语言学概论重难点解析.

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语言学概论期末复习重点

语言学概论期末复习重点

语言学概论期末复习重点一、语音学语音学是研究语音的学科,重点研究语音的产生、结构、运动和感知等方面。

在复习时,需要关注以下内容:1.国际音标的掌握,包括元音、辅音和音节等。

2.发音器官的构造和功能,比如舌头、喉头、声带等的作用。

3.音位与音素的区别,音位是语言中的最小语音单位,音素是语音的实际表现。

4.音变规律,比如浊音化、清音化、辅音的鼻化等。

二、语法学语法学是研究语言结构和规则的学科,包括句法学、词法学等分支。

在复习时,需要关注以下内容:1.语法的基本概念,包括句子、短语、词类等。

2.句法分析的方法,包括基于短语结构的上下位关系分析和基于依存关系的句法分析。

3.句子成分的分类与功能,包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语等。

4.语法关系的表示,包括句法树和依存关系图等。

三、语义学语义学是研究词义和意义的学科,包括词义学、语用学等分支。

在复习时,需要关注以下内容:1.语义的基本概念,包括词义、句义、语篇意义等。

2.词义的分类,包括编码词义和概念词义等。

3.语义关系的表示,包括隐性关系和显性关系等。

4.语义义原的掌握,比如用来描述词义的最小单位,可以用来解释多义、歧义、同义等现象。

四、语用学语用学是研究语言在特定情境中的使用和理解的学科,包括语用规则、言语行为等方面。

1.言语行为的分类,包括表示、指示、陈述、询问等。

2.言语行为的成分,包括言辞、语境、意图等。

3.语用规则的掌握,比如礼貌原则、言外之意等。

4.言语行为的实现方式,包括直接言语行为和间接言语行为等。

以上仅为语言学概论期末复习的一些重点内容,学生可以结合教材和课堂笔记进行更深入的学习和理解。

此外,复习时可以参考相关的案例和实例,加深对语言学原理的理解和应用。

语言学概论重难点解析

语言学概论重难点解析

语言学概论重难点解析一、语言与言语得区别与联系。

(一)语言与言语得区别1、语言就是表达思想得工具、就是交际得工具,言语则就是使用语言工具得行为与结果。

就这一点而言,它们就是工具与对工具运用得关系。

2、言语就是个人得,语言就是社会得。

言语就是个人得言语行为,以个人得意志为转移,因而言语具有个人因素。

可以说,每个人说话得嗓音、每个音得具体发音、每个人使用得词语与句子结构等方面都有个人得特色,而且每一个人每一次说话都可能就是不同得。

语言就是属于社会得,语言要遵循一个原则:全社会都能顺利地进行交流。

语言就是从言语中归纳出得一套标准、准则得系统,就是音义结合,由词汇、语法构成得一个完整得体系,因而它具有社会因素。

3、语言就是有限得、封闭得,言语就是无限得、开放得。

语言得材料、规则就是有限得,相对稳定得,因而也就是相对封闭得。

如现代汉语有400多个音节,上千个语素,几十万个词,语法规则更加有限。

汉语如此,其她语种无不如此,其音位、词汇、语法规则都就是有限得。

而且变化缓慢,相对稳定。

言语得开放性,则表现为利用有限得材料与规则造出所需要得无限得句子。

从组合关系上讲,其长度可以就是无限长得(从理论上讲)。

(如:学生。

就是学生。

就是中文系得学生。

她就是中文系得学生。

……她就是闽江学院中文系二年级一班得学生。

……)人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上得各个环节,因而即使在句子得长度相同得情况下,仍然可以造出各种各样得句子来。

(例如:①我们热爱祖国。

②她们喜欢唱歌。

③小张爱好音乐。

……理论上讲可以就是无限得)数量有限得语音形式与语义内容结合成语素。

数量有限得语素构成数量有限得词语。

数量有限得语法规则支配数量有限得词语,造出无穷无尽得句子,这就就是言语得无限性。

语言得有限性,免除了人们不必要得过重得记忆负担;言语得无限性,使人们能够造出各种各样得句子,充分满足交际得需要。

(二)语言与言语得联系语言与言语又有非常密切得联系。

语言学概论复习重点

语言学概论复习重点

一、名词解释1、音位音位是一定的语言或方言系统中,能区别不同语言符号的最小语音单位,是根据语音的社会性质划分出来的。

(斜线//是音位标记。

)音位是最小的语音形式,不能再切分。

音位虽能再分成若干区别性语音特征,但一个单一的语音特征不能构成一种语音形式。

2、非音质音位非音质音位是以音高、音长、音强为语音形式的音位,又叫超音质音位或超音段音位。

非音质音位包括调位、时位和重位三种。

3、国际音标国际音标是国际语音协会于1888年指定并开始使用的。

它的指定原则是“一个因素只用一个音标表示。

一个音标只表示一个因素”,因素和标写符号一一对应。

不会出现混淆或两可的现象。

为了与一般的字母相区别。

通常把国际音标所用的标写符号放在方括号[ ]里。

国际音标所代表的音是全世界一致的,我们不要把它和具体语言中形状相同的字母的读音混为一谈。

4、语流音变在连续的语流中,由于受邻近音的影响或由于说话时快慢、高低、强弱的不同所引起的语音变化叫做语流音变。

常见的语流音变现象主要有同化、异化、弱化、脱落四种。

5、语言的分化一种语言内部分成几种不同的方言,或者这些方言进而分成几种不同的语言,这种现象,叫做语言分化。

语言是随着社会的分化而分化的,也就是说,社会的分化是语言分化的原因。

主要表现为三种形式:社会方言、地域方言和亲属语言。

6、聚合关系聚合关系在语言学上聚合关系指在结构的某个特殊位置上可以相互替代的成分之间的关系或者是共现的成分和非共现的成分之间的关系,同一聚合关系语句只受句法关系限制语义因素不在考虑范围处于聚合关系中的语句与共同的句法特征但在语义上不能互相替换聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位(如音位、词)之间的关系,简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。

几个词,一组词,他们性质相同,具有同样的组合功能,在语言结构的同一个位置上可以互相替换,替换后生成不同的句子,这些词之间的这种替换关系,就是聚合关系。

自考汉语言文学语言学概论复习重点考点

自考汉语言文学语言学概论复习重点考点

自考汉语言文学语言学概论复习重点考点
一、语言学的基本概念
1.语言学的定义:语言学是研究语言的科学。

2.语言学的分类:一般语言学、历史语言学、实用语言学等。

3.语言学研究的内容:语音学、语法学、词汇学、语义学、语用学等。

二、语音学
1.国际音标:常用国际音标及其音值。

2.语音的分类:元音、辅音等。

3.语音的产生:空气流动、声带振动等。

三、语法学
1.句子成分:主语、谓语、宾语等。

2.句子结构:简单句、复合句等。

3.短语的分类:名词短语、动词短语、形容词短语等。

四、词汇学
1.词的定义:具有独立意义的语言单位。

2.词的分类:实词、虚词等。

3.词的构词法:前缀、后缀等。

五、语义学
1.意义的概念:语言单位所表示的概念。

2.意义的分类:词义、句义、上下文义等。

3.意义的变化:词义的扩大和缩小等。

六、语用学
1.语用学的概念:研究语言实际使用情况的学科。

2.语用学的要素:语言行为、语用规则等。

3.语用失误:歧义、言外之意等。

七、其他
1.汉语言文字的演变:甲骨文、小篆、楷书等。

2.语言与社会文化的关系:语言的社会属性、语言的地位等。

3.语言变异现象:方言、行话、新词等。

以上是自考汉语言文学语言学概论的复习重点和考点,希望能对您的复习有所帮助。

《语言学概论》重点、难点

《语言学概论》重点、难点

《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性);语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为);语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说)等。

第二章语言学语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观);语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为);普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义);;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学)等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调)等。

第五章词法学词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生);词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干)等。

第六章词汇学词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格);一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用);里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义);句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化);第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为);合作原则。

语言学概论重难点

语言学概论重难点

语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defin ing properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1).A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fac t that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed wi th an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‟t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee‟s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‟s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‟s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can h ardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems donot have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let‟s borrow C. F. Hocket‟s Chart that compares human language with some animals‟ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8). Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don‟t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle‟s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice‟s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is use d to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I‟d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demandno answer, at least not the reader‟s/listener‟s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use o f language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I‟m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‟s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‟s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Y angtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence, the president‟s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin‟s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant tothe study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexic ology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The des cription of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The des cription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the des criptive and the pres criptive approaches?A linguistic study is “des criptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “pres criptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly des criptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs innatural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize gr ammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribu te of each ideal speaker‟s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, andlinguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the heare r‟s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,];(4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow trans cription and what is broad trans cription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet m ade a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” trans criptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or trans cription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‟s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]‟s, readily making possible the “narrow trans cription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme ar e called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]‟s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these wordstogether constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may no t be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring i n different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[…imput](bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features? “Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.。

语言学概论复习重点整理

语言学概论复习重点整理

语言学概论复习重点整理语言学是研究语言的科学,是人类学科中的重要分支之一。

它探讨语言的构成、发展、使用、习得等方面的问题。

在语言学的学习中,有几个重点需要重点关注和复习,包括语言的定义与特点、语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等。

一、语言的定义与特点语言可以定义为人类交流思想和感情的工具,它具有符号性、产生性、传递性和交际性等特点。

符号性是指语言以音、形、色、势等形式来表达,具有特定的语音、文字等符号。

产生性是指语言是人类天生具备的能力,可以随意创造和组合新的语言表达。

传递性是指语言是为了交流而产生的,可以传递信息和意义。

交际性是指语言是社会交往的工具,是人类社会生活的基础。

二、语音学语音学研究语音的产生、组织、传播和知觉等问题。

语音由音段和音素组成,音段是语言中的基本音单位,而音素则是语音学上对音段的理论抽象。

语音学重点研究了语音的发音和声音的特征,包括元音、辅音、音节结构、音位等内容。

三、语法学语法学研究语言的结构和规则,包括句子的构成、词汇的分类和句子的句法规则等。

语法学可以分为句法学、词法学和语法规则等方面的研究。

句法学研究句子的结构和组成,包括词语的层次、短语的组成和句子的句法规则。

词法学研究词汇的构成和分类,包括名词、动词、形容词等的形态学特点和语义学特征。

四、语义学语义学研究语言的意义和语义关系,研究词汇的意义、句子的意义和语义关系的表达方式等。

语义学包括词汇语义学和句子语义学两个方面的内容。

词汇语义学研究词汇的意义和词汇之间的关系,包括语义原理、词汇关系等。

句子语义学研究句子的意义和句子之间的关系,包括句子的逻辑关系、语义角色等。

五、语用学语用学研究语言使用的实际情况,分析语言使用者之间的交际行为和交际行为产生的效果等。

语用学主要研究语言的使用环境、语言行为的目的、语言行为的影响等方面的问题。

例如,研究语言中的礼貌用语、谈话中的暗示和推理、言语行为的意义和效果等。

六、其他相关内容除了以上几个重点内容外,还有一些其他与语言学相关的内容也值得复习和关注。

语言学概论要点整理分析

语言学概论要点整理分析

语言学概论复习资料(全)1口语是有声的口头语言。

书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。

口和书的差别:书面语不是口语机械的复制品,有比较充裕的时间来推敲,更精练。

书面语的产生具有重大的社会历史意义是因为书面语的产生克服了人和人之间进行交际、信息传递和交流思想感情在空间和时间方面的限制,极大地加快了人类社会经验和知识积累的速度和传播的范围,从而大大加快了社会发展的步伐。

语言和种族的关系:语言能力和生理、心理因素有关,但是语言不是一种生理或心理现象,不是先天遗传,它是一种社会现象,完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族无必然联系。

语言科学要成为一门科学必须要有明确的研究对象然后才有可能形成自己完整的理论和方法论体系,若对象长期不稳定太杂太宽,则不可深入。

语言的客观存在形式是跟人和人类社会的口头交际活动分不开的。

首先表现为有声的口头语言,而当出现文字后,表现为有形的书面语言。

为何与语言学家研究的语言不完全一样不同人对不同语言有不同理解,根据不同需要,去研究客观存在的语言的各个不同的方面,如历史学家研究语言和文字是为历史学服务的。

口语第一性书面语第二性先有口后有书,任何一种书面语都只能是在口语的基础上产生的,并且或迟或早总是要随着口语的演变而演变;研究语言首先研究口语。

语言是民族的重要但不是可靠的标志1绝大多数一个民族使用同一种语言,如汉族人使用汉语2一个民族多种语言,如瑞士有说德语、意大利语。

共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感是根本标准。

不能单凭“相互理解程度”区分语言和方言把复杂过于简单可能在政治上引起严重后果,只对弱国坚持自己的主张强调原则。

德国和荷兰交界地带语言相通,用相互理解说不通。

符号指根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。

能指索绪尔指能够指称某种意义的成分;所指是给符号所指的意义内容创造的专门术语。

聚合关系是在同一位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中,因而聚合成一个类。

语言学概论考试重点难点

语言学概论考试重点难点

语言学概论考试重点难点The document was finally revised on 2021语言学概论滕慧群老师期末复习重点详解版导言无问答题记细节题(单选填空判断名词解释)名词解释:理论语言学:普通语言学的一个部分,与应用语言学相对,主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为研究对象,是综合各种语言的基本研究的成果,归纳成语言的一般规律的语言学科。

应用语言学:广义:泛指语言学理论的各种实际应用,包括语言文字教学、词典编撰、文字制定、文学作品的翻译和语言分析、病理语言学、人工智能、机器翻译等的新语言学科。

狭义:专指把语言理论应用于语言教学,(包括本族语教学和外语教学)。

语文学:又叫传统语言学,指19世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究,这时的语言研究尚未独立,语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在,语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学,从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。

小学:中国传统的语文学,包括分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学,围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究,因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。

其他:1.普通语言学的奠基人是(索绪尔)和洪堡特。

前者所著的(《普通语言学教程》)在语言学发展史起到了划时代的作用。

2.结构主义语言学派可以分为三派。

它们是(布拉格学派)、(哥本哈根学派)、(美国学派)。

3.(古代印度)、(中国)、(古希腊-罗马)是语言学的三大发源地。

4.现代语言学一百多年发展,经历了三个时期:历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学。

5.(ppt填空题:)我国传统语文学包括(文字学)、(音韵学)、(训诂学)等三门分支学科,合称“小学”。

6.在19世纪逐步发展和完善起来的(欧洲历史比较语言学)不但宣告语言学的真正独立,而且为普通语言学的研究奠定了基础。

7.(书后习题:)语言交际过程可以分为编码-发送-传递-接收-解码五个阶段。

语言学概论第四章教学辅导第一部分重点难点解析.doc

语言学概论第四章教学辅导第一部分重点难点解析.doc

语言学概论第四章教学辅导第一部分重点难点解析第四章:语法语法部分要特别注意分析问题,要学得活,要注意融汇贯通,不要死记硬背。

语法内容比较多,名词概念也多,学习要特别注意。

进一步认识把握组合规则和聚合规则的内涵;学会灵活分析种种语法现象;注意掌握众多的名词概念。

第一节语法和语法单位一、什么是语法语法就是词的构造、变化的规则和用词造句的规则,是语言在其长期发展过程中形成的,这种规则是客观存在于一种语言之中,是语言长期发展过程中形成的,说这种语言的全体成员必须共同遵守。

例如汉族人说“我看书”,“书”一般放在“看”的后面,而日本人说这句话则是“我书看”,即把宾语“书”放在动词“看”的前面,这里语序上的差别,就是语法上的差别,反映了汉语和日语的不同特点。

二、语法规则语法规则主要是指组合规则和聚合规则。

语法的组合规则和聚合规则构成一种语言的语法规则。

语法的组合规则是指语法单位一个接一个组合起来的规则,这种规则是现实的,存在于话语之中,虽然看不见摸不着,但它客观存在,说这种语言的人必须共同遵守,否则就会造成错误的句子,说出谁也听不懂的话来。

例如“太阳、红色的、起来、升”,可以组成“红色的太阳升起来”,不能进行别的组合,否则就违反了组合规则。

语法的聚合规则是指语法单位的归类和变化的规则。

几个语法单位(主要指词),互相在同一位置可以替换,替换后结构类型和功能都没有变化,这样的几个语法单位,就形成了一种聚合关系。

用聚合群中的单位替换同一组合中的某个单位,可以生成许多具体的句子。

聚合为句子的生成提供了无数的可能性,因为聚合规则是潜存在人脑中的,掌握了一定的组合规则后,人们可以利用聚合规则,用同一类别的词语进行替换,造成符合自己需要的句子。

例如学会了“我看书”,其中的“书”在具体的语境中就可以替换为潜存于人脑中的“报纸”、“小说”、“电影”、“电视”、“风景”等等,造出无限对的句子来,满足交际的需要。

三、语法单位凡是能在组合的某一位置上被替换下来的片段都是语法单位。

语言学纲要重难点提示

语言学纲要重难点提示

语法一章是整个语言学概论课程的一个学习重点,本章内容很多,而且很多问题是以前所没有接触过,因此学习难度也是比较大的,同时这一章既涉及到很多的分析问题,又涉及到相关外语知识的结合应用,重点多难点也多,可以说不亚于语音一章。

因此,学习语法一章,首先要在思想上引起足够的重视。

我们平时接到的电子信件,询问最多的问题,就是关于语法一章的学习的,网上讨论板中,也是语法部分的问题最为突出,现将有关问题逐一解答,供大家学习参考。

还要说明的是,许多同学问为什么我们有英语课程还要在语言学概论课程里面讲英语知识,我想这是一个误会,我们课程涉及到的英语知识可以说非常少,是讲授一些语言现象必须引例解释的,因为我们的课程的研究对象是人类语言而不是汉语,尽管我们是以汉语为主,但有些现象,是汉语所没有的,比如形态变化问题、单数复数问题、比较级、时态等等,如果没有外语实例,那就无法说清楚,也很空泛,这里就无法回避外语。

当然,我们毕竟不是专门的外语课程,有关英语的内容也只是同我们教学问题有关,并不是全面介绍英语知识,因此大家不必担心。

语言是由语音形式、语义内容、结构关系三个方面构成的统一体,三个方面缺一不可,互相作用,构成了语言。

语音是语言的形式部分,词汇是语言的意义部分,语法是语言单位的关系部分,说的是符号与符号怎样组合的问题。

三个部分在语言中的作用,我们可以这样简单来表述:没有语音形式,语言就无法存在,没有词汇的内容意义,语言就是一个毫无作用的空壳,没有语法,语言就是一盘杂乱而毫无章法的散沙。

例如:生中国新在我们――我们生在新中国明灯的亮天上了――天上的明灯亮了山上草在吃牛儿――牛儿在山上吃草小便不可随处―― 小处不可随便从上面的一些组合的例子可以看出,语法虽然是看不见摸不着的东西,可是它又是实实在在的,客观存在于语言之中的。

一种语言,即使是最原始的语言,也得有一套语法规则系统,指导人们按照已有的规则去组织符号,构成表达思想的句子,否则,像上面所举的例子那样,同样的意思同样的词语,不同的人完全自说自话,别人就根本不可能理解你说的什么内容,语言也就不可能成为人类的交际工具了。

考证-语言学概论-难点分析

考证-语言学概论-难点分析

词组的聚合分类词组的聚合类有两种分法:一种是分为“体词性词组”和“谓词性词组”,另一种是分为“向心词组”和“离心词组”。

1.体词性词组:指整个词组的功能相当于体词的词组,都可以承担名词的作用,用做主语、宾语。

例如联合词组(名+名)、偏正(定中)词组、的字词组、数量词组等。

2.谓词性词组:指整个词组的功能相当于谓词的词组,例如偏正(状中)词组、动宾词组、联合词组(动+动)、主谓词组、动补词组、介词词组。

词组的聚合分类3.向心词组:指整个词组的功能相当于词组中心语功能的词组,例如偏正词组、动宾词组、动补词组、联合词组。

“仔细看”——“看”;“木头房子”——“房子”4.离心词组:指整个词组的功能不等于词组中任何成分的功能的词组,例如汉语的“的”字词组、主谓词组、介词词组等。

语用的性质(1)情境性:语言运用离不开具体的使用环境,包括交际双方言辞构成的上下文语境和非言辞的主客观因素构成言语环境。

(2)社会性:语言运用本质上说是一种与他人密切相关的社会行为,具有社会性。

交际双方不论是在表达内容,还是表现形式方面,都要遵从社会习惯和使用规范,而且彼此要相互配合。

(3)规约性:语言运用过程必须遵从语言使用的社会习惯和表达规则,按照社会的行为规范行事。

语境1.语境指言语活动的环境。

语言学家关注的“语境”是从具体的言语交际活动中抽象出来的,能够对人们的话语结构、意义、表达方式和表达效果产生影响的因素和条件。

2.语境的构成涉及语言要素和非语言要素。

语言要素会产生一般的、稳定的语义,非语言要素则在特定的交际场合和知识背景作用下产生个别的、临时的意义,通常叫做语境意义。

一般的语义学研究中只研究一般、稳定的语言意义。

言语1.言语行为指说话人通过语言来实施的行为,包括“言有所述”和“言有所为”两类。

前者以言叙事,构成叙述句;后者以言行事,构成施为句。

2.言语行为可以分为言内行为、言外行为和言后行为三种主要类型,这既是三种不同的言语行为,实际上也是一个言语过程的三个阶段。

《语言学概论》教学重,难点及其分解X

《语言学概论》教学重,难点及其分解X

《语言学概论》教学重、难点及其分解Ξ柳春燕 罗耀华 郝 琴(华中师范大学文学院语言学系,湖北武汉430079)摘 要: 《语言学概论》是汉语言文学专业的主干课程之一,本文结合教学实践,着重对整体结构的把握,对重难点的分解,为成教学生的自学扫清障碍,让他们尽快掌握其中的精要内容。

关键词: 义素分析法;层次分析法;述谓结构;关系义场中图分类号: H0 文献标识码: A 文章编号: 1007-2187(2003)003-0030-05一、教材特点由邢福义、吴振国主编的《语言学概论》既具有一般语言学教材基本理论条分缕析的优点,又吸取了语言研究和语言教学的最新成果。

在使用本教材的过程中,我们发现对于成教学生来说,自学本教材有较大难度,从以下几个方面着手把握这本教材的特点将有助于化难为易。

1.注重语言学知识结构的系统性语言是一个复杂的符号系统,语言符号之间存在着复杂的系统关联。

故要把握语言的本质特征,应重点把握语言的系统性。

语言的系统性是指系统元素之间的联系性。

每个子系统又由更小的子系统构成,语音系统可以分为音段系统;音段系统又可以分为元音系统和辅音系统等。

《语言学概论》高屋建瓴的总论部分初步建立起本学科的框架,我们将其图示为:2.注重“类”与“例”的关系本课程是揭示语言学普遍规律的学科,既涉及语言的共性,同时也涉及语言的个性。

以乔姆斯基的语言观为例,将语法分为普遍语法和个别语法,有公式为:PG =α・U G ,其中PG 指Personalgrammar ,U G 指Universalgrammar ,α是参数。

乔姆斯基将语言分为语言能力(competence )和语言运用(performance ),前者表现为语言知识,是人类共有的普遍语法知识,是以人脑的物质结构为基础的某种属性,是先天具备的人类遗传机制;另一部分是个别的语言知识,是通过后天经验获得的知识。

作为“类”与“例”,涉及语言的结构类型分类,以世界上的所有语言作为关照对象,将其分为:词根语,以汉语、越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等为代表;屈折语,以俄语、德语、阿拉伯语等为代表;粘着语,以土耳其语、哈萨克语、芬兰语、维吾尔语以及蒙古语等为代表;编插语,以各种印第安语、爱斯基摩人的语言、古亚细亚语系的楚克奇语等为代表。

语言学概论讲解要点

语言学概论讲解要点

第一讲要点:1.语言学是研究语言的科学。

语言学的任务是研究语言的功能、结构及其历史发展,揭示语言的本质以及语言的存在和发展规律。

2.语言学作为一门独立的科学建立于十九世纪上半叶。

第二讲要点:1.从功能的角度看,语言是交际工具。

2.语言是思维的工具,语言是思想的直接现实。

3.语言的社会功能也决定它是全民的交际工具,语言具有全民性即无阶级性。

第三讲要点:1.作为符号的语言单位具有两个方面:表现方面和内容方面。

语言单位的表现方面指的首先是语音。

语言单位的表现方面具有线性的特点。

人们的言语行为总是表现为连续的语流。

语言符号只能是一个接着一个连在一起出现的,这就是语言符号表现方面的线性特点。

语言单位的内容方面指的是语义。

语言符号里音和义的最初结合是任意的、无理据的。

2.在语言单位的表现方面和内容方面之间,不存在一对一的关系。

3.语言单位具有两个特征:一、它是音义结合的;二、它是现成的。

4.聚合关系指的是在同一结构内可以互相替换的成分之间的纵向关系。

聚合关系是建立在对立原则的基础上的,处于聚合关系中的成分互相替换,可以使同一结构取得不同的含义。

5.组合关系指的是在一定序列中可以前后连接的成分之间的横向关系。

组合关系是建立在线性特点的基础上,线性主要在言语过程中才实际体现出来,而在语言系统中,它表现为某个语言单位的潜在的结合能力。

6.语言系统内部可以分出不同的分支系统,而分支系统内部又可以分出更小的系统。

就这个意义说,语言是各种系统的系统。

第四讲要点:1.音色不同。

不同的发音体、促使发音体振动的不同方式以及不同的共鸣器都能造成不同中的音色。

2.语音作为语言的物质材料,受语言社会本质的制约并与语言的功能和意义相联系而具有社会性,这是语音的主导属性。

语音的社会属性还在于不同的语言和方言都有各自的语音系统,其表现是多方面的:一是各语言的语音构成不同;二是各语言中似乎相同的音素,在发音和音响上往往有差别;三是各语言的语音组合规律不同;四是各语言的语音变化规律也不相同。

语言学概论课程重点分析

语言学概论课程重点分析

Chapter3: Lexicon
• 这章:The formation of word 和 the lexical change 重要。 • 对词素(morphemem)的定义,分类要熟 记。Word 形成的俩种方式复合 (compound)和派生(derivation)也要 熟悉。另外语素变体(Allomorph) 的定义等 也要熟悉。词汇变化(the lexical change) 这部分,介绍了7种词汇演变的方式,只要 记住这7种方式,能给每个方式举个例子就 可以了
2.2 Chapter2: Speech Sounds
• 音系学部分:记住音位phoneme 的定义; 音系学部分:记住音位 的定义; 音位变体( 音位变体(allophones)的定义 互补分布 )的定义; (complementary distribution)的定义。 )的定义。 音位过程(phonological process) 只要熟 音位过程 悉 Nasalization, Dentalization, Velarization, Devoicing 这四个就可以了。 这四个就可以了。 syllables,supersegemental features , etc.
2.2 Chapter2: Speech Sounds
• 首先对Phonetics(语音学)和 phonology(音系学)俩 个概念要区分下。 • 语音学部分:声带(vocal card)的三个位置 (apart, closed together, totally closed),分别 产生清音(voiceless),浊音(voived)和喉塞 voiceless voived 音(glottal stop).这部分最重要的还算辅音和元 音了。辅音要熟记发音部位和发音方法,能熟练 的根据描述,写出对应的语音,或者能描述给出 的辅音。元音的考察方式跟辅音一样。但辅音比 元音更重要!coarticulation对什么是宽式标音 (broad transcription)和窄式标音(narrow transcription) 也应该熟悉。
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语言学概论重难点解析一、语言和言语的区别与联系。

(一)语言和言语的区别1.语言是表达思想的工具、是交际的工具,言语则是使用语言工具的行为和结果。

就这一点而言,它们是工具与对工具运用的关系。

2.言语是个人的,语言是社会的。

言语是个人的言语行为,以个人的意志为转移,因而言语具有个人因素。

可以说,每个人说话的嗓音、每个音的具体发音、每个人使用的词语和句子结构等方面都有个人的特色,而且每一个人每一次说话都可能是不同的。

语言是属于社会的,语言要遵循一个原则:全社会都能顺利地进行交流。

语言是从言语中归纳出的一套标准、准则的系统,是音义结合,由词汇、语法构成的一个完整的体系,因而它具有社会因素。

3.语言是有限的、封闭的,言语是无限的、开放的。

语言的材料、规则是有限的,相对稳定的,因而也是相对封闭的。

如现代汉语有400多个音节,上千个语素,几十万个词,语法规则更加有限。

汉语如此,其他语种无不如此,其音位、词汇、语法规则都是有限的。

而且变化缓慢,相对稳定。

言语的开放性,则表现为利用有限的材料和规则造出所需要的无限的句子。

从组合关系上讲,其长度可以是无限长的(从理论上讲)。

(如:学生。

是学生。

是中文系的学生。

他是中文系的学生。

……他是闽江学院中文系二年级一班的学生。

……)人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上的各个环节,因而即使在句子的长度相同的情况下,仍然可以造出各种各样的句子来。

(例如:①我们热爱祖国。

②他们喜欢唱歌。

③小张爱好音乐。

……理论上讲可以是无限的)数量有限的语音形式和语义内容结合成语素。

数量有限的语素构成数量有限的词语。

数量有限的语法规则支配数量有限的词语,造出无穷无尽的句子,这就是言语的无限性。

语言的有限性,免除了人们不必要的过重的记忆负担;言语的无限性,使人们能够造出各种各样的句子,充分满足交际的需要。

(二)语言和言语的联系语言和言语又有非常密切的联系。

一方面,语言存在于言语之中,言语是语言存在的形式。

语言是从言语中概括出来的,没有言语就无所谓语言。

另一方面,语言是对言语的规范,语言来源于言语而又作用于言语,言语或言语行为必须遵循一定的规则——语言规则。

如果不遵循这些规则,就会造成交际的障碍。

二、如何理解语言是人类最重要的交际工具人类社会的交际工具很多,除了语言之外,人类还使用其他的交际工具:文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式以及身势、表情等,这些非语言的交际工具,也都在交际中发挥一定的作用,但是它们在交际中的重要性和灵便性远不能和语言相比。

1.文字是记录语言的书写符号体系,它打破了语言交际中时间和空间的限制,大大增强了语言的交际功能的发挥,在社会生活中起着重大的作用。

但是,文字在交际中的重要性远不能和语言相比。

(1)文字是辅助性的,处于从属地位。

一个社会可以没有文字,但不能没有语言;没有语言,社会就不能生存和发展。

(2)人类语言的历史和人类社会的历史一样漫长,而文字仅有数千年的历史。

今天世界上没有文字的语言比有文字的语言多得多。

因此,文字是在语言基础上产生的一种最重要的辅助性交际工具。

2.旗语、电报代码、数学符号等交际工具,大多是在语言和文字的基础上产生的,是更加后起的交际工具,离开语言和文字,它们就不能独立存在。

这些交际工具都有特殊的服务领域,使用的范围相当狭窄,表达的内容极其有限,而语言的服务领域非常广阔。

所以旗语等只是适用于某些特殊领域的辅助性交际工具。

3.脸部表情、手的动作乃至整个躯体的姿态都可以参加到交际中来,起到交际工具的作用。

这些体态语有时甚至可以脱离语言完成一定的交际任务。

如汉族人用点头表示“肯定”,用摇头表示“否定”;西方人用摊手耸肩表示“不知道”或“无可奈何”。

在特定的场合,使用体态语方式进行交际,往往会收到比只用语言表达更好的效果。

但是体态语充其量也只能作为语言交际的一种辅助性交际工具,它无论如何也代替不了语言的交际功能。

因为它没有系统,不能表达复杂的思想,使用频率低,只能在有光线的条件下使用,不准确、不可靠,容易使人误会。

总之,语言是人类最重要的交际工具。

文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的辅助性交际工具;旗语之类是建立在语言文字基础之上的辅助性交际工具;身势等伴随动作也是辅助性的。

三、语言与思维的关系语言是思维的工具,思维离不开语言,同时语言也离不开思维。

二者如影随形,谁也离不开谁。

1.思维离不开语言。

(1)思维必须在语言材料的基础上进行。

思维要以语言作为工具。

一个正常的人在任何情况下都不可能脱离语言进行思维,换句话说,人没有赤裸裸的思维,也没有赤裸裸的语言。

(2)思维活动的成果需要依靠语言才能得以巩固和存在。

人们认识客观世界,形成概念,这些概念就必须依靠确切的词语把它固定下来、储存起来。

没有语言,没有句子,概念也就无所依托,推理也难以进行,思维恐怕也不存在了。

所以,语言在思维过程中具有很大的作用,既参与形成思想,又参与表达思想。

语言是思维最有效的工具,人们用语言进行思维,而思维则在语言材料的基础上进行。

如果没有语言,思维活动就不能进行,思维成果也无法表达。

2.语言也离不开思维。

语言作为思维的工具,只有具有思维活动,只有在思维过程中运用才有存在的意义,如果没有思维活动,没有思维活动的结果和认识活动的成果,无所谓交际和思想,语言(作为交际、交流思想的)工具也就失去了存在的价值,没有必要存在了。

所以语言和思维是相辅相成的,二者各以对方为存在条件。

思维必须在语言材料的基础上进行,哪里有思维活动,哪里就有语言活动。

四、语言和思维的区别抽象思维与语言有密切关系,但二者毕竟是两种不同的社会现象,不能把语言和思维完全等同起来。

1.语言是思维的工具,是物质的,而思维是使用工具的主体,是一种精神活动。

因为语言的所有单位——语素、词、词组、句子等,都是以声音为物质外壳的,思维作为大脑的特质是观念的,它没有物质性,没有质量、重量、长度等。

2.语言和思维的构成方式不同,且构成形式并非一一对应。

思维的组成成分是概念、判断和推理,它是运用概念,按照逻辑规律构成种种不同的判断来进行推理的;语言是由语音、词汇和语法组成的,语言是运用词语和语法规则构成种种不同的句子。

在构成形式上,概念要用词语来表达,判断和推理要用句子来表达,但概念和词语、判断与单句、推理和复句并不是完全一一对应的。

如汉语的虚词“了、着、吗、的”等,不能表达任何具体概念。

即使是实词也不一定和概念一一对应,例如“头”,是个多义词,对应了“头颅、领导、方面、前部、顶部”等多个概念;而同义词,如“漂亮、美丽、标致、俊俏、靓丽”,就可能是多个词对应一个概念。

再如句中的疑问句、祈使句就不表达任何判断。

即使陈述句也不一定就对应判断,比如有时一个相同的句子表达多个判断,如“小李叫他哥哥”就有两个意思(小李把他叫哥哥/小李叫他的哥哥);有时多个不同的句子表达一个判断,如“这些人都会说普通话”和“这些人没有一个不会说普通话”差不多是同一个意思。

同样有些复句,如“他下了课,就回家了”,并不表示推理;而“我们是中文系学生,所以要看很多文学作品”,虽然表达的是一个推理,但因为省略了大前提(如“如果是中文系学生,就要看很多文学作品”),所以逻辑关系上并不完整,但在语言表达上的意思却是很清楚的。

3.语言与思维的生理机制不完全等同。

1861年法国医生布洛卡在解剖失语症病人的头部时发现,人大脑的左半球是掌管语言和抽象思维的,被称为“优势半球”。

而人脑的右半球则是掌管形象思维和直观动作思维的。

语言的生理机制在左半球,而思维的生理机制与左右半球都有关。

(4)语言具有民族特点而思维是全人类共同的。

这是语言和思维最根本的区别。

思维是大脑的功能,人类大脑的生理构造都是一样的,没有民族性,因而大脑的功能——思维能力也没有民族性,全人类一样。

但是由于思维的方式不同,所有语言具有民族性特点。

如汉语“上午”和“下午”,是以“中午”作为分界线的,英语的“下午”(afternoon)在构造上反映的思维方式与汉语相同,但“上午”(morning)就不一样,一是内部构造不同,二是包括的时间范围也不同。

(又比如美洲的爱斯基摩语中表示“雪”的名词多达十五个,这与爱斯基摩人长期生活在冰天雪地的环境有关,他们对“雪”的区别非常细致,因而表示“雪”的词语也就比其他语言丰富得多。

阿拉伯人表示骆驼的名词多达几十个,说明骆驼在他们的日常生活中占有十分重要的地位,因而才有这样细致的观察,汉民族历史上关于马的词也非常多,有120多个,可见历史上马在汉民族生活中的重要地位。

)正是因为思维方式的不同,世界上才有如此丰富多彩的语言;正是因为人类有共同的思维基础,人类语言才可能互相翻译,不同民族的交流才有可能进行。

五、如何理解语言符号的任意性1.语言符号的任意性,即语言符号的音和义的结合是任意的,它们之间没有什么必然的、本质的联系,也就是说它们的结合是不可论证的,完全是使用语言符号的社会约定俗成的。

2.语言符号任意性的具体表现在以下几个方面:(1)音义的结合是任意性的,即什么样的语音形式表达什么样的意义内容,什么样的意义内容用什么样的语音形式表现是任意的。

例如,现在汉语用“rén”这样的声音和“能制造工具并使用工具进行劳动的动物”这样的意义结合起来,成为一个符号,即“人”,代表所有的人。

为什么是这样的结合,而不是另外的结合,其中并没有什么道理可讲,只是汉族社会的一种习惯,并且完全是约定俗成的。

(2)不同语言有不同的音义联系,如:人、书、太阳、月亮……,汉语的语音形式和英语的语音形式不相同。

(3)不同语言音义联系不对等,即同样的语音形式在不同的语言中可以表示不同的意义。

如long,汉语表示“龙”等意义,英语表示“长”。

(4)第四,同一语言的音义关系也有任意性,如汉语有众多的方言,同样的事物在各个方言也有不同的读音。

不同方言区之间,语言的音义联系也不是完全一致的。

同一语言中不同方言的语音差别,也说明了音义联系是具有任意性的。

3.语言符号的强制性符号的任意性特点是就创制符号时的情形来说的,指最初用什么样的语音形式来表示什么样的意义内容是任意的。

但是语言符号一旦进入交际,也就是某一语音形式与某一意义结合起来,表示某一特定的现实现象以后,就具有了强制性,谁也不能任意改变它。

否则,就会造成混乱。

如果个人可以任意改变符号,那就互相听不懂了,语言符号也就从根本上丧失了交际工具的作用。

例如在汉语普通话中不把“人”叫做“rén”,而叫做别的名称是行不通的。

事实上,语言符号一旦作为人类社会一定时期的交际工具,个人就无权任意改变它。

六. 语言的层级系统及特点(一)语言的层级系统语言是一套层级装置,这套层级装置包括两层三级。

首先可以分为两个大的层次——底层(下层)和上层。

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