam Competence: an ideal language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.( Chomsky, 1965:3) A speaker’s competence is stable, but performance is not. It is often influenced by many psychological and social factors.
Psychological linguistics: investigation of the interrelation of language and mind, in processing utterance and in language acquisition. It aims to answer such questions as
Rules of word formation; morpheme
Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Macro-linguistics linguistics
Rules of grammatical sentence formation Study of meaning with the context disregarded Study of meaning in context
how the human mind works when we use language, how we as infants acquire our mother tongue, how we memorize and how we process the information we receive in the course of communication. More on Page 18.
Summary
What have we talked about in this chapter?
Definition and understanding Design features
La Language
Functions Origin Definition and understanding
Pragmatics Interdisciplinary…
Social linguistics; applied linguistics; Cognitive linguistics Psychological linguistics Neuro-linguistics, etc
Macro-linguistics:
III. Discussion
What is your most ideal job and how do you want to apply the science of language to your potential job?
Linguistics
Scope Important distinctions
Homework
I. write down the Chinese equivalents and definitions of the following terms.
Linguistics Synchronic and diachronic （北京第二外国语大学 2004） 2004） Prescriptive and descriptive （同济大学 2000） 2000）
Synchronic and Diachronic
Synchronic(共时 The description 共时): 共时 of language at some point of time in history. e.g. A Grammar of Modern Greek, Shakespeare's language, etc. Diachronic(历时 历时):The description 历时 of language as its changes through time. e.g. How is the Indo-European family develops through history? Some exercises