The Ratio of the Direct Photon Production Cross Section at 630 GeV and at 1800 GeV
Fluorescence Spectroscopy - 朝阳科技大学荧光光谱朝阳科技大学-40页文档资料
S is singlet and T is triplet.
The S0 state is the ground state and the subscript numbers identify individual states.
Energy level of MO
• Since emitted light only from the middle of the cuvette is detected the concentration must be low to assure accurate FF measurements.
Inner Filter Effect
Measurement of fluorescence quantum yields
em
em
fraction of intensity emitted at that fraction of total fluorescence
particular wavelength
that is detected
I0(ex)
If
(em)
=
IAbs
. (ex)
f
.
f(em).
K
em
em
fluorescence quantum yield
absorbed intensity at ex
I a ( b e ) s x I 0 (e ) 1 x 1 A (e 0 )x
measured intensity of fluorescence at em
Quantum Yield
Quantum Yield = FF • FF = number of fluorescence quanta emitted divided by number of quanta absorbed to a singlet excited state
放射物理单词
vacancy：空的
favored：可能是拼错了
Auger：同锇歇电子
Fraction：部分
Isomer：同质异能素（质子数和中子数都同，核能态不同）
Enunciate：清晰讲述/解释等
Penetrate：穿过
Instructive：指导的
nitrogen 氮
Chapter 4 (2)
1. dosimetry 放射剂量学
2. tissue-air 组织
3. backscatter逆散射
4. depict 描述 描写
5. irradiate 辐射 照射
6. calibration 教标
7. dosimeter 放射剂量计
perturb 扰动 摄动
homogeneous 同类的, 相似的
photon 光子
negligible 可忽略的
perturbation 扰动 摄动
finite 有限的
geometry 几何
composite 组成
equivalent 等效
affix 词缀 使附于
bracket 括号
Cumulate：应该是 accumulate 积累
Hypothetical：假设
Exponentially：指数地
rectangle ：长方形
dosage：剂量值
proportional： 正比的
vertical：垂直的
horizontal：水平的
intersection：交叉的
collision 碰撞
bremsstrahlung 轫致（辐射）
一维光子晶体的能带结构计算与分析
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激光器驱动电路中英文翻译
中文2540字Laser driver circuitSmall changes will directly semiconductor laser drive current to the output intensity fluctuation. To stabilize the output power semiconductor laser, V oltage negative feedback principle to design a constant current driving circuit comprises a soft starting and current limiting protection circuit based on; At the same time, according to the need of the light source is modulated to eliminate the influence of background light and, integrated laser modulation circuit comprises a crystal oscillation circuit and divider circuit design. Making the specific circuit and complete the relevant experimental. The experimental results show that the circuit can provide a driving current of high stability, Current stability up to 0.05%; Soft start and current-limiting protection circuit can protect the semiconductor laser and enhance the impact capability. Modulation circuit generates a carrier signal needed for laser diode modulation and direct to complete the output light modulation, The switch can be conveniently realized from 256Hz to 512kHz range of 12 kinds of commonly used modulation frequency selection.Semiconductor laser with its excellent characteristics, high efficiency, simple structure, small is widely used in scientific research, national defense, medical, and other areas of processing, its drive technology becomes more and more important. Semiconductor laser is the ideal electron - photon direct conversion devices, quantum efficiency is very high, the current small changes will lead to a great change, the output light intensity of the therefore, semiconductor laser drive current requirements is very high. Driving technology of semiconductor laser usually adopts constant current drive mode, this work, through the principle of negative feedback control loop, directly provide the effective control of the drive current. In addition, the transient current or voltage spikes, and overcurrent, overvoltage will damage the semiconductor laser drive circuit, therefore should be considered in the protection circuit against electric shock measures and special.In some applications, DC semiconductor lasers produce DC drive light in the measurement process is vulnerable to interference from ambient light slow change, which could not be separated from the environment light required DC optical signal, the signal-to-noise ratio is too small, so to carry on the modulation. When the high-speed modulated semiconductor lasers, there will be dynamic characteristics iscomplex, such as the relaxation oscillation, since the pulse and multi-pulse phenomena. In this paper, experiments were conducted to study the characteristics of low frequency modulation. Semiconductor laser output is stable, and can be directly modulated, it has been widely applied in optical system, is the preferred source sensor system. This paper describes the design of a high stability driving current, modulation, simple operation and low cost driving circuit for the light source of optical fiber systems.In this paper, the design of driving the semiconductor laser modulation circuit composed of four parts, including constant current circuit, a soft start, current limit protection and modulation signal generating circuit. The constant current circuit to generate a high stable drive current. Soft start is the role of eliminating surge may be present in the circuit, to prevent the harm of surge for laser. To avoid damage due to overcurrent caused by semiconductor laser can not be restored, then adding current-limiting protection in a driver circuit. Circuit to realize the modulation and frequency can be adjusted to generate a modulated signal.The constant current circuit is shown in figure 1, The in-phase end voltage reference Vr into A1 op amp, the operational control amplifier conducting level, and thus to obtain the corresponding output current. The output current generated by sampling voltage sampling resistor Rs, the sampling voltage is amplified as the inverting input voltage feedback voltage feedback amplifier A1, and voltage and the in-phase input end of comparison, Q2 to adjust the output voltage through the triode, adjustment and output current of semiconductor lasers, so that the whole closed-loop feedback system in the dynamic balance.AFigure 1 Constant current mapBecause the switch instantaneous in power supply generates a voltage, current surge, as well as the surge interference effects are likely to cause the breakdown andthe damage of the semiconductor laser, and therefore must be in the design of soft start circuit drive laser, namely the use of the charge and discharge of RC circuit, delay time, the specific circuit as shown in Figure 2 as shown in. Switch S1 is closed, the current through the resistor R1 and capacitor C3 to charge, the base electrode of the triode Q voltage gradually rises. As the capacitor charging and the conduction of the triode, output voltage V o is achieved from 0 to the maximum rise slowly, until the capacitor charge saturation, the voltage and current stabilizing. When the power supply is disconnected, the process of reverse, so as to realize the current and voltage decreases slowly.Figure 2 Soft start circuit diagramLaser soft start time and the charging capacitor and the corresponding resistance, when the capacitor charging tends to saturation, the output voltage soft start circuit can achieve maximum. Power supply voltage is V I, the capacitor voltage is V o, the capacitor charging formula:1(1)RC iV V e-=-According to this formula can calculate the electric charge and discharge time.Semiconductor laser with other devices, have normal working current, if the current exceeds this range, the laser will be damaged, therefore must restrict current laser in the set range.Emitter voltage transistor Q2 as the feedback voltage terminal phase in A3 op amp, when the feedback voltage is less than the limit voltage V, A3 op amp output low level, the transistor Q1 is turned on, this time by a triode Q2 output voltage feedback voltage is greater than the limit; when the voltage of V, A3 op amp output high, triode Q1 cutoff, this limits the triode Q2 emission increases very current, and is limited to a specific value. So even if the current caused by Vr control voltage exceeds the setvalue, the triode Q1 and Q2 are connected in series, so the total current will be clamped in the setting current value.Modulation signal generating circuit is composed of a crystal oscillating circuit and divider circuit is composed of two parts, used to generate the high stability of frequency, duty cycle square wave signal is stable. Crystal oscillating circuit directly generated by the active oscillator, oscillation frequency is 1MHz. Frequency divider circuit composed of a CMOS integrated circuit 4040.1MHz pulse signal after the frequency by 4040, pin output frequency from the switch is selected, the duty cycle is 50%, amplitude is 5V square wave signal. The modulation frequency dividing frequency were 256Hz, 512Hz, 1kHz, 2kHz,4kHz,8kHz,16kHz,32kHz, 64kHz128kHz, 256kHz, 512kHz..Driving an important technical parameters of circuit for current stability. Current stability is in a certain period of time, several measurements through the current size of the semiconductor laser, namely the ratio of output current stability for the relative change amount and input current, stability calculation, there will be current relative change is defined as the measurement of the maximum and minimum values, will measure the average value as the input current value.Drive circuit based on voltage negative feedback principle, by constant current drive mode to realize the control of the injection current and output power of semiconductor laser, and it can provide high stable output current, current stability 0.05%. Drive circuit with soft start, current limit circuit protection, reduce the damage of semiconductor laser to surge breakdown and current, the modulation circuit and the drive circuit effectively combined, realize the frequency is, the development of new technology of optical fiber communication is essential.The causes of dispersion: One is the light emitted by the light source is not monochromatic light; two is the modulation signal has a certain bandwidth.The dispersion of the classification: By different modes or different frequency (or wavelength) light signal components, transmission in optical fibers, due to the physical phenomenon of different group velocities cause signal distortion is called fiber dispersion. The fiber dispersion is divided into mode dispersion (or intermodal distortion), material dispersion and waveguide dispersion. After two kinds of dispersion is the dispersion a pattern, also known as intra-modal dispersion.Dispersion harm: Fiber dispersion in optical signal waveform distortion, performance for the pulse width, it is the time domain characteristics of optical fiber.In digital communication system, pulse broadening of optical signal is an important index. Pulse broadening is too large can cause adjacent pulse gap decreases, the adjacent pulse will overlap and regenerative repeater decision errors occur, which increases the BER, transmission bandwidth narrowing, limit the transmission capacity of optical fiber.Said method of dispersion: Commonly used dispersion representation has maximum time delay for $S, pulse width R and optical bandwidth of 3dB B three. The maximum time delay difference delay description fiber in the fastest and most slow wave component. Used to describe the effect of fiber dispersion on the transmission signal pulse broadening and optical fiber bandwidth. A section of optical fiber as a network analysis of the dispersion characteristics, the available time domain method and frequency domain method. When in the time domain analysis, dispersion effect is represented by the pulse broadening, and analyzed in the frequency domain, the transmission bandwidth said.激光器驱动电路半导体激光器驱动电流的微小变化将直接导致其输出光强的波动。
太阳能电池行业英语词汇
Photovoltaic (PV) Array— An interconnected system of PV modules that function as a single electricity-producing unit. The modules are assembled as a discrete structure, with common support or mounting. In smaller systems, an array can consist of a single module.Photovoltaic (PV) Cell— The smallest semiconductor element within a PV moduleto perform the immediate conversion of light into electrical energy (direct currentvoltage and current). Also called a solar cell.Photovoltaic (PV) Conversion Efficiency— The ratio of the electric power produced by a photovoltaic device to the power of the sunlight incident on the device.Photovoltaic (PV) Device— A solid-state electrical device that converts light directly into direct current electricity of voltage-current characteristics that are a function of the characteristics of the light source and the materials in and design of the device. Solar photovoltaic devices are made of various semiconductor materials including silicon, cadmium sulfide, cadmium telluride, and gallium arsenide, and in single crystalline, multicrystalline, or amorphous forms.Photovoltaic (PV) Effect— The phenomenon that occurs when photons, the "particles" in a beam of light, knock electrons loose from the atoms they strike. When this property of light is combined with the properties of semiconductor s, electrons flow in one direction across a junction, setting up a voltage. With the addition of circuitry, current will flow and electric power will be available.Photovoltaic (PV) Generator— The total of all PV strings of a PV power supply system, which are electrically interconnected.Photovoltaic (PV) Module— The smallest environmentally protected, essentially planar assembly of solar cells and ancillary parts, such as interconnections, terminals, [and protective devices such as diodes] intended to generate direct current power under unconcentrated sunlight. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer (superstrate) or the back layer (substrate).Photovoltaic (PV) Panel— often used interchangeably with PV module (especially in one-module systems), but more accurately used to refer to a physically connected collection of modules (i.e., a laminate string of modules used to achieve a required voltage and current).Photovoltaic (PV) System— A complete set of components for converting sunlight into electricity by the photovoltaic process, including the array and balance of system components.Photovoltaic-Thermal (PV/T) System— A photovoltaic system that, in addition to converting sunlight into electricity, collects the residual heat energy and delivers both heat and electricity in usable form. Also called a total energy system.Physical Vapor Deposition— A method of depositing thin semiconductor photovoltaic films. With this method, physical processes, such as thermal evaporation or bombardment of ions, are used to deposit elemental semiconductor material on a substrate.P-I-N— A semiconductor photovoltaic (PV) device structure that layers an intrinsic semiconductor between a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor。
The Ratio of the Direct Photon Production Cross Section at 630 GeV and at 1800 GeV
Michael Strauss University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK D NOTE # XXXX Preliminary Version 0.3 February 28, 2001
We measure the ratio of the isolated direct photon prodution cross section at s = 630 GeV to that at s = 1800 GeV for the central ( < 0:9) and forward (1:6 < < 2:5) rapidity regions. We compare the result with next to leading order QCD predictions using CTEQ parton distribution functions.
1
The luminosity for the published Run 1A/1B cross sections is adjusted upward by 3.4% due to the E811 results.
2.1 1800 GeV Results
2.2 High ET Bins
In order to facilitate the measurement ratio in bins of xT = 2ET = s, the highest ET bins in the 630 GeV data were changed to exactly match those of the 1800 GeV data. The previous 630 GeV results had a single bin starting at xT = :0833 and extending to an xT value higher than the maximum 1800 GeV measurement. The new binning has two xT bins with :0833 < xT < :0944 and :0944 < xT < :1556. For the 630 GeV data, we set the maximum ET to be 49 GeV, or xT = 0:1556, which corresponds with them maximum ET of 140 GeV for the 1800 GeV data.
(完整版)光伏行业英文词汇.docx
光伏行业英文词汇Cell 电池Crystalline silicon晶体硅Photovoltaic光伏bulk properties体特性at ambient temperature在室温下wavelength波长absorption coefficient吸收系数electron-hole pairs电子空穴对photon光子density密度defect缺陷surface表面electrode电极p－type for hole extraction p型空穴型n－type for electron extraction n型电子型majority carriers多数载流子minority carriers少数载流子surface recombination velocity （ SRV）表面复合速率back surface field（BSF）背场at the heavily doped regions重掺杂区saturation current density Jo饱和电流密度thickness厚度contact resistance 接触电阻concentration 浓度 boron 硼Gettering techniques 吸杂nonhomogeneous 非均匀的solubility溶解度selective contacts 选择性接触insulator 绝缘体oxygen 氧气hydrogen 氢气Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition PECVDInterface界面The limiting efficiency极限效率reflection反射light- trapping光陷intrinsic material本征材料bifacial cells双面电池monocrystalline单晶float zone material FZ－ Si Czochralski silicon Cz－ Si industrial cells工业电池a high concentration of oxygen 高浓度氧Block or ribbon块或硅带Crystal defects晶体缺陷grain boundaries晶界dislocation位错solar cell 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沉浸tank 槽texturization制绒microscopic pyramids 极小的金字塔size 尺寸大小hinder the formation of the contacts 阻碍电极的形成the concentration ，the temperature and the agitation of the solution 溶液的浓度，温度和搅拌the duration of the bath溶液维持时间alcohol酒精improve改进增加homogeneity 同质性wettability润湿性phosphorus diffusion磷扩散eliminate adsorbed metallic impurities消除吸附的金属杂质quartz furnaces石英炉quartz boats石英舟quartz tube石英炉管bubbling nitrogen through liquidPOCL3小氮belt furnaces链式炉back contact cell背电极电池reverse voltage反向电压reverse current反向电流amorphous glass of phospho －silicates非晶玻璃diluted HF稀释 HF溶液junction isolation结绝缘coin －stacked 堆放barrel －type reactors桶状反应腔fluorine氟fluorine compound 氟化物simultaneously同时地high throughput高产出ARC deposition减反层沉积Titanium dioxide TiO2Refraction index折射系数Encapsulated cell封装电池Atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition APCVDSprayed from a nozzle喷嘴喷雾Hydrolyze水解Spin － on 旋涂Front contact print正电极印刷The front metallization前面金属化Low contact resistance tosilicon 低接触电阻Low bulk resistivity低体电阻率Low line width with high aspect ratio低线宽高比Good mechanical adhesion好机械粘贴solderability可焊性screen printing丝网印刷comblike pattern梳妆图案finger指条bus bars主栅线viscous粘的solvent溶剂back contact print背电极印刷both silver and aluminum银铝form ohmic contact 形成欧姆接触warp 弯曲cofiring of metal contacts电极共烧organic components of the paste 浆料有机成分burn off烧掉sinter烧结perforate穿透testing and sorting 测试分选 I-V curve I-V 曲线Module 组件Inhomogeneous 不均匀的Gallium镓Degradation衰减A small segregation coefficient 小分凝系数Superposition重合The fourth quadrant第四象限The saturation current饱和电流 Io Fill factor填充因子 FF Graphically用图象表示The maximum theoretical FF理论上Empirically经验主义的Normalized Voc规范化 VocThe ideality factor n－ factor理想因子Terrestrial solar cells地球上的电池At a temperature of 25C 25度下Under AM1.5 conditions在 AM1.5环境下Efficiency is defined as××定义为Fraction 分数Parasitic resistances寄生电阻Series resistance串联电阻Shunt resistance并联电阻The circuit diagram电路图Be sensitive to temperature易受Asymmetric 不对称的温度影响High resolution高分辨率The band gap of a semiconductor 半Base resistivity基体电阻率导体能隙The process flow工艺流程The intrinsic carrier Antireflection coating减反射层concentration 本征载流子的浓度Cross section of a solar cell太Reduce the optical losses减少光阳能电池横截面Dissipation损耗Light －generated current光生电流Incident photons入射光子The ideal short circuit flow理想短路电路The depletion region耗尽区Quantum efficiency量子效率Blue response 蓝光效应Spectral response光谱响应Light － generated carriers光生载流子Forward bias正向偏压Simulation模拟Equilibrium平衡损Deuterated silicon nitride含重氢氮化硅Buried contact solar cells BCSC Porous silicon PS多孔硅Electrochemical etching电化学腐蚀Screen printed SP丝网印刷A sheet resistance of 45-50 ohm/sq45 到 50 方块电阻The reverse saturation current density Job反向饱和电流密度Destructive interference相消干涉Surface textingInverted pyramid倒金字塔Four point probe四探Block-cast multicrystalline Saw damage etch silicon整多晶硅Alkaline 碱的Parasitic junction removal寄生Cut groove开槽的去除Conduction band Iodine ethanol碘酒Valence band 价Deionised water去离子水B and O simultaneously in silicon Viscosity粘性硼氧共存Mesh screen 网孔Iodine/methanol solution碘酒 / 甲Emulsion乳胶醇溶液Rheology 流学Properties of light光特性Spin －on dopants旋涂Electromagnetic radiation磁Spray －on dopants涂射The metallic impurities金属The visible light可光One slot for two wafers一个槽两The wavelength ，denoted by R 用 R 片表示波Throughput量An inverse relationship A standard POCL3 diffusion准between ⋯⋯ and ⋯⋯ given by thePOCL3散Back－to －back diffusion背靠背散Heterojunction with intrinsic thin －layer HIT 池Refine 提Dye sensitized solar cell染料敏化太阳池Organic thin film solar cell有机薄膜池Infra red外光Unltra violet紫外光Parasitic resistance寄生阻Theoretical efficiency理效率Busbar 主Kerf loss失Electric charge荷Covalent bonds 共价The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)膨系数Bump 鼓泡Alignment基准Fiducial mark基准符号Squeegee 橡胶Isotropic plasma texturing 各向等离子制equation ：相反关系，可用方程表示Spectral irradiance分光照度⋯⋯is shown in the figure below. Directly convert electricity into sunlight 直接将成光Raise an electron to a higher energy state 子升入更高能External circuit外路Meta-stableLight-generated current光生流Sweep apart by the electric field Quantum efficiency量子效率The fourth quadrant第四象限The spectrum of the incident light 入射光The AM1.5 spectrumThe FF is defined as the ratio of ⋯⋯ to ⋯⋯Graphically 如所示Screen-printed solar cells网印刷池Phosphorous diffusion磷散A simple homongeneousdiffusion 均匀散Blue response光相Shallow emitter 浅结 Commercial production 商业生产Surface texturing to reduce reflection表面制绒Etch pyramids on the wafer surface with a chemical solutionCrystal orientationTitanium dioxide TiO2PasteInorganic无机的Glass 玻璃料DopantCompositionParticle sizeDistributionEtch SiNxContact pathSintering aidAdhesion 黏合性Ag powderMorphology 形态CrystallinityGlass effect on Ag/Siinterface Reference cellOrganicResin树脂Carrier载体Rheology 流变性Printability印刷性Aspect ratio高宽比Functional groupMolecular weightAdditives添加剂Surfactant表面活性剂Thixotropic agent触变剂Plasticizer可塑剂Solvent 溶剂Boiling pointVapor pressure蒸汽压Solubility溶解性Surface tension表面张力Solderability Viscosity黏性Solids contentFineness of grind，研磨细度Dried thicknessFired thicknessDrying profilePeak firing temp300 mesh screenEmulsion thickness乳胶厚度StorageShelf life保存期限Thinning稀释Eliminate Al bead formation消除铝珠Low bowingWet depositPattern design: 100um*74太阳电池solar cell单晶硅太阳电池single crystalline silicon solar cell多晶硅太阳电池so multi crystalline silicon solar cell非晶硅太阳电池amorphous silicon solar cell薄膜太能能电池Thin-film solar cell多结太阳电池multijunction solar cell化合物半导体太阳电池 compound semiconductor solar cell用化合物半导体材料制成的太阳电池带硅太阳电池 silicon ribbon solar cell光电子 photo-electron短路电流 short-circuit current （Isc）开路电压 open-circuit voltage （Voc）最大功率 maximum power (Pm)最大功率点maximum power point最佳工作点电压 optimum operating voltage (Vn)最佳工作点电流 optimum operating current (In)填充因子 fill factor(curve factor)曲线修正系数 curve correction coefficient太阳电池温度solar cell temperature串联电阻series resistance并联电阻 shunt resistance转换效率 cell efficiency暗电流 dark current暗特性曲线dark characteristic curve光谱响应 spectral response(spectral sensitivity)太阳电池组件 module(solar cell module)隔离二极管blocking diode旁路二极管bypass (shunt) diode组件的电池额定工作温度NOCT （ nominal operating cell temperature）短路电流的温度系数temperature coefficients of Isc开路电压的温度系数temperature coefficients of Voc峰值功率的温度系数temperature coefficients of Pm组件效率Module efficiency峰瓦 watts peak额定功率rated power额定电压rated voltage额定电流rated current太阳能光伏系统solar photovoltaic (PV) system并网太阳能光伏发电系统Grid-Connected PV system独立太阳能光伏发电系统Stand alone PV system太阳能控制器 solar controller逆变器 inverter孤岛效应islanding逆变器变换效率inverter efficiency方阵 (太阳电池方阵 ) array （ solar cell array）子方阵 sub-array (solar cell sub-array)充电控制器charge controller直流 / 直流电压变换器 DC/DC converter(inverter)直流 / 交流电压变换器 DC/AC converter(inverter)电网 grid irradiance (solar global irradiance)太阳跟踪控制器 sun-tracking ontroller辐射计 radiometer并网接口 utility interface方位角 Azimuth angle光伏系统有功功率 active power of PV倾斜角 Tilt anglepower station太阳常数 solar constant光伏系统无功功率reactive power of大气质量 (AM) air massPV power station光伏系统功率因数 power factor of PV太阳高度角 solar elevation angle power station标准太阳电池 standard solar cell 公共连接点 point of common coupling（reference solar cell）接线盒 junction box太阳模拟器 solar simulator发电量 power generation太阳电池的标准测试条件为：环境温输出功率 output power 度 25±2℃，用标准测量的光源辐照度为交流电 Alternating current1000W/m2 并且有标准的太阳光谱辐断路器 Circuit breaker照度分布。
光伏行业英文词汇精编版
光伏行业英文词汇公司标准化编码 [QQX96QT-XQQB89Q8-NQQJ6Q8-MQM9N]太阳电池solar cell通常是指将太阳光能直接转换成电能的一种器件。
硅太阳电池silicon solar cell硅太阳电池是以硅为基体材料的太阳电池。
单晶硅太阳电池single crystalline silicon solar cell单晶硅太阳电池是以单晶硅为基体材料的太阳电池。
非晶硅太阳电池（a—si太阳电池）amorphous silicon solar cell用非晶硅材料及其合金制造的太阳电池称为非晶硅太阳电池，亦称无定形硅太阳电池，简称a—si太阳电池。
多晶硅太阳电池polycrystalline silicon solar cell多晶硅太阳电池是以多晶硅为基体材料的太阳电池。
聚光太阳电池组件photovoltaic concentrator module系指组成聚光太阳电池，方阵的中间组合体，由聚光器、太阳电池、散热器、互连引线和壳体等组成。
电池温度cell temperature系指太阳电池中P-n结的温度。
太阳电池组件表面温度solar cell module surface temperature系指太阳电池组件背表面的温度。
大气质量（AM）Air Mass (AM)直射阳光光束透过大气层所通过的路程，以直射太阳光束从天顶到达海平面所通过的路程的倍数来表示。
太阳高度角solar太阳高度角solar elevation angle太阳光线与观测点处水平面的夹角，称为该观测点的太阳高度角。
辐照度irradiance系指照射到单位表面积上的辐射功率（W/m2）。
总辐照（总的太阳辐照）total irradiation (total insolation)在一段规定的时间内，（根据具体情况而定为每小时，每天、每周、每月、每年）照射到某个倾斜表面的单位面积上的太阳辐照。
直射辐照度direct irradiance照射到单位面积上的，来自太阳圆盘及其周围对照射点所张的圆锥半顶角为8o的天空辐射功率。
核能工程专业英语单词
原本打算每人交一篇论文，但估计一部分同学会网上下载，凑数，所以，我们考试就是词汇，范围包括下面我列出来的和课后的，只要能根据英语写出汉语即可。
下周上课时间我们简单考一下，请大家复习一下。
第一课element（元素）, fundamental particles（基本粒子），protons, neutrons and electrons（质子，中子，电子），chemical identity（化学特性），nucleus （原子核），positively charged （带正电的），uncharged（不带电的），negatively charged （带负电的），electrically neutral（电中性的），atomic number（原子序数），Periodic Table（元素周期表），mass number（质量数），nucleon（核子），carbon（碳），orbital electrons（轨道电子），innermost electron（内壳层电子），naturally occurring（天然存在的），stable isotope（稳定同位素），unstable （不稳定的）or radioactive（放射性的），artificial means（人工手段），chemical bonds（化学键），nuclei（原子核nucleus的复数），chemical symbol（化学符号）, subscript（下角标），superscript （上角标），oxygen（氧），radioactive isotopes（放射性同位素），Hydrogen（氢），nuclear engineering（核工程），heavy hydrogen（重氢）or deuterium（氘），tritium（氚）mass and charge（质量和电荷）, atomic and nuclear physics（原子和原子核物理），atomic mass unit (u)（原子质量单位），one twelfth （十二分之一）carbon 12 （碳12），weighted mean （加权平均数），Avogadro’s Number（阿伏加德罗常数），compounds and molecules（化合物和分子），equal in magnitude and opposite in sign（数量相等，符号相反），electron-volt（电子伏特），mega electron-volt（兆电子伏特）( MeV)，unit electronic charge（单位电荷），potential difference （势差），classical principle（经典原理），conservation of mass（质量守恒定律），mass defect （质量亏损），principle of the equivalence of mass and energy（质能相当原理），interchange of mass and energy（质能转换），laws of conservation of mass and conservation of energy（质量守恒和能量守恒定律），release of energy（能量的释放）, absorption of energy（能量的吸收），equivalence between mass and energy（质能相当），force of electrostatic repulsion between like charge（同种电荷之间的静电排斥力）, force of attraction（吸引力），nuclear force（核力），nucleon（核子），Binding Energy（结合能），energy of chemical binding（化学结合能），Energy Level（能级），ground state of energy（能量基态），nuclear reaction （核反应），excited states or levels （激发态或激发能级），discrete excited states （分立的激发态），spacing of the levels （能级间隔），excitation energy （激发能），average lifetime （平均寿命），decay, or become de-excited（衰变或退激发），emission of high energy electromagnetic radiation （发射高能电磁辐射），fission （裂变），uranium （铀），transuranium elements（超铀元素），radioactive barium 139（放射性钡139），split into fragments （分裂成碎片），intermediate mass elements （中间质量的元素），medium mass number（中等质量数）, chain reaction （链式反应）uranium 235（铀235）, Thorium 232（钍232）, fissionable （可裂变的）, fissile（易裂变的），uranium 233 and plutonium 239（钚239）, low energy neutrons（低能中子），liquid drop model（液滴模型），short range nuclear forces（短程核力）, surface tension （表面张力）, action of the nuclear forces（核力作用），dumbbell shape （哑铃形），Coulomb force of repulsion （库仑排斥力），emission of gamma radiation（发射伽玛辐射），fission fragments （裂变碎片），neutrinos （中微子），macroscopic（宏观的）第二课radiation（辐射），material or electromagnetic origin（物质或电磁起源）, nuclear decay（核衰变），particle accelerator（粒子加速器）, cosmic rays（宇宙射线）, molecules, atoms, electrons, and nuclei（分子，原子，电子，原子核），photons（光子），target（靶），projectile （入射粒子），nuclear energy field（核能领域），nuclear reactor（核反应堆）, inert substances（惰性物质），protective shielding（防护屏），Excitation and Ionization （电离和激发），fluorescent light bulb（荧光灯泡）, vacuum tube （真空管），impart energy to （传递能量），excitation of electrons to higher energy states（激发电子到更高能态），emission of light（发光）.inner orbits （内层轨道），high energy radiation（高能辐射），heavy element target（重元素靶，X-rays due to transitions in the electronic orbits（电子在轨道间跃迁产生的X射线）, bremsstrahlung （韧致辐射），ion pair（离子对），range（射程）, millimeter（毫米），meter （米），Charged particles（带电粒子），fragments of fission （裂变碎片），heavy particles （重离子）, inertia（惯性），electrostatic interaction （静电相互作用），kinetic energy （动能），inversely proportional to（成反比例），million-electron-volt （百万电子伏特）high-speed charged ion （高速带电离子），mutual repulsion （相互排斥），hyperbolic path （双曲线轨迹），scatter（散射），initial energy （初始能量），scattering of the photon（光散射）, ionization by the photon（光电离）, pair production（电子对产生）. Photon-Electron Scattering（光-电子散射），rest mass （静止质量），bound to their nucleus（受原子核的束缚）, free stationary particles（自由静止粒子），physical principles of energy and momentum conservation（能量和动量守恒物理原理. Compton effect（康普顿效应）, scattered backward（背散射），the special theory of relativity （狭义相对论），cross section（截面），Photoelectric Effect（光电效应），incident photon （入射光子），light emission （发光）, Electron-Positron Pair Production（电子正电子对产生），be converted into matter（转变成物质），theory of the equivalence of mass and energy（质能相当理论），law of conservation of charge （电荷守恒定律），be annihilated as material particles（作为物质粒子湮灭）, substance（物质）, attenuation of gamma rays in matter （伽马射线在物质中的衰减），mean free path （平均自由程）,helium 4 （氦4），positive charge（正电荷），density of the material （物质密度），aluminum （铝），health hazard （健康危害），alpha-emitting isotope（α放射性同位素），be ingested in the body(摄入人体)，radioactive isotope（放射性同位素），a spectrum of energies（能谱），ingestion hazard（摄入危害）. penetrating power（穿透本领），radiation hazards （辐射危害），reactor shielding（反应堆屏蔽）.light elements （轻元素），beryllium（铍），Neutron（中子），average lifetime （平均寿命），Neutron Source（中子源），radium 226（镭226），potential scattering （势散射），compound nucleus formation（复合核形成），capture（俘获）。
光伏行业英文词汇
太阳电池 solar cell通常是指将太阳光能直接转换成电能的一种器件。
硅太阳电池silicon solar cell硅太阳电池是以硅为基体材料的太阳电池。
单晶硅太阳电池single crystalline silicon solar cell单晶硅太阳电池是以单晶硅为基体材料的太阳电池。
非晶硅太阳电池（a—si太阳电池）amorphous silicon solar cell用非晶硅材料及其合金制造的太阳电池称为非晶硅太阳电池，亦称无定形硅太阳电池，简称a—si太阳电池。
多晶硅太阳电池polycrystalline silicon solar cell多晶硅太阳电池是以多晶硅为基体材料的太阳电池。
聚光太阳电池组件photovoltaic concentrator module系指组成聚光太阳电池，方阵的中间组合体，由聚光器、太阳电池、散热器、互连引线和壳体等组成。
电池温度cell temperature系指太阳电池中P-n结的温度。
太阳电池组件表面温度solar cell module surface temperature系指太阳电池组件背表面的温度。
大气质量（AM）Air Mass (AM)直射阳光光束透过大气层所通过的路程，以直射太阳光束从天顶到达海平面所通过的路程的倍数来表示。
太阳高度角 solar 太阳高度角 solar elevation angle太阳光线与观测点处水平面的夹角，称为该观测点的太阳高度角。
辐照度 irradiance系指照射到单位表面积上的辐射功率（W/m2）。
总辐照（总的太阳辐照）total irradiation (total insolation)在一段规定的时间内，（根据具体情况而定为每小时，每天、每周、每月、每年）照射到某个倾斜表面的单位面积上的太阳辐照。
直射辐照度direct irradiance照射到单位面积上的，来自太阳圆盘及其周围对照射点所张的圆锥半顶角为8o的天空辐射功率。
（完整版）光伏行业英文词汇
光伏行业英文词汇Cell 电池Crystalline silicon 晶体硅 Photovoltaic 光伏 bulk properties 体特性at ambient temperature 在室温下wavelength 波长absorption coefficient 吸收系数 electron-hole pairs 电子空穴对 photon 光子 density 密度defect 缺陷surface 表面electrode 电极p －type for hole extraction p型空穴型n －type for electron extraction n 型电子型majority carriers 多数载流子minority carriers 少数载流子surface recombination velocity（SRV ） 表面复合速率back surface field （BSF ） 背场at the heavily doped regions重掺杂区saturation current density Jo饱和电流密度thickness 厚度 contact resistance 接触电阻concentration 浓度boron 硼Gettering techniques 吸杂nonhomogeneous 非均匀的 solubility 溶解度selective contacts 选择性接触insulator 绝缘体oxygen 氧气hydrogen 氢气Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition PECVDInterface 界面The limiting efficiency 极限效率reflection 反射 light- trapping 光陷 intrinsic material 本征材料 bifacial cells 双面电池 monocrystalline 单晶 float zone material FZ －Si Czochralski silicon Cz －Si industrial cells 工业电池 a high concentration o f of oxygen 高浓度氧Block or ribbon 块或硅带 Crystal defects 晶体缺陷 grain boundaries 晶界dislocation 位错 solar cell fabrication 太阳能电池制造impurity 杂质P gettering effect 磷吸杂效果Spin －on 旋涂supersaturation 过饱和 dead layer 死层electrically inactive phosphorus非电活性磷interstitial 空隙the eutectic temperature 共融温度 boron －doped substrate 掺硼基体passivated emitter and rearlocally diffused cells PERL 电池losses 损失the front surface 前表面metallization t echniques techniques 金属化技术metal grids 金属栅线laboratory cells 实验室电池the metal lines 金属线selective emitter 选择性发射极 photolithographic 光刻gradient 斜度precipitate 沉淀物localized contacts 局部接触point contacts点接触 passivated emitter rear totallydiffused PERTsolder 焊接 bare silicon 裸硅片 high refraction index 高折射系数 reflectance 反射 encapsulation 封装antireflection coating ARC 减反射层 an optically thin dielectric layer 光学薄电介层interference effects 干涉效应 texturing 制绒 alkaline solutions 碱溶液 etch 刻蚀/腐蚀 anisotropically 各向异性地 plane 晶面 pyramids 金字塔 a few microns 几微米etching time and temperature 腐蚀时间和温度manufacturing process 制造工艺 process flow 工艺流程 high yield 高产量 starting material 原材料 solar grade 太阳级 a pseudo －square shape 单晶型状 saw damage removal 去除损伤层 fracture 裂纹acid solutions 酸溶液 immerse 沉浸 tank 槽 texturization 制绒 microscopic pyramids 极小的金字塔 size 尺寸大小 hinder the formation of the contacts 阻碍电极的形成 the concentration ，the temperature and the agitation of the solution 溶液的浓度，温度和搅拌 the duration of the bath 溶液维持时间 alcohol 酒精 improve 改进增加 homogeneity 同质性 wettability 润湿性phosphorus diffusion 磷扩散eliminate adsorbed metallic impurities 消除吸附的金属杂质 quartz furnaces 石英炉 quartz boats 石英舟 quartz tube 石英炉管bubbling nitrogen through liquid POCL3 小氮belt furnaces 链式炉 back contact cell 背电极电池 reverse voltage 反向电压 reverse current 反向电流 amorphous glass of phospho －silicates 非晶玻璃 diluted HF 稀释HF 溶液 junction isolation 结绝缘 coin －stacked 堆放barrel －type reactors 桶状反应腔 fluorine 氟fluorine compound 氟化物 simultaneously 同时地 high throughput 高产出 ARC deposition 减反层沉积 Titanium dioxide TiO2 Refraction index 折射系数 Encapsulated cell 封装电池Atmospheric pressure chemicalvapor deposition APCVD Sprayed from a nozzle 喷嘴喷雾 Hydrolyze 水解 Spin －on 旋涂 Front contact print 正电极印刷 The front metallization 前面金属化 Low contact resistance to silicon 低接触电阻 Low bulk resistivity 低体电阻率 Low line width with high aspect ratio 低线宽高比Good mechanical adhesion 好机械粘贴solderability 可焊性 screen printing 丝网印刷 comblike pattern 梳妆图案finger 指条 bus bars 主栅线 viscous 粘的 solvent 溶剂back contact print 背电极印刷 both silver and aluminum 银铝 form ohmic contact 形成欧姆接触 warp 弯曲cofiring of metal contacts 电极共烧organic components of the paste 浆料有机成分 burn off 烧掉 sinter 烧结 perforate 穿透testing and sorting 测试分选 I-V curve I-V 曲线 Module 组件 Inhomogeneous 不均匀的 Gallium 镓 Degradation 衰减 A small segregation c oefficient coefficient 小分凝系数 Asymmetric 不对称的 High resolution 高分辨率 Base resistivity 基体电阻率 The process flow 工艺流程Antireflection coating 减反射层 Cross section of a solar cell 太阳能电池横截面 Dissipation 损耗 Light －generated current 光生电流 Incident photons 入射光子 The ideal short circuit flow 理想短路电路 The depletion region 耗尽区 Quantum efficiency 量子效率 Blue response 蓝光效应 Spectral response 光谱响应 Light －generated carriers 光生载流子Forward bias 正向偏压 Simulation 模拟 Equilibrium 平衡Superposition 重合The fourth quadrant 第四象限 The saturation current 饱和电流Io Fill factor 填充因子FF Graphically 用图象表示 The maximum theoretical FF 理论上 Empirically 经验主义的 Normalized Voc 规范化Voc The ideality factor n －factor 理想因子Terrestrial solar cells 地球上的电池At a temperature of 25C 25度下 Under AM1.5 conditions 在AM1.5环境下Efficiency is defined as ×× 定义为Fraction 分数Parasitic resistances 寄生电阻 Series resistance 串联电阻 Shunt resistance 并联电阻 The circuit diagram 电路图 Be sensitive to temperature 易受温度影响 The band gap of a semiconductor 半导体能隙 The intrinsic carrierconcentration 本征载流子的浓度Reduce the optical losses 减少光损 Deuterated silicon nitride 含重氢氮化硅 Buried contact solar cells BCSC Porous silicon PS 多孔硅 Electrochemical etching 电化学腐蚀 Screen printed SP 丝网印刷 A sheet resistance of 45-50 ohm/sq 45到50方块电阻The reverse saturation current density Job 反向饱和电流密度 Destructive interference 相消干涉 Surface texting Inverted pyramid 倒金字塔Four point probe 四探针Saw damage etch Alkaline 碱的 Cut groove 开槽 Conduction band 导带 Valence band 价带 B and O simultaneously in silicon 硼氧共存 Iodine/methanol solution 碘酒/甲醇溶液 Rheology 流变学 Spin －on dopants 旋涂掺杂 Spray －on dopants 喷涂掺杂 The metallic impurities 金属杂质 One slot for two wafers 一个槽两片Throughput 产量 A standard POCL3 diffusion 标准POCL3扩散Back －to －back diffusion 背靠背扩散Heterojunction w ith with intrinsic thin －layer HIT 电池 Refine 提炼Dye sensitized solar cell 染料敏化太阳电池Organic thin film solar cell 有机薄膜电池 Infra red 红外光 Unltra violet 紫外光 Parasitic resistance 寄生电阻 Theoretical efficiency 理论效率 Busbar 主栅线 Kerf loss 锯齿损失 Electric charge 电荷 Covalent bonds 共价键The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) 热膨胀系数 Bump 鼓泡 Alignment 基准 Fiducial mark 基准符号 Squeegee 橡胶带Isotropic plasma texturing 各向等离子制绒Block-cast multicrystalline silicon 整铸多晶硅 Parasitic junction removal 寄生结的去除 Iodine ethanol 碘酒 Deionised water 去离子水 Viscosity 粘性 Mesh screen 网孔 Emulsion 乳胶 Properties of light 光特性 Electromagnetic radiation 电磁辐射The visible light 可见光 The wavelength ，denoted by R 用R 表示波长 An inverse relationship between ……and ……given by the equation ：相反关系，可用方程表示 Spectral irradiance 分光照度……is shown in the figure below. Directly convert electricity into sunlight 直接将电转换成光 Raise an electron to a higher energy state 电子升入更高能级 External circuit 外电路 Meta-stable 亚稳态Light-generated current 光生电流Sweep apart by the electric field Quantum efficiency 量子效率 The fourth quadrant 第四象限 The spectrum of the incident light 入射光谱The AM1.5 spectrum The FF is defined as the ratio of ……to …… Graphically 如图所示 Screen-printed solar cells 丝网印刷电池Phosphorous diffusion 磷扩散 A simple homongeneous d iffusion diffusion 均匀扩散Blue response 蓝光相应Shallow emitter 浅结 Commercial production 商业生产 Surface texturing to reduce reflection 表面制绒 Etch pyramids on the wafer surface with a chemical solution Crystal orientation Titanium dioxide TiO2PasteInorganic 无机的 Glass 玻璃料 DopantComposition Particle size Distribution Etch SiNx Contact path Sintering aid Adhesion 黏合性 Ag powderMorphology 形态Crystallinity Glass effect on Ag/Si interface Reference cell OrganicResin 树脂 Carrier 载体Rheology 流变性Printability 印刷性Aspect ratio 高宽比 Functional group Molecular weight Additives 添加剂 Surfactant 表面活性剂Thixotropic agent 触变剂Plasticizer 可塑剂Solvent 溶剂 Boiling point Vapor pressure 蒸汽压 Solubility 溶解性 Surface tension 表面张力 SolderabilityViscosity 黏性 Solids content Fineness of grind ，研磨细度 Dried thickness Fired thickness Drying profile Peak firing temp 300 mesh screen Emulsion thickness 乳胶厚度 Storage Shelf life 保存期限 Thinning 稀释Eliminate Al bead formation 消除铝珠Low bowing Wet depositPattern design: 100um*74 太阳电池 solar cell单晶硅太阳电池single crystalline silicon solar cell 多晶硅太阳电池 so multi crystalline silicon solar cell非晶硅太阳电池 amorphous silicon solar cell薄膜太能能电池 Thin-film solar cell 多结太阳电池 multijunction solar cell 化合物半导体太阳电池compound semiconductor solar cell 用化合物半导体材料制成的太阳电池用化合物半导体材料制成的太阳电池 带硅太阳电池silicon ribbon solar cell光电子 photo-electron短路电流 short-circuit current （Isc） 开路电压 open-circuit voltage （V oc） 最大功率 maximum power (Pm)最大功率点 maximum power point最佳工作点电压 optimum operating voltage (Vn)最佳工作点电流 optimum operating current (In)填充因子 fill factor(curve factor)曲线修正系数 curve correction coefficient太阳电池温度 solar cell temperature串联电阻 series resistance并联电阻 shunt resistance转换效率cell efficiency暗电流 dark current暗特性曲线 dark characteristic curve光谱响应 spectral response(spectral sensitivity)太阳电池组件 module(solar cell module)隔离二极管 blocking diode旁路二极管 bypass (shunt) diode组件的电池额定工作温度NOCT（nominal operating cell temperature）短路电流的温度系数 temperature coefficients of Isc开路电压的温度系数 temperature coefficients of Vcoefficients of Vococ峰值功率的温度系数 temperature coefficients of Pm组件效率 Module efficiency峰瓦 watts peak额定功率 rated power额定电压 rated voltage额定电流 rated current太阳能光伏系统 solar photovoltaic (PV) system并网太阳能光伏发电系统 Grid-Connected PV system独立太阳能光伏发电系统Stand alone PV system太阳能控制器solar controller逆变器 inverter孤岛效应 islanding逆变器变换效率 inverter efficiency方阵(太阳电池方阵) array （solar cell array）子方阵sub-array (solar cell sub-array) 充电控制器 charge controller直流/直流电压变换器 DC/DC converter(inverter)直流/交流电压变换器 DC/AC converter(inverter)电网 grid太阳跟踪控制器 sun-tracking ontroller 并网接口 utility interface光伏系统有功功率 active power of PV power station光伏系统无功功率reactive power of PV power station光伏系统功率因数 power factor of PV power station公共连接点 point of common coupling 接线盒 junction box发电量 power generation输出功率 output power交流电 Alternating current断路器Circuit breaker汇流箱 Combiner box配电箱Distribution box电能表Supply meter变压器Transformer太阳能光伏建筑一体化Building-integrated PV (BIPV)辐射 radiation太阳辐照度 Solar radiation散射辐照（散射太阳辐照）量 diffuse irradiation(diffuse insolation)直射辐照 direct irradiation (direct insolation)总辐射度(太阳辐照度) global irradiance (solar global irradiance)辐射计 radiometer方位角 Azimuth angle倾斜角 Tilt angle太阳常数 solar constant大气质量 (AM) air mass太阳高度角 solar elevation angle标准太阳电池 standard solar cell （reference solar cell）太阳模拟器 solar simulator太阳电池的标准测试条件为：环境温度25±25±22℃，用标准测量的光源辐照度为1000W/m2 并且有标准的太阳光谱辐照度分布。
专业英语翻译 (16)
Quantum information science英文原稿:Information science and technology has penetrated into all aspects of society, in which the protagonist -- the development of computer science and technology and application, it is greatly promotes the progress of human civilization.Current computers are based on the classical physical laws, is a classical computer. Over the years, it has been recognized classic computer has some unconquerable limitations. For example, could not produce a true random number sequence, not in a limited time to simulate a conventional quantum mechanics system, not possible in acceptable time factorization of large numbers.From at present the development of microelectronics technology in light of the degree, people have to face such a problem: when the silica surface electric line of small to atomic scales, electronic circuits behavior will no longer obey the law of classical mechanics, replace sb. Is quantum mechanics. That is to say, people have to in the quantum theory under the framework of information science and information system construction.When the science is stillQuantum information (quantum information, QI) science, based on the superposition principle of quantum mechanics, based on studies of information processing a new cutting-edge science, the basic theory of modern physics and information science and technology intersect and produce a full vitality of the discipline. Quantum information science, including quantum computers, quantum state transfer from the material, quantum cryptography communication and quantum non-destructive measurement of other aspects.1980, Feynman [1] and Bennett (C. Bennett) [2] had carried out such as quantum information science theory. They pointed out that the two orthogonal polarization states of photons, atoms or atoms in two spin states, the appropriate level of these two orthogonal quantum states (for example: | 0>, | 1>) can be expressed a bit of quantum information, called quantum bit (qubit). Bit different from the classical, quantum bits in the particles (photons or atoms) not only in the | 0> or state | 1> state, and can at | 0> and | 1> of any kind of superposition state. It is this strange characteristic, so that quantum bits can not be compared with a classic bit of advantageIn the study of quantum information, in addition to quantum algorithms, quantum computers and quantum logic gates in quantum communication quantum state transfer from the material, is that people are most concerned about, the most interesting research topics, has received a preliminary experimental study the results.In addition, to explore methods of quantum information processing done by the process of quantum mechanics experiments, in turn, help people to verify and deepen understanding of the laws of the quantum world, the answer to those still remaining controversial issues. Quantum information science research, not only has important potential applications but also has far-reaching scientific significance.Powerful and efficient computational toolsIn 1985, Oxford University, more than the odd (D. Deutsch) [3] established thetheoretical basis of quantum computers, and promote the development of quantum computers. Similar to the classic computers, quantum computing, but also depends on the realization of the corresponding basic logic components - quantum logic gates (quantum logical gate, QLD). There are four possible experimental scheme of quantum logic gates, which are based on cavity quantum electrodynamics (CQED), ion trap (ion trap), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and quantum dots (quantum dot).(1) cavity quantum electrodynamicsCavity quantum electrodynamics (CQED) The basic idea is that the very small number of atoms placed in a high-quality micro-cavity, the cavity electromagnetic fields (including the vacuum field) can be controlled to change, thus affecting the process of atomic radiation. CQED most successful is to study a small number of particles (photons, atoms) between theThe interaction. The method is possible to make a single photon of the electric field enhancement, so that it can make a single atom response saturation. To achieve this objective, we must achieve single-atom and single photon in the cavity of the strong coupling.As for quantum logic elements CQED quantum information processing, first by Pei Lizha in (T. Pellizzari), and others made. California Polytechnic University, Kimble (J. Kimble) group demonstrated the use of the program initial quantum logic gates. The basic approach is to capture a number of neutral atoms in the high-quality micro-optical cavity, the quantum information stored in the atoms within the state, that is the ground state of neutral atoms and on a metastable state. Contains the quantum state of a qubit is in the atomic ground state | g> and a long-lived metastable state | e> of the linear combination. The state quantum bits can be stored a long time, while the atomic energy in the cavity well with the outside world.CQED quantum logic gate is ideal to achieve one of the options. However, high-quality cavity, the connection between multiple quantum gates still have some technical difficulties.(2) ion trap technologyIon-trap quantum logic gate program first by Cirac (J. Cirac), who suggested that the current in the preliminary experiment has been achieved. In the experiment, each qubit is assigned in the capture in a linear Paul (Paul) trap single ions. Contains a qubit quantum state, is in the ion ground state | g> and a certain long-lived metastable state | e> of the linear combination. Therefore, the same atoms, it also enables qubit storage.The advantage of ion trap, ion Coulomb interaction between the far distance between the ions, so the energy of a single laser pulse tuned to a particular ion of | g> state and | e> state energy difference, we can achieve quantum information to read and change.Ion trap is the largest program in order to establish the ion trap quantum computing speed will be restricted. The reason is time - energy uncertainty relation determine the uncertainty of the laser pulse energy should be higher than the characteristic frequency of the vibration center of mass is small, the duration of each pulse should be longer than the reciprocal of the characteristic frequency; the phonon vibration frequency is generally lower the experiment the characteristic frequency of about 100 kHz, so the slower speed.In CQED, because of the role of the light field and atomic time soon, so there is no ion trap in the problems of slow response.(3) NMR techniquesNMR-based quantum computing scheme in recent years developed a new method of quantum information processing. In NMR, quantum bits are assigned certain specific molecules on the nuclear spin states. At a constant external magnetic field, each nuclear spin is either up or down. System and spin decoherence in degraded state can be kept for a longer time before, so the qubit can be stored.By a pulsed magnetic field acting on the spin-spin Rabi oscillation state to achieve the selected magnetic pulse can also be appropriate to achieve the transformation of a single magnetic spin states, because only those who are in resonance with the spin state of the external magnetic field will produce the role. Meanwhile, the spin state, there are also dipole-dipole interaction, this effect can be used to implement logic gates.NMR for quantum computation, but not as easily accepted as the first two options. Because the NMR system is "hot" nuclear spin temperature (room temperature) is generally caused by fluctuations in energy than the difference between the upper and lower levels of nuclear spin hundreds of times higher. This means that, from a single molecule in the composition of the nuclear spin quantum computer quantum state in a very large thermal noise into. The noise will drown out the quantum information. Further, the actual process is not handled a single molecule, but includes 1023 "quantum computer" macro samples.Read from this device the signal is actually a large number of molecules of the ensemble average, but the quantum algorithm is probabilistic, it comes from the randomness of quantum computing itself, and people took advantage of this randomness. Ensemble average does not mean a single unit on quantum computing. People had put forward some explanations of these difficulties, that the calculated average will not eliminate many useful quantum information. According to reports, the use of NMR methods have producedMulti-qubit logic gate, and use this to achieve a quantum state transfer from the material.Many scholars believe that the existing NMR system could not produce entanglement; arising from entanglement in quantum information is the key. NMR as a quantum information hardware will encounter many difficulties, from the principle limitations are: coherent signal and background noise ratio will be with the nuclear spin of each molecule increases the number of exponential decay. In a real system, complete with a 10-qubit NMR calculations will face serious challenges. Of course, some scholars hold different views on the above arguments, the NMR quantum logic gates to be optimistic. However, NMR will help people understand some of the nuclear spin of things.(4) quantum dotsRelated to nano-scale quantum-dot semiconductor region. These regions showed a small number of electronic states, the single-electron quantum dot can be changed into electronic state, which may be used for quantum information processing, quantum dots placed CQED they may control the materials in the spontaneous emission, enhanced light matter interaction the role. If the mature semiconductor technology combined with quantum devices, may have a practical quantum information systems. However, how toensure the purity of quantum dot materials remains a challenge.Quantum computing in an attempt to actually start, you need to try a variety of quantum logic gates program, which is a challenging work, it has only just begun. Practical quantum computing, to the number of qubits to the quantum logic gates and have made significant progress as a precondition.Magic magic- Quantum state transfer from the materialMaterial transfer from the state (teleportation) from a science fiction film, from the physical meaning of a "complete" information transfer (disembodied transport).Restrictions due to relativistic effects can not be real in an instant from one place to another place. You can achieve the object from the moment things send? Not exceed the limit in the speed of light under the premise seems to be feasible. Because, in principle, as long as all the information that constitute the object, all the quantum states can be reconstructed in any place. However, quantum mechanics tells us that, it is impossible to make accurate measurements of the quantum state can not be accurately all the information about any object. Therefore, reconstruction of this method can not be achieved, which is the quantum no-cloning theorem [4] are limited. However, another phenomenon of quantum mechanics - entanglement (EPR) of non-locality (non-local) [5] - for the realization of quantum state transfer from the material provides a new way.In 1993, six scientists from different countries, made using a combination of classical and quantum methods to achieve quantum state transfer from the object program. Using EPR (entangled state) of the non-locality, without violating the no-cloning theorem of quantum situations, can be an unknown quantum state from one place to another place. In this scheme, EPR source plays a vital role. Quantum mechanics, nonlocality violation of Bell's inequality has been confirmed by experimental results.Quantum state transfer from objects to people, not only in physics understanding and revealing the mysterious laws of nature are very important, and can be used as an information carrier quantum states, quantum state transfer is completed by a large-capacity information transmission, in principle, can achieve decipher the quantum cryptography communication, ultra-dense coding, quantum computing and quantum communication has therefore become the current rapid development of the core areas of quantum information.The protector of the secretResearch and use of password is a very ancient, wide range of issues, current password in addition to one-time password (Vernam password), but not impossible to decipher, the confidentiality of the algorithm depends on the difficulty of deciphering and calculation time. The use of quantum cryptography can guarantee from the principle Confidentiality of communications. Communication between the parties through the public channel to build their own key.Different from the classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, any time of the measurement system is a function of the system will change the system state (except in the role of operator eigenstates). Quantum cryptography can be used to encode a singlephoton polarization state. Incompatible in the two orthogonal polarization basis to measure a photon's polarization state, the result is completely random, it is impossible to get a measurement in a photon polarized in two different base in the results.Eavesdropper can not know because communication between the parties will be randomly selected each time what kind of polarization-based, so it can not accurately reproduce the signal eavesdropping, communication between the parties as long as the public than some random channel measurement results will know whether the key is eavesdropping, to discover the key insecure, you can re-establish the key until you are satisfied.Extremely accurate rulerBasic principles of quantum mechanics tells us that, due to the quantum uncertainty principle, using the general method, the measurement accuracy will eventually be shot-noise limit restrictions, it is impossible for a quantum system for unlimited precision measurements. Meanwhile, the measurement process will inevitably interfere with and affect the measured quantum state of the system, which often lead to even more accurate measurement results. The use of non-classical light field effects (ie, the unique quantum effects, there is no corresponding classical properties), the use of quantum measurement methods, can be cleverly "avoided" quantum uncertainties, and thus improve the measurement accuracy.(1) non-destructive measurement of quantumQuantum non-destructive measurement (quantum non-demolition detection, QND), 1970's by Braginski (VBBraginsky) [6] and so on, its purpose is to overcome the measurement process on the measured system caused by the interference of quantum state measurement inaccurate results, to be able to repeat the measurement without affecting the system under test is measured.QND measurement is one of the main characteristics repeatable. Measurement process must first choose a conjugate quantity of the good, the measurement process in the amount of interference on one another does not affect the amount of conjugate, and will be measured (signal field) to the probe field.In 1989 scientists from the experimental nonlinear parametric process to achieve this reaction escape, 1993 Grande Audigier (P. Grangier) through the sodium vapor-phase modulation to achieve a QND measurement. Subsequently, the national quantum optics laboratory and the use of different systems to achieve a different type of QND measurement, the transmission efficiency and the quantum state preparation ability are constantly improving. Institute of Optoelectronics, Shanxi University, 1998, the first time, the intensity difference fluctuations class QND measurement [7].(2) exceeded the limit of shot noise measurementsDue to the dominance of quantum mechanics, there is a minimum light field uncertainty, that shot noise limit. Coherent states for general light field, the shot noise limit is the amount of ups and downs two conjugate equal to the product by the uncertainty relation for the determination of limit values. Under normal circumstances, the measurement accuracy is always subject to the limit of shot noise limit, and has nothing to do with measuring instruments.Nonlinear processes of non-classical light field - state light field compression, you cankeep the product of two conjugate quantity under conditions of constant ups and downs make the ups and downs the amount of a conjugate is much smaller than the other. This means that one of the conjugate is less than the amount of ups and downs have been shot noise limit. The use of compressed light field of this feature, you can break through the measurement accuracy limit of shot noise limit, when the compression degree is 100 percent, the measurement accuracy in principle, unlimited increase.In 1987, Shaw (M. Xiao) were used with the Grand Jiyeh light field quadrature squeezed vacuum state, so that shot noise measurement sensitivity limit break. 1997 Years, Shanxi University, Institute for the direct use of optical light field intensity difference squeezing (twin beam on) for weak absorption measurements, the measurement results exceeded the signal light shot noise limit, signal to noise ratio (S / N) than the shot noise limit the signal light increased by 4 dB. In addition, there are many types of compressed light field applied in the measurement reports.Although quantum information processing with speed, capacity, safety, and the great advantages of high accuracy and a very attractive prospect, but also attracted the attention of scientists and government departments, but in addition to quantum cryptography communication may soon enter the practical stage, the quantum computer to be true, kind of away from the material sent, there is still a long way to go.One important reason is because the quantum state is "fragile." Any minor role with the external environment will lead to collapse of quantum states, namely decoherence. It must remain within a certain time quantum state from the outside world, before the collapse in the state to complete the necessary quantum computing. Although theoretically it is possible that the experimental efforts to achieve it need to do. On the other hand, quantum information processing system of storage, isolation and the accuracy of quantum logic gate operation has certain requirements, there is involved in the interaction between single photons and single atoms and other technical issues is no easy task .At present, the theoretical and experimental physicists are also working through a variety of possible ways to try to solve these problems, I believe that in the near future, quantum information science will be a breakthrough.[1] Feynman R. Int J Theor Phys, 1982,21: 4627[2] Bennett C. J Stat Phys, 1980,22: 563[3] Deutsch D. Proc Roy Soc Lond, 1985,A400: 97[4] Wootters W, et al. Nature, 1982,298: 802[5] Einstein A, et al. Phys Rev, 1935,47: 777[6] Braginsky V, et al. Usp Fiz Nauk, 1979,114: 41[7] Wang H, et al. Phys Rev Lett, 1999,82: 1414中文翻译：量子信息学信息科学与技术已经深入到社会的各个方面，其中的主角——计算机科学与技术的发展与应用，更是极大地促进了人类文明的进程。
中考英语摄影艺术的表现力提升单选题40题
中考英语摄影艺术的表现力提升单选题40题1.Photography is an art that uses light and ____ to create images.A.colorB.shapeC.sizeD.weight答案：A。
摄影是一门利用光和颜色来创造图像的艺术。
选项B“shape”形状、选项C“size”大小、选项D“weight”重量都与摄影创造图像的主要元素不太相关，而颜色是摄影中非常重要的元素之一。
2.A good photograph often has strong ____.A.contentB.meaningC.contrastD.value答案：C。
一幅好的照片通常有强烈的对比度。
选项A“content”内容、选项B“meaning”意义、选项D“value”价值，虽然对于照片也很重要，但不如对比度更能直接体现照片的视觉效果。
3.The ____ of a photograph can make it more attractive.positionB.backgroundC.subjectD.lightning答案：A。
照片的构图可以使它更具吸引力。
选项B“background”背景、选项C“subject”主题、选项D“lightning”闪电，都不是直接决定照片吸引力的主要因素，而构图是影响照片整体美感的重要方面。
4.In photography, focus is achieved by adjusting the ____.A.lensB.shutterC.flashD.memory card答案：A。
在摄影中，焦点是通过调整镜头来实现的。
选项B“shutter”快门、选项C“flash”闪光灯、选项D“memory card”存储卡都与调整焦点无关。
5.A beautiful landscape photograph often shows the ____ of nature.A.beautyB.powerC.mysteryD.weakness答案：A。
电气工程及其自动化专业英语
天空为什么是蓝色的（Whyistheskyblue）
天空为什么是蓝色的（Why is the sky blue）"Blue sky, white clouds floating."". I'm sure everyone feels about this beautiful view. So why is the sky blue? Why is the cloud white? For this wonderful physical phenomenon, not everyone can tell the reason. In fact, the beautiful view we see is the result of the interaction of atmospheric molecules, water droplets, other particles and sunlight in the sky.First, the air and the sunIn order to explain this physical phenomenon, we first have a brief knowledge of air and sunlight. The air is a layer of bullet proof clothing wrapped up outside the earth, protecting the earth from ultraviolet radiation. Air is not empty. It is made up of many particles. 99% of them are nitrogen and oxygen, while the rest are other gases (such as carbon dioxide, inert gas, etc.), small droplets, dust from factories, blowing sand in the wind, and lava particles from volcanic eruptions. But the composition of the air is not fixed, depending on where it is located, the weather and other factors that are not fixed (such as forests, oceans, volcanic eruptions, and pollution).Light is a way in which energy travels in electromagnetic waves and travels at a speed of 300 thousand kilometers per second in vacuum. Light and other waves (such as acoustic) is different with the wave particle like two. This is because light consists of a massless particle - photon, so that light has not only the properties of waves, but also the properties of particles. The magnitude of the light transfer energy is proportional to the frequency of light, while the frequency of light determines its color. But our eyes can only see light within a certainfrequency range, called visible light, too high frequency (ultraviolet light) and too low (infrared), and we can't see it.For the sun, Newton was first identified with three prisms, including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet in 7 colors. You can observe the colorful sunlight with a small experiment (shown in Figure 1)". Take the glass jar filled with water on the house in the sunlight incident place, then put a mirror in the water, with a piece of paper from the receiving basin small mirror reflected light, according to the principle of light refraction, you can see a beautiful artificial rainbow from the white paper. Of the 7 different lights, the red wavelength is the longest (the lowest frequency) and the violet wavelength is the shortest (the highest frequency). What we see with the naked eye is the result of their mixing.Two. Why is the sky blue?Light travels in a straight line unless there is interference from outside. When light travels through the air, it is inevitable to encounter gases, molecules, and other particles in the air. These particles absorb, reflect, and scatter light, and these are the physical effects that make the sky clear blue.The correct explanation of why the sky is blue dates back to 1859. Scientist Tador first discovered that blue light is much stronger than red light scattering, and that is the Tador effect". A few years later, scientist Rayleigh studied this phenomenon in more detail. He found that the scattering intensity was inversely proportional to the 4 Fang Chengwavelength. Later, more scientists called the phenomenon Rayleigh scattering". The Rayleigh scattering are easy to verify by following a small experiment (Fig. 2): a cup filled with water, and then to the cup with a few drops of milk, with a flashlight as the light source, from the side of the cup irradiation, seen from the other side of the cup is red, and see from the vertical in the direction of the light is blue (in the dark effect more obvious).At that time, Tyndall and Rayleigh that blue sky is due to small dust particles and water droplets in the air, suspended particles and the milk small dust particles and water droplets is similar to water. Even today, many people think so. The fact is not the case, if the sky is completely due to the small dust particles and water droplets, so the color of the sky with the humidity and the change in the color of the sky with humidity change is very small, unless it rains or cloudy. Later scientists speculate enough to use nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the air to explain the Tyndall effect in the sky "". The speculation was finally confirmed by Einstein,He made a detailed calculation of the scattering effect, and the calculated results were in good agreement with the experiment.The blue sky we see is the result of selective scattering of incoming sunlight by air molecules and other particles. The scattering intensity is related to the size of the particles. When the diameter of a particle is less than the wavelength of visible light, the scattering intensity is inversely proportional to the 4 side of the wavelength, and the wavelengthof the light is different from the scattering ratio, and this is also selective scattering. When sunlight enters the atmosphere, air molecules and particles (dust, water droplets, ice crystals, etc.) scatter the sun's rays around. The 7 wavelengths of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet, which make up the sun's light, have the longest red wavelength and the shortest violet wavelength. The red light with the longer wavelength has the greatest transmittance, and most of it can be sent directly to the ground through particles in the atmosphere. Light blue, indigo, violet and other light colors are easily scattered by particles in the atmosphere. The incident sunlight in blue light (0.425 m wavelength) and red light (0.650 m wavelength) as an example, when the light through the atmosphere, air particle scattering blue light than red light 5.5 times. So the sky is blue on a sunny day. However, when the fog or cloud in the air, because the water droplet diameter grew more than visible light, the effect of selective scattering do not exist, different wavelengths of light will be scattered equally, so the sky is white color.If light scattering by a short wavelength is stronger, you must ask why the sky is not purple. One of the reasons is that in the light of the sun through the atmosphere, air molecules of violet absorption is relatively strong, so we observed the sun was less, but not absolutely not, in the rainbow after the rain we can easily observe the purple light. Another reason is related to our eyes. In our eyes, there are 3 types of receivers, called red, green, and blue cones, which are sensitive only to the corresponding color. When they are stimulated by external light, the visual system can reconstruct the color of the light, depending on the color of the object that we see. In fact, thered and green cone cone of blue and purple stimulation can also be reflected, the red and green cone and cone to the sun, the blue blue cone received a strong stimulus, which finally result is not blue, purple.。
fluorescence intensities单位 -回复
fluorescence intensities单位-回复Fluorescence Intensities: Understanding the UnitIntroduction:Fluorescence is a fascinating optical phenomenon wherein molecules absorb light of a specific wavelength and re-emit it at a longer wavelength. This characteristic property has revolutionized various fields, ranging from biomedical research to environmental monitoring. When discussing fluorescence, one frequently encounters the term "fluorescence intensities." In this article, we will delve into the concept of fluorescence intensities, explore their significance across different applications, and discuss the units associated with their measurement.Section 1: What are fluorescence intensities?Fluorescence intensity refers to the measure of the emitted light from a fluorescent sample. It represents the strength or magnitude of the fluorescent signal resulting from the excitation of the sample. In simpler terms, fluorescence intensities provide quantitative information about the amount of light emitted by a fluorescentsubstance. Higher fluorescence intensities indicate a stronger emission signal, while lower intensities suggest a weaker signal.Section 2: Significance of fluorescence intensities in research2.1 Biological and biomedical applications:Fluorescence intensities play a crucial role in biological and biomedical research. Researchers utilize fluorescent dyes or fluorescently labeled biomolecules to study various cellular processes, such as protein-protein interactions, gene expression, and intracellular localization. By measuring the fluorescence intensities emitted by these molecules, scientists can gain insights into the dynamic behavior and functional aspects of cellular components.2.2 Environmental monitoring:In environmental monitoring, fluorescence intensities serve as a valuable tool for measuring contaminants and pollutants. Certain substances, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) or heavy metal ions, exhibit intrinsic fluorescence properties.Monitoring their fluorescence intensities enables scientists to detect and quantify their presence in the environment accurately. This information is crucial for assessing the impact of pollutants on ecosystems and human health.Section 3: Units for measuring fluorescence intensities3.1 Photon Counts:One commonly used unit for measuring fluorescence intensities is the photon count. It represents the number of photons emitted by a fluorescent substance. Photon counts are expressed as counts per second (cps) or counts per millisecond (cpms), depending on the sensitivity of the detection system used. Higher photon counts indicate a stronger fluorescence signal.3.2 Relative fluorescence units (RFU):RFU is another unit often used in fluorescence measurements, particularly in plate readers and fluorimeters. Relative fluorescence units represent the ratio of the sample's fluorescence intensity to a reference standard. RFU values provide a relative measure offluorescence and are especially useful when comparing multiple samples or analyzing changes in fluorescence over time.3.3 Arbitrary Units:Arbitrary units are a versatile unit for fluorescence intensities, primarily used when comparing fluorescent signals from different samples within the same experiment. These units lack a standardized reference standard, but they provide a relative measure of fluorescence intensity. Arbitrary units are commonly seen in fluorescence microscopy experiments or when analyzing fluorescent images.Section 4: Experimental considerations and limitationsWhile fluorescence intensities offer valuable insights, it is essential to consider certain factors that can affect their measurement. Experimental parameters such as excitation power, integration time, detection sensitivity, and photobleaching can influence the recorded intensities. Additionally, differences in fluorescence quantum yield, dye concentration, and detection systems can lead to variations in fluorescence intensities between samples orexperiments. Understanding these limitations is crucial for obtaining accurate and reproducible fluorescence measurements.Conclusion:Fluorescence intensities serve as a vital quantitative parameter in various scientific disciplines. They enable researchers to gain insights into cellular processes, assess environmental pollutants, and monitor biological systems. Measured using units such as photon counts, relative fluorescence units, or arbitrary units, fluorescence intensities provide researchers with valuable information for data analysis and interpretation. By understanding the concept of fluorescence intensities and the units associated with their measurement, scientists can harness the full potential of fluorescence technology and further advance their research.。
比的应用英语专升本练习题
比的应用英语专升本练习题一、选择题1. The ratio of the length to the width of a rectangle is 5:3. If the length is 15 cm, what is the width?A. 9 cmB. 15 cmC. 18 cmD. 22.5 cm2. In a mixture of milk and water, the ratio of milk to water is 2:3. If there are 120 liters of milk, how many liters of water are there?A. 180 litersB. 150 litersC. 120 litersD. 90 liters3. A recipe calls for a ratio of flour to sugar of 4:1. Ifyou need to double the recipe, what is the new ratio of flour to sugar?A. 8:2B. 4:1C. 2:1D. 1:1二、填空题4. If the ratio of boys to girls in a class is 7:5 and there are 42 boys, how many girls are there? _______5. A photographer uses a ratio of 3:2 to determine the size of the print. If the original image is 18 cm by 12 cm, what will be the dimensions of the print? Length: ________ cm, Width: ________ cm.6. In a chemical experiment, the ratio of acid to water is 1:4. If 5 liters of acid are used, how much water is needed? ________ liters.三、简答题7. A farmer has 100 acres of land. He plans to plant wheat and corn in a 3:2 ratio. How many acres will be planted with each crop?8. A recipe requires a 1:1 ratio of butter to sugar. If you have 300 grams of butter, how much sugar do you need to make the recipe?9. A company has a ratio of 4:3 for the number of employees in the marketing department to the sales department. If there are 80 employees in the marketing department, how many employees are there in the sales department?四、应用题10. In a school, the ratio of students to teachers is 25:1. If there are 750 students, how many teachers are there?11. A gardener has a mixture of red, white, and blue flowers in the ratio 2:3:5. If there are 150 white flowers, how many red and blue flowers are there in total?12. A painter mixes three colors of paint in a ratio of 1:2:3. If he uses 9 liters of the third color, how many liters of each color does he use in total?五、解答题13. A company has a ratio of 3:2 for the number of employeesin the production department to the research department. Ifthe total number of employees is 180, how many employees arein each department?14. A recipe for cookies calls for a ratio of flour to sugarto eggs of 4:3:2. If you have 1 kg of flour, how much sugar and eggs do you need to make the cookies?15. A farmer plans to divide his 200 acres of land into three equal parts to plant three different crops. If he wants to plant the crops in a ratio of 5:4:3, how many acres will each crop receive?结束语通过以上练习题，希望能够帮助同学们更好地理解和应用比例的概念，提高解题技巧，为专升本考试做好充分准备。
中考英语电影市场的营销策略单选题40题
中考英语电影市场的营销策略单选题40题1. In the movie "Avatar", the use of advanced 3D technology is an example of _____.A.product differentiationB.price reductionC.promotion strategyD.place expansion答案：A。
本题考查电影市场的产品策略。
选项A“product differentiation”即产品差异化，《阿凡达》中使用先进的3D 技术是产品差异化的体现，使电影与其他电影在产品上有区别。
选项B“price reduction”是价格降低，题干中未提及价格。
选项C“promotion strategy”是促销策略，题干中未体现促销。
选项D“place expansion”是渠道拓展，题干中也未涉及。
2. The unique story line of "The Dark Knight" is a form of _____.A.market segmentationB.product positioningC.price skimmingD.penetration pricing答案：B。
选项B“product positioning”即产品定位，《黑暗骑士》独特的故事线是一种产品定位，确定了电影在市场中的独特位置。
选项A“market segmentation”是市场细分，题干未涉及市场细分。
选项C“price skimming”是撇脂定价法，题干中未提及价格策略。
选项D“penetration pricing”是渗透定价法，同样题干中未涉及价格策略。
3. The release of a director's cut version of a movie is a form of _____.A.product innovationB.price discriminationC.promotional offerD.distribution expansion答案：A。
DENSITY-MCCC
Principles of Imaging Science II (RAD 120) Radiographic Density1DENSITY⏹One of the photographic properties that determines visibility of detail⏹Overall blackness or darkness of the entire radiographic image or a specific area⏹When evaluating an image for proper radiographic density, the density of the entire image is considered2Density⏹Only the anatomical parts should beevaluated for proper density⏹The collimated border surrounding the structure represents x-ray beam attenuationin air⏹The radiologist evaluates the image for anatomic or pathologic changes that cause a change in normal density3DENSITY⏹CONTROLLING FACTOR: mAs (Quantity)❑ mAs = mA X time (sec)⏹25 mAs = 100 mA X 0.25 sec (250 ms)⏹25 mAs = 200 mA X 0.125 sec (125 ms)⏹25 mAs = 400 mA X 0.0625 sec (62.5 ms)❑mA, time inversely proportional to maintain thesame mAs or density⏹Why change mA, time when a desired mAs isknown?4Density Controlling Factors⏹mA = mAs/time❑Calculate the mA, given 50 mAs, 100 ms⏹500 mA❑Calculate the mA, given 100 mAs, 100 ms⏹1000 mA⏹time = mAs/mA❑Calculate the time, given 20 mAs, 200 mA⏹0.1 sec, 100 ms❑Calculate the time, given 20 mAs, 400 mA⏹0.5 sec, 50 ms5Density Evaluation⏹Your initial reaction should determine if the radiograph demonstrates proper density⏹If it is not correct, then it is too dark (overexposed), or too light (underexposed)⏹You must determine the extent to which it is to dark or too light.6Density Evaluation⏹Over and underexposure is generally expressed as either 50% or 100% incorrect❑If a radiograph is very light or dark, it is 100%over or underexposed❑Underexposure - correct by multiplying themAs by 2 (40 mAs vs 80 mAs)❑Overexposure – correct by multiplying themAs by 0.5 (40 mAs vs 20 mAs)7Density Evaluation⏹If a radiograph is minimally light or dark and warrants a repeat, it is 50% over or underexposed⏹Underexposure - correct by multiplying the mAs by 1.5 (40 mAs vs 60 mAs)⏹Overexposure – correct by multiplying the mAs by 0.75 (40 mAs vs 30 mAs)⏹Remember that at least a 30% change in mAs is needed to demonstrate a visible difference in density. Known as the 30% rule.⏹mAs is the factor of choice for density changes8mAs9Density: Influencing Factors⏹Kilovoltage❑Controls the energy, penetrability or quality ofthe x-ray beam.❑As kVp is increased or decreased, the quantity of x-ray photons produced increases ordecreases❑15% rule application⏹15% change in kVp results in 100% change indensity⏹7.5% change in kVp results in 50% change indensity10Density Evaluation⏹When evaluating density determine if the structure is properly penetrated. This applies to underexposed images. An image cannot be overexposed if it is not adequately penetrated⏹Look for structures behind another⏹If it is penetrated, change the mAs; if not change the kVp according to the 15% rule11Density: INFLUENCING FACTORS⏹kilovoltageI1 kVp12==I2 kVp22I1: Beginning IntensityI2 : New IntensitykVp1: Beginning kilovoltagekVp2 : New kilovoltage12Density: kilovoltage calculations13Density: Influencing Factors⏹Source-Image Distance (SID)❑Distance between the x-ray source(FS) and theimage receptor❑Affects the intensity of the x-ray beam accordingto the inverse square law❑If the SID is changed, and density should bemaintained, apply theDensity Maintenance Formula14Density: INFLUENCING FACTORS⏹Source - Image DistancemAs1 D12==mAs2 D22 mAs1: Beginning mAs mAs2 : New mAsD1: Beginning distance D2 : New distance mAs 2 = mAs1 (D22)(D12)15Density: Distance calculations ⏹. 16Density: INFLUENCING FACTORS ⏹There is a direct relationship between RSS and density⏹Common RSS range from 50 - 800 ❑As RSS increases, density increases ❑As RSS decreases, density decreases ⏹Based upon no compensatory changes in mAs ❑A radiograph will be dark if you intended to use an extremity cassette and you incorrectly selected a high speed cassette.17 Density:INFLUENCING FACTORS ⏹Film/Screen CombinationmAs 1 RSS 2 == mAs 2 RSS 1 mAs 1: Beginning mAs mAs 2 : New mAs RSS 1: Beginning Film/Screen SpeedRSS 2 : New Film/Screen SpeedmAs 2 = mAs 1 (RSS 1) (RSS 2) 18Density: RSS calculations19Density: INFLUENCING FACTORS⏹Grids are used to absorb scattered photon emitted from the patient before they interact with the image receptor (IR)⏹Placed between the patient and IR⏹When a grid is used, you must adjust mAs to compensate for the loss of density that would be produced by scatter20 Density: INFLUENCING FACTORS⏹Inverse relationship between grid use and density⏹An image would be more dense if no grid were used compared to using a grid⏹Using a grid requires higher mAs according to the following: ⏹Grid Ratio GCF❑5:1 2X❑6:1 3X❑8:1 4X❑10:1 4X❑12:1 5X❑16:1 6X❑Non-grid 1X21Density:INFLUENCING FACTORS ⏹GridsmAs 1 GCF 1 == mAs 2 GCF 2 mAs 1: Beginning mAsmAs 2 : New mAsGCF 1: Beginning grid conversion factor GCT 2 : New grid conversion factormAs 2 = mAs 1 (GCF 2) (GCF 1) 22 Density: Grid calculations23 Density: String Formula ⏹mAs 2 = mAs 1 (D 2)2 (GCF 2) (RSS 1) (D 1)2 (GCF 1) (RSS 2)24Density: String Formula25 Density: String Formula26Density: String FormulamAs2 = mAs1 (D2)2 (GCF2) (RSS1)(D1)2 (GCF1)(RSS2)27Density: Influencing Factors⏹Generator Type⏹An AP projection of the hip is taken using a three phase, 12 pulse high frequency generator.Technical factors are 70 kVp, 24 mAs, 400 RSS,40”SID, 10:1 grid. Using the correct conversionfactor(2.0), calculate the mAs needed whenusing a single phase, 2 pulse unit.❑To maintain image density use the formula mAs2 = mAs1 X conversion factor⏹mAs2 = 4828Generator Type Conversions &Voltage RippleVoltage waveforms resulting fromvarious power supplies. The rippleof the kilovoltage is indicated as apercentage for each waveform.29Density Influencing Factors⏹Beam Restriction (Collimation)❑Less scatter radiation is produced and densityis decreased❑14” X 17” to 8” X 10”, increase mAs 50-60%❑14” X 17” to 10” X 12’’, increase mAs 30-40%❑When collimation is increased, the amount ofirradiated tissue decreases30Density: Influencing Factors⏹Filtration❑Indirect relationship with density⏹Increased filtration = Decreased density⏹Film Processing❑Direct relationship with density for developer time,temperature, and replenishment rates⏹Focal Spot Size, Anode Heel Effect❑Minimal effect31 Anode Heel Effect32Density: Influencing Factors⏹Anatomical Part Thickness or Tissue❑Indirect relationship with density⏹Larger patients attenuate more x-ray photons⏹Higher atomic # tissues attenuate more x-ray photons⏹Pathology❑Additive Disease - Density decreases❑Destructive Disease Density increases⏹Contrast Media❑Positive Contrast – Density decreases❑Negative Contrast – Density increasesRefer to density chart in Carlton text(mAs adjustments are not made)34Radiographic Density Review⏹85 kVp to 60 kVp⏹100 milliseconds to 50 milliseconds⏹800 mA, 0.04 seconds to 600 mA, 53 ms⏹40” SID to 100 cm SID⏹Table-top radiography to a 10:1 bucky grid ⏹2.5 mm focal spot size to 1.2 mm focal spot size ⏹90 sec film processing to 3 min film processing ⏹200 mA to 1000 mA⏹Normal tissue to additive pathologic condition ⏹15 cm abdomen patient to 28 cm abdomen patientA. Increased densityB. Decreased densityC. No change in density 35Greatest Density Calculation⏹Which of the following sets of technicalfactors will demonstrate the greatest density? mA time SID RSS Grid⏹A. 200 100 ms 40” 100 5:1⏹B. 400 200 ms 40” 100 8:1⏹C. 500 40 ms 48” 200 8:1⏹D. 500 20 ms 48” 200 10:136 Greatest Density Calculation Practice ⏹Which of the following sets of technicalfactors will demonstrate the greatest density? mAs SID RSS Grid⏹A. 12.5 40” 400 10:1⏹B. 15 72” 400 12:1⏹C. 50 72” 400 12:1⏹D. 62.5 40” 400 10:1 37Digital Image Receptor Systems⏹Density and contrast❑Controlled through post-processing⏹Still, the image receptor must receive properexposure❑Extremely high or low exposures do not produceacceptable image quality38Digital Image Receptor Systems⏹kVp based on desired contrast⏹Distance selected based on desired beamgeometry⏹mAs is adjusted to meet exposure needs39Concept Point CheckPart II: Matching Identify the effect on radiographic density when a single change is made.A. Radiographic density will increaseB. Radiographic density will decreaseC. No change in density will result____ 40” SID to 60” SID____ 400 mA 20 milliseconds to 800 mA 30 milliseconds____ 1.0 mm Focal Spot Size to 1.2 mm Focal Spot Size____ 500 RSS to 100 RSS____ 50 kVp to 65 kVp____ 5:1 ratio grid to 16:1 ratio grid40。
光纤光学课后习题答案
a. What the term critical propagation angle means is that a light beam has to form an angle at the fiber centerline that is no greater than the angle so as to propagate properly. b. It depends on the RI of the fiber core’s ( n1 ) and the cladding’s.( n2 ).
课
θ1 = arcsin
案 网
3 ´ 10 8 λ 1300 ´ 10 c 3 ´ 10 8 = = λ 1550 ´ 10 c =
9
= 2.31 1014 ( Hz ) = 1.94 1014 ( Hz )
9
n=c/v
n2 1.45 = arcsin = 80.54o n1 1.47
θ1c .
If we continue to increase the angle of incidence so that
2.1 Solution:
2.2 Solution:
后
答
a. Refractive Index: a parameter which describes the propagation character of light rays and can be determined by the following formula:
1.7 Solution:
The Shannon-Hartley theorem tells us that information-carrying capacity is proportional to channel bandwidth. However, the boundary of channel bandwidth is restricted by the frequency of the signal carrier. Since the frequency of the signal carrier we can find and put into practice is limited, we can only get limited information-carrying capacity. That’s to say, to get the biggest capacity, the only method we can take is to make full use of the limited bandwidth. And I think that’s just what the vice president means.
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Figure 1: Distributions of log(1 + log(1 + E1 )) for the central η region in ET bins of 7.35–9.10, 9.10–12.6, 12.6–14.7, 14.7–18.9, 18.9–26.25, 26.25– 29.75, and >29.75 GeV. The solid line is total MC fit to the data. The dashed line is the photon contribution, the dotted line is the neutral jet background contribution, and the dash-dot line is the contribution from jets containing charged tracks. 3
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Figure 2: Distributions of log(1 + log(1 + E1 )) for the forward η region in ET bins of 7.35–9.10, 9.10–12.6, 12.6–14.7, 14.7–18.9, 18.9–26.2, 26.25–29.75, and >29.75 GeV. The solid line is total MC fit to the data. The dashed line is the photon contribution, the dotted line is the neutral background contribution, and the dash-dot line is the contribution from jets containing charged tracks. 4
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Introduction
The results from the published Run 1A/1B direct photon cross section [2, 1] and the direct photon cross section at 630 GeV/c2 [3] are combined in this note to give the ratio of the cross sections. The measurement of the ratio is less sensitive to common systematic uncertainties and gives an important comparison between data and theoretical predictions.
2
2.1
Analysis Additions
1800 GeV Results
The luminosity for the published Run 1A/1B cross sections is adjusted upward by 3.4% due to the E811 results.
1
√ In order to facilitate the measurement ratio in bins of xT = 2ET / 2, the highest ET bins in the 630 GeV data were changed to exactly match those of the 1800 GeV data. The previous 630 GeV results had a single bin starting at xT = .0833 and extending to an xT value higher than the maximum 1800 GeV measurement. The new binning has two xT bins with .0833 < xT < .0944 and .0944 < xT < .1556. For the 630 GeV data, we set the maximum ET to be 49 GeV, or xT = 0.1556, which corresponds with them maximum ET of 140 GeV for the 1800 GeV data.
2.2
High ET Bins
2.3
Tracking Efficiency
The method to determine the tracking efficiency for the 630 GeV analysis in DØ Note #3699 is different than that in the published 1800 GeV analysis. In addition, the uncertainty in the tracking efficiency is the largest systematic uncertainty in the EC region (1.6 < |η | < 2.5) in the 630 analysis. Therefore, we have redone the tracking efficiency using the same method as that used in the 1800 GeV analysis. In the original 630 GeV analysis the charged track efficiency, (ǫd ), was determined from the data using Z 0 decays. This efficiency was then used in the Monte Carlo allowing events with charged tracks to pass the “no track” cut. However, because certain events with charged tracks were rejected in the Monte Carlo during generation, it was expected that the number of events with charged tracks in the data may be higher than that determined from tracking efficiency alone. Consequently, the purity fit allowed for an additional contribution from events with charged tracks. This method would work extremely well if the actual background from events with charged tracks was greater than or equal to that determined from the Z 0 decays. However, if the actual background from events with charged tracks is lower than that estimated from Z 0 decays, a large systematic error may be introduced. Therefore, we have changed the method for determing the background from charged tracks to that used in the published 1A/1B result. The amount of background consisting of events with charged tracks which are not reconstructed, is completely determined by the fit to the purity distribution. The purity with the new ET bins described above, combined with fitting for the entire background from charged tracks is shown in Figs. 1 and 2 using the variable log(1 + log(1 + E1 )) as the discriminant in the CC and EC, respectively. Applying the Run 1A/1B method to determine the charged track back2