Basic Hydraulics for Test Engineers
液压专业英语
有杆端 rod end
无杆端 rear end
外伸行程 extend stroke
内缩行程 retract stroke
缓冲 cushioning
工作行程 working stroke
负载压力 induced pressure
输出力 force
实际输出力 actual force
公称压力 nominal pressure
工作压力 working pressure
进口压力 inlet pressure
出口压力 outlet pressure
压降 pressure drop；differential pressure
背压 back pressure
启动压力 breakout pressure
数字放大器 digital amplifier
传感器 sensor
阈值 threshold
伺服阀 servo-valve
四通阀 four-way valve
喷嘴挡板 nozzle flapper
液压放大器 hydraulic amplifier
颤振 dither
阀极性 valve polarity
固定节流阀 fixed restrictive valve
可调节流阀 adjustable restrictive valve
单向节流阀 one-way restrictive valve
调速阀 speed regulator valve
分流阀 flow divider valve
集流阀 flow-combining valve
进口节流回路 meter-in circuit
盖茨液压 Gates hydraulics
Hydraulics 101®Introduction to HydraulicsIntroduction to Hydraulics Table of ContentPrinciples of Hydraulics1 i n2210 psiThough impressive on paper,Pascal’s Law wasn’t put into practical application Array until the Industrial Revolution when Joseph Bramah,a British mechanic,built a hydraulic press using pressure,force and confined fluid in a lever-like system.A closed hydraulic system such as the one diagrammed here provides a mechanical advantage similar to that of a simple lever.Bramah discovered that in a closed fluid system a small force exerted on asmall cylinder could balance a large force on a large cylinder. For example,1 pound of force applied to a 1 square inch cylinder can balance 100 poundsof force on a 100 square inch cylinder. This is how we can move a 100 pound weight using only 1 pound of force. The distance the 100 pounds will travel is inversely proportional to the distance the applied force travels. That means ifwe move a 1 square inch cylinder a distance of one inch,we only move the100 square inch cylinder 1/100th of an inch.3Hydraulic systems contain the following key components:Fluid -can be almost any liquid. The most common hydraulic fluids containspecially compounded petroleum oils that lubricate and protect thesystem from corrosion.Reservoir - acts as a storehouse for the fluid and a heat dissipater .Hydraulic pump -converts the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy byforcing hydraulic fluid,under pressure,from the reservoir into the system.Fluid lines -transport the fluid to and from the pump through the hydraulicsystem. These lines can be rigid metal tubes,or flexible hose assemblies.Fluid lines can transport fluid under pressure or vacuum (suction).Hydraulic valves -control pressure,direction and flow rate of thehydraulic fluid.Actuator -converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy to do work.Actuators usually take the form of hydraulic cylinders. Hydraulic cylindersare used on agricultural,construction,and industrial equipment.While there are different kinds of pumps,actuators,valves,etc.,the basicdesign of the hydraulic system is essentially the same for all machinery.ReservoirCylinderValve Hydraulic Pump Power Supply 4Where hydraulic hose is usedAgricultural EquipmentConstruction EquipmentMining EquipmentManufacturing Maintenance,Repair,OperationsCombines/Harvesters Midsize to Large Tractors Loaders Cement TrucksDozers/Crawlers Rollers ScrapersDozers/Crawlers Hauler Trucks Fork Lifts ExcavatorsExcavators 5Lawn & Garden Tractors Hauler Trucks BackhoesWhere hydraulic hose is used 6Where hydraulic hose is soldHydraulic Sales Opportunities 89Basics of HoseTubeThe tube may be made from many different rubber compounds and composites. The reason for different compounds is to chemically resist the fluid being conveyed. The tube must also resist corrosion, deterioration and the effects of high or low temperatures. The inside diameter (I.D.) of the tube is the key measurement of hose size and must provide the proper volume of fluid for the specific application. Typically,for an SAE specification hose,the smaller the tube's inside diameter,the higher the pressure it can handle.ReinforcementThe reinforcement is the muscle of all hydraulic hoses. It determines the working pressure of the hose. The reinforcement can be a braid or spiral wrap and can be made of natural fibers,synthetic materials or steel wire. Some hoses use a combination of fiber and steel wire or multiple layers of steel wire braids or spirals.CoverThe primary purpose of the cover is to protect the tube and reinforcement from heat,abrasion,corrosion and environmental deterioration. The cover can be made from synthetic rubber,fiber braids or a combination of both depending on the application. Hoses with synthetic rubber covers are generally preferred over textile-braid covers because they are more resistant to abrasion. Textile-braid covers are preferred over rubber covers,however,when gases or coolants are conveyed. (Gases migrating through the hose will not cause a textile-braid cover to blister or become separated from the tube). Textile braid covers tend to trap and hold dirt,oil and other contaminants that can deteriorate the hose and shorten its life. Abrasion,which also shortens hose life,occurs from hoses rubbing against each other or metal parts of the equipment. To address this problem,Gates developed MegaTuff®and XtraTuff®hose. They are abrasion-resistant hoses that last longer than standard rubbercover hoses.Details of the various kinds of materials used in the tube, reinforcement and cover,why they are used,and how they are arranged or formed into hose will be covered in a later training module.10Types of Hose by Operating Pressure11High-Pressure HoseThese hoses are often called “two-wire” braid hose because they generallyhave a reinforcement of two wire braids of high tensile strength steel. They are frequently found in high-pressure hydraulic applications such as construction equipment. Operating pressures range from 6,000 psi for a 3/16” I.D. to 1825 psi for a 2” I.D. Some proprietary hoses such as M3K have the same pressure rating for all sizes.Medium-Pressure Hose These hoses are used for hydraulic applications requiring operating pressures of 300 psi to 3,000 psi. They may be one-wire braid or multiple wire and/or textile braid construction.In addition to being used on medium-pressure hydraulic equipment,medium-pressure hoses are often used in heavy-duty truck and fleet vehicle applications. In the early 1940s,there were no flexible hoses on the market designed specifically for the fleet user. Truck mechanics discovered a heavy hose with a high working pressure that was used for hydraulic lines of aircraft and applied it to fleet applications. Soon this hose replaced the rigid copper tubing originally used on trucks.This truck hose is often called flexline or TWT (textile-wire-textile),but Gates calls this hose C5 hose after its SAE designation of SAE 100R5.1213Low-Pressure Hose Gates markets a variety of low-pressure hydraulic hose. These hoses are designed for use in various applications with operating pressures under 300 psi. Their reinforcement is usually textile. They are used on low-pressure hydraulic equipment or they are used to transmit petroleum-base fluids,diesel fuel,hot lubricating oil,air ,glycol anti-freeze and water . Some low-pressure hose such as GMV is also rated for suction applications.Specialty Hydraulic Hose Some of these hoses do not fit well into a particular pressure category,but are used in special applications. Examples of special applications are conveying refrigerant or LPG gas,operating at temperature extremes or requiring non-conductivity of electricity.Hydraulic Hose Dash Numbers and Nomenclature 14158M 2TGates constant pressure hose families have descriptive names. For example,the M3K designation breaks down as follows: The M means the hose can be bent twice as tight as standard SAE hose,3K means the hose has an operating pressure of 3000 pounds per square inch,(“K” is the Roman numeral for 1000). Hose Nomenclature SAE100R5. For some Gates SAE hoses the letter “C” (Roman numeral for 100) designates the SAE specification. (Example C5 means SAE100R5. The “R” was dropped to shorten the description.) 3000 psi Megasys ®(1/2 SAE bend radius)Dash size in 1/16" (i.e.,8/16 = 1/2")8M 3K Thin cover MegaSys ®(1/2 SAE bend radius)Dash size (1/2" I.D.)8C 5C “Cotton” cover SAE 100R5 Specs Dash size (13/32" I.D.)Example Hose NomenclatureBasics of Couplings 16StemFerrule17Coupling Thread Types1830°NPTF NPSM1920“0” Ring SealsThere are three basic designs in this family - the “O” Ring Boss,the Flat Face “O” Ring Seal,and the “O” Ring Flange.In the Boss design,straight threads make the connection while a rubber “O”ring makes the seal. The threads pull the fitting against the port which flattens the ring and forms a seal that is excellent for high-pressure applications.In the Flat Face “O” Ring Seal (FFOR) a seal is made when the O-ring in the male contacts the flat face on the female. The solid male O-ring face seal fitting will mate with a swivel female O-ring face seal fitting only. The O-ring sits in the O-ring grove in the male.“O” Ring Flanges solved the problem of making large diameter,high-pressure connections without having to use an extremely large wrench. The port is bored with a center outlet surrounded by a smooth flat face which has four tapped holes and four mounting bolts that tighten down onto flange clamps. There are no threads on the coupling.AdaptersAdapters are threaded metal parts with no direct hose attachment end. Their purpose is to affect a change in thread type,end size or to create a swivel at the port. Adapters will be covered in more detail in a later training module.Hydraulic Crimping Equipmentweighing2122OmniCrimp®21The OmniCrimp 21 is our newest state-of-the-art crimper. It is self-contained so there is no need for plumbing hydraulic lines,air bleeding,or special hookups. Everything is included inside the shroud including the pump. It crimps all Gates hydraulic hose types 3/16" to 2" six wire (-32 C13). It features a horizontal front-end feed which makes crimping easier and convenient especially with heavy,large hose assemblies. The unique speed-loading die system is fast and clean,and each die has its own storage cylinder.206 Cut-Off SawThe Power Cutter 206 features a high torque,4.2 horsepower motor. The front face plate on the 205 saw is designed with movable pins to hold different size hoses. The face plate allows for straight,accurate cuts without binding the saw. It can be used with either a metal blade designed to accurately and cleanly cut braided hose,or an abrasive blade designed to cutspiral hose.Coupling CabinetEach cabinet has four heavy-gauge steel shelves that slide out for easy access. Each shelf holds a combination of ten 3-1/2-inch-wide bin boxes or five 7-inch-wide bin boxes.Level 101 Review Quiz23249.“Two-wire” hydraulic hose is commonly referred to as which of thefollowing?a. medium pressureb. very high pressurec. extremely high pressured. none of the above10.Low-pressure “loc-on” couplings need only to be lubricated and pushedin the hose end for proper performance. True or False?ing Gates nomenclature,write the description for the followinghydraulic hose styles:a. SAE100R2ATb. SAE100R5c. SAE100R12d. SAE100R1312.Gates “loc-on” couplings are often made of brass. True or False?13.The compression of the hose between the stem and socket of high-pressure field attachable couplings holds the coupling on the hoseassembly. True or False?14.Generally,permanent style high-pressure couplings cost more thanfield-attachable high-pressure couplings. True or False? the two types of coupling thread configurations that seal with anO-ring.a.b. the two types of coupling thread configurations that do not sealwith an O-ring.a.b.17.Male couplings always have threads on the “outside.” True or False?18.What does“FJX” stand for? Array19.O-ring flange couplings have various styles of threads. True or False?20.What are the four field crimping machines that Gates supplies?a.b.c.d.21.What is the hose size range of the following crimpers?a. MC 4-20b. PC 3000Bc. OmniCrimp 21d. PC 70722.The size of a hydraulic hose is based on its ___________?23.What does the term “dash size” refer to?24.What is the inside diameter of a 4C2AT hose?25.What is the inside diameter of a 4C5C hose?26.What is the seat angle of the following coupling styles?a. SAE25b. JIC the six basic components of a hydraulic system.a.b.c.d.e.f.26®The Gates Rubber Company • 900 South Broadway • P.O. Box 5887 • Denver, Colorado 80217-5887Printed in U.S.A.8/99 428-7153®The Gates Rubber Company • 900 South Broadway • P.O. Box 5887 • Denver, Colorado 80217-5887Printed in U.S.A.8/99 428-7172。
土木工程专业英语词汇(整理版)
土木工程专业英语词汇(整理版)第一部分必须掌握，第二部分尽量掌握第一部分：1 Finite Element Method 有限单元法2 专业英语 Specialty English3 水利工程 Hydraulic Engineering4 土木工程 Civil Engineering5 地下工程 Underground Engineering6 岩土工程 Geotechnical Engineering7 道路工程 Road (Highway) Engineering8 桥梁工程Bridge Engineering9 隧道工程 Tunnel Engineering10 工程力学 Engineering Mechanics11 交通工程 Traffic Engineering12 港口工程 Port Engineering13 安全性 safety17木结构 timber structure18 砌体结构 masonry structure19 混凝土结构concrete structure20 钢结构 steelstructure21 钢 - 混凝土复合结构 steel and concrete composite structure22 素混凝土 plain concrete23 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete24 钢筋 rebar25 预应力混凝土 pre-stressed concrete26 静定结构statically determinate structure27 超静定结构 statically indeterminate structure28 桁架结构 truss structure29 空间网架结构 spatial grid structure30 近海工程 offshore engineering31 静力学 statics32运动学kinematics33 动力学dynamics34 简支梁 simply supported beam35 固定支座 fixed bearing36弹性力学 elasticity37 塑性力学 plasticity38 弹塑性力学 elaso-plasticity39 断裂力学 fracture Mechanics40 土力学 soil mechanics41 水力学 hydraulics42 流体力学 fluid mechanics43 固体力学solid mechanics44 集中力 concentrated force45 压力 pressure46 静水压力 hydrostatic pressure47 均布压力 uniform pressure48 体力 body force49 重力 gravity50 线荷载 line load51 弯矩 bending moment52 扭矩 torque53 应力 stress54 应变 stain55 正应力 normal stress56 剪应力 shearing stress57 主应力 principal stress58 变形 deformation59 内力 internal force60 偏移量挠度 deflection61 沉降settlement62 屈曲失稳 buckle63 轴力 axial force64 允许应力 allowable stress65 疲劳分析 fatigue analysis66 梁 beam67 壳 shell68 板 plate69 桥 bridge70 桩 pile71 主动土压力 active earth pressure72 被动土压力 passive earth pressure73 承载力 load-bearing capacity74 水位 water Height75 位移 displacement76 结构力学 structural mechanics77 材料力学 material mechanics78 经纬仪 altometer79 水准仪level80 学科 discipline81 子学科 sub-discipline82 期刊 journal periodical83 文献literature84 国际标准刊号ISSN International Standard Serial Number85 国际标准书号ISBN International Standard Book Number86 卷 volume87 期 number88 专著 monograph89 会议论文集 Proceeding90 学位论文 thesis dissertation91 专利 patent92 档案档案室 archive93 国际学术会议 conference94 导师 advisor95 学位论文答辩 defense of thesis96 博士研究生 doctorate student97 研究生 postgraduate98 工程索引EI Engineering Index99 科学引文索引SCI Science Citation Index100 科学技术会议论文集索引ISTP Index to Science and Tec hnology Proceedings 101 题目 title102 摘要 abstract103 全文 full-text104 参考文献 reference105 联络单位、所属单位affiliation106 主题词 Subject107 关键字 keyword108 美国土木工程师协会ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers109 联邦公路总署FHWA Federal Highway Administration110 国际标准组织ISO International Standard Organization111 解析方法 analytical method112 数值方法 numerical method113 计算 computation114 说明书 instruction115 规范 Specification Code第二部分：岩土工程专业词汇1.geotechnical engineering 岩土工程2.foundation engineering 基础工程3.soil earth 土4.soil mechanics 土力学5.cyclic loading 周期荷载6.unloading 卸载7.reloading 再加载8.viscoelastic foundation 粘弹性地基9.viscous damping 粘滞阻尼10.shear modulus 剪切模量11.soil dynamics 土动力学12.stress path 应力路径13.numerical geotechanics 数值岩土力学二.土的分类1.residual soil 残积土 groundwater level 地下水位2.groundwater 地下水 groundwater table 地下水位3.clay minerals 粘土矿物4.secondary minerals 次生矿物ndslides 滑坡6.bore hole columnar section 钻孔柱状图7.engineering geologic investigation 工程地质勘察8.boulder 漂石9.cobble 卵石10.gravel 砂石11.gravelly sand 砾砂12.coarse sand 粗砂13.medium sand 中砂14.fine sand 细砂15.silty sand 粉土16.clayey soil 粘性土17.clay 粘土18.silty clay 粉质粘土19.silt 粉土20.sandy silt 砂质粉土21.clayey silt 粘质粉土22.saturated soil 饱和土23.unsaturated soil 非饱和土24.fill (soil) 填土25.overconsolidated soil 超固结土26.normally consolidated soil 正常固结土27.underconsolidated soil 欠固结土28.zonal soil 区域性土29.soft clay 软粘土30.expansive (swelling) soil 膨胀土31.peat 泥炭32.loess 黄土33.frozen soil 冻土24.degree of saturation 饱和度25.dry unit weight 干重度26.moist unit weight 湿重度45.ISSMGE=International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 国际土力学与岩土工程学会四.渗透性和渗流1.Darcy’s law 达西定律2.piping 管涌3.flowing soil 流土4.sand boiling 砂沸5.flow net 流网6.seepage 渗透（流）7.leakage 渗流8.seepage pressure 渗透压力9.permeability 渗透性10.seepage force 渗透力11.hydraulic gradient 水力梯度12.coefficient of permeability 渗透系数五.地基应力和变形1.soft soil 软土2.(negative) skin friction of driven pile 打入桩（负）摩阻力3.effective stress 有效应力4.total stress 总应力5.field vane shear strength 十字板抗剪强度6.low activity 低活性7.sensitivity 灵敏度8.triaxial test 三轴试验9.foundation design 基础设计10.recompaction 再压缩11.bearing capacity 承载力12.soil mass 土体13.contact stress (pressure)接触应力（压力）14.concentrated load 集中荷载15.a semi-infinite elastic solid 半无限弹性体16.homogeneous 均质17.isotropic 各向同性18.strip footing 条基19.square spread footing 方形独立基础20.underlying soil (stratum strata)下卧层（土）21.dead load =sustained load 恒载持续荷载22.live load 活载23.short –term transient load 短期瞬时荷载24.long-term transient load 长期荷载25.reduced load 折算荷载26.settlement 沉降27.deformation 变形28.casing 套管29.dike=dyke 堤（防）30.clay fraction 粘粒粒组31.physical properties 物理性质32.subgrade 路基33.well-graded soil 级配良好土34.poorly-graded soil 级配不良土35.normal stresses 正应力36.shear stresses 剪应力37.principal plane 主平面38.major (intermediate minor) principal stress 最大（中、最小）主应力39.Mohr-Coulomb failure condition 摩尔-库仑破坏条件40.FEM=finite element method 有限元法41.limit equilibrium method 极限平衡法42.pore water pressure 孔隙水压力43.preconsolidation pressure 先期固结压力44.modulus of compressibility 压缩模量45.coefficent of compressibility 压缩系数pression index 压缩指数47.swelling index 回弹指数48.geostatic stress 自重应力49.additional stress 附加应力50.total stress 总应力51.final settlement 最终沉降52.slip line 滑动线六.基坑开挖与降水1 excavation 开挖（挖方）2 dewatering （基坑）降水3 failure of foundation 基坑失稳4 bracing of foundation pit 基坑围护5 bottom heave=basal heave （基坑）底隆起6 retaining wall 挡土墙7 pore-pressure distribution 孔压分布8 dewatering method 降低地下水位法9 well point system 井点系统（轻型）10 deep well point 深井点11 vacuum well point 真空井点12 braced cuts 支撑围护13 braced excavation 支撑开挖14 braced sheeting 支撑挡板七.深基础--deep foundation1.pile foundation 桩基础1)cast –in-place 灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile 沉管灌注桩bored pile 钻孔桩special-shaped cast-in-place pile 机控异型灌注桩piles set into rock 嵌岩灌注桩rammed bulb pile 夯扩桩2)belled pier foundation 钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation 钻孔扩底墩under-reamed bored pier3)precast concrete pile 预制混凝土桩4)steel pile 钢桩steel pipe pile 钢管桩steel sheet pile 钢板桩5)prestressed concrete pile 预应力混凝土桩prestressed concrete pipe pile 预应力混凝土管桩2.caisson foundation 沉井（箱）3.diaphragm wall 地下连续墙截水墙4.friction pile 摩擦桩5.end-bearing pile 端承桩6.shaft 竖井；桩身7.wave equation analysis 波动方程分析8.pile caps 承台（桩帽）9.bearing capacity of single pile 单桩承载力teral pile load test 单桩横向载荷试验11.ultimate lateral resistance of single pile 单桩横向极限承载力12.static load test of pile 单桩竖向静荷载试验13.vertical allowable load capacity 单桩竖向容许承载力14.low pile cap 低桩承台15.high-rise pile cap 高桩承台16.vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile 单桩抗拔极限承载力17.silent piling 静力压桩18.uplift pile 抗拔桩19.anti-slide pile 抗滑桩20.pile groups 群桩21.efficiency factor of pile groups 群桩效率系数（η）22.efficiency of pile groups 群桩效应23.dynamic pile testing 桩基动测技术24.final set 最后贯入度25.dynamic load test of pile 桩动荷载试验26.pile integrity test 桩的完整性试验27.pile head=butt 桩头28.pile tip=pile point=pile toe 桩端（头）29.pile spacing 桩距30.pile plan 桩位布置图31.arrangement of piles =pile layout 桩的布置32.group action 群桩作用33.end bearing=tip resistance 桩端阻34.skin(side) friction=shaft resistance 桩侧阻35.pile cushion 桩垫36.pile driving(by vibration) （振动）打桩37.pile pulling test 拔桩试验38.pile shoe 桩靴39.pile noise 打桩噪音40.pile rig 打桩机九.固结 consolidation1.Terzzaghi’s consolidation theory 太沙基固结理论2.Barraon’s consolidation theory 巴隆固结理论3.Biot’s consolidation theory 比奥固结理论4.over consolidation ration (OCR)超固结比5.overconsolidation soil 超固结土6.excess pore water pressure 超孔压力7.multi-dimensional consolidation 多维固结8.one-dimensional consolidation 一维固结9.primary consolidation 主固结10.secondary consolidation 次固结11.degree of consolidation 固结度12.consolidation test 固结试验13.consolidation curve 固结曲线14.time factor Tv 时间因子15.coefficient of consolidation 固结系数16.preconsolidation pressure 前期固结压力17.principle of effective stress 有效应力原理18.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结十.抗剪强度 shear strength1.undrained shear strength 不排水抗剪强度2.residual strength 残余强度3.long-term strength 长期强度4.peak strength 峰值强度5.shear strain rate 剪切应变速率6.dilatation 剪胀7.effective stress approach of shear strength 剪胀抗剪强度有效应力法 8.total stress approach of shear strength 抗剪强度总应力法9.Mohr-Coulomb theory 莫尔－库仑理论10.angle of internal friction 内摩擦角11.cohesion 粘聚力12.failure criterion 破坏准则13.vane strength 十字板抗剪强度14.unconfined compression 无侧限抗压强度15.effective stress failure envelop 有效应力破坏包线16.effective stress strength parameter 有效应力强度参数十一.本构模型--constitutive model1.elastic model 弹性模型2.nonlinear elastic model 非线性弹性模型3.elastoplastic model 弹塑性模型4.viscoelastic model 粘弹性模型5.boundary surface model 边界面模型6.Du ncan-Chang model 邓肯－张模型7.rigid plastic model 刚塑性模型8.cap model 盖帽模型9.work softening 加工软化10.work hardening 加工硬化11.Cambridge model 剑桥模型12.ideal elastoplastic model 理想弹塑性模型13.Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion 莫尔－库仑屈服准则14.yield surface 屈服面15.elastic half-space foundation model 弹性半空间地基模型16.elastic modulus 弹性模量17.Winkler foundation model 文克尔地基模型十二.地基承载力--bearing capacity of foundation soil1.punching shear failure 冲剪破坏2.general shear failure 整体剪切破化3.local shear failure 局部剪切破坏4.state of limit equilibrium 极限平衡状态5.critical edge pressure 临塑荷载6.stability of foundation soil 地基稳定性7.ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基极限承载力8.allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基容许承载力十三.土压力--earth pressure1.active earth pressure 主动土压力2.passive earth pressure 被动土压力3.earth pressure at rest 静止土压力4.Coulomb’s earth pressure theory 库仑土压力理论5.Rankine’s earth p ressure theory 朗金土压力理论十四.土坡稳定分析--slope stability analysis1.angle of repose 休止角2.Bishop method 毕肖普法3.safety factor of slope 边坡稳定安全系数4.Fellenius method of slices 费纽伦斯条分法5.Swedish circle method 瑞典圆弧滑动法6.slices method 条分法十五.挡土墙--retaining wall1.stability of retaining wall 挡土墙稳定性2.foundation wall 基础墙3.counter retaining wall 扶壁式挡土墙4.cantilever retaining wall 悬臂式挡土墙5.cantilever sheet pile wall 悬臂式板桩墙6.gravity retaining wall 重力式挡土墙7.anchored plate retaining wall 锚定板挡土墙8.anchored sheet pile wall 锚定板板桩墙十六.板桩结构物--sheet pile structure1.steel sheet pile 钢板桩2.reinforced concrete sheet pile 钢筋混凝土板桩3.steel piles 钢桩4.wooden sheet pile 木板桩5.timber piles 木桩十七.浅基础--shallow foundation1.box foundation 箱型基础2.mat(raft) foundation 片筏基础3.strip foundation 条形基础4.spread footing 扩展基础pensated foundation 补偿性基础6.bearing stratum 持力层7.rigid foundation 刚性基础8.flexible foundation 柔性基础9.emxxxxbedded depth of foundation 基础埋置深度 foundation pressure 基底附加应力11.structure-foundation-soil interaction analysis 上部结构－基础－地基共同作用分析十八.土的动力性质--dynamic properties of soils1.dynamic strength of soils 动强度2.wave velocity method 波速法3.material damping 材料阻尼4.geometric damping 几何阻尼5.damping ratio 阻尼比6.initial liquefaction 初始液化7.natural period of soil site 地基固有周期8.dynamic shear modulus of soils 动剪切模量9.dynamic ma二十.地基基础抗震1.earthquake engineering 地震工程2.soil dynamics 土动力学3.duration of earthquake 地震持续时间4.earthquake response spectrum 地震反应谱5.earthquake intensity 地震烈度6.earthquake magnitude 震级7.seismic predominant period 地震卓越周期8.maximum acceleration of earthquake 地震最大加速度二十一.室内土工实验1.high pressure consolidation test 高压固结试验2.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结试验3.falling head permeability 变水头试验4.constant head permeability 常水头渗透试验5.unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test 不固结不排水试验(UU)6.consolidated undrained triaxial test 固结不排水试验(CU)7.consolidated drained triaxial test 固结排水试验(CD)paction test 击实试验9.consolidated quick direct shear test 固结快剪试验10.quick direct shear test 快剪试验11.consolidated drained direct shear test 慢剪试验12.sieve analysis 筛分析13.geotechnical model test 土工模型试验14.centrifugal model test 离心模型试验15.direct shear apparatus 直剪仪16.direct shear test 直剪试验17.direct simple shear test 直接单剪试验18.dynamic triaxial test 三轴试验19.dynamic simple shear 动单剪20.free（resonance）vibration column test 自(共)振柱试验二十二.原位测试1.standard penetration test (SPT)标准贯入试验2.surface wave test (SWT) 表面波试验3.dynamic penetration test(DPT) 动力触探试验4.static cone penetration (SPT) 静力触探试验5.plate loading test 静力荷载试验teral load test of pile 单桩横向载荷试验7.static load test of pile 单桩竖向荷载试验8.cross-hole test 跨孔试验9.screw plate test 螺旋板载荷试验10.pressuremeter test 旁压试验11.light sounding 轻便触探试验12.deep settlement measurement 深层沉降观测13.vane shear test 十字板剪切试验14.field permeability test 现场渗透试验15.in-situ pore water pressure measurement 原位孔隙水压量测16.in-situ soil test 原位试验第一部分必须掌握，第二部分尽量掌握第一部分：1 Finite Element Method 有限单元法2 专业英语 Specialty English3 水利工程 Hydraulic Engineering4 土木工程 Civil Engineering5 地下工程 Underground Engineering6 岩土工程 Geotechnical Engineering7 道路工程 Road (Highway) Engineering8 桥梁工程Bridge Engineering9 隧道工程 Tunnel Engineering10 工程力学 Engineering Mechanics11 交通工程 Traffic Engineering12 港口工程 Port Engineering13 安全性 safety17木结构 timber structure18 砌体结构 masonry structure19 混凝土结构concrete structure20 钢结构 steelstructure21 钢 - 混凝土复合结构 steel and concrete composite structure22 素混凝土 plain concrete23 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete24 钢筋 rebar25 预应力混凝土 pre-stressed concrete26 静定结构statically determinate structure27 超静定结构 statically indeterminate structure28 桁架结构 truss structure29 空间网架结构 spatial grid structure30 近海工程 offshore engineering31 静力学 statics32运动学kinematics33 动力学dynamics34 简支梁 simply supported beam35 固定支座 fixed bearing36弹性力学 elasticity37 塑性力学 plasticity38 弹塑性力学 elaso-plasticity39 断裂力学 fracture Mechanics40 土力学 soil mechanics41 水力学 hydraulics42 流体力学 fluid mechanics43 固体力学solid mechanics44 集中力 concentrated force45 压力 pressure46 静水压力 hydrostatic pressure47 均布压力 uniform pressure48 体力 body force49 重力 gravity50 线荷载 line load51 弯矩 bending moment52 扭矩 torque53 应力 stress54 应变 stain55 正应力 normal stress56 剪应力 shearing stress57 主应力 principal stress58 变形 deformation59 内力 internal force60 偏移量挠度 deflection61 沉降settlement62 屈曲失稳 buckle63 轴力 axial force64 允许应力 allowable stress65 疲劳分析 fatigue analysis66 梁 beam67 壳 shell68 板 plate69 桥 bridge70 桩 pile71 主动土压力 active earth pressure72 被动土压力 passive earth pressure73 承载力 load-bearing capacity74 水位 water Height75 位移 displacement76 结构力学 structural mechanics77 材料力学 material mechanics78 经纬仪 altometer79 水准仪level80 学科 discipline81 子学科 sub-discipline82 期刊 journal periodical83 文献literature84 国际标准刊号ISSN International Standard Serial Number85 国际标准书号ISBN International Standard Book Number86 卷 volume87 期 number88 专著 monograph89 会议论文集 Proceeding90 学位论文 thesis dissertation91 专利 patent92 档案档案室 archive93 国际学术会议 conference94 导师 advisor95 学位论文答辩 defense of thesis96 博士研究生 doctorate student97 研究生 postgraduate98 工程索引EI Engineering Index99 科学引文索引SCI Science Citation Index100 科学技术会议论文集索引ISTP Index to Science and Tec hnology Proceedings 101 题目 title102 摘要 abstract103 全文 full-text104 参考文献 reference105 联络单位、所属单位affiliation106 主题词 Subject107 关键字 keyword108 美国土木工程师协会ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers109 联邦公路总署FHWA Federal Highway Administration110 国际标准组织ISO International Standard Organization111 解析方法 analytical method112 数值方法 numerical method113 计算 computation114 说明书 instruction115 规范 Specification Code第二部分：岩土工程专业词汇1.geotechnical engineering 岩土工程2.foundation engineering 基础工程3.soil earth 土4.soil mechanics 土力学5.cyclic loading 周期荷载6.unloading 卸载7.reloading 再加载8.viscoelastic foundation 粘弹性地基9.viscous damping 粘滞阻尼10.shear modulus 剪切模量11.soil dynamics 土动力学12.stress path 应力路径13.numerical geotechanics 数值岩土力学二.土的分类1.residual soil 残积土 groundwater level 地下水位2.groundwater 地下水 groundwater table 地下水位3.clay minerals 粘土矿物4.secondary minerals 次生矿物ndslides 滑坡6.bore hole columnar section 钻孔柱状图7.engineering geologic investigation 工程地质勘察8.boulder 漂石9.cobble 卵石10.gravel 砂石11.gravelly sand 砾砂12.coarse sand 粗砂13.medium sand 中砂14.fine sand 细砂15.silty sand 粉土16.clayey soil 粘性土17.clay 粘土18.silty clay 粉质粘土19.silt 粉土20.sandy silt 砂质粉土21.clayey silt 粘质粉土22.saturated soil 饱和土23.unsaturated soil 非饱和土24.fill (soil) 填土25.overconsolidated soil 超固结土26.normally consolidated soil 正常固结土27.underconsolidated soil 欠固结土28.zonal soil 区域性土29.soft clay 软粘土30.expansive (swelling) soil 膨胀土31.peat 泥炭32.loess 黄土33.frozen soil 冻土24.degree of saturation 饱和度25.dry unit weight 干重度26.moist unit weight 湿重度45.ISSMGE=International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 国际土力学与岩土工程学会四.渗透性和渗流1.Darcy’s law 达西定律2.piping 管涌3.flowing soil 流土4.sand boiling 砂沸5.flow net 流网6.seepage 渗透（流）7.leakage 渗流8.seepage pressure 渗透压力9.permeability 渗透性10.seepage force 渗透力11.hydraulic gradient 水力梯度12.coefficient of permeability 渗透系数五.地基应力和变形1.soft soil 软土2.(negative) skin friction of driven pile 打入桩（负）摩阻力3.effective stress 有效应力4.total stress 总应力5.field vane shear strength 十字板抗剪强度6.low activity 低活性7.sensitivity 灵敏度8.triaxial test 三轴试验9.foundation design 基础设计10.recompaction 再压缩11.bearing capacity 承载力12.soil mass 土体13.contact stress (pressure)接触应力（压力）14.concentrated load 集中荷载15.a semi-infinite elastic solid 半无限弹性体16.homogeneous 均质17.isotropic 各向同性18.strip footing 条基19.square spread footing 方形独立基础20.underlying soil (stratum strata)下卧层（土）21.dead load =sustained load 恒载持续荷载22.live load 活载23.short –term transient load 短期瞬时荷载24.long-term transient load 长期荷载25.reduced load 折算荷载26.settlement 沉降27.deformation 变形28.casing 套管29.dike=dyke 堤（防）30.clay fraction 粘粒粒组31.physical properties 物理性质32.subgrade 路基33.well-graded soil 级配良好土34.poorly-graded soil 级配不良土35.normal stresses 正应力36.shear stresses 剪应力37.principal plane 主平面38.major (intermediate minor) principal stress 最大（中、最小）主应力39.Mohr-Coulomb failure condition 摩尔-库仑破坏条件40.FEM=finite element method 有限元法41.limit equilibrium method 极限平衡法42.pore water pressure 孔隙水压力43.preconsolidation pressure 先期固结压力44.modulus of compressibility 压缩模量45.coefficent of compressibility 压缩系数pression index 压缩指数47.swelling index 回弹指数48.geostatic stress 自重应力49.additional stress 附加应力50.total stress 总应力51.final settlement 最终沉降52.slip line 滑动线六.基坑开挖与降水1 excavation 开挖（挖方）2 dewatering （基坑）降水3 failure of foundation 基坑失稳4 bracing of foundation pit 基坑围护5 bottom heave=basal heave （基坑）底隆起6 retaining wall 挡土墙7 pore-pressure distribution 孔压分布8 dewatering method 降低地下水位法9 well point system 井点系统（轻型）10 deep well point 深井点11 vacuum well point 真空井点12 braced cuts 支撑围护13 braced excavation 支撑开挖14 braced sheeting 支撑挡板七.深基础--deep foundation1.pile foundation 桩基础1)cast –in-place 灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile 沉管灌注桩bored pile 钻孔桩special-shaped cast-in-place pile 机控异型灌注桩piles set into rock 嵌岩灌注桩rammed bulb pile 夯扩桩2)belled pier foundation 钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation 钻孔扩底墩under-reamed bored pier3)precast concrete pile 预制混凝土桩4)steel pile 钢桩steel pipe pile 钢管桩steel sheet pile 钢板桩5)prestressed concrete pile 预应力混凝土桩prestressed concrete pipe pile 预应力混凝土管桩2.caisson foundation 沉井（箱）3.diaphragm wall 地下连续墙截水墙4.friction pile 摩擦桩5.end-bearing pile 端承桩6.shaft 竖井；桩身7.wave equation analysis 波动方程分析8.pile caps 承台（桩帽）9.bearing capacity of single pile 单桩承载力teral pile load test 单桩横向载荷试验11.ultimate lateral resistance of single pile 单桩横向极限承载力12.static load test of pile 单桩竖向静荷载试验13.vertical allowable load capacity 单桩竖向容许承载力14.low pile cap 低桩承台15.high-rise pile cap 高桩承台16.vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile 单桩抗拔极限承载力17.silent piling 静力压桩18.uplift pile 抗拔桩19.anti-slide pile 抗滑桩20.pile groups 群桩21.efficiency factor of pile groups 群桩效率系数（η）22.efficiency of pile groups 群桩效应23.dynamic pile testing 桩基动测技术24.final set 最后贯入度25.dynamic load test of pile 桩动荷载试验26.pile integrity test 桩的完整性试验27.pile head=butt 桩头28.pile tip=pile point=pile toe 桩端（头）29.pile spacing 桩距30.pile plan 桩位布置图31.arrangement of piles =pile layout 桩的布置32.group action 群桩作用33.end bearing=tip resistance 桩端阻34.skin(side) friction=shaft resistance 桩侧阻35.pile cushion 桩垫36.pile driving(by vibration) （振动）打桩37.pile pulling test 拔桩试验38.pile shoe 桩靴39.pile noise 打桩噪音40.pile rig 打桩机九.固结 consolidation1.Terzzaghi’s consolidation theory 太沙基固结理论2.Barra on’s consolidation theory 巴隆固结理论3.Biot’s consolidation theory 比奥固结理论4.over consolidation ration (OCR)超固结比5.overconsolidation soil 超固结土6.excess pore water pressure 超孔压力7.multi-dimensional consolidation 多维固结8.one-dimensional consolidation 一维固结9.primary consolidation 主固结10.secondary consolidation 次固结11.degree of consolidation 固结度12.consolidation test 固结试验13.consolidation curve 固结曲线14.time factor Tv 时间因子15.coefficient of consolidation 固结系数16.preconsolidation pressure 前期固结压力17.principle of effective stress 有效应力原理18.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结十.抗剪强度 shear strength1.undrained shear strength 不排水抗剪强度2.residual strength 残余强度3.long-term strength 长期强度4.peak strength 峰值强度5.shear strain rate 剪切应变速率6.dilatation 剪胀7.effective stress approach of shear strength 剪胀抗剪强度有效应力法 8.total stress approach of shear strength 抗剪强度总应力法9.Mohr-Coulomb theory 莫尔－库仑理论10.angle of internal friction 内摩擦角11.cohesion 粘聚力12.failure criterion 破坏准则13.vane strength 十字板抗剪强度14.unconfined compression 无侧限抗压强度15.effective stress failure envelop 有效应力破坏包线16.effective stress strength parameter 有效应力强度参数十一.本构模型--constitutive model1.elastic model 弹性模型2.nonlinear elastic model 非线性弹性模型3.elastoplastic model 弹塑性模型4.viscoelastic model 粘弹性模型5.boundary surface model 边界面模型6.Du ncan-Chang model 邓肯－张模型7.rigid plastic model 刚塑性模型8.cap model 盖帽模型9.work softening 加工软化10.work hardening 加工硬化11.Cambridge model 剑桥模型12.ideal elastoplastic model 理想弹塑性模型13.Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion 莫尔－库仑屈服准则14.yield surface 屈服面15.elastic half-space foundation model 弹性半空间地基模型16.elastic modulus 弹性模量17.Winkler foundation model 文克尔地基模型十二.地基承载力--bearing capacity of foundation soil1.punching shear failure 冲剪破坏2.general shear failure 整体剪切破化3.local shear failure 局部剪切破坏4.state of limit equilibrium 极限平衡状态5.critical edge pressure 临塑荷载6.stability of foundation soil 地基稳定性7.ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基极限承载力8.allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基容许承载力十三.土压力--earth pressure1.active earth pressure 主动土压力2.passive earth pressure 被动土压力3.earth pressure at rest 静止土压力4.Coulomb’s earth pressure theory 库仑土压力理论5.Rankine’s earth pressure theory 朗金土压力理论十四.土坡稳定分析--slope stability analysis1.angle of repose 休止角2.Bishop method 毕肖普法3.safety factor of slope 边坡稳定安全系数4.Fellenius method of slices 费纽伦斯条分法5.Swedish circle method 瑞典圆弧滑动法6.slices method 条分法十五.挡土墙--retaining wall1.stability of retaining wall 挡土墙稳定性2.foundation wall 基础墙3.counter retaining wall 扶壁式挡土墙4.cantilever retaining wall 悬臂式挡土墙5.cantilever sheet pile wall 悬臂式板桩墙6.gravity retaining wall 重力式挡土墙7.anchored plate retaining wall 锚定板挡土墙8.anchored sheet pile wall 锚定板板桩墙十六.板桩结构物--sheet pile structure1.steel sheet pile 钢板桩2.reinforced concrete sheet pile 钢筋混凝土板桩3.steel piles 钢桩4.wooden sheet pile 木板桩5.timber piles 木桩十七.浅基础--shallow foundation1.box foundation 箱型基础2.mat(raft) foundation 片筏基础3.strip foundation 条形基础4.spread footing 扩展基础pensated foundation 补偿性基础6.bearing stratum 持力层7.rigid foundation 刚性基础8.flexible foundation 柔性基础9.emxxxxbedded depth of foundation 基础埋置深度 foundation pressure 基底附加应力11.structure-foundation-soil interaction analysis 上部结构－基础－地基共同作用分析十八.土的动力性质--dynamic properties of soils1.dynamic strength of soils 动强度2.wave velocity method 波速法3.material damping 材料阻尼4.geometric damping 几何阻尼5.damping ratio 阻尼比6.initial liquefaction 初始液化7.natural period of soil site 地基固有周期8.dynamic shear modulus of soils 动剪切模量9.dynamic ma二十.地基基础抗震1.earthquake engineering 地震工程2.soil dynamics 土动力学3.duration of earthquake 地震持续时间4.earthquake response spectrum 地震反应谱5.earthquake intensity 地震烈度6.earthquake magnitude 震级7.seismic predominant period 地震卓越周期8.maximum acceleration of earthquake 地震最大加速度二十一.室内土工实验1.high pressure consolidation test 高压固结试验2.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结试验3.falling head permeability 变水头试验4.constant head permeability 常水头渗透试验5.unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test 不固结不排水试验(UU)6.consolidated undrained triaxial test 固结不排水试验(CU)7.consolidated drained triaxial test 固结排水试验(CD)paction test 击实试验9.consolidated quick direct shear test 固结快剪试验10.quick direct shear test 快剪试验11.consolidated drained direct shear test 慢剪试验12.sieve analysis 筛分析13.geotechnical model test 土工模型试验14.centrifugal model test 离心模型试验15.direct shear apparatus 直剪仪16.direct shear test 直剪试验17.direct simple shear test 直接单剪试验18.dynamic triaxial test 三轴试验19.dynamic simple shear 动单剪20.free（resonance）vibration column test 自(共)振柱试验二十二.原位测试1.standard penetration test (SPT)标准贯入试验2.surface wave test (SWT) 表面波试验3.dynamic penetration test(DPT) 动力触探试验4.static cone penetration (SPT) 静力触探试验5.plate loading test 静力荷载试验teral load test of pile 单桩横向载荷试验7.static load test of pile 单桩竖向荷载试验8.cross-hole test 跨孔试验9.screw plate test 螺旋板载荷试验10.pressuremeter test 旁压试验11.light sounding 轻便触探试验12.deep settlement measurement 深层沉降观测13.vane shear test 十字板剪切试验14.field permeability test 现场渗透试验15.in-situ pore water pressure measurement 原位孔隙水压量测16.in-situ soil test 原位试验。
SAES-A-004沙特阿美石油公司管道试压
Previous Issue: 14 November 2009 Next Planned Update: 14 November 2014Revised paragraphs are indicated in the right marginPage 1 of 18 Primary contact: Mc Ghee, Patrick Timothy on 966-3-8736486Engineering StandardSAES-A-00414 December 2009 General Requirements for Pressure TestingInspection Engineering Standards Committee MembersKakpovbia, Anthony Eyankwiere, ChairmanRajeh, Saleh Rashid, Vice ChairmanAlbarillo, Rodolfo CelinoAnazy, Khalid JumaBoult, DavidCarrera, Rene LGhamdi, Khalid SalemIngram, James YoungKeen, Peter DavidKhunaizi, Mohammad RedhiLangla, Edward CharlesMc Ghee, Patrick TimothyMohsen, Hassan AbdallahSeyed Mohamed, Abdul CaderShammary, Hamed AbdulwahabStockenberger, Hans JSuwaidan, Khalid AliSaudi Aramco DeskTop StandardsTable of Contents1 Scope (2)2 Conflicts and Deviations (2)3 References (3)4 Definitions (5)5 General Requirements (6)6 Utilizing Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)in Lieu of Pressure Testing (9)7 Specific Testing Requirement (10)8 Preparation for Pressure Test (13)9 Conducting Pressure Test (15)10 Post Pressure Test (16)Next Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure TestingTable of ContentsAppendix I – Sample Form of Request forNon-Destructive Testing in-Lieuof Hydrostatic Test (18)Appendix II – Sample of SA-2642-ENGPressure Test Report Form (19)Appendix III – Fin Fan Pressure TestDecision Tree (20)1 Scope1.1 This standard defines mandatory general requirements governing in-situpressure testing of new and existing pipelines, plant piping and pressurecontaining process equipment (hereinafter called equipment). Specificrequirements are covered in the specific SAESs applicable to that equipment orpiping system. This standard supplements ASME B31's and other applicablecodes.1.2 The requirements of this standard apply to field/shop fabricated piping systemsand field fabricated equipment.1.3 This standard does not cover pressure testing of new, shop fabricated equipmentsuch as vessels, tanks, heat exchangers and skid mounted piping which arepurchased in accordance with the applicable SAMSS.Exception:Fin-fan coolers are to be tested in accordance with paragraph 7.4.5.1.4 This standard applies to pre start-up leak tests normally conducted byOperations during start-up, commissioning and T&I of the facilities inaccordance with approved plant operating procedures.1.5 This standard does not apply to equipment as excluded in section 8.2.2 Conflicts and Deviations2.1 Any conflicts between this standard and other applicable Saudi AramcoEngineering Standards (SAES's), Materials System Specifications (SAMSS's),Standard Drawings (SASD's), or industry standards, codes, and forms shall beresolved in writing by the Company or Buyer Representative through theManager, Inspection Department of Saudi Aramco, Dhahran.2.2 Direct all requests to deviate from this standard in writing to the Company orBuyer Representative, who shall follow internal company procedure SAEP-302and forward such requests to the Manager, Inspection Department of SaudiAramco, Dhahran.Next Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure Testing3 ReferencesThe selection of material and equipment, and the design, construction, maintenance, and repair of equipment and facilities required by this standard shall comply with the latest edition of the references listed below, unless otherwise noted.3.1 Saudi Aramco ReferencesSaudi Aramco Engineering ProceduresSAEP-302Instructions for Obtaining a Waiver of aMandatory Saudi Aramco EngineeringRequirementSAEP-327Disposal of Wastewater from Cleaning, Flushing,and Dewatering Pipelines and VesselsSaudi Aramco Engineering StandardsSAES-A-005Safety Instruction SheetSAES-A-007Hydrostatic Testing Fluids and Lay-upProceduresSAES-B-017Fire Water SystemsSAES-D-008Repairs, Alteration, and Re-rating of ProcessEquipmentSAES-D-108Repair, Alteration and Reconstruction of StorageTankSAES-D-109Design of Small TanksSAES-H-001Coating Selection & Application Requirements forIndustrial Plants & EquipmentSAES-H-101Approved Protective Coating Systems forIndustrial Plants and EquipmentSAES-K-001Heating, Ventilating and Air-ConditioningSAES-L-108Selection of ValvesSAES-L-109Selection of flanges, Stud Bolts and GasketsSAES-L-150Pressure Testing of Plant Piping and PipelinesSAES-L-350Construction of Plant PipingSAES-J-901Instrument Air Supply SystemsSAES-S-020Oily Water Drainage SystemsSAES-S-030Storm Water DrainageSAES-S-040Saudi Aramco Water SystemsNext Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure TestingSAES-S-060Saudi Aramco Plumbing CodeSAES-S-070Installation of Utility Piping SystemsSaudi Aramco Materials System Specifications01-SAMSS-010Fabricated Carbon Steel Piping04-SAMSS-048Valve Testing and Inspection Requirements32-SAMSS-004Manufacturing of Pressure Vessels32-SAMSS-005Manufacturing of Atmospheric Tanks32-SAMSS-006Manufacturing of Low Pressure Tanks32-SAMSS-029Manufacturing of Fired HeatersSaudi Aramco Form and Data SheetForm SA-2642-ENG Pressure Test Report FormSaudi Aramco General InstructionsGI-0002.102 Pressure Testing SafelyGI-1781.001 Inspection, Testing and Maintenance of FireProtection EquipmentSaudi Aramco Bottled Gas Manual Section V3.2 Industry Codes and StandardsAmerican Petroleum SocietyAPI RP 520Part I - Sizing, Selection, and Installation ofPressure Relieving Devices in Refineries American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE Std 15Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration American Society of Mechanical EngineersASME B31.1Power PipingASME B31.3Process PipingASME B31.4Pipeline Transportation Systems for LiquidHydrocarbons and Other LiquidsASME B31.5Refrigeration PipingASME B31.8Gas Transmission and Distribution PipingSystemsASME B31.9Building Services PipingASME SEC I Rules for Construction of Power BoilersNext Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure TestingASME SEC V Article 10 Leak TestingASME SEC VIII D1Boiler and Pressure Vessel CodeASME SEC VIII D2Alternative RulesNational Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel InspectorsNB 23National Board of Inspection CodeUniform Mechanical Code (UMC)Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC)4 DefinitionsPressure Test: A test conducted to piping or equipment by subjecting it to an internal pressure using liquid or gas to ensure strength or tightness of the system at the testpressure. Pressure test may be a:∙Hydrostatic Test: A pressure test conducted using water or other approved liquid as the test medium.∙Pneumatic Test: A pressure test conducted using air or other approved gas as the test medium or in conjunction with liquid.∙Pre Start-up Leak Test: A pressure test to ensure tightness of flanged and threaded joints at normal operating pressure. It is normally conducted before initialstart-up, during commissioning or after T&Is.∙Revalidation Test: A pressure test performed to prove the integrity of existing piping or equipment. This test is administered by the proponent organization.∙Service Test: A pressure test conducted at operating pressure using the service fluid.∙Strength Test: A pressure test at an internal pressure determined in accordance with this standard and the applicable Code to verify the integrity of the pipingsystems or equipment for service at the design pressure.∙System Test: An in-situ pressure test applied to a group of piping and equipment tested as a system.∙Tightness Test: A pressure test to ensure tightness of the piping system (i.e., no leaks in the system) at the test pressure.Pressure Test Procedure. Information assembled to ensure all requirements listed inGI-0002.102, all referenced Saudi Aramco standards and Industrial standards are met.Senior Operations’ Representative. The Lead or most senior operations’representative on a new construction project and may be a Facility / Plant Manager ifone has been appointed.Next Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure Testing5 General Requirements5.1 General Instruction GI-0002.102 "Pressure Testing Safely" shall be followedduring pressure testing.5.2 Pneumatic testing5.2.1 Pneumatic testing is not permitted without written approval of theManager, Inspection Department, unless specifically allowed by thisstandard or the referenced Saudi Aramco SAESs or SAMSSs. This test,when conducted, shall be in accordance with GI-0002.102 for additionalsafety requirements.5.2.2 Pneumatic testing with air of piping systems or equipment which havebeen in flammable service shall be concurred by the Manager, LossPrevention Department.5.3 The effect of the static head of the testing liquid shall be considered whendetermining the effective test pressure of any elements within a tested system.5.4 Test pressures and test durations shall be based on the applicable Aramcostandards.5.5 Protection from OverpressureAll systems (piping and equipment) while being pressure tested shall beprotected from being over pressured by the following:5.5.1 Pressure test relief valve(s) of adequate capacity set to relieve at 5%above the test pressure shall be installed unless the test pressure is lessthan 85% SMYS at which time it can be set at 10% above the testpressure. Sizing of these relief valves used for testing shall follow therequirements of API RP 520, Part 1. The relief valve(s) shall be tested,dated, and tagged within one week prior to the pressure test for newconstruction projects, and within one month for maintenance operations.The pressure test relief valve shall be accompanied with a calibrationcertificate that includes the cold differential test pressure (CDTP), testdate and the spring range. The CDTP shall be within the spring range.5.5.2 In addition to the pressure relieving device, a bleed valve shall beprovided to protect the piping and equipment from overpressure. Thebleed valve shall be readily accessible in case immediatedepressurization is required.5.5.3 An isolation valve shall be provided between the pressure testingmanifold and the system being tested. The isolation valve shall be ratedfor the manifold test pressure when in the closed position.5.5.4 Before employing the pressure testing manifold in the actual systempressure test, it shall be separately pressure tested to at least 1.2 times theNext Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure Testing system test pressure but not less than the discharge pressure of the pumpused for the pressure testing.5.5.4.1 The test manifold shall be designed and constructed to meet theminimum system requirements and approved by theEngineering Division head in operating facilities or responsibleProject Inspection Division head in new construction.5.5.4.2 Test manifolds shall have 100% NDT of all welds.5.5.4.3 Test manifolds for new construction shall be revalidated foreach new project and every 60 months for operating facilities.Commentary Note:System requirements include pressure and temperature ratingson the piping and fittings for the equipment and piping beingtested.5.6 Pressure Test Procedure5.6.1 A pressure test procedure shall be prepared by the responsibleengineering group and made available to responsible inspection groupprior to conducting the test. The test procedure shall be available on siteat all times.5.6.2 The pressure test procedure shall include all required documentationspecified in GI-0002.102, paragraph 5.1.2.5.6.3 During a pneumatic pressure test a leak test shall be performed inaccordance with ASME SEC V Article 10 and Article 10 Appendix Iexcept the pressure shall be 5 - 10 psi. A calculation sheet indicatingadequacy of the pressure test relief valve shall be included in theprocedure.5.7 The requirement for pre start-up leak tests and service tests during initial start-upand T&Is shall be as follows:5.7.1 New systems after strength tests and prior to initial start-up:5.7.1.1 For systems with maximum operating pressures greater than6.894 MPa (1000 psi), a leak test with inert gas, followed by aservice test, shall be conducted at the maximum operatingpressure of the piping system. Oil flowlines, trunklines, testlinesand water injection lines are excluded from this requirement.5.7.1.2 For systems with maximum operating pressures less than6.894 MPa (1000 psi), a pre start-up leak test with inert gas orsteam (if designed for steam service)shall be conducted at theavailable inert gas or steam system pressure (not exceeding themaximum operating pressure), or pressure as recommended bythe facility Engineering Unit responsible for developing the testNext Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure Testingpackage, followed by a service test at normal operatingpressure of the piping systems. When inert gas or steam arenot available, the service test will satisfy the pre start-up leaktest requirements.5.7.2 Existing systems after T&Is:5.7.2.1 For systems with maximum operating pressures greater than6.894 MPa (1000 psi) which are in hydrogen service or in sourservice with hydrogen sulfide concentrations higher than0.1 mole %:5.7.2.1.1 A pre start-up leak test with inert gas shall beconducted after major T&Is. The test pressure shallbe determined by the plant Operating Department.For minor T&Is, the pre start-up leak test shall beconducted per 5.7.2.2.5.7.2.1.2 The pre start-up leak test shall be followed by aservice test at the normal operating pressure of thepiping.Commentary Note:A major T&I is defined as either a catalyst changeor a major disassembly of flanges, gaskets, etc.The local Operations Engineering Unit andInspection Unit have the responsibility to definewhen a T&I is considered as major. This definitionmust be made during the pre-T&I scope of work toallow Operations sufficient time to have inert gason-site prior to start-up of the facility.5.7.2.2 For all other systems and pressures, a pre start-up leak test withinert gas or steam (if designed for steam service) shall beconducted at the available inert gas or steam system pressure(not exceeding the maximum operating pressure), or atpressure as recommended by responsible OperationsEngineering Unit, followed by a service test at normaloperating pressure of the piping systems. When inert gas orsteam are not available, the service test will satisfy the prestart-up leak test requirements.5.7.2.3 Procedures for both pre start-up leak tests and service testsshall address, to the extent possible, the safety precautionsprovided in GI-0002.102 "Pressure Testing Safely."5.8 If the drop in ambient temperature may cause the test medium to freeze duringthe test, appropriate precautionary measures must be taken to protect theequipment or piping systems.Next Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure Testing6 Utilizing Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) in Lieu Of Pressure Testing6.1 A request to utilize NDT in-lieu of pressure testing shall be submitted forapproval as permitted in the specific SAES listed in Section 7- “Specific TestingRequirement” below. A sample request form is provided in Appendix I. Thisform shall be processed and approved prior to NDT.6.2 The facility/plant manager will approve the request to utilize NDT in-lieu ofpressure testing for existing facilities and the senior operations’ representativefor new construction projects.6.3 The request for NDT in lieu of hydrotest shall include the requirement for theproponent to:6.3.1 Utilize skilled welders with rejection rate of less than five (5) percent ona joint basis or 0.2% on a linear basis in the most recent past 12 months.6.3.2 Use approved Welding Procedure Specification (WPS).6.3.3 Visually inspect the root and cap pass during the welding process with aSaudi Aramco inspector.6.3.4 Perform 100% radiographic testing (RT) of the butt welds.6.3.5 Perform 100% advanced ultrasonic testing (UT; TOFD and/or PhasedArray) of all welds.6.3.6 RT and advanced UT to be interpreted by ASNT Level III personnel.6.4 A flange tester could be utilized to conduct hydrostatic testing of the flange buttweld in case of flanged tie-in connections.7 Specific Testing RequirementThis section specifies in details which piping or equipment that shall be pressure tested and provides the specific applicable standard. It also defines any specific exemptions.7.1 Plant PipingPressure testing of plant piping shall be in accordance to 01-SAMSS-010,SAES-L-150 and SAES-J-901 for instrument air piping.7.2 Cross-Country PipelinesPressure testing of cross country pipelines shall be in accordance to01-SAMSS-010 and SAES-L-150.7.3 Pressure Vessels7.3.1 Hydrostatic testing for new vessels (shop or field fabricated) shall beconducted as follows:ASME SEC VIII D1 to 32-SAMSS-004, Paragraph 16.3.8.1.ASME SEC VIII D2 to 32-SAMSS-004, Paragraph 16.3.8.2.Next Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure Testing Pneumatic test, when approved (refer to paragraph 5.2), shall be conductedper UG-100 of ASME SEC VIII D1, or T-4 of ASME SEC VIII D2,whichever is applicable.7.3.2 Pressure testing of small diameter vessels shall be per the appropriatestandard as specified in SAES-D-109.7.3.3 Hydrostatic testing for existing vessels shall be conducted perSAES-D-008, Paragraph 10.1.7.4 Heat Transfer Equipment7.4.1 Hydrostatic tests for existing equipment shall be in accordance withSAES-D-008.7.4.2 For pneumatic testing, refer to paragraph 7.3.17.4.3 Hydrostatic testing of new, field fabricated boilers shall be in accordancewith ASME SEC I. For pressure testing after repair or alteration, refer toSAES-D-008 and National Board Inspection Code, NB 23. Hydrostatictest during T&Is shall be in accordance with the test pressure as specifiedon boiler's safety instruction sheet.Hydrostatic test for new, field fabricated heater tube assembly shall be inaccordance with 32-SAMSS-029.7.4.4 Tube bundles which have been removed from the exchanger shell formaintenance purposes shall be subjected to an in-situ shell side test per7.4.1 prior to returning to service.7.4.5 Fin fan exchangers shall be strength tested as specified below:7.4.5.1 New Construction, refer to Appendix III of this standard.7.4.5.2 Operating facilitiesStrength tested in situ if the equipment has been transported.7.5 Tanks7.5.1 For new, field fabricated tanks, the hydrostatic testing shall be inaccordance with 32-SAMSS-006 for large, low pressure welded tanks; or32-SAMSS-005 for atmospheric steel tank.7.5.2 For existing tanks, the hydrostatic testing shall be in accordance with32-SAMSS-005, 32-SAMSS-006 and SAES-D-108 as applicable.7.6 Fire Protection SystemsPressure testing of new and existing fire protection systems shall be inaccordance with SAES-B-017 and GI-1781.001.7.7 Refrigerant Piping SystemsNext Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure Testing Refrigerant piping serving building air conditioning systems shall be testedaccording to the requirements of SAES-K-001 and the Uniform MechanicalCode (UMC), Section 1520 and ASHRAE Std 15, paragraph 10.7.8 Potable Water SystemsPotable water piping inside buildings shall be tested in accordance with therequirements of the Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC). Exceptions to UPCrequirements are listed in SAES-S-060.Potable water piping outside of buildings shall be tested in accordance with therequirements of SAES-S-040.7.9 Utility Piping SystemsUtility piping systems, including irrigation piping and water distribution mains,shall be tested in accordance with SAES-S-070.7.10 Industrial Drainage and SewersIndustrial drainage and sewers shall be tested in accordance with SAES-S-020.7.11 Sanitary SewersSanitary sewer systems within buildings shall be tested per requirements of theUniform Plumbing Code (UPC). Exceptions to UPC requirements are listed inSAES-S-060.Sanitary sewer lines outside of buildings shall be tested in accordance withSAES-S-070.7.12 Storm Water Drainage SystemsStorm water drainage systems shall be tested per SAES-S-030.7.13 Miscellaneous Building Services PipingSteam and condensate piping outside the jurisdiction of ASME B31.3, heatingand cooling water piping, vacuum and compressed air system piping forbuilding services shall be tested per requirements of ASME B31.9, BuildingServices Piping.7.14 Gas CylindersGas cylinders shall be tested per Saudi Aramco Bottled Gas Manual.7.15 ValvesValves shall be tested in accordance with SAES-L-108 and 04-SAMSS-048.7.16 Non Metallic PipingNon metallic piping such as RTR, Thermoplastic, PVC/UPVC and CPVC shallbe tested in accordance SAES-S-070.Next Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure Testing7.17 Gasket MaterialAll gaskets used in the pressure test shall conform to the specifications perSAES-L-109.7.18 Internally Coated Equipment or PipingThe hydrotest pressure of all internally coated vessels, tanks or piping shall bereviewed against the coating limitationsper SAES-H-001 and SAES-H-101. Oncompleting the hydrostatic test, the pressure should be reduced gradually toprevent decompression failure of the internal coating.8 Preparation for Pressure Test8.1 Site Preparation8.1.1 An approved test procedure shall be available at the site prior tocommencing any pressure testing activities.8.1.2 New piping systems shall be cleaned in accordance with SAES-L-350.8.1.3 Soft seated valves and control valves shall not be installed until after thelines have been thoroughly flushed.8.1.4 Components in new piping systems which interfere with filling, venting,draining or flushing shall not be installed until after line flushing andpressure testing are completed. These include orifice plates, flownozzles, sight glasses, venturies, positive displacement and turbinemeters and other in-line equipment.8.1.5 Pressure gauges, pressure and temperature recorders.8.1.5.1 All gauges and recorders shall be calibrated prior to use.8.1.5.2 The calibration interval shall not exceed one (1) month prior tothe test date and calibration certificates shall be made availableto Inspection personnel prior to commencement of the pressuretest. Stickers shall be applied indicating the latest calibrationdate.8.1.5.3 All gauges shall have a range such that the test pressure iswithin 30 to 80% of the full range.8.1.5.4 A minimum of two pressure gauges are required for the testsystem. One pressure gage shall be on the test manifold andthe other(s) on the test system. Their accuracy shall be within5% of one another.8.1.5.5 When large systems are tested, Inspection personnel willdetermine the need for additional gauges.Next Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure Testing8.1.5.6 Pressure and temperature recording gauges shall be used for allburied piping systems on plot and per SAES-L-150 forpipelines.8.1.6 Expansion joints and spring hangers or spring supports shall be providedwith temporary restraints where needed to prevent excessive travel ordeformation under the test loads.8.2 Equipment Excluded from Pressure TestThe following list defines the equipment that shall be excluded from the in-situpressure testing of the tested system. Also, other unlisted sensitive equipment oras designated by Saudi Aramco piping standard committee can be added:8.2.1 Rotating machinery, such as pumps, turbines and compressors;8.2.2 Strainers and filter elements;8.2.3 Pressure relieving devices, such as rupture disks and pressure reliefvalves;8.2.4 Locally mounted indicating pressure gauges, where the test pressure willexceed their scale range;8.2.5 Equipment that cannot be drained;8.2.6 Instrument Devices.8.3 Isolation of Test SectionsBlind flanges, paddle blinds or spectacle blinds shall be used to isolate the testsections. They shall be the same class rating of the system or may be fabricatedfrom verifiable identification of base material and approval of calculations bythe Supervisor, CSD Piping Unit. When this is not practical, closed blockvalves (gate, globe, plug, and ball) may be used to isolate equipment or pipingsections (provided the valves are not passing, otherwise the spectacle plate/blindshall be installed in the closed position). If closed block valves are used in lieuof blinds, provisions shall be made to ensure no overpressure can occur in thesystem that is not being tested, due to possible leak through the valves.When a block valve is used for isolating test sections, the differential pressureacross the valve seat shall not exceed the seat test pressure during pressuretesting and shall not exceed the rated seat pressure during tightness test. Bothsides of this valve shall be protected by relief valves during the test.8.4 Vents and Drains8.4.1 Vents shall be provided at all high points in the tested system as needed.8.4.2 Excluding scrapable, submarine and buried pipelines, drains shall beprovided at all low points in the system and immediately above checkvalves in vertical lines.Next Planned Update: 14 November 2014 General Requirements for Pressure Testing8.4.3 Unless the check valve has a by-pass valve, the disc of the check valveshall be removed, and securely attached to the outside of the check valveprior to the pressure test.8.5 Temporary Connections and Supports8.5.1 Temporary connections shall be provided for de-pressurizing anddraining of the system to the sewer or disposal area.8.5.2 Temporary supports shall be installed prior to hydrostatic testing, andflushing of the piping if they were determined to be required perSAES-L-150. These supports shall not be removed until after the systemhas been fully drained. The structural support system for stackedequipment shall be verified for hydrostatic loads prior to testing.9 Conducting Pressure Test9.1 The test procedures shall be conducted in accordance with the applicable code.In addition, the following requirements shall apply.9.1.1 Filling and pressurizing shall be done on the upstream side of check valvesin the system. The test fluid shall be injected at the lowest point in thesystem to minimize entrapped air. When filling at the lowest point is notpractical, the Inspection Department/ Operations Inspection EngineeringUnit shall be consulted. All vents shall be open during filling.9.1.2 No one shall approach the test area for a minimum of 10 minutes afterthe test pressure is reached and before commencement of inspection ofthe system, the isolation valve between the temporary testmanifold/piping and the piping/equipment under pressure test shall beclosed and the test pump disconnected. The isolation valve downstreamof the manifold shall be opened after the pump is disconnected.9.1.3 During the application of the test pressure, all in-line valves if not usedas test isolation valves shall be in a partially open position.9.2 All piping and equipment shall comply with the lay-up procedures perSAES-A-007.9.3 Test Records shall be recorded on Pressure Test Report Form SA-2642-ENGand the applicable "Safety Instruction Sheet" per SAES-A-005.10 Post Pressure TestAfter pressure testing has been successfully completed and approved by the Owner'sInspector, the following operations shall be made.10.1 Draining of Test Fluid。
常用化工机械专业英语对照
常用机械专业英语对照Cutting: 切割socket weld 承插焊接fillet weld 角焊 ,填角焊branch connection分支接续fabrication tolerance.制造容差local heat treatment 局部热处理threaded pipe螺纹管seal welding.密封焊接flange joint 凸缘接头undercut 底切feeder 馈电线conduit outlet 电线引出口seal fitting 密封接头 , 密封配件Screw thread lubricant螺纹润滑剂 Seal: 绝缘层weld reinforcement 焊缝补强lock washer 锁紧 [ 止动 , 防松 ]垫圈 electrical panel.配电板 ,配电盘nipple 螺纹接头zinc plated.镀锌的ring joint 环接 , 围缘接合bolt 螺栓control: 控制器National Electrical Code 全国电气规程 master schedule 主要图表 , 综合图表 , 设计任务书 , 主要作业表torque wrench 转矩扳手job site 施工现场flange connection.凸缘联接 Hard hat：安全帽Goggles：护目镜stockpile 贮存packing list 装箱单crate: 柳条箱purchased material list原材料进货单 back-feed 反馈wire coil 线盘，线卷，NPT thread. 美国标准锥管螺纹cable gland 电缆衬垫terminal block 线弧 , 接头排接线盒 , 接线板 , 线夹power drill 机械钻connector. 接线器insulated sleeve绝缘套管wire connector 接线器wire terminal 电线接头motor lead 电动机引出线power wiring 电力布线tender document．提供证件 orifice plate.挡板nut 螺母flange gasket 法兰垫片dimensional inspection 尺寸检验burn through 烧蚀piping system.管道系统reinforcement of weld 加强焊缝fabrication.制造dye penetrant examination染料渗透试验法 magnetic particle examination 磁粉检验 girth weld 环形焊缝cement lined piping 水泥衬里weld joint 焊缝 , 焊接接头 spool drawing 管路图 , 管路详图 spottest 抽查 , 当场测试butt weld 对接焊缝Random Radiography随机射线照相检查radiographic examination 射线照相检查assembly装.配erection 架设examination 试验cable tray.电缆盘rigid steel conduit 钢制电线管power control 功率控制arc welding 电弧焊control cable 控制电缆操纵索normal bend 法向 [ 法线 ]弯管cable glands: 电缆衬垫exfoliation 剥落power receptacle 电力插座grounding conductor 接地导体lighting fixture 照明器材junction box 分线箱 race way电缆管道terminal box 接线盒distribution board 配电盘 , 配电屏receptacle 插座tumble switch.翻转开关 ,拨动式开关cathodic protection system 阴极保护系统 Circuit breaker 断路开关amplifier panel 放大器盘 control console 控制台 electricalmaterial 电气材料 convenience receptacle电.源插座 cableTIG ： Tungsten-arc Inert-Gas welding 钨极电弧惰性气体保护焊filler rod 焊条tensile strength 抗张强度shield gas 保护气体shield jig 保护夹具high frequency generator高.频发电机 welding rod 焊条filler metal 焊料 , 焊丝shop fabrication 车间制造field installation 现场安装welding bead 焊道both sides welding.双面焊接residual stress 残余应力electrode 电焊条condensation 冷凝longitudinal. 纵向的horizontal line 水平线circumferential joint 周圈接缝nondestructive examination非.破坏性检验 , qualification: 合格性construction work 施工工程welded joint 焊接缝焊接节点gas cutting.气割arc cutting 电弧切割grind off 磨掉metallic luster 金属光泽Screwed Piping Joints螺丝状的管接头gouging .刨削槽Bending: 挠曲witness test订货人在场的试验 Welding: 焊接Threading: 车缧纹Leveling：校平color identification 彩色识别Alignment ：对准 ,定位调整check against 检查 , 核对Fixing ：固定Console：控制台cubicle 室,箱audit 审计material certificate.材料合格证vertical panel 竖直面板power distribution panel 配电盘gauge board仪表板beveling 磨斜棱 ,磨斜边local panel 现场配电盘fabrication 加工 ,制造instrument rack 计测器支架tank gauge 液面计 flushing冲洗，填缝 analyzer 分析器piping 管道敷设tubing 敷设管道cable fitting 电缆配件elbow.弯管接头main pipe 主管道bend.弯管弯头solvent 溶剂postweld heat treatment 焊后热处理 jig. 夹具arc gouging 电弧刨削chipping 修琢machining 机械加工bridges.管式桥clamp.夹钳压力容器基本词汇安全阀safety valve安装 Installation鞍式支座saddle support凹面 concave半球形封头Hemispherical heads 棒bars保温支撑 insulation support [wiki] 爆炸 [/wiki] 性 explosive泵pump变径段 reducers标记 stamping标志 marking标志的移植 Transferring marking 波纹板 Corrugating Paper补强管reinforcing nozzle补强圈reinforcing ring不锈钢stainless steel不圆度out-of-roundness材料 materials材料证明书 Certification of material 超声检验 Ultrasonic Examination 衬里 Linings成型 Forming成型封头Formed heads尺寸 Dimensions翅片管finned tubes冲击试验impact test传热面积heat transfer surface磁粉检验Magnetic Particle Examination次要应力secondary stress粗糙度 roughness淬火 Quenching带折边的锥形toriconical弹簧 springs弹簧垫圈spring washer弹性模量modulus of Elasticity挡板 baffle plate低合金钢容器low alloy steel vessels低温容器Low-temperature vessels地震烈度seismic intensity垫板 Backing strip垫片 gasket垫圈 washer碟形封头Dished heads顶丝 jackscrew定距管 spacer定位销 pin dowel定义 Definitions毒性 toxicity镀锌容器Galvanized vessels锻件 Forgings对焊 [wiki] 法兰 [/wiki] welding neck flange耳座 lug[wiki] 阀门 [/wiki] valves法兰 flanges法兰接触面Flange contact facings防冲板 impingement baffle防 [wiki] 腐蚀 [/wiki] 衬里Corrosion resistant linings防火 fire protection防涡流挡板vortex breaker非受压件nonpressure parts非圆形容器Noncircular vessels分析 analysis峰值应力peak stress腐蚀裕量corrosion allowance附加载荷supplementary loading附件 attachments复合板 Clad plate覆层容器clad vessels盖板 Cover plates杆 rods and bars刚性 Stiffness高合金容器high-alloy vessels 工作压力operation pressure固定的fixed管板 tube sheet管壳式换热器shell and tube heat exchanger 管口材料表sheet of material for nozzle管口方位nozzle orientation管箱 channel管子 pipes nozzle tube管嘴 nipple罐桶槽 tank过渡段transition in过渡圆角Knuckles焊后热处理after post weld heat treating焊接工艺welding procedure specification焊接接头welding joints焊接系数welding coefficient厚度 thickness滑动的sliding环向应力hoop stress回火 tempering基本地震加速度basic seismic acceleration 基本分压basic wind pressure计算厚度calculated thickness技术条件form of Specification加强圈stiffening rings夹套容器Jacketed vessels检查孔Inspection openings检验 inspection角焊 Fillet welds接地板earth lug截止阀Stop valves介质特性fluid property金属温度Metal temperature筋板 rib plate径向应力radial stress静(压力 )水头 static head局部 areas局部 local局部焊后热处理Local postweld heat treatment矩形设计rectangular design卡箍 clamp开孔补强reinforcement for openings快开盖Quick-actuating closures拉杆 tie rod裂缝 Cracking流体（介质）fluid螺母 nut螺塞 plug螺栓 bolt螺纹 threaded螺柱 studs名义厚度 nominal thickness铭牌 Nameplates内部构件 Internal structures内衬筒 internal shell盘管 coil tube配件 fittings膨胀节 expansion joint平封头 Flat heads评定 Qualification气孔 Porosity气压试验Pneumatic test钎焊 brazing强度 strength of球形封头 spherically dished曲率 curvature屈服 yielding全容积 total volume缺陷 defects群座 skirt support热处理 thermal treatment热处理 heat treatmen热应力 thermal stress人孔 manholes韧性 ductility容积 volume容器 vessel容器净重empty weight容器类别 vessel classification塞焊 Plug welds设计压力design pressure射线超声检验 Radiographic Examination 渗透检验 Penetrant Examination 石墨graphite试样 Test coupons适用范围Scope手孔 handholes水压试验 hydrostatic test/hydraulic test/hydrotest碳钢 carbon steel搪玻璃容器enameled vessels梯子、平台ladders, platforms填充金属 filler metal 凸面 convex凸缘 socket椭圆封头Ellipsoidal heads外压容器 vessels subjected to external pressure未注尺寸公差tolerance grade not noted 无支撑unstayed系数 factor现场安装Field assembly校核 checking of泄放 Discharge泄压装置 Pressure relieving devices性能 properties许用工作压力 allowable working pressure 许用应力 allowable stress 易然的flammable应力腐蚀stress corrosion应力集中 stress concentration预热 Preheating圆度 roundness圆角和倒角 corners and fillets载荷 Loadings胀接 expanded connections折流板 baffle plate蒸发器Evaporators直边长度length of skirt直径 Diameter制造 fabrication制造厂fabricator制造方法methods of fabrication制造工艺fabrication technology周长 Girth主应力primary stress柱状壳体 Cylindrical shells铸铁容器 cast iron vessels转角半径 knuckle radius 装配 assembling 锥度tapered锥壳 conical shell锥形封头Conical heads资格 qualification纵向接头 Longitudinal joints组对 fitting uppipe closure 管塞 end closure端盖 orifice plate 挡板 exialspacing 轴向间距 manufacturetolerance 制造公差acid passivation 酸洗钝化part drawing 零件图stud bolts 双头螺柱化工设备常用词汇和缩写中英文对照化工设备常用词汇和缩写中英文对照缩写 / 英文 /中文AB Anchor Bolt地脚螺栓Abs Absolute 绝对的Abs Abstract 文摘、摘要A/C Account 帐、帐目AC Alternating Current 交流电Add Addendum 补充、补遗、附录ADL Acceptable Defect Level 允许的缺陷标准Adpt Adapter 连接器、接头AE Absolute Error 绝对误差AET Acoustic Emission Examination 声发射检验AISC American Institute of Steel Construction 美国钢结构学会AISI American Iron and Steel Institute 美国钢铁学会AL Aluminium铝Alk Alkaline 碱的、强碱的ALM Alarm 报警Alt Alternate 交流、改变Amb Ambient 周围的Amt Amount 数量、金额Anh Anhydrous 无水的ANSI American National Standard Institute 美国国家标准学会API American Petroleum Institute 美国石油学会App Apparatus 设备App Appendix 附录、补遗Appl Applied 应用的Appl Applicable 适当的、合适的Approx Approximate 大约、近似Appx Appendix 附录、附件Arrgt Arrangement 布置AS Alloy steel 合金钢Asb Asbestos 石棉ASL Above Sea Level 海拔高度ASM American Society for Metals 美国金属学会Engineers 美国机械工程师学会Assem Assembly 装配ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials 美国材料试验学会Atm Atmosphere 大气atm Atmosphere pressure大气压 Auto Automatic 自动Aux Auxiliary辅助设备、辅助的Avail Available 有效的、可用的Avg Average 平均AW Arc welding 电弧焊AW Automatic Welding 自动焊A.W.G. American Wire Gauge 美国线规AWS(AWI) American WeldingSociety(Institute) 美国焊接学会 BAB Babbitt Metal 巴氏合金Baf Baffle 折流板、缓冲板BB Ball Bearing 滚珠轴承BC Between Centers 中心距、轴间距 BC Bolt circle 螺栓中心圆BD Blow down放空、放料BEDD Basic engineering design data 基础工程设计数据Bet Between 在之间Bev Bevel 斜角、坡口BF Back face 背面、反面BF Blind flange 法兰盖（盲法兰）BHN Brinell hardness number 布氏硬度值BL Battery Limit界区BL Battery Line 界区线B/L Bill of Loading 载荷数据表Bld Blind 盲板Blk Black 黑色Blk Blank 空白BM Bench Mark 基准标志BM Bending Moment 弯矩B/M (BOM) Bill of Material 材料表Bot Bottom 底BP Back Pressure 背压BP Base plate 底板BR Basic Requirements 基本要求 BRG Bearing 轴承BRKT Bracket 支架Brs Brass 黄铜BS Both Side 两边BS British Standard 英国标准BS Balance Sheet 平衡表BTU British Thermal Unit 英国热量单位BV Back View 后视图BV Butterfly Valve碟阀BW Brine Vater 冷冻盐水BW Butt Welding 对焊BWG Birmingham Wire Gauge 伯明翰线规BWRA. British Welding Research Association 英国焊接研究协会C Centigrade(degree) 摄氏度数CA Chemical Analysis 化学分析CA Corrosion Allowance 腐蚀裕量Calc Calculate 计算Cap Capacity 能力、容量CAS Cast Alloy Steel 铸造合金钢Cat Catalyst 触媒、催化剂Catg Catalog 目录、样本C-C(C/C) Center to center 中心距cc carbon copy 复写（纸复制）本 cc cubic centimeter 立方厘米CCW Counter clockwise 反时针方向CD Cold Drawn 冷拉的、冷拔的CE Covered Electrode 焊条Cent Centrifugal 离心的CF Centrifugal Force 离心力CFW Continuous Fillet Weld 连续角焊缝CG Center of Gravity 重心CH Case-Hardening 表面硬化 Ch Chapter 章节Cham Chamfer 倒角、斜角、斜面Chan Channel 通道、沟槽、管箱、槽钢Chk Check 检查CI Cast Iron 铸铁CIF Cost， Insurance and Freight 到岸价格Circ Circumference 圆周、环向CL Class 等级、类别CL Center Line 中心线CL Clearance 间隙CLAS Cast Low Alloy Steel 低合金铸钢CM Center of Mass 质量中心Cnds Condensate冷凝液CO Clean Out 清除Co Company 公司Coef Coefficient 系数Col Column 柱、塔Comb Combination 组合Comp Compare 比较Comp Compound 化合物、复合的Conc Concrete 混凝土Conc Concentration 浓度Cond Conductor 导体Cond Condition 条件Conn Connection 联接、接口Const Constant 常数、恒定的Const Construction 结构Cont Control 控制Cont Contain 包含Cont Content 内容、含量Corp Corporation 公司Corr Corrosion 腐蚀CP Centipoise 厘泊CP Center of Pressure压力中心 Cpl Coupling 管箍 CplgCoupling 联轴节CR Chloroprene Rubber 氯丁橡胶 CS Carbon Steel 碳钢CS Center Section 中心截面CSTG Casting 铸造、铸件Ctr Center 中心CW Cooling Water 冷却水CW Continuous Welding 连续焊Cy Cycle 循环Cyl Cylinder 气缸、圆筒D Density 密度Dbl Double 二倍、双DEDD Detail Engineering Design Data 详细工程设计数据Def Definition定义Deg Degree 度、等级Dept Department 部门Des Design 设计Det Detail 详细Detn Determination 确定、决定Dev Deviation 偏差Dev Device 装置DF Design Formula 设计公式Df Deflection 偏斜Dia Diameter 直径Diag Diagram 图Dim Dimension 尺寸Dir Direction方向Disch Discharge 排出、出口Distr Distribution 分布Div Division 部分、区分 DLDoc Document 文件、资料DP Design Pressure 设计压力DP Differential Pressure 压差、分压Dr Drill 钻孔Dr Drive 驱动DW Dead weight 静重、自重DW Demineralized Water 脱盐水Dwg Drawing 图 E East 东EC Elasticity Coefficient 弹性系数Ecc Eccentric 偏心EF Electric Furnace 电炉Eff Efficiency效率eg exempli gratia 例如EHP Effective Horsepower 有效功率EJ Expansion joint 膨胀节EL Elevation 标高Elb Elbow 弯头Elec Electric 电的Elem Element 元素、元件Ellip Ellipsoidal椭球的、椭圆的Emer、 Emerg Emergency 事故、紧急Encl Enclosure 密封、封闭Engrg、Eng Engineering 工程、设计EP Explosion Proof 防爆Eq Equipment 设备Eq Equation 公式、方程式Eq Equivalent 当量ES Electrostatic 静电EST Estimate 估计ESW Electro-Slag Welding 电渣焊ET Eddy Current Examination 涡流检验etc et cetera (and so on)等等Evap Evaporate 蒸发Ex Example 例如Ex Excess 过剩、超过Exam Examination 检验Exh Exhaust 废气、排气Exp Expansion 膨胀Exptl Experimental 实验的Ext External 外部Ext Extreme 极端的FAO Finish All Over 全部加工FAX Facsimile 传真FB Flat Bar 扁钢FCAW Flux Cored Arc Welding 熔剂芯弧焊（手工焊）FDW Feed Water 给水FF Flat Face 平面F/F Field Fabricated 现场制造Fig Figure 图Fin Finish 加工、完成FL Full Load 满载Flex Flexible 挠性Flg Flange 法兰FOB Free On Board 离岸价格FOC Free Of Charge 免费Forg Forging 锻件FOS Factor Of Safety 安全系数FREQ Frequency 频率FST Forged Steel 锻钢Ft Feet 英尺Ftg Fitting 管件、装配F.V. Full Vacuum 全真空FW Fresh Water 新鲜水FW Field Weld 现场焊接FW Fillet Weld 角焊缝GA General Average 平均值Gal Gallon 加仑Gen General 一般、总的Genr Generator 发电机、发生器 GF Groove Face 槽面Gl Glass 玻璃GL Ground Level 地面标高GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding 气体保护金属极电弧焊Gnd Ground 接地、地面Govt Government 政府GP General Purpose一般用途、通用 Gr Grade 等级Gr Gravity 重力Grd Ground 地面Grp Group 分组、类Gr- wt Gross weight 总重、毛重HB Brinell Hardness 布氏硬度HC Hydrocarbon 烃类HC High Capacity 大容量HD Head 压头Hex Hexagon 六角HH Hand Hole 手孔Hor Horizontal 水平、卧式hp Horsepower 马力HP High Pressure 高压HR Rockwell Hardness 洛氏硬度HRC Rockwell C Hardness C 级洛氏硬度 HS High Pressure Steam高压蒸汽HS Shore Scleroscope Hardness肖氏硬度HSC High Pressure Condensate 高压蒸汽凝液HT High Temperature 高温HT Heat Treatment 热处理HT Hydrostatic Test 水压试验HV Vickers Hardness 维氏硬度Hvy Heavy 重的、重型的HW Hot Water 热水ICW Inter Cooling Water 中间冷却水ID Inside Diameter 内径IF Interface 交接面Illus Illustration说明、图解IN Inlet 进口in Inch 英寸incl Including包括Ind Indicate 指示Ins Insulation 保温INSP Inspection 检验Instl Installation 安装Int Internal 内部的Int Intermediate 中间的Intmt Intermittent 间歇的、间断的I/O Input/Output 输入 /输出Jt Joint 连接、接头KG Kilogram公斤KW(kw) Kilowatt千瓦LAS Low Alloy Steel 低合金钢lb pound 磅LC Level Control 液位控制器Leng Length 长度LF Female Face 凹面Lg Long 长的LG Level Glass 液位计LH Left Hand 左手Lin Linear 线性的Liq Liquid液体Lj Lap joint搭接LJ Lapped Joint 松套LM Male Face 凸面LMTD Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference 对数平均温差 LN Liquid Nitrogen 液氮LN Level Normal正常液位Lng Lining衬里Lo Lubrication oil润滑油Lo Low 低LOA Length Over-All 全长总长LOC Location 位置Log Logarithm(to the base 10) 对数（以 10 为底）Long Longitudinal 纵向LP Low Pressure 低压LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas 液化石油气LT Low Temperature 低温LT Leak Testing 气密试验Ltd Limited有限Ltr Letter 字母、信Lub Lubricate 润滑LW Lap Welding 搭接焊LWN Long Welding Neck 对焊长颈LWS Longitudinal Welded Seam 纵向焊缝 M(m) Meter 米、公尺Mach Machine 机器Maint Maintenance 维修Mat(Mat ’l) Material 材料MAWP Maximum Allowable Working Pressure 最大允许工作压力Max Maximum最大MDMT Min. Design Metallic Temperature 最低设计金属温度Mech Mechanical 机械的Mfd Manufactured 制造的Mfr Manufacturer 制造商MG(mg) Milligram毫克MH Manhole 人孔MI Melt Index熔融指数MIG Metal Inert Gas Arc Welding 熔化极惰性气体保护焊Min Minimum最小MIN(min) Minute分钟MJG Metallic Jacketed Gasket 金属包复垫片Mk Mark标志ml Milliliter毫升mm Millimeter毫米MP Medium Pressure 中压MPC Maximum Permissible Concentration 最大许用浓度MS Medium Pressure Steam 中压蒸汽 MS Medium Steel 中碳钢MSL Mean Sea Level 平均海平面MT Magnetic Particle Examination 磁粉检测Mtd Mounted 安装、装配MTR Material Testing Report 材料试验报告MU Measurement Unit 测量单位MV Mean Value 平均值MW Mineral Wool矿渣棉N North 北NA Not Applicable 不适用的NAT Natural 天然的Natl National 国家的NC America National Coarse Thread 美制粗牙螺纹NDT Nondestructive Testing 无损检验Neg Negative 负NF American National Fine Thread 美国细牙螺纹Nip Nipple 螺纹管接头、短节Nom Nominal 名义Nor Normal 正常NOZ Nozzle 接管NPS American Standard Straight Pipe Thread 美国标准直管螺纹NPSHA Net Positive Suction Head Available 有效汽蚀裕量NPSHR Net Positive Suction Head Required 要求汽蚀裕量NPT American Standard Taper Pipe Thread 美国标准锥管螺纹NT Net Tonnage 净吨数NTP Normal Temperature and Pressure 标准温度和压力NTS Not To Scale 不按比例Num Number 数、编号、号码Obj Object 目标、对象OC Operating Characteristic 操作特性OD Outside Diameter 外径OH Open Hearth 平炉Oper Operating 操作Opp Opposite 对面、相反OR Outside Radius 外半径OR Outside Ring 外环Orien Orientation 方位Ovhd Overhead 高架的、顶部的Oxyg Oxygen 氧 P Page 页P Pressure 压力Par Parallel 平行Para Paragraph节、段PE Polyethylene 聚乙烯PFD Process Flow Diagram 工艺流程图Perform Performance 性能PF Power Factor 功率因素PID Piping & Instruments Diagram 管道和仪表流程图Pl Plate 板Pneum Pneumatic 气、气动PO Purchase Order 订货单Port Portable 便携式、轻便 Posit Positive 正Posit Position 位置ppb Parts per billion 十亿分之几ppm Parts per million 百万分之几Prod Product 产品Proj Project 项目、工程PS Polystyrene 聚苯乙烯psf Pounds per square feet磅/平方英尺 psi Pounds per square inch磅/平方英寸PT Liquid Penetrants Examination 液体渗透检测PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene 聚四氟乙烯PVA Polyvinyl Acetate 聚醋酸乙烯PVAL Polyvinyl Alcohol聚乙烯醇PVC Polyvinyl Chloride聚氯乙烯PWHT Post Weld Heat Treatment 焊后热处理 QA Quality Assurance 质量保证QC Quality Control 质量控制Qty Quantity 数量Qual Quality 质量R Radius 半径Rad Radial 径向RC Rockwell Hardness 洛氏硬度Recip Reciprocate 往复式Recirc Recirculate 再循环Recom Recommended 建议、推荐Ref Reference 参照、基准Refract Refractory 耐火材料Reg Regulator 调节器Regen Regenerator再生器、再生塔 Reinf Reinforce 加强Rel Relative 相对Rep Report 报告Rep Repeat 重复Reqd Required 要求、需要的REV Revision 修改、版次RF Raise face 突台面RH Relative Humidity 相对湿度RH Right Hand 右手RMS Root Mean Square 均方根 ROT Rotating 旋转rpm revolutions per minute 转/分rps revolutions per second 转/秒RT Radiographic Examination 射线照相检验S South 北SAW Submerged Arc Welding 埋弧焊 Sc Scale 刻度、比例SC Standard Condition 标准状态（温度压力）SCH Schedule 表号、管厚号、进度Sec Second 秒Sec Section 剖面、节、段Seg Segment 节、段 SepSeparator 分离器 SeqSequence次序、顺序 SGSpecific Gravity 比重 SHPShaft Horsepower 轴马力SI Standard International 国际单位制Sig Signal 信号Sld Solid 固体SMAW Shield Metal Arc Welding 手工焊Smls Seamless 无缝的SO Slip on 平焊（法兰）Sol Solution 溶液SP Spare parts备件Sp Special 特殊的、专门的SP Static pressure静压力Spec Specification 说明、规定SpGr Specific Gravity 比重Sq Square 方形、平方SR Stress Relief 消除应力SS Stainless Steel不锈钢 Sta Station 站STD Standard 标准STDWT Standard Weight 标准重量STL Steel 钢STP Standard Temperature and Pressure 标准温度和压力Suc Suction 吸入Suppl Supplement 补充SW Shop Welding 车间焊接SW Spot Weld 点焊SW Socket Welding 承插焊（法兰）SWP Safety Working Pressure安全工作压SYM Symmetry 对称SYS System 系统T Ton 吨TC Tungsten Carbide 碳化钨 Tech Technique 技术TEMA Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association 管壳式换热器制造商协会（美国）Temp Temperature 温度Term Terminal 终端、接头Thk Thickness 厚度TIG Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding 钨极惰性气体保护焊TL Tangent line 切线Tol Tolerance 公差Tot Total 总Trans Transfer 输送器TW Total Weight 总重TW Tack Welding 定位焊Typ Typical 典型、标准UNC Unified National Coarse Thread 统一标准粗牙螺纹UNF Unified National Fine Thread 统一标准细牙螺纹US Undersize 尺寸过小UT Ultrasonic Examination 超声波探伤UTS Ultimate Tensile Strength 抗拉强度极限Vac Vacuum 真空Vap Vapor 蒸汽Var Variable 变化、变量Vel Velocity 速度Vert Vertical 垂直Vol Volume 体积VT Visual Testing 宏观（目测）检查W Watt 瓦WL Welding Line 焊缝线WL Water Line 水线WPS Welding Procedure Specification 焊接工艺规程WP Working Pressure 工作压力WRC Welding Research Committee 焊接研究委员会（美国）WS Water Supply 供水WT Weight 重量W/V Wind Velocity风速XR X-Ray X 射线Yd Yard 码Yr Year 年external/outide diameter 外径grease 油污。
土木工程专业英语词汇
第一部分必须掌握，第二部分尽量掌握第一部分：1 Finite Element Method 有限单元法2 专业英语Specialty English3 水利工程Hydraulic Engineering4 土木工程Civil Engineering5 地下工程Underground Engineering6 岩土工程Geotechnical Engineering7 道路工程Road (Highway) Engineering8 桥梁工程Bridge Engineering9 隧道工程Tunnel Engineering10 工程力学Engineering Mechanics11 交通工程Traffic Engineering12 港口工程Port Engineering13 安全性safety17木结构timber structure18 砌体结构masonry structure19 混凝土结构concrete structure20 钢结构steelstructure21 钢-混凝土复合结构steel and concrete composite structure22 素混凝土plain concrete23 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete24 钢筋rebar25 预应力混凝土pre-stressed concrete26 静定结构statically determinate structure27 超静定结构statically indeterminate structure28 桁架结构truss structure29 空间网架结构spatial grid structure30 近海工程offshore engineering31 静力学statics32运动学kinematics33 动力学dynamics34 简支梁simply supported beam35 固定支座fixed bearing36弹性力学elasticity37 塑性力学plasticity38 弹塑性力学elaso-plasticity39 断裂力学fracture Mechanics40 土力学soil mechanics41 水力学hydraulics42 流体力学fluid mechanics43 固体力学solid mechanics44 集中力concentrated force45 压力pressure46 静水压力hydrostatic pressure47 均布压力uniform pressure48 体力body force 49 重力gravity50 线荷载line load51 弯矩bending moment52 torque 扭矩53 应力stress54 应变stain55 正应力normal stress56 剪应力shearing stress57 主应力principal stress58 变形deformation59 内力internal force60 偏移量挠度deflection61 settlement 沉降62 屈曲失稳buckle63 轴力axial force64 允许应力allowable stress65 疲劳分析fatigue analysis66 梁beam67 壳shell68 板plate69 桥bridge70 桩pile71 主动土压力active earth pressure72 被动土压力passive earth pressure73 承载力load-bearing capacity74 水位water Height75 位移displacement76 结构力学structural mechanics77 材料力学material mechanics78 经纬仪altometer79 水准仪level80 学科discipline81 子学科sub-discipline82 期刊journal ,periodical83文献literature84 ISSN International Standard Serial Number 国际标准刊号85 ISBN International Standard Book Number 国际标准书号86 卷volume87 期number 88 专着monograph89 会议论文集Proceeding90 学位论文thesis, dissertation91 专利patent92 档案档案室archive93 国际学术会议conference94 导师advisor95 学位论文答辩defense of thesis96 博士研究生doctorate student97 研究生postgraduate98 EI Engineering Index 工程索引99 SCI Science Citation Index 科学引文索引100ISTP Index to Science and Technology Proceedings 科学术会议论文集索引101 题目title102 摘要abstract103 全文full-text104 参考文献reference105 联络单位、所属单位affiliation106 主题词Subject107 关键字keyword108 ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers 美国土木工程师协会109 FHWA Federal Highway Administration 联邦公路总署110 ISO International Standard Organization111 解析方法analytical method112 数值方法numerical method113 计算computation114 说明书instruction115 规范Specification, Code第二部分：岩土工程专业词汇1.geotechnical?engineering岩土工程?2.foundation?engineering基础工程3.soil,?earth土4.soil?mechanics土力学?????????cyclic?loading周期荷载?unloading卸载?reloading再加载?viscoelastic?foundation粘弹性地基?viscous?damping粘滞阻尼?shear?modulus剪切模量?5.soil?dynamics土动力学6.stress?path应力路径?7.numerical geotechanics 数值岩土力学二. 土的分类 1.residual soil残积土 groundwater level地下水位 2.groundwater 地下水 groundwater table地下水位 3.clay minerals粘土矿物 4.secondary minerals次生矿物 ndslides滑坡 6.bore hole columnar section钻孔柱状图 7.engineering geologic investigation工程地质勘察 8.boulder 漂石 9.cobble卵石 10.gravel砂石 11.gravelly sand砾砂 12.coarse sand粗砂 13.medium sand中砂 14.fine sand细砂 15.silty sand粉土 16.clayey soil粘性土 17.clay粘土 18.silty clay粉质粘土 19.silt粉土 20.sandy silt砂质粉土 21.clayey silt粘质粉土 22.saturated soil饱和土 23.unsaturated soil非饱和土 24.fill (soil)填土 25.overconsolidated soil超固结土 26.normally consolidated soil正常固结土 27.underconsolidated soil欠固结土 28.zonal soil区域性土 29.soft clay软粘土 30.expansive (swelling) soil膨胀土 31.peat泥炭 32.loess黄土 33.frozen soil冻土 24.degree of saturation饱和度 25.dry unit weight干重度26.moist unit weight湿重度45.ISSMGE=International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geote chnical Engineering 国际土力学与岩土工程学会四. 渗透性和渗流1.Darcy’s law 达西定律2.piping管涌3.flowing soil流土4.sand boiling砂沸5.flow net流网6.seepage渗透（流）7.leakage渗流8.seepage pressure渗透压力9.permeability渗透性10.seepage force渗透力11.hydraulic gradient水力梯度 12.coefficient of permeability 透系数五. 地基应力和变形1.soft soil软土2.(negative) skin friction of driven pile打入（负）摩阻力3.effective stress有效应力4.total stress总应力5.field vane shear strength十字板抗剪强度6.low activity低活性7.sensitivity灵敏度8.triaxial test三轴验9.foundation design基础设计 10.recompaction再压11.bearing capacity承载力 12.soil mass土体13.contact stress (pressure)接触应力（压力）14.concentrated load集中荷载 15.a semi-infinite elastic solid 无限弹性体 16.homogeneous均质 17.isotropic各向性 18.strip footing条基 19.square spread footing方形独立基20.underlying soil (stratum ,strata)下卧层（土）21.dead load =sustained load恒载持续荷载 22.live load载 23.short –term transient load短期瞬时荷载24.long-term transient load长期荷载 25.reduced load折算载 26.settlement沉降 27.deformation变形 28.casing管 29.dike=dyke堤（防） 30.clay fraction粘粒组 31.physical properties物理性质 32.subgrade基 33.well-graded soil级配良好土 34.poorly-graded soil级配良土 35.normal stresses正应力 36.shear stresses剪力 37.principal plane主平面38.major (intermediate, minor) principal stress最大（中、最小主应力 39.Mohr-Coulomb failure condition摩尔-库仑破坏件 40.FEM=finite element method有限元法41.limit equilibrium method极限平衡法42.pore water pressure孔隙水压力43.preconsolidation pressure先期固结压力44.modulus of compressibility压缩模量45.coefficent of compressibility压缩系数pression index压缩指数 47.swelling index回弹数 48.geostatic stress自重应力 49.additional stress附加力 50.total stress总应力 51.final settlement最终降 52.slip line滑动线六. 基坑开挖与降水 1 excavation开挖（挖方） 2 dewater （基坑）降水 3 failure of foundation基坑失稳4 bracing of foundation pit基坑围护5 bottom heave=basal heave （基坑）底隆起6 retaining wall挡土墙7 pore-pressure distribution孔压布8 dewatering method降低地下水位法9 well point system 点系统（轻型） 10 deep well point深井点 11 vacuum well po 真空井点 12 braced cuts支撑围护 13 braced excavation支撑挖 14 braced sheeting支撑挡板七. 深基础--deep foundation 1.pile foundation桩基础1)cast –in-place灌注桩 diving casting cast-in-place pile沉管注桩 bored pile钻孔桩 special-shaped cast-in-place pile机控型灌注桩 piles set into rock嵌岩灌注桩 rammed bulb pile夯桩2)belled pier foundation钻孔墩基础 drilled-pier foundation钻孔扩底墩 under-reamed bored pier3)precast concrete pile预制混凝土桩4)steel pile钢桩 steel pipe pile钢管桩 steel sheet pile钢桩5)prestressed concrete pile预应力混凝土桩 prestressed concrete pipe pile预应力混凝土管桩 2.caisson foundation沉井（箱） 3.diaphragm wall地下连续墙截水墙 4.friction pile摩擦桩 5.end-bearing pile端承桩 6.shaft竖井；桩身 7.wave equation analysis波动方程分析 8.pile caps承台（桩帽） 9.bearing capacity of single pile单桩承载力 teral pile load test单桩横向载荷试验 11.ultimate lateral resistance of single pile单桩横向极限承载力 12.static load test of pile单桩竖向静荷载试验 13.vertical allowable load capacity单桩竖向容许承载力 14.low pile cap低桩承台 15.high-rise pile cap高桩承台 16.vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile单桩抗拔极限承载力 17.silent piling静力压桩 18.uplift pile抗拔桩 19.anti-slide pile抗滑桩20.pile groups群桩 21.efficiency factor of pile groups群桩效率系数（η）22.efficiency of pile groups群桩效应 23.dynamic pile testing桩基动测技术24.final set最后贯入度 25.dynamic load test of pile桩动荷载试验26.pile integrity test桩的完整性试验 27.pile head=butt桩头 28.pile tip=pile point=pile toe桩端（头） 29.pile spacing桩距30.pile plan桩位布置图 31.arrangement of piles =pile layout桩的布置32.group action群桩作用 33.end bearing=tip resistance桩端阻 34.skin(side) friction=shaft resistance桩侧阻35.pile cushion桩垫 36.pile driving(by vibration) （振动）打桩 37.pile pulling test拔桩试验 38.pile shoe桩靴 39.pile noise 打桩噪音 40.pile rig打桩机九. 固结consolidation1.Terzzaghi’s consolidation theory太沙基固结理论2.Barraon’s consolidation theory巴隆固结理论3.Biot’s consolidation theory比奥固结理论4.over consolidation ration (OCR)超固结比5.overconsolidation soil超固结土6.excess pore water pressure超孔压力7.multi-dimensional consolidation多维固结8.one-dimensional consolidation一维固结9.primary consolidation主固结10.secondary consolidation次固结11.degree of consolidation固结度 12.consolidation test固结试验 13.consolidation curve固结曲线 14.time factor Tv时间因子15.coefficient of consolidation固结系数16.preconsolidation pressure前期固结压力17.principle of effective stress有效应力原理18.consolidation under K0 condition K0固结十. 抗剪强度shear strength 1.undrained shear strength不排水抗剪强度2.residual strength残余强度3.long-term strength长期强度4.peak strength峰值强度5.shear strain rate剪切应变速率6.dilatation剪胀7.effective stress approach of shear strength 剪胀抗剪强度有效应力法 8.total stress approach of shear strength抗剪强度总应力法 9.Mohr-Coulomb theory莫尔－库仑理论 10.angle of internal friction内摩擦角 11.cohesion粘力 12.failure criterion破坏准则 13.vane strength十字板抗剪度14.unconfined compression无侧限抗压强度15.effective stress failure envelop有效应力破坏包线16.effective stress strength parameter有效应力强度参数十一. 本构模型--constitutive model1.elastic model弹性模型2.nonlinear elastic model非线性弹模型3.elastoplastic model弹塑性模型4.viscoelastic model粘弹性型5.boundary surface model边界面模型6.Duncan-Chang model邓肯－张模型7.rigid plastic model 塑性模型8.cap model盖帽模型9.work softening加工化 10.work hardening加工硬化 11.Cambridge model剑桥型 12.ideal elastoplastic model理想弹塑性型 13.Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion莫尔－库仑屈服准则14.yield surface屈服面15.elastic half-space foundation model弹性半空间地基型 16.elastic modulus弹性模量 17.Winkler foundation model 克尔地基模型十二. 地基承载力--bearing capacity of foundation soil 1.punching shear failure冲剪破坏 2.general shear failure整体切破化 3.local shear failure局部剪切坏 4.state of limit equilibrium极限平衡状态5.critical edge pressure临塑荷载6.stability of foundation soil地基稳定性7.ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil地基极限承力 8.allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil地基容许承力十三. 土压力--earth pressure1.active earth pressure主动土压力2.passive earth pressure被土压力3.earth pressure at rest静止土力 4.Coulomb’s earth pressure theory库仑土压力论5.Rankine’s earth pressure theory朗金土压力理论十四. 土坡稳定分析--slope stability analysis1.angle of repose休止角2.Bishop method毕肖法3.safety factor of slope边坡稳定安全数4.Fellenius method of slices费纽伦斯条法5.Swedish circle method瑞典圆弧滑动法6.slices method 分法十五. 挡土墙--retaining wall1.stability of retaining wall挡土墙稳定性2.foundation wall基础墙3.counter retaining wall扶壁式挡墙4.cantilever retaining wall悬臂式挡土墙5.cantilever sheet pile wall悬臂式板桩墙6.gravity retaining wall重力式挡土墙7.anchored plate retaining wall锚定板挡土墙8.anchored sheet pile wall锚定板板桩墙十六. 板桩结构物--sheet pile structure 1.steel sheet pile钢桩 2.reinforced concrete sheet pile钢筋混凝土板桩 3.steel pi 钢桩 4.wooden sheet pile木板桩 5.timber piles木桩十七. 浅基础--shallow foundation 1.box foundation箱型础 2.mat(raft) foundation片筏基础 3.strip foundation条形础 4.spread footing扩展基础 pensated foundation补偿基础 6.bearing stratum持力层 7.rigid foundation刚性基础 8.flexible foundation柔性基础9.embedded depth of foundation基础埋置深度 foundation pressure基底附加应力11.structure-foundation-soil interaction analysis上部结构－基础－地基共同作用分析十八. 土的动力性质--dynamic properties of soils1.dynamic strength of soils动强度2.wave velocity method波速法3.material damping材料阻尼4.geometric damping几何阻尼5.damping ratio阻尼比6.initial liquefaction初始液化7.natural period of soil site地基固有周期8.dynamic shear modulus of soils动剪切模量 9.dynamic ma二十. 地基基础抗震 1.earthquake engineering地震工程 2.soil dynamics土动力学 3.duration of earthquake地震持续时间 4.earthquake response spectrum地震反应谱 5.earthquake intensity地震烈度 6.earthquake magnitude震级 7.seismic predominant period地震卓越周期 8.maximum acceleration of earthquake地震最大加速度二十一. 室内土工实验 1.high pressure consolidation test高压固结试验 2.consolidation under K0 condition K0固结试验 3.falling head permeability变水头试验4.constant head permeability常水头渗透试验5.unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test不固结不排水试验(UU)6.consolidated undrained triaxial test固结不排水试验(CU)7.consolidated drained triaxial test固结排水试验(CD)paction test击实试验9.consolidated quick direct shear test固结快剪试验10.quick direct shear test快剪试验11.consolidated drained direct shear test慢剪试验12.sieve analysis筛分析 13.geotechnical model test土工模型试验 14.centrifugalmodel test离心模型试验15.direct shear apparatus直剪仪 16.direct shear test直剪试验 17.direct simple shear test直接单剪试验18.dynamic triaxial test三轴试验 19.dynamic simple shear动单剪 20.free（resonance）vibration column test自(共)振柱试验二十二. 原位测试1.standard penetration test (SPT)标准贯入试验 2.surface wave test (SWT)表面波试验 3.dynamic penetration test(DPT)动力触探试验 4.static cone penetration (SPT) 静力触探试验 5.plate loading test静力荷载试验 teral load test of pile 单桩横向载荷试验 7.static load test of pile 单桩竖向荷载试验 8.cross-hole test 跨孔试验 9.screw plate test螺旋板载荷试验 10.pressuremeter test旁压试验 11.light sounding轻便触探试验 12.deep settlement measurement深层沉降观测 13.vane shear test十字板剪切试验 14.field permeability test 现场渗透试验 15.in-situ pore water pressure measurement 原位孔隙水压量测 16.in-situ soil test原位试验。
专业英语(土木工程 路桥方向)李嘉 第三版 翻译
1、土木工程中的各种业务1、土木工程中的各种业务Engineering is a prof ession, which means that an engineer must have a specialized university education. Many government jurisdictions also have licensing procedures which require engineering graduates to pass an examination, similar to the examination f or a lawyer, bef ore they can actively start on their careers.工程是一种专业，这就是说工程师必须受过专业大学教育。
许多政府管辖部门还有（一套）认证程序，这一程序要求工科毕业生在他们能积极地开始他们的职业生涯之前，通过（认证）考试, 这种考试类似于律师职业里的律师考试一样。
In the university, mathematics, physics, and chemistry are heavily emphasized throughout theengineering curriculum, but particularly in the f irst two or three years. Mathematic is very important in all branches of engineering, so it is greatly stressed. Today, mathematics includes courses in statistics, which deals with gathering, classif ying, and using numerical data, or pieces of inf ormation. An important aspect of statistical mathematics is probability, which deals with what may happen when there are dif f erent f actors, or variables, that can change the results of a problem. Bef ore the construction of a bridge is undertaken, f or example, a statistical study is made of the amount of traf f ic the bridge will be expected to handle. In the design of the bridge, variable such as water pressure on the f oundation, impact, the ef f ects of dif f erent wind f orces, and many other f actors must be considered.大学里,工科课程中着重强调数学、物理,和化学,尤其在开始的两到三年。
港航专业英语
23Scott L.DouglassRobert A.NathanJeffrey D.MalyszekProfessorDepartment of Civil Engineering University of South AlabamaMobile,AlabamaMoffat &Nichol EngineersTampa,FloridaMoffat &Nichol EngineersTampa,FloridaC OASTAL AND P ORTE NGINEERINGCoastal and port engineering encom-passes planning,design,and construc-tion of projects to satisfy society’s needs and concerns in the coastal environ-ment,such as harbor and marina development,shore protection,beach nourishment,and other constructed systems in the coastal wave and tide environment.Over time,the scope of this field of engineering has broadened from only navigation improvement and property protection to include recreational beaches and environmental considerations.It takes into account the environmental conditions unique to the coastal area,including wind,waves,tides,and sand movement.Thus,coastal engineering makes extensive use of the sciences of oceanogra-phy and coastal geomorphology as well as of geo-technical,environmental,structural,and hydraulic engineering principles.23.1Risk Level in Coastal ProjectsBecause of the nature of littoral drift,or longshore sand transport along the coasts,erosion caused by coastal engineering projects along adjacent shore-lines,sometimes several miles away,has been a recurring problem.Tools for prediction and evaluation of such shoreline dynamics are con-tinually improving but are still limited,in partbecause of nature’s unpredictability.Hence,post-construction monitoring of the response of nearby beaches is often a required component of coastal engineering projects.The design level of risk in many coastal engi-neering projects may be higher than in other civil engineering disciplines because the price of more effective design is often not warranted.The design environment is very challenging.It varies with time,since design conditions are often affected by storms that contain much more energy and induce very different loadings from those normally experienced.Also,because the physical processes are so complex,often too complex for theoretical description,the practice of coastal engineering is still much of an art.Con-sequently,practitioners should have a broad base of practical experience and should exercise sound judgment.The practice of coastal engineering has changed rapidly in the last several decades owing to in-creases in natural pressures,such as that created by sea-level rise,and societal pressures,such as those from growing populations along the coast with greater environmental awareness.The changes are recorded in the proceedings of specialty confer-ences,such as those of the American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE),including Coastal Engineering Practice;Dredging,Ports,Coastal Sedi-ments,Coastal Zone,International Coastal Engin-eering Conference,and the Florida Shore andSource: Standard Handbook for Civil EngineersBeach Preservation Association’s Beach preser-vation Technology Conference series.Coastal Hydraulics and SedimentsWaves often apply the primary hydraulic forces of interest in coastal engineering.Tides and other water-level fluctuations control the location of wave attack on the shoreline.Waves and tides generate currents in the coastal zone.Breaking waves provide the forces that drive sand transport along the coast and can cause beach changes,including erosion due to coastal engineering projects.23.2Characteristics of WavesWater waves are caused by a disturbance of the water surface.The original disturbance may be caused by wind,boats or ships,earthquakes,or the gravitational attraction of the moon and sun.Most of the waves are initially formed by wind.Waves formed by moving ships or boats are wakes .Waves formed by earthquake disturbances are tsunamis .Waves formed by the gravitational attraction of the moon and sun are tides .After waves are formed,they can propagate across the surface of the sea for thousands of miles.The properties of propagating waves have been the subject of various wave theories for over a century.The most useful wave theory for engineers is the linear,or small-amplitude,theory.23.2.1Linear Wave TheoryEssentially,linear wave theory treats only a train of waves of the same length and period in a constant depth of water.As in optics,this is called a monochromatic wave train.Linear wave theory relates the length,period,and depth of waves as indicated by Eq.(23.1).L ¼gT 22p tan h 2p dL(23:1)where L ¼wavelength,ft,the horizontal distancebetween crestsd ¼vertical distance,ft,between mean orstill water level and the bottom g ¼acceleration due to gravity,32.2ft /s T ¼wave periods,the time required forpropagation of a wave crest over the wavelength (Fig.23.1)Wave height H ,the fourth value needed to com-pletely define a monochromatic wave train,is an independent value in linear wave theory,but not for higher-order wave theories (Art.23.2.2).Fig.23.1Wave in shallow water.Water particles follow an elliptical path.L indicates length of wave,crest to crest;H wave height,d depth from still-water level to the bottom.The wave period T is the time for a wave to move the distance L .23.2n Section Twenty-ThreeEquation (23.1),implicit in terms of L ,requires an iterative solution except for deep or shallow water.When the relative depth d /L is greater than 1⁄2,the wave is in deep water and Eq.(23.1)becomesL ¼gT 22(23:2)For shallow water,d =L ,1⁄25,eq.(23.1)reduces toL ¼T ffiffiffiffiffigd p (23:3)Individual water particles follow a closed orbit.They return to the same location with each passing wave.The orbits are circular in deep water and elliptical in shallow water.Linear wave theory equations for the water-particle trajectories,the fluctuating water-particle velocities and accelera-tions,and pressures under wave trains are given in R.G.Dean and R.A.Dalrymple,“Water Wave Mechanics for Scientists and Engineers,”Prentice-Hall,Englewood Cliffs,N.J.();R.M.Sorenson,“Basic Wave Mechanics:For Coastal and Ocean Engineers,”John Wiley &Sons,Inc.,New York ().)23.2.2Higher-Order Wave TheoriesThe linear wave theory provides adequate approxi-mations of the kinematics and dynamics of wave motion for many engineering applications.Some areas of concern to civil engineers where the linear theory is not adequate,however,are very large waves and shallow water.Higher-order wavetheories,such as Stokes’second order and cnoidal wave theories,address these important situations.Numerical wave theories,however,have the broadest range of eful tables from stream-function wave theory,a higher-order,num-erical theory,are given in R.G.Dean,“Evaluation and Development of Water Wave Theories For Engineering Applications,”Special Report No.1,U.S.Army Coastal Engineering Research Center,Ft.Belvoir,Va.Determination of the water surface elevations for large waves or waves in shallow water requires use of a higher-order wave theory.A typical waveform is shown in Fig.23.2.The crest of the wave is more peaked and the trough of the wave is flatter than for the sinusoidal water surface profile in linear wave theory.For a horizontal bottom,the height of the wave crest above the still-water level is a maximum of about 0.8d .(“Shore Protection Manual,”4th ed.,U.S.Army Coastal Engineering Research Center,Government Printing Office,Washington,D.C.();“Coastal Engineering Manual,”( /inet /usace-docs /eng-manuals /em-htm).)23.2.3Wave TransformationsAs waves move toward the coast into varying water depths,the wave period remains constant (until breaking).The wavelength and height,how-ever,change because of shoaling,refraction,diffraction,reflection,and wavebreaking.Fig.23.2Water surface for a large wave in shallow water.Coastal and Port Engineering n 23.3Shoaling n As a wave moves into shallower water the wavelength decreases,as indicated by Eq.(23.1),and the wave height increases.The increase in wave height is given by the shoaling coefficient K s.K s¼HH0o(23:4)where H¼wave height in a specific depth of water H0o¼deep-water unrefracted wave height K s varies as a function of relative depth d/L as shown in Table23.1.For an incident wave train of period T,Table23.1can be used to estimate the wave height and wavelength in any depth with Eq.(23.2)for L o.Refraction n This is a term,borrowed from optics,for the bending of waves as they slow down. As waves approach a beach at an angle,a portion of the wave is in shallower water and moving more slowly than the rest.Viewed from above,the wave crest appears to bend.Refraction changes the height of waves as well as the direction of propagation.Refraction can cause wave energy to be focused on headlands and defocused from embayments.There are two general types of refraction models.Wave-ray models trace the path of wave rays,lines perpendicular to the wave crests.The other type of computer refraction model computes solutions to differential equations for the wave-heightfield.The physics simulated varies slightly from model to model.Diffraction n Another term borrowed from optics,this is the spread of energy along a wave crest.An engineering example of wave diffraction is the spreading of energy around the tip of a breakwater into the lee of the breakwater.The wave crest wraps around the tip of a breakwater and appears to be propagating away from that point.Diffraction also occurs in open water where refraction occurs.It can reduce the focusing and bending due to refraction.Reflection n Waves are reflected from obstruc-tions in their path.Reflection of wave energy is greatest at vertical walls,90%to100%,and least for beaches and rubble structures.Undesirable wave-energy conditions in vertical-walled marinas can often be reduced by placing rubble at the water line.Breaking n This happens constantly along a beach,but the mechanics are not well modeled by theory.Thus,much of our knowledge of breaking is empirical.In shallow water,waves break when they reach a limiting depth for the individual wave. This depth-limited breaking is very useful in coastal structure design and surf-zone dynamics models.For an individual wave,the limiting depth is about equal to the water depth and lies in the range given by Eq.(23.5.).0:8,Hdmax,1:2(23:5)where(H/d)max¼maximum ratio of wave height to depth below mean water level for a breaking wave.The variation in(H/d)b(the subscript b means breaking)is due to beach slope and wave steepness H/L.Equation(23.5)is often useful in selecting the design wave height for coastal structures in shal-low water.Given an estimate of the design water depth at the structure location,the maximum wave height H max that can exist in that depth of water is about equal to the depth.Any larger waves would have already broken farther offshore and been reduced to H max.23.2.4Irregular WavesThe smooth water surfaces of monochromatic wave theories are not realistic representations ofTable23.1Shoaling Coefficient and Wavelength Changes as Waves Move into Shallower Waterd/L o d/L K s0.0050.028 1.700.0100.040 1.430.0200.058 1.230.0300.071 1.130.0400.083 1.060.0500.094 1.020.100.140.200.220.300.310.500.50 1.023.4n Section Twenty-Threethe real surf zone.Particularly under an active wind,the water surface will be much more irregular.Two different sets of tools have been developed by oceanographers to describe realistic sea surfaces.One is a statistical representation and one is a spectral representation.Statistics of Wave Height n The individual waves in a typical sea differ in height.The heights follow a theoretical Rayleigh distribution in deep water.In shallow water,the larger individual waves break sooner,and thus the upper tail of the distribution is lost.A commonly used,single wave-height para-meter is the significant wave height H1/3.This is the average of the highest one-third of the waves. Other wave heights used in design can be related to H1/3via the Rayleigh distribution as indicated in Table23.2.23.2.5Wave SpectraSpectral techniques are available that describe the amount of energy at the different frequencies or wave periods in an irregular sea.They provide more information about the irregular wave train and are used in some of the more advanced coastal-structure design methods.A wave-height parameter that is related to the total energy in asea is H mo .(H mois often called significant waveheight also.)Significant wave height H s is a term that has a long history of use in coastal engineering and oceanography.As indicated above and in Art.23.2.4,two fundamentally different definitions for significant wave height are used in coastal engineering.One is statistically based and the other is energy-or spectral-based.Since they are different,the notations,H1/3and H moare recom-mended to avoid confusion in use of H s:H1=3¼statistical significant wave heightH mo¼spectral significant wave heightIn deep water,H mois approximately equal to H1/3. In shallow water,and in particular in the surf zone, the two parameters diverge.(There is little that is truly significant about either parameter.Few of the waves in an actual wave train will have the significant height.It is basically a statistical artifact.)Transformations of actual wave seas such as shoaling,refraction,diffraction,and breaking are not completely understood and not well modeled. Although the monochromatic wave transforma-tions are well modeled,as described in the preceding,in actuality the individual waves and wave trains interact with each other and change the wavefield.(These wave-wave interactions are the subject of significant research efforts.)Thus, the more realistic conditions,that is,irregular seas, are the least understood.However,models that account for the transformation of wave spectra across arbitrary bottom contours are available.23.2.6Wave Generation by Wind Waves under the influence of the winds that generated them are called sea.Waves that have propagated beyond the initial winds that generated them are called swell.Fetch is the distance that a wind blows across the water.For enclosed bays,this is the distance across the water body in the direction of the wind. Duration is the time that a wind at a specific speed blows across the water.The waves at any spot may be fetch-limited or duration-limited.When a windTable23.2Wave Heights Used in DesignSymbol Description Multiple of H1/3 H1/3Average height of highest one-third of waves 1.0H av Average wave height0.6H10Average height of highest10%of waves 1.3H1%Wave height exceeded1%of the time 1.6H sin Height of simple sine waves with same energyas the actual irregular height wave train 0.8Coastal and Port Engineering n23.5starts to blow,wave heights are limited by the short time that the wind has blown;in other words,they are duration-limited.Seas not duration-limited are fully arisen .If the waves are limited by the fetch,they are fetch-limited.For enclosed bay and lake locations,simple parametric models can provide useful wave information.Table 23.3gives wave height and wave period estimates for deep water for different fetch distances and different wind speeds.The values are based on the assumption that the wind blows for a sufficient time to generate fully arisen conditions.In shallow water,the wave heights will be less.On the open ocean,waves are almost never fetch-limited.They are free to continue to move after the wind ceases or changes.Swell wave energy can propagate across entire oceans.The waves striking the beach at any moment in time may include swell from several different locations plus a local wind sea.Thus,for an open-ocean situation,numerical models that grid the entire ocean are required to keep track of wave-energy propagation and local generation.Wave-generation models can forecast waves for marine construction operations.They can also hindcast,that is,estimate waves based on measured or estimated winds at times in the past,for wave climatology studies,probabilistic design,or historic performance analysis.The U.S.Army Corps of Engineers “Wave Information Study(WIS)”has hindcast 40years of data,1956–1995,to generate probabilistic wave statistics for hun-dreds of locations along the coasts of the United States.The wave statistics are available in tabular form,and the actual time sequence of wave conditions is available in digital form.(J.B.Herbich,“Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering,”Gulf Publishing Company,Houston,Tex ().)23.2.7Ship and Boat WakesShip wakes are sometimes the largest waves that occur at a location and thus become the design wave.Vessel wakes from large ships can be up to 6ft high and have wave periods less than 3s.Ship wakes can be estimated with methods presented in J.R.Weggel and R.M.Sorensen,“Ship Wave Prediction for Port and Channel Design,”Proceed-ings,Port Conference,1986,ASCE.Approaches for estimating the wakes due to recreational boats are presented in ASCE Manual 50,“Planning and Design Guidelines for Small-Craft Harbors,”and R.R.Bottin et al.,“Maryland Guide Book for Marina Owners and Operators on Alternatives Available for the Protection of Small Craft against Vessel Generated Waves,”U.S.Army Corps of Engineers Coastal Engineering Research Center,Washington,D.C.Table 23.3Spectral Significant Heights and Periods for Wind-Generated Deep-Water Waves*Wind speed,knotsFetch length,statute miles0.512105020H m o ,ft 0.60.8 1.1 2.2 4.1T p ,s 1.3 1.6 2.0 3.2 4.740H m o ,ft 1.3 1.8 2.5 5.411T p ,s 1.7 2.2 2.7 4.5760H m o ,ft 2.2 3.1 4.29.118T p ,s2.12.63.25.48*Based on method presented in S.L.Douglass et al.,“Wave Forecasting for Construction in Mobile Bay,”Proceedings,Coastal Engineering Practice,1992,pp.713–727,American Society of Civil Engineers.H m o ¼spectral significant wave height and T p ¼wave period.23.6n Section Twenty-Three23.3Design Coastal WaterLevelsThe design water level depends on the type of project.For design of some protective coastal structures,for example,a water level based on a recurrence interval such as a10-year or100-year return period often is selected.The Federal Emergency Management Agency(FEMA)“Flood Insurance Rate Maps(FIRM)”are based on such a concept.They provide afirst estimate of high-water levels along the U.S.coastlines.Since the design of some coastal structures can be extremely sensitive to the design water level,more in-depth analysis may be justified.For engineering projects con-cerned with normal water levels,for example, where dock elevations and beachfill elevations are determined by the water level,an estimate of the normal water level and the normal range around that mean is needed.All coastal engineer-ing projects should be designed to take into account the full range of potential water levels.The water level at any time in a specific location is influenced by the tides,mean sea-level elevation, storm surge,including wind influence,and other local influences,such as fresh-water inflow in estuaries.Tides n The tide is the periodic rise and fall of ocean waters produced by the attraction of the moon and sun.Generally,the average interval between successive high tides is12h25min,half the time between successive passages of the moon across a given meridian.The moon exerts a greater influence on the tides than the sun.Tides,however, are often affected by meteorological conditions, including propagation of storm tides from the sea into coastal waters.The highest tides,which occur at intervals of half a lunar month,are called spring tides.They occur at or near the time when the moon is new or full,i.e.,when the sun,moon,and earth fall in line, and the tide-generating forces of the moon and sun are additive.When the lines connecting the earth with the sun and the moon form a right angle,i.e., when the moon is in its quarters,then the actions of the moon and sun are subtractive,and the lowest tides of the month,the neap tides,occur.Tidal waves are retarded by frictional forces as the earth revolves daily around its axis,and the tide tends to follow the direction of the moon.Thus,the highest tide for each location is not coincident with conjunction and opposition but occurs at some constant time after new and full moon.This interval,known as the age of the tide,may amount to as much as21⁄2days.Large differences in tidal range occur at different locations along the ocean coast.They arise because of secondary tidal waves set up by the primary tidal wave or mass of water moving around the earth.These movements are also in-fluenced by the depth of shoaling water and con-figuration of the coast.The highest tides in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy,where a rise of 100ft has been recorded.Inland and landlocked seas,such as the Mediterranean and the Baltic, have less than1ft of tide,and the Great Lakes are not noticeably influenced.Tides that occur twice each lunar day are called semidiurnal tides.Since the lunar day,or time it takes the moon to make a complete revolution around the earth,is about50min longer than the solar day,the corresponding high tide on succes-sive days is about50min later.In some places,such as Pensacola,Florida,only one high tide a day occurs.These tides are called diurnal tides.If one of the two daily high tides is incomplete,i.e.,if it does not reach the height of the previous tide,as at San Francisco,then the tides are referred to as mixed diurnal tides.Table23.4gives the spring and mean tidal ranges for some major ports.There are other exceptional tidal phenomena. For instance,at Southampton,England,there are four daily high waters,occurring in pairs,separa-ted by a short interval.At Portsmouth,there are two sets of three tidal peaks per day.Tidal bores,a regular occurrence at certain locations are high-crested waves caused by the rush offlood tide up a river,as in the Amazon,or by the meeting of tides, as in the Bay of Fundy.The rise of the tide is referred to some estab-lished datum of the charts,which varies in different parts of the world.In the United States,it is mean lower low water(MLLW).Mean high water is the average of the high water over a19-year period,and mean low water is the average of the low water over a19-year period. Higher high water is the higher of the two high waters of any diurnal tidal day,and lower low water is the lower of the two low waters of any diurnal tidal day.Mean higher high water is the average height of the higher high water over a19-year period,and mean lower low water is the Coastal and Port Engineering n23.7average height of the lower low waters over a 19-year period (tidal epoch).Highest high water and lowest low water are the highest and lowest,respectively,of the spring tides of record.Mean range is the height of mean high water above mean low water.The mean of this height is generally referred to as mean sea level (MSL).Diurnal range is the difference in height between the mean higher high water and the mean lower low water.The National Ocean Service annually publishes tide tables that give the time and elevation of the high and low tides at thousands of locations around the world and that can be used to forecast water levels at all times.The tide tables forecast the repeating,astronomical portions of the tide for specific locations but do not directly account for the day-to-day effects of changes in local winds,pressures,and other factors.Along most coasts,the tide table forecasts are within 1ft of the actual water level 90%of the time.Relative sea-level rise is gradually changing all of the epoch-based datum at any coastal site.Although,the datum that is used for design and construction throughout an upland area is not particularly important,the relation between con-struction and actual water levels in the coastal zone can be extremely important.The level of the oceans of the world has been gradually increasing for thousands of years.The important change is the relative sea-level change,the combined effect of water level and land-mass elevation changes due to subsidence (typical of the U.S.Atlantic and Gulf coasts)or rebound or emergence (Pacific coast of the U.S.).Measured,long-term tide data for major U.S.ports show that the relative sea-level rise differs from location to location.For example,Table 23.4Mean and Spring Tidal Ranges for Some of the World’s Major Ports*Mean range,ftSpring range,ft Anchorage,Alaska 26.729.6†Antwerp,Belgium15.717.8Auckland,New Zealand 8.09.2Baltimore,Md 1.1 1.3Bilboa,Spain 9.011.8Bombay,India 8.711.8Boston,Mass.9.511.0Buenos Aires,Argentina2.2 2.4Burntcoat Head,Nova Scotia (Bay of Fundy)41.647.5Canal Zone,Atlantic side 0.7 1.1†Canal Zone,Pacific side 12.616.4Capetown,Union of South Africa 3.8 5.2Cherbourg,France 13.018.0Dakar,Africa 3.3 4.4Dover,England 14.518.6Galveston,Tex 1.0 1.4†Genoa,Italy 0.60.8Gibraltar,Spain2.33.1Hamburg,Germany 7.68.1Havana,Cuba1.0 1.2Hong Kong,China 3.1 5.3†Honolulu,Hawaii 1.2 1.9†Juneau,Alaska14.016.6†La Guaira,Venezuela 1.0†Lisbon,Portugal 8.410.8Liverpool,England 21.227.1Manila,Philippines 3.3†Marseilles,France 0.40.6Melbourne,Australia 1.7 1.9Murmansk,U.S.S.R.7.99.9New York,N.Y. 4.4 5.3Osaka,Japan 2.5 3.3Oslo,Norway 1.0 1.1Quebec,Canada 13.715.5Rangoon,Burma 13.417.0Reikjavik,Iceland 9.212.5Rio de Janeiro,Brazil 2.5 3.5Rotterdam,Netherlands 5.0 5.4San Diego,Calif. 4.2 5.8†San Francisco,Calif. 4.0 5.7†San Juan,Puerto Rico 1.1 1.3Seattle,Wash.7.611.3†Shanghai,China 6.78.9Singapore,Malaya5.67.4Table 23.4(Continued )Mean range,ftSpring range,ft Southampton,England 10.013.6Sydney,Australia 3.6 4.5Valparaiso,Chile 3.0 3.9Vladivostok,U.S.S.R.0.60.7Yokohama,Japan 3.5 4.7Zanzibar,Africa8.812.4*“Tide Tables,”National Ocean Service.†Diurnal range.23.8n Section Twenty-Threeat Galveston,Tex.,there has been about1ft of relative sea-level rise during the last50years.At Anchorage,Alaska,there has been about2ft of relative sea-level fall during the last50years.The impact of long-term sea-level rise has rarely been taken into account in design,except when it has already impacted the epoch-based tidal datum, such as MLLW.The National Geodetic Vertical Datum(NGVD)was established at the mean sea level(MSL)of1929.Since sea-level rise has con-tinued since then,the NGVD is now below the current day MSL along much of the U.S.Atlantic and Gulf coasts.At many locations,it is between the MSL and the MLLW.For accurate location of the NGVD relative to the MSL or MLLW,analysis with data from a local tide gage is required.For some harbor and coastal design,a staff gage is installed for recording water levels for a sustained period of time to confirm the relation between the local surveyor’s elevation datum,the assumed tidal datum,and the actual water surface elevation.Storm Surge n This can be defined broadly to include all the effects involved in a storm,inclu-ding wind stress across the continental shelf and within an estuary or body of water,barometric pressure,and wave-induced setup.The combined influence of these effects can change the water level by5to20ft depending on the intensity of the storm and coastal location.Engineers can use return-period analysis curves to estimate the likelihood of any particular elevation.The Federal Emergency Management Agency and the various Corps of Engineer Districts have developed such curves based on historic high-water-mark elevations and numerical models of the hydrodynamics of the continental shelf.23.4Coastal SedimentCharacteristicsMost beach sediments are sand.The day-to-day dynamics of the surf zone usually ensure that most fines,silts,and clays will be washed away to more quiescent locations offshore.Some beaches have layers of cobbles,rounded gravel,or shingles,flattened gravel.The size and composition of beach sands varies around the world and even along adjacent shore-lines.Essentially,the beach at any particular site consists of whatever loose material is available.Quartz is the most common mineral in beach sands. Other constituents in sands include feldspars and heavy minerals.Some beaches have significant por-tions of seashell fragments and some beaches are dominated by coral carbonate material.Beach sands are usually described in terms of grain-size distribution.The median diameter d50is a common measure of the central size of the distribution.The range of the distribution of sand sizes around this median is usually discussed in terms of sorting.The color of the sand depends primarily on the composition of the grains.The black sand beaches of Hawaii are derived from volcanic lava.The white sands of the panhandle of Florida are quartz that has developed a white color owing to mini-ature surface abrasions and bleaching.23.5Nearshore Currents andSand TransportAs wave energy enters the surf zone,some of the energy is transformed to nearshore currents and expended in sand movement.The nearshore cur-rentfield is dominated by the incident wave energy and the local windfield.The largest currents are the oscillatory currents associated with the waves. However,several forms of mean currents(long-shore currents,rip currents associated with nearshore circulation cells,and downwelling or upwelling associated with winds)can be important to sand transport.Longshore current is the mean current along the shore between the breaker line and the beach that is driven by an oblique angle of wave approach. The waves provide the power for the mean long-shore current and also provide the wave-by-wave agitation to suspend sand in the current.The resulting movement of sand is littoral drift or longshore sand transport.This process is referred to as a river of sand moving along the coast. Although the river-of-sand concept is an effective, simple explanation of much of the influence of engineering on adjacent beaches,the actual sand transport paths are more complex.This is par-ticularly so near inlets with large ebb-tidal shoals that influence the incident wave climate.Even on an open coast with straight and parallel offshore bottom contours,the longshore-sand-transport direction changes constantly in response to changes in the incident wave height,period,and Coastal and Port Engineering n23.9。
过程装备与控制工程专业英语课文全部翻译
材料力学是应用力学的一个分支，涉及受不同类型载荷的固体的性能。这是一个有多种名称的研究领域，包括： “材料强度” ， “易变形体 的力学” 。本书中研究的固体包括受轴向载荷的杆，轴，梁，圆柱和由这些零件装配的机构。一般情况下，我们研究的目的是测定因受载而引 起的应力，应变和变形；如果当所有负荷量达到破坏载荷时，能够测得这些物理量，我们就可能得到一份完整的固体力学性能图。 在材料力学的研究中，理论分析和实验研究同等重要。很多情况下，我们通过逻辑推导来获得预测力学性能的公式和方程，但同时我 们必须认识到，这些公式不能用于实际情况中，除非材料的特性是已知的。只有在实验室中做过适当的实验之后我们才能使用这些特性。并 且，当工程中的重要的问题用逻辑推导方式不能有效的解决时，实验测量就成为一种实际需要。材料力学的发展历史是一个理论与实验极有 趣的结合，在一些情况下，是实验指出了得出正确结果的方式，在另一些情况下确是理论来做这些事。例如，著名的达芬奇(1452-1519)和伽 利略(1564-1642)通过做实验测定钢丝，杆，梁的强度，尽管在当时对他们的测试结果并没有充足的理论支持（以现代的标准） 。相反，著名的 数学家欧拉(1707-1783) ，在 1744 年就提出了柱体的数学理论并计算其极限载荷，而过了很久才有实验证明其结果的正确性。 因此，欧拉的 理论结果在很多年里仍然未被采用，但今天，它们奠定了圆柱理论的基础。 随着研究的不断深入，把理论推导和在实验上已确定的材料性质结合起来研究的重要性将是显然的。在这一节，首先。我们讨论一些基 本概念，如应力和应变，然后研究受拉伸，压缩和剪切的简单构件的性能。 1. Stress 应力 通过对等截面杆拉伸的研究初步解释应力和应变的概念[如图 1.4（a）]。 等截面杆是一个具有恒定截面的直线轴。这里，假设在杆的末端 施加轴向力 P，产生均匀的伸展或拉伸。假设沿垂直于轴线的方向切割杆，我们就能把杆的一部分当作自由体隔离出来[图 1.4（b）]。 张力 P 作用于杆的右端，在另一端就会出现一些力来代表杆被切除的那一部分。 这些力连续的分布在横截面上，类似于作用在被淹没物体表面的 连续的静水压力。力的密度，也就是单位面积上的力的大小称为应力，一般用 表示。假设应力是均匀分布在横截面上[如图 1.4（b）]，我 们很容易得出它的大小等于密度 乘以杆的横截面积 A。而且，通过图 1.4（b）中所示物体的平衡，我们也能得到它与力 P 等大反向。因此， 我们得到
机械外文翻译---液压机
中文1829字Hydraulic MachineFrom: The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Date: 2008Hydrulic machine that derives its power from the motion or pressure of water or some other liquid. Hydraulic equipment and technology is something that we are all at least passingly familiar with. If we think about it, we know that the principles of hydraulics are applied to make many common machines work. For example hydraulics are used in agricultural equipment, giant earth moving and mining machines, they are used to steer and stabilize giant ocean liners, help airplanes climb and turn, and make the brakes in our cars work. So hydraulics can provide great force, are obviously very adaptable and used in all kinds of applications, but how do they actually work?What is this hydraulics stuff?Hydraulics is based on a very simple fact of nature - you cannot compress a liquid. You can compress a gas (think about putting more and more air into a tire, the more you put in, the higher the pressure). If you're really strong you can compress a solid mass as well. But no matter how much pressure you apply onto a liquid, it isn't possible to compress it. Now if you put that liquid into a sealed system and push on it at one end, that pressure is transmitted through the liquid to the other end of the system. The pressure is not diminished.. Hydraulics is Old StuffThe basic concept of hydraulics is not new. The Greeks understood about using water to provide lift and force, and the name hydraulics come form the Latin word for water - "HYDRA". In the middle Ages, Leonardo da Vinci formulated the basic principle of hydraulics called continuity and Galileo experimented with hydraulics.Hydraulics were even used during the construction of the Eiffel Tower in Paris in the late 1880's. Hydraulic jacks were used to level the tower and align the metal girders to an accuracy of 1 millimeter。
聚乙烯管材标准发展现状分析
第35卷第3期2021年3月中国塑料CHINA PLASTICSVol.35，No.3Mar.，2021聚乙烯管材标准发展现状分析施建峰1，2，胡安琪1，郑津洋1，2∗（1.浙江大学能源工程学院，杭州310027；2.高压过程装备与安全教育部工程研究中心，杭州310027）摘要：对比了聚乙烯管道和金属管道设计方法的差异，分析了标准中对于管材最小壁厚的计算公式差异的原因。
综述了聚乙烯管道标准两个体系的区别和联系，其中一个是国际公认的国际标准化组织（ISO ）编制的标准体系，另一个是美国机械工程师学会（ASME ）、美国材料实验协会（ASTM ）、美国塑料管道协会（PPI ）编制的标准体系，两个标准体系对聚乙烯材料分级的依据和测试方法不同，壁厚计算中的设计系数取值方式也不同。
分析了国内外现行标准中存在的问题，建议中国以当前聚乙烯管道在燃气、给水与核电等领域快速发展为基础，研制出既能满足这些领域应用发展需求，又适应中国现有聚乙烯管道行业发展现状的技术标准体系。
关键词：聚乙烯管；标准体系；材料分级；设计系数中图分类号：T651；TQ320.72+4文献标识码：A 文章编号：1001⁃9278（2021）03⁃0112⁃12DOI ：10.19491/j.issn.1001⁃9278.2021.03.016Development Status of Technical Standards in Polyethylene PipingSHI Jianfeng 1，2，HU Anqi 1，ZHENG Jinyang 1，2∗（1.College of Energy Engineering ，Zhejiang University ，Hangzhou 310027，China ；2.High⁃pressure Process Equipment and Safety Engineering Research Center Ministry of Education ，Hangzhou 310017，China ）Abstract ：The differences in the design methods of polyethylene （PE ）pipes and metal pipes were compared ，and the dif⁃ferences and connections between the two systems of PE pipe standards were reviewed.One of them is an internationally recognized standard system made by the International Organization for Standardization （ISO ），and the other belongs to the standard system compiled by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers （ASME ），the American Society for Testing and Materials （ASTM ），and the American Plastic Piping Association （PPI ）.The basis and test methods for the classification of PE materials in these two standard systems are different ，and the design coefficient values in the wall thickness calculation are also different.The problems in the current domestic and foreign standards were proposed and an⁃alyzed.On the basis of the application of PE pipes in the fields of natural gas ，water supply ，and nuclear power plant in China ，some suggestions were proposed for the Chinese government to establish a set of technical standards that can meet the requirement of various applications and are also suitable for the industrial status of PE pipes.Key words ：polyethylene pipe ；standard system ；material classification ；design factor0前言塑料管道已成功应用60多年，广泛地应用于给水和燃气管道系统中。
水利专业中外语对比翻译2
河北工程大学中外文翻译中外语对比翻译学院水电学院专业农业水利工程班级农水1001姓名徐伟学号100270133importance of waterWater is best known and most abundant of all chemical compounds occurring in relatively pure form on the earth’s surface.Oxygen,the most abundant chemical element,is present in combination with hydrogen to the extent of89percent in water.Water covers about three fourths of the earth's surface and permeates cracks of much solid land.The Polar Regions(原文polar regions)are overlaid with vast quantities of ice,and the atmosphere of the earth carries water vapor in quantities from0.1percent to2percent by weight.It has been estimated that the amount of water in the atmosphere above a square mile of land on a mild summer day is of the order of50,000tons.All life on earth depends upon water,the principal ingredient of living cells.The use of water by man,plants,and animals is universal.Without it there can be no life.Every living thing requires water.Man can go nearly two months without food,but can live only three or four days without water.In our homes,whether in the city or in the country,water is essential for cleanliness and health.The average American family uses from65,000to75,000gallons of water per year for various household purposes.Water can be considered as the principal raw material and the lowest cost raw material from which most of our farm produces is made.It is essential for the growth of crops and animals and is a very important factor in the production of milk and eggs.Animals and poultry, if constantly supplied with running water,will produce more meat,more milk,and more eggs per pound of food and per hour of labor.For example,apples are87%water.The trees on which they grow must have watered many times the weight of the fruit.Potatoes are75%water.To grow an acre of potatoes tons of water is required.Fish are80%water.They not only consume water but also must have large volumes of water in which to k is88%water.To produce one quart of milk a cow requires from3.5to5.5quarts of water.Beef is77%water.To produce a pound of beef an animal must drink many times that much water.If there is a shortage of water,there will be a decline in farm production,just as a shortage of steel will cause a decrease in the production of automobiles.In addition to the direct use of water in our homes and on the farm,there are many indirectways in which water affects our lives.In manufacturing,generation of electric power, transportation,recreation,and in many other ways,water plays a very important role.Our use of water is increasing rapidly with our growing population.Already there are acute shortages of both surface and underground waters in many locations.Careless pollution and contamination of our streams,lakes,and underground sources has greatly impaired the quality of the water which we do have available.It is therefore of utmost importance for our future that good conservation and sanitary measures be practiced by everyone.In nature,water is constantly changing from one state to another.The heat of the sun evaporates water from land and water surfaces,this water vapor(a gas),being lighter than air, rises until it reaches the cold upper air where it condenses into clouds.Clouds drift around according to the direction of the wind until they strike a colder atmosphere.At this point the water further condenses and falls to the earth as rain,sleet,or snow,thus completing the hydrologic cycle.The complete hydrologic cycle,however,is much more complex.The atmosphere gains water vapor by evaporation not only from the oceans but also from lakes,rivers,and other water bodies,and from moist ground surfaces.Water vapor is also gained by sublimation from snowfields and by transpiration from vegetation and trees.Water precipitation may follow various routes.Much of the precipitation from the atmosphere falls directly on the oceans.Of the water that does fall over land areas,some is caught by vegetation or evaporates before reaching the ground,some is locked up in snowfields or ice-fields for periods ranging from a season to many thousands of years,and some is retarded by storage in reservoirs,in the ground,in chemical compounds,and in vegetation and animal life.The water that falls on land areas may return immediately to the sea as runoff in streams and rivers or when snow melts in warmer seasons.When the water does not run off immediately it percolates into the soil.Some of this groundwater is taken up by the roots of vegetation and some of it flows through the subsoil into rivers,lakes,and oceans.Because water is absolutely necessary for sustaining life and is of great importance in industry men have tried in many ways to control the hydrologic cycle to their own advantage. An obvious example is the storage of water behind dams in reservoirs,in climates where there are excesses and deficits of precipitation(with respect to water needs)at different times in the year.Another method is the attempt to increase or decrease natural precipitation by injecting particles of dry ice or silver iodide into clouds.This kind of weather modification has had limited success thus far,but many meteorologists believe that a significant control ofprecipitation can be achieved in the future.Other attempts to influence the hydrologic cycle include the contour plowing of sloping farmlands to slow down runoff and permit more water to percolate into the ground,the construction of dikes to prevent floods and so on.The reuse of water before it returns to the sea is another common practice.Various water supply systems that obtain their water from rivers may recycle it several times(with purification)before it finally reaches the rivers mouth.Men also attempt to predict the effects of events in the course of the hydrologic cycle.Thus, the meteorologist forecasts the amount and intensity of precipitation in a watershed,and the hydrologist forecasts the volume of runoff.The first hydraulic project has been lost in the mists of prehistory.Perhaps some prehistoric man found that pile of rocks across a stream would raise the water level sufficiently to overflow the land that was the source of his wild food plants and water them during a drought. Whatever the early history of hydraulics,abundant evidence exists to show that the builders understood little hydrology.Early Greek and Roman writings indicated that these people could accept the oceans as the ultimate source of all water but could not visualize precipitation equaling or exceeding stream-flow.Typical of the ideas of the time was a view that seawater moved underground to the base of the mountains.There a natural still desalted water,and the vapor rose through conduits to the mountain tops,where it condensed and escaped at the source springs of the streams.Marcus Vitruvius Pollio(ca.100B.C.)seems to have been one of the first to recognize the role of precipitation as we accept it today.Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519)was the next to suggest a modern view of the hydrologic cycle,but it remained for Pierre Perrault(1608-1680)to compare measured rainfall with the estimated flow of the Seine River to show that the stream-flow was about one-sixth of the precipitation.The English astronomer Halley(1656-1742)measured evaporation from a small pan and estimated evaporation from the Mediterranean Sea from these data.As late as1921, however,some people still questioned the concept of the hydrologic cycle.Precipitation was measured in India as early as the fourth century B.C.,but satisfactory methods for measuring stream-flow were a much later development.Frontinus,water commissioner of Rome in A.D.97,based estimates of flow on cross-sectional area alone without regard to velocity.In the United States,organized measurement of precipitation started under the Surgeon General of the Army in1819,was transferred to the Signal Corps in1870, and finally,in1891,to a newly organized U.S.Weather Bureau,renamed the National Weather Service in1970.Scattered stream-flow measurements were made on the Mississippi River as early as1848,but a systematic program was not started until1888,when the U.S.GeologicalSurvey undertook this work.It is not surprising,therefore,that little quantitative work in hydrology was done before the early years of the twentieth century,when men such as Hortan, Mead,and Sherman began to explore the field.The great expansion of activity in flood control, irrigation,soil conservation,and related fields which began about1930gave the first real impetus to organized research in hydrology,as need for more precise design data became evident.Most of today’s concepts of hydrology date from1930.Hydrology is used in engineering mainly in connection with the design and operation of hydraulic structures.What flood flows can be expected at a spillway or highway culvert or in a city drainage system?What reservoir capacity is required to assure adequate water for irrigation or municipal water supply during droughts?What effects will reservoirs,levees,and other control works exert on flood flows in a stream?These are typical of questions the hydrologist is expected to answer.Large organization such as federal and state water agencies can maintain staffs of hydrologic specialists to analyze their problems,but smaller offices often have insufficient hydrologic work for full-time specialists.Hence,many civil engineers are called upon for occasional hydrologic studies.It is probable that these civil engineers deal with a larger number of projects and greater annual dollar volume than the specialists do.In any event,it seems that knowledge of the fundamentals of hydrology is an essential part of the civil engineer’s training.Hydrology deals with many topics.The subject matter as presented in this book can be broadly classified into two phases:data collection and methods of analysis.Chapter2to6deals with the basic data of hydrology.Adequate basic data are essential to any science,and hydrology is no exception.In fact,the complex features of the natural processes involved in hydrologic phenomena make it difficult to treat many hydrologic processes by rigorous deductive reasoning.One can not always start with a basic physical law and from this determine the hydrologic result to be expected.Rather,it is necessary to start with a mass of observed facts, analyze these facts,and from this analysis to establish the systematic pattern that governs these events.Thus,without adequate historical data for the particular problem area,the hydrologist is in a difficult position.Most countries have one or more government agencies with responsibility for data collection.It is important that the student learn how these data are collected and published,the limitations on their accuracy,and the proper methods of interpretation and adjustment.Typical hydrologic problems involve estimates of extremes not observed in a small data sample,hydrologic characteristic at locations where no data have been collected(such locations are much more numerous than sites with data),or estimates of the effects of man’s actions onthe hydrologic characteristics of an area.Generally,each hydrologic problem is unique in that it deals with a distinct set of physical conditions within a specific river basin.Hence,quantitative conclusions of one analysis are often not directly transferable to another problem.However,the general solution for most problems can be developed from application of a few relatively basic concepts.Of all the earth’s water97%is found in the oceans,2%in glaciers and only1%on land.Of this1%almost all(97%)is found beneath the surface and called sub-surface or underground water.Most of this water eventually finds its way back to the sea either by underground movement or by rising into surface streams and lakes.These vast underground water deposits provide much needed moisture for dry areas and irrigated districts.Underground water acts in similar ways to surface water,also performing geomorphic work as an agent of gradation.Even though man has been aware of sub-surface water since earliest times,its nature, occurrence,movement and geomorphic significance have remained obscure.Recently,however, some answers have been found to the perplexing questions about underground water’s relationship to the hydrological cycle.Since the days of Vitruvius at the time of Christ,many theories have been presented to explain the large volume of water underneath the earth’s surface.One theory was that only the sea could provide such large quantities,the water moving underground from coastal areas. Vitruvius was the first to recognize that precipitation provided the main source of sub-surface water,although his explanations of the mechanics involved were not very scientific.His theory,now firmly established,is termed the infiltration theory,and states that underground water is the result of water seeping downwards from the surface,either directly from precipitation or indirectly from streams and lakes.This form of water is termed meteoric.A very small proportion of the total volume of sub-surface water is derived from other sources. Connate water is that which is trapped in sedimentary beds during their time of formation. Juvenile water is water added to the crust by diastrophic causes at a considerable depth,an example being volcanic water.During precipitation water infiltrates into the ground,under the influence of gravity,this water travels downwards through the minute pore spaces between the soil particles until it reaches a layer of impervious bedrock,through which it cannot penetrate.The excess moisture draining downwards then fills up all the pore spaces between the soil particles,displacing the soil air.During times of excessive rainfall such saturated soil may be found throughout the soil profile,while during period of drought it may be non-existent.Normally the upper limit ofsaturated soil,termed the water table,is a meter or so below the surface,the height depending on soil characteristics and rainfall supply.According to the degree of water-occupied pore space,sub-surface moisture is divided into two zones:the zone of aeration and zone of saturation,as illustrated in Fig4.1.This area extends from the surface down to the upper level of saturation-the water table. With respect to the occurrence and the circulation of the water contained in it,this zone can be further divided into three belts:the soil water belt,the intermediate belt and the capillary fringe (Fig.4.1)Assuming that the soil is dry,initial rainfall allows water to infiltrate,the amount of infiltration depending on the soil structure.Soils composed mainly of large particles,with large pore spaces between each particle,normally experience a more rapid rate of infiltration than do soils composed of minute particles.No matter what the soil is composed of some water is held on the soil particles as a surface film by molecular attraction,resisting gravitational movement downwards.The water held in this manner is referred to as hygroscopic water.Even though it is not affected by gravity,it can be evaporated,though not normally taken up by plants.This belt occurs during dry periods when the water table is at considerable depth below the surface.It is similar to the soil water belt in that the water is held on the soil particles by molecular attraction,but differs in that the films of moisture are not available for transpiration or for evaporation back to the atmosphere.In humid areas,with a fairly reliable rainfall,this belt may be non-existent or very shallow.Through it,gravitational or vadose water drips downwards to the zone of saturation.Immediately above the water table is a very shallow zone of water which has been drawn upwards from the ground-water reservoir below by capillary force.The depth of this zone depends entirely on soil texture,soils with minute pore spaces being able to attract more water from below than soils with large pore spaces.In the latter types of soil the molecular forces are not able to span the gaps between soil particles.Thus,sandy soils seldom exhibit an extensive capillary fringe,merging from soil water through to the zone of saturation.The zone of saturation is the area of soil and rock whose pore spaces are completely filled with water,and which is entirely devoid of soil air.This zone is technically termed ground water even though the term broadly includes water in the zone of aeration.The upper limit of the zone of saturation is the water table or phreatic surface.It is difficult to know how deep the ground-water zone extends.Although most ground water is found in the upper3km of the crust, pore spaces capable of water retention extend to a depth of16km.this appears to be the upper limit of the zone of rock flowage where pressures are so great that they close any interstitialspaces.The upper level of the saturated zone can be completely plotted by digging wells at various places.Studies suggest two quite interesting points(Fig.4.2).1)The water table level is highest under the highest parts of the surface,and lowest under the lowest parts of the surface.Hills and mountains have a higher level phreatic surface than valleys and lakes.The reason for this is that water continually percolating through the zone of aeration lifts the water table,while seepage from the ground-water zone into creeks and lakes lowers the level.2)The depth of the water table below the land surface is greatest in upland areas where the water moves quite freely downhill under gravity.Close to streams,lakes and swamps the water table is close to,if not at the surface,as water from the higher areas builds it up.What causes flooding?The basic cause is excessive runoff from catchment s into river systems incapable of carrying this extra volume.Can science and technology prevent flooding or,at least,reduce its severity?Unfortunately,this is a complex problem to which as yet there is no very satisfactory solution.Let us consider first the reduction of runoff from catchment areas.Some regions have soils which have low absorbing capacity.In a heavy rainstorm such soil is quickly saturated and all additional rainfall then runs off into the river.A seasonal variable is the moisture status of the soil at the commencement of a rainstorm.If the soil is already moist,a relatively minor storm could still cause heavy runoff because the soil is incapable of retaining additional moisture. These factors are not easily influenced by man.However,man’s utilization of the catchment area can have an important influence on rge scale cleaning of trees and scrub greatly reduces the capacity of the soil to retain water.It also tends to cause soil erosion which aggravates flooding by chocking rivers and streams with deposited silt.Correct management of catchment areas is therefore one important approach to the problem of flood control.More direct approach which is used in an emergency is the construction of levee s.when rising floodwaters threaten a township the citizens form work-parties to build barricade s of sandbags along the river bank,hoping that those barricades will hold back the flood waters until the emergency passes.It may be wandered why levees are not usually built as permanent structures to which the town is protected at all times.The reason is that levees are an unsatisfactory solution to the problem.If a levees collapses,the floodwaters escape as a sudden deluge with increased capacity for destruction.Levees as they divert the floodwater from one area frequently create or aggravate problems in another.They can be a cause of enmity between communities for this reason.Anther approach is the construction of dams so that floodwaters can be retained in a reservoir until the crisis is over,slow release of the water during the succeeding weeks or months would then be bined purpose irrigation and flood control dams would seem to be a logical solution.Unfortunately,a reservoir which is to be used for irrigation needs to be kept nearly full in winter,while one which is to be used for flood control needs to be kept empty,so that it is available as a water store when needed.This conflict of operating requirements means that combined purpose dams are rarely feasible.Separate dams would be required for flood control and their very high cost makes this an impractical solution.The next approach to the problem is that of improving the capacity of the river to carry larger volumes of water without overflowing its banks.A number of measures are available,some simple,some complex.They all have widespread effects on the river so any of these measures should be used as part of a comprehensive plan.Work of this kind is known as“river improvement”or“river management”.One simple,but important step is to ensure that the water course of a river is kept free of obstruction s.These frequently consist of dead trees which have fallen into the river,where they remain to impede the flow of water.They are called“snags”and the removal work“snagging”. Many of the trees that line Australian River banks are hardwoods,which are too heavy to float so they remain where they fall.Furthermore,hardwoods are very durable;large red gum logs have been known to survive over a hundred years under water.Another method of increasing the capacity of the river is to remove choking plant growth. Early settlers introduced willow trees to many of our river banks,partly for shade,partly to recall old England and hopefully to reduce the erosion of the river banks.Unfortunately,these trees are difficult to control and willow infestation is now quite commonly a problem. Protection of the banks of a river from erosion by the stream of water is another measure.Rivers which follow a meandering,or winding course tend to erode their banks along the outer curves. This can mean a loss of valuable soil from the eroded bank area and is also a cause of local flooding.Means of protecting banks from erosion have been devised.The simplest device used for this purpose is that of anchored or tied tree trunks along the eroded bank.The trunks protect the bank and encourage the deposition of silt on the bank so that it is gradually built up.Water,one of man’s most precious resources,is generally taken for granted until its use is threatened by reduced availability or quality.Water pollution is produced primarily by the activities of man,specifically his mismanagement of water resources.The pollutants are any chemical,physical,or biological substances that affect the natural condition of water or itsintended use.Because water pollution threatens the availability,quality and usefulness of water, it is of worldwide critical concern.The increase in the number and variety of uses for water throughout the world has produced a wide range of standards of water quality that must be satisfied.These demands include:①preservation of rivers in their natural state;②potability of the water supply;③preservation and enhancement of fish and wildlife;④safety for agricultural use;⑤safety for recreational use including swimming;⑥accommodation to a great variety of industrial purpose;⑦freedom from nuisance;⑧generation of power for public utilities;⑨dilution and transport of wastes.Besides the specific chemical,biological,and physical requirements for the multitude of uses noted above,there are constraints reflecting public health requirements, aesthetics,economics,and short and long-term ecological impacts.Consequently,there is no rigid or specific definition of water pollution,since the intended use or uses of the water must be taken into consideration in any definition of what constitutes polluted water.One method of classifying the gaseous,liquid and solid constituents of water that constitute pollution depends on the intended use of the water.The pollutants are then grouped as not permissible,as undesirable and objectionable,as permissible but not necessarily desirable, or as desirable.For example,if water is to be used immediately for animal consumption,toxic compounds are not desirable,whereas a certain amount of oxygen is not objectionable.On the other hand,if the water is to be used in a power plant for steam generation,toxic materials might be allowable or even perhaps desirable,whereas oxygen that could possibly corrode equipment would be objectionable.Another method of classifying pollutants that enter water as a result of man’s domestic, industrial or other activities is to distinguish between conservative and non-conservative pollutants.Conservative pollutants are those that are not altered by the biological processes occurring in natural waters.These pollutants are for the most part inorganic chemicals,which are diluted in receiving water but are not appreciably changed in total quantity.Industrial wastes contain numerous such pollutants,including metallic salts and other toxic,corrosive,colored, and taste-producing materials.Domestic pollution and return flow from irrigation may contain numerous such pollutants,including chlorides and nitrates.Non-conservative pollutants,on the other hand,are changed in form of reduced in quantity by chemical and physical processes involved in biological phenomena occurring in water.The most common source of non-conservative pollutants is domestic sewage－highly putrescible organic waste that can be converted into inorganic materials such as bicarbonates,sulfates,and phosphates by the bacteria and other microorganism in the water.If the water is not too heavily laden with wastes,it will undergo“self-purification”.This process involves the action of aerobic bacteria,that is,bacteria that require free oxygen to break down wastes,and it produces no offensive odors.If,however,the water is laden with wastes beyond a certain amount,the process of biological degradation becomes anaerobic.That is,it proceeds by the action of bacteria that do not require free oxygen.In the process,noxious hydrogen sulphide gas,methane,and other gases are produced.The aerobic and anaerobic processes that occur naturally in streams are used in sewage treatment plants and are,in fact,major elements in sewage treatment.The problem of water pollution has been and is almost worldwide.Planning can be defined as the orderly consideration of a project from the original statement of purpose through the evaluation of alternative s to the final decision on a course of action.It includes all the work associated with the design of a project except the detailed engineering of the structures.It is the basis for the decision to proceed with(or to abandon)a proposed project and is the most important aspect of the engineering for the project.Because each water-development project is unique in its physical and economic setting,it is impossible to describe a simple process that will inevitably lead to the best decision.There is no substitute for“engineering judgment”in the selection of the method of approach to project planning,but each individual step toward the final decision should be supported by quantitative analysis rather than estimates or judgment whenever possible.One often hears the phrase“river-basin planning”,but the planning phase is no less important in the case of the smallest project.The planning for an entire river basin involves a much more complex planning effort than the single project,but the difficulties in arriving at the correct decision may be just as great for the individual project.The term“planning”carries another connotation which is different from the meaning described above.This is the concept of the regional master plan which attempts to define the most desirable future growth pattern for an area.If the master plan is in reality the most desirable pattern of development,then future growth should be guided toward this pattern. Unfortunately,the concept of“most desirable”is subjective,and it is difficult to assure that any master plan meets this high standard when first developed.Subsequent changes in technology, economic development,and public attitude often make a master plan obsolete in a relatively short time.Any plan is based on assumptions regarding the future,and if these assumptions are not realized the plan must be revised.Plan generally must be revised periodically.An overall regional water-management plan,developed with care and closely coordinated with other regional plans,may be a useful tool in determining which of many possible actions。
土木工程专业英语
土木工程专业英语第一篇：土木工程专业英语水力学 hydraulics水泥 cement桁架 truss 沥青 bitumen混凝土concrete强度strength 非线性nonlinear桩pile刚性rigid隧道tunnel砾石 gravel柱子 column力 force位移 displacement线性的 linear砂浆 mortar弹性 elastic塑性plastic沉降 settlement 弯矩 moment扭矩 torque剪力 shear 正应力 normal stress路面 pavement钢筋混凝土 reinforced concrete抗拉强度 tensile strength抗压强度compressive strength 土木工程civil engineering岩体力学rock mass mechanics粒径grain diameter 容许应力allowable stress土力学soil mechanics斜拉桥cable stayed bridge 悬索桥suspension bridge中性面 neutral plane水灰比 water-cement ratio 民用建筑civil architecture地质成因geologic origin临界截面choking section岩土工程 geotechnical engineering屈服点 yield point横截面(transverse)cross section 安全系数 safety factor抗剪强度 shear strength反复试验 trial and error预应力混凝土priestessed concrete先张法pretensioning concrete 后张法post-tensioning concrete 土质勘测soil investiagation在这两种应力中，前者是压应力，后者是拉应力。
土木工程专业英语
Contents
Civil engineers in pipeline engineering build pipelines and related facilities which transport liquids, gases, or solids ranging from coal slurries and semi-liquid wastes to water, oil, and various types of highly combustible and noncombustible gases. 从事管道工程的土木工程师建造管道和相关设施来运输液体、气体和固体，运输的物质范围从煤浆（煤与水混合）和半液态废弃物到水、油和各种高度易燃和不易燃的气体。
Contents
Civil engineers who specialize in geotechnical engineering deal with the following aspects: the properties of soils and rocks as materials that support the structure; the various types of foundation for a structure; settlements of buildings；stabilities of slopes and fills ；effects of groundwater. 从事岩土工程专业的土木工程师研究的是以下几个方面：作为支撑结构材料的土壤和岩石的性能；结构不同的基础类型；建筑物的沉降；边坡和路堤的稳定；地下水的影响。 Because foundation is the most important part of a building, it is very complicated underground and it is difficult to remedy if something is wrong. 由于基础是建筑物最重要的部分，地下非常复杂，如果出现任何错误都很难补救。
地下水科学与工程专业(导论)
地下水科学与工程专业培养方案专业名称与代码：地下水科学与工程080109S专业培养目标：本专业培养具有扎实自然科学知识、创新意识、良好科学作风，在德、智、体全面发展的地下水科学与工程领域的高级专门人才。
毕业生不仅具有坚实的地学基础和水资源方面的专业基础知识，同时具备计算机仿真技术、3S技术、现代分析测试技术和外语等方面应用能力，能够运用先进工程技术手段从事地下水资源开发与保护，以及针对人类活动诱发的水文地质工程地质问题，进行勘察、评价及治理的高级工程技术人才。
专业培养要求：本专业学生具有扎实的自然基础科学知识，具有较好的外语水平和计算机运用能力。
在牢固掌握数学、物理、化学、地学、外语、计算机知识的基础上，学习水文地质工程地质的基本原理，掌握水文地质工程地质调查、地下水渗流模拟、地下水资源勘察、评价及开发保护、地下防排水工程等技术与方法。
受到野外测绘、调查、测试等方面基本训练并掌握相关专业的基本技能，具有应用所学专业知识从事科学研究和分析解决实际问题的初步能力。
毕业生应获得以下几个方面的知识和能力：1．掌握地质基础理论、技能和工作方法；2．初步掌握地下水有关的基本原理、主要的实验、测试方法和分析技术；3．具备对地下水形成、埋藏、分布和运移规律等进行调查、评价和综合分析的基本能力；4．具备对地下水资源进行综合评价和开发设计方面的基本能力；5．具备解决因地下水所引起有关地质工程问题的基本能力;6．熟悉国家有关水资源的方针、政策和法规；具有一定的管理知识和能力；7．掌握资料查询以及获取信息的基本方法，具有资料归纳、整理和综合分析并加以正确表达的能力。
主干学科：地质工程、土木工程、水利工程、环境工程。
主要课程：普通地质学、构造地质学、水力学、水文地质学基础、地下水动力学、水文地球化学、土力学、岩体力学、工程地质学基础、水资源开发与保护、地下水防治技术等。
主要专业实验：水力学实验；水文地质学基础系列实验、水动力学实验；水化学分析实验；土质土力学实验等。
英文介绍水利工程的作文
英文介绍水利工程的作文The Essence of Hydraulic Engineering: A Vital Link in Society's Fabric.Hydraulic engineering, a discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of waterways and water control structures, holds a pivotal position in ensuring the well-being of societies across the globe. It is not merely about building dams, canals, and reservoirs, but also about managing water resources efficiently and ensuring their sustainability for future generations.The importance of hydraulic engineering can be traced back to ancient times, when civilizations like the Egyptians and Mesopotamians built irrigation systems to cultivate their lands. These early efforts were the precursors of what we know today as hydraulic engineering, and they demonstrate the profound impact that water has had on human civilization.Fast-forwarding to modern times, we see hydraulic engineering playing a crucial role in various aspects of society. For instance, in agriculture, irrigation systems designed by hydraulic engineers ensure that crops receive the necessary water supply, leading to higher yields and food security. Without these systems, many regions would struggle to support agricultural activities, let alone feed their populations.Moreover, in urban settings, hydraulic engineering is integral to flood control and water supply management. Stormwater drainage systems, designed to mitigate the impact of floods and rainwater runoff, protect cities from waterlogging and damage. Simultaneously, the design and operation of water treatment plants and pipelines are crucial for providing clean and potable water to households and industries.The role of hydraulic engineering in energy production is also significant. Hydroelectric power, generated by harnessing the kinetic energy of moving water, is a renewable and environmentally friendly source ofelectricity. Large-scale hydroelectric projects, such as dams, turbines, and pumps, provide a significant portion of the world's electricity supply, especially in regions where water resources are abundant.Beyond its direct applications, hydraulic engineering also contributes to the broader fields of environmental science and engineering. Waterways and water bodies are not just repositories of water; they are also ecosystems that support a diverse array of plant and animal life. Hydraulic engineering projects must, therefore, take into account the environmental impact of their construction and operation, ensuring that they do not cause undue harm to the surrounding ecosystems.Furthermore, with the growing awareness of climate change and its potential impact on water resources, hydraulic engineers are increasingly called upon to design and implement sustainable water management solutions. This involves everything from rainwater harvesting and reuse to desalination and water conservation measures.In conclusion, hydraulic engineering is a crucial discipline that touches every aspect of our lives, from the food we eat to the water we drink, the energy we use, and the safety of our communities. It is a field that requires a deep understanding of hydrology, hydraulics, and engineering principles, combined with a keen eye for sustainability and environmental stewardship. As we move forward, the role of hydraulic engineering will become even more critical, as we strive to meet the water needs of a growing global population while preserving the integrity of our planet's water resources.。
水合动力学直径英文缩写
水合动力学直径英文缩写The English abbreviation for Water Hydraulics Dynamics Diameter is WHDD.水合动力学直径的英文缩写是WHDD。
Water Hydraulics Dynamics Diameter (WHDD) is a critical parameter in the field of fluid mechanics and hydraulics.It is used to describe the average diameter of particles or objects in the water that are in motion. The WHDD is an important factor in understanding the behavior of water flow, especially in hydraulic systems and water engineering.The WHDD is calculated using the following formula:WHDD = (4 * Area) / (Wetted Perimeter)Where:- Area is the cross-sectional area of the flow- Wetted Perimeter is the length of the flow's boundary that is in contact with the waterUnderstanding the WHDD is essential for engineers and scientists working in the field of water dynamics. It helps in predicting the behavior of water flow in varioushydraulic systems, such as pipes, channels, and rivers. By knowing the WHDD, engineers can design more efficient and effective water transportation and management systems.The WHDD also plays a crucial role in environmental studies, particularly in understanding the movement and dispersion of pollutants in water bodies. By analyzing the WHDD of particles or pollutants in water, scientists can better predict their behavior and impact on the environment.Furthermore, the WHDD is used in the design andoperation of water treatment and purification systems. By knowing the average diameter of particles in the water, engineers can optimize filtration and purificationprocesses to ensure the removal of contaminants and impurities.In conclusion, the Water Hydraulics Dynamics Diameter (WHDD) is a vital parameter in the field of fluid mechanics, hydraulics, and environmental studies. Its calculation and understanding are essential for the design, operation, and management of water systems, as well as for predicting the behavior of water flow and pollutants in natural and engineered environments.。
Parker Hydraulics产品与系统全面概述-工业、移动和卡车应用，航空气候控制，电机制动，
MobileParker continues to dominate the mobile market with innovativeproducts, sub-assemblies andsystems. Parker’s knowledgeable motion and control experts helpvehicle design teams develop and refine functional subsystems orcomplete-vehicle motion control systems. These solutions include implement control, cooling,steering, braking, suspension,drive and propel and intelligent,computer-based mobile systems. Many Parker components are ISO certified and all are manufactured to the highest standards.IndustrialParker’s industrial hydraulicscapabilities cover a wide range of applications from machineParker’sGlobal MarketsParker Hydraulics has a leadership position in major mobile, industrial and truck markets throughout the world. Based on a partnering philosophy, Parker provides not only leading edge motion and control technology, but is also deeply committed to improving productivity and throughput while reducing energy and fuel consumption.tools, rubber and plastics andin-plant automotive to theever changing and demanding medical and energy markets. Parker’s industrial engineeringand manufacturing expertise is what sets it apart from others.Parker continues to look for ways to increase the customer’s profitability by providingcomponents and systems that are smaller, lighter and last longer. Additionally, Parker is dedicated to improving the work environment with productsthat are quieter, run longer andproduce less heat while reducing overall machine energy costs.Truck Today’s global truck market is as tough as ever. Increased pressure to improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions has necessitated that manufacturers look for design and manufacturing partners who have the engineering expertise and breadth of products to meet the challenges head-on. Parker works with both OEMs and body builders to see that not only areregulations met, but that trucks stay on the road and continue to be productive and profitable. One of the best commitments to the truck market is Parker’s fan drive system that is quieter, much more efficient and greatlyimproves fuel economy.Training ExcellenceParker’s technical training for hydraulic, pneumatic, and electromechanical technology is the best in the world. We offer complete and comprehensive texts, web-based training, and hands-on classes for employees, distributors, and customers. Classes are held at your facilities or at Parker.Hundreds of colleges anduniversities use Parker textbooks in motion and control courses. In addition to texts, Parker pro-vides these institutions instructor guides, computer-based training discs, digital overheads on CD, final exams, drafting andsimulation software, lab manuals and trainer stands. Find out more aboutParker training by visiting: /trainingParker is your global hydraulics partner when it comes to increased productivity andprofitability. No matter what your needs, Parker is your single source provider of all your hydraulics motion and control solutions.Hydraulic Distribution and Channel PartnersParker’s ultimate competitive advantage in serving customershas been built with a globalSupport and ServiceWhen it comes to hydraulics, Parker’s worldwide network of field-sales engineers walk the walk and talk the talk. The best trained in the business, our field-sales engineers can be your single point of contact for any hydraulic requirement, including rapid problem solving. All are degreed engineers who are dedicated to long-term relationships. And whether they are crawling inside your machine during business hours, or working weekends, Parker engineers are there whenyou need them!network of 12,000 distributors that can provide Parkerproducts and services nearly anywhere, anytime. Many Parker distributors offer a one-stop shop for a wide range of products, engineering services, computer-aided design, fabrication, and assembly. Parker distributors can assist with equipment design, prototyping, and the integration of electronic or pneumatic components with hydraulic systems.Parker’s distributors are chosen because of their commitment to providing exceptional customer service and complete hydraulic systems solutions. They carry a locally adapted inventory of Parker products, ensuring cus-tomers fast delivery and reduced downtime.Wind Power Systems Parker hydraulics play a critical role in the operation of wind turbines, as they harvest kinetic energy. We supply the hydraulic power necessary to operate pitch, yaw and braking systems while supplying back-up in case of a power failure, to provide a safe stop.Customer-Driven Solutions Parker Hydraulics is in the‘solutions business’ offering our customers the widest array of solutions and services available. You can be assured that no one knows hydraulics like Parker’s staff of highly qualified application and design engineers, innovation teams and systems-solutions specialists. Our customers can reduce their number of vendors without compromising product integrity. Buying from a single source saves both time and money while allowing easier ordering and faster deliveries. Hydraulic Products for Every ApplicationAt the heart of every mobile, industrial and truck hydraulicssolution is Parker’s 75-yearTechnology andreputation for innovation andquality manufacturing. No oneis better positioned to meet yourneeds. Parker maintains morethan 200,000 hydraulic modelnumbers in its inventory, sowhether you are designing newapplications or retrofitting olderones, we can meet any hydrauliccomponent requirement.Application ExpertiseParker believes that it takesmore than our great products,competitive prices, and on-timedelivery to satisfy customerdemands. It takes a commitmentto provide exceptional value.For today’s customer, an out-standing total experience isthe benchmark by which manysuppliers are evaluated. Parkerdelivers tangible and measurableA precise, powerful, simple and low maintenance hydraulic motion system is the key to efficient energy generation at solar thermal power plants.A single hydraulic actuator rotates each parabolic mirror concentrator in 0.1 degree increments to precisely track the sun.• Machine Analysis and Troubleshooting• Design/Engineering Support • System Design• Components Selection • New Product Development• Custom ComponentManufacturing • Assemblies and Kits• Sub-Systems • Global Support and Service • TrainingEnergy RecoveryParker’s hybrid hydraulic drive systems are designed to recover and store brake energy for later use to generate power. Field test results of our refuse truck systems have yielded improvement in fuel consumption from 45 to 60 per cent.Solar Power Generationbenefits that are designed to reduce your total cost while increasing performance and productivity, eliminating your frustrations and improving your profitability.At Parker, value is not a commodity. Instead, it is the result of personalinteraction and resources. Ourvalue-added services include:5Extensive Product OfferingExtensive Product OfferingExtensive Product OfferingExtensive Product OfferingAction Directory When it comes to hydraulic components and solutions, no company offers more than Parker. Get a jump on your next solution by contacting Parker today! 00800 27 27 5374 (European Product Information Centre)*+44 1442 358 429 (English) **+44 1442 358 428 (German)**+44 1442 358 427 (French)** Web: Email: **************** If you are calling from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Eire, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal , Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom.** If you are calling from other countries.Parker has a set of Hydraulic Product Catalogues for industrial, mobile and truck markets available, each paired with an interactive CD. Call 00800 27 27 53 74 to order any or all of these comprehensive guides.Truck CatalogueHY02-8020/UKA global Fortune 300 company with customers in 48 countries, Parker Hannifin is the world’s leading supplier of hydraulic, pneumatic and electromechanical systems and components. Customers rely on Parker for engineering excellence, world-class manufacturing and outstanding customer service to provide comprehensive application solutions that are second to none.Let Parker become part of your design team. Whether you need to develop new products, re-design existing applications, or design completely new systems, Parker offers unparalleled engineering expertise.• More than USD 10.3 billionin sales• 316 plants worldwide• 13,000+ distributors• 452,000 customers• Serving 1,100 distinctmarkets• Listed as PH on the New YorkStock ExchangeParker Hannifin CorporationIndustrial CatalogueHY02-8022/UKMobile CatalogueHY02-8023/UKaerospaceKey Markets • Aircraft engines• Business and general aviation • Commercial transports• Land-based weapons systems • Military aircraft• Missiles and launch vehicles • Regional transports• Unmanned aerial vehicles Key Products• Flight control systems and components• Fluid conveyance systems • Fluid metering delivery and atomization devices• Fuel systems and components • Hydraulic systems and components • Inert nitrogen generating systems • Pneumatic systems and components • Wheels and brakesclimate control Key Markets • Agriculture • Air conditioning• Food, beverage and dairy • Life sciences and medical • Precision cooling • Processing • TransportationKey Products • CO 2 controls• Electronic controllers • Filter driers• Hand shut-off valves • Hoses and fittings• Pressure regulating valves • Refrigerant distributors • Safety relief valves • Solenoid valves• Thermostatic expansion valvesFiltration Key Markets• Food and beverage • Industrial machinery • Life sciences • Marine• Mobile equipment • Oil and gas• Power generation • Process• TransportationKey Products• Analytical gas generators • Compressed air and gas filters • Condition monitoring• Engine air, fuel and oil filtration and systems• Hydraulic, lubrication and coolant filters• Process, chemical, water and microfiltration filters • Nitrogen, hydrogen and zero air generatorselectromechanical Key Markets • Aerospace• Factory automation • Food and beverage • Life science and medical • Machine tools• Packaging machinery • Paper machinery• Plastics machinery and converting • Primary metals• Semiconductors and electronics • Textile• Wire & cableKey Products• AC/DC drives and systems • Electric actuators • Controllers • Gantry robots • Gearheads• Human machine interfaces • Industrial PCs • Inverters• Linear motors, slides and stages • Precision stages • Stepper motors• Servo motors, drives and controls • Structural extrusionspneumaticsKey Markets • Aerospace• Conveyor and materials handling • Factory automation • Food and beverage • Life science and medical • Machine tools• Packaging machinery• Transportation and automotive Key Products • Air preparation • Compact cylinders • Field bus valve systems • Grippers• Guided cylinders • Manifolds• Miniature fluidics • Pneumatic accessories• Pneumatic actuators and grippers • Pneumatic valves and controls • Rodless cylinders • Rotary actuators • Tie-rod cylinders• Vacuum generators, cups and sensorsFluid & gas handling Key Markets • Aerospace • Agriculture• Bulk chemical handling • Construction machinery • Food and beverage • Fuel and gas delivery • Industrial machinery • Mobile • Oil and gas • Transportation • WeldingKey Products• Brass fittings & valves • Diagnostic equipment • Fluid conveyance systems • Industrial hoses• PTFE and PFA hoses, tubing and plastic fittings• Rubber and thermoplastic hoses and couplings • Tube fittings and adapters • Quick disconnect couplingshydraulics Key Markets • Aerospace • Aerial lift • Agriculture• Construction machinery • Forestry• Industrial machinery • Mining • Oil and gas• Power generation and energy • Truck hydraulicsKey Products• Diagnostic equipment • Hydraulic cylinders and accumulators• Hydraulic motors and pumps • Hydraulic systems• Hydraulic valves and controls • Power take-offs• Rubber and thermoplastic hoses and couplings• Tube fittings and adapters • Quick-disconnect couplingsprocess control Key Markets• Chemical and refining • Food, beverage and dairy • Medical and dental • Microelectronics • Oil and gas• Power generationKey Products• Analytical sample conditioning products and systems• Fluoropolymer chemical delivery fittings, valves and pumps • High purity gas delivery fittings, valves and regulators• Instrumentation fittings, valves and regulators• Medium pressure fittings and valves• Process control manifoldssealing & shielding Key Markets • Aerospace• Chemical processing • Consumer• Energy, oil and gas • Fluid power • General industrial • Information technology • Life sciences • Military• Semiconductor • Telecommunications • TransportationKey Products • Dynamic seals • Elastomeric O-rings • EMI shielding• Extruded and precision-cut, fabricated elastomeric seals • Homogeneous and inserted elastomeric shapes• High temperature metal seals • Metal and plastic retained composite seals• Thermal managementMotion & Control TechnologiesAt Parker, we’re guided by a relentless drive to help our customers become more productive and achieve higher levels of profitability by engineering the best systems for their requirements.It means looking at customer applications from many angles to find new ways to create value. Whatever the motion and control technology need, Parker has the experience, breadth of product and global reach to consistently deliver. No company knows more about motion and control technology than Parker.For further information, call our European Product Information Centre at00800 27 27 53 74.11H Y G E E d . 2009-10-01AE – UAE, Dubai Tel: +971 4 8127100parker.me@ AR – Argentina, Buenos Aires Tel: +54 3327 44 4129AT – Austria, Wiener Neustadt Tel: +43 (0)2622 23501-0parker.austria@ AT – Eastern Europe, Wiener NeustadtTel: +43 (0)2622 23501 900parker.easteurope@ AU – Australia, Castle Hill Tel: +61 (0)2-9634 7777AZ – Azerbaijan, Baku Tel: +994 50 2233 458parker.azerbaijan@ BE/LU – Belgium, Nivelles Tel: +32 (0)67 280 900parker.belgium@ BR – Brazil, Cachoeirinha RS Tel: +55 51 3470 9144BY – Belarus, Minsk Tel: +375 17 209 9399parker.belarus@ CA – Canada, Milton, Ontario Tel: +1 905 693 3000CH – Switzerland, Etoy Tel: +41 (0) 21 821 02 30parker.switzerland@ CL – Chile, Santiago Tel: +56 2 623 1216CN – China, Shanghai Tel: +86 21 2899 5000CZ – Czech Republic, Klecany Tel: +420 284 083 111parker.czechrepublic@ DE – Germany, Kaarst Tel: +49 (0)2131 4016 0parker.germany@ DK – Denmark, Ballerup Tel: +45 43 56 04 00parker.denmark@ ES – Spain, Madrid Tel: +34 902 330 001parker.spain@ FI – Finland, Vantaa Tel: +358 (0)20 753 2500parker.fi nland@FR – France, Contamine s/ArveTel: +33 (0)4 50 25 80 25parker.france@ GR – Greece, Athens Tel: +30 210 933 6450parker.greece@ HK – Hong Kong Tel: +852 2428 8008HU – Hungary, Budapest Tel: +36 1 220 4155parker.hungary@ IE – Ireland, Dublin Tel: +353 (0)1 466 6370parker.ireland@ IN – India, MumbaiTel: +91 22 6513 7081-85IT – Italy, Corsico (MI)Tel: +39 02 45 19 21parker.italy@ JP – Japan, Fujisawa Tel: +(81) 4 6635 3050KR – South Korea, Seoul Tel: +82 2 559 0400KZ – Kazakhstan, Almaty Tel: +7 7272 505 800parker.easteurope@ LV – Latvia, Riga Tel: +371 6 745 2601tvia@ MX – Mexico, Apodaca Tel: +52 81 8156 6000MY – Malaysia, Shah Alam Tel: +60 3 7849 0800NL – The Netherlands, OldenzaalTel: +31 (0)541 585 000parker.nl@ NO – Norway, Ski Tel: +47 64 91 10 00parker.norway@ NZ – New Zealand, Mt Wellington Tel: +64 9 574 1744PL – Poland, Warsaw Tel: +48 (0)22 573 24 00parker.poland@ PT – Portugal, Leca da Palmeira Tel: +351 22 999 7360parker.portugal@Parker WorldwideYour local authorized Parker distributorRO – Romania, Bucharest Tel: +40 21 252 1382parker.romania@ RU – Russia, Moscow Tel: +7 495 645-2156parker.russia@ SE – Sweden, Spånga Tel: +46 (0)8 59 79 50 00parker.sweden@ SG – Singapore Tel: +65 6887 6300SK – Slovakia, Banská Bystrica Tel: +421 484 162 252parker.slovakia@ SL – Slovenia, Novo Mesto Tel: +386 7 337 6650parker.slovenia@ TH – Thailand, Bangkok Tel: +662 717 8140TR – Turkey, Istanbul Tel: +90 216 4997081parker.turkey@ TW – Taiwan, Taipei Tel: +886 2 2298 8987UA – Ukraine, Kiev Tel +380 44 494 2731raine@ UK – United Kingdom, WarwickTel: +44 (0)1926 317 @ US – USA, Cleveland (industrial)Tel: +1 216 896 3000US – USA, Lincolnshire (mobile)Tel: +1 847 821 1500VE – Venezuela, Caracas Tel: +58 212 238 5422ZA – South Africa,Kempton ParkTel: +27 (0)11 961 0700parker.southafrica@Catalogue HY00-0000/UK. XM MM/YYYY XX© XXXX to YYYY Parker Hannifi n Corporation. All rights reserved.European Product Information CentreFree phone: 00 800 27 27 5374(from AT, BE, CH, CZ, DE, DK, EE, ES, FI, FR, IE, IL, IS, IT, LU, MT, NL, NO, PL, PT, RU, SE, UK, ZA)Fax: +44 1442 458112US Product Information Centre Free phone: 1-800-27 27 Catalogue HY02-8013/UK POD 11/2009 TMCZ © 2009 Parker Hannifin Corporation. All rights reserved.。
液压传动系统外文参考文献
液压传动系统外文参考文献Title: A Review of Hydraulic Transmission SystemsAbstract:Hydraulic transmission systems play a crucial role in various industrial applications, providing efficient and reliable power transfer. This article presents a comprehensive review of the current state-of-the-art in hydraulic transmission systems. The review covers the principles of operation, components, control strategies, and applications of hydraulic transmission systems. The advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic transmission systems are discussed, along with the latest advancements in technology and research. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of hydraulic transmission systems and serve as a valuable resource for researchers, engineers, and practitioners in the field.1. IntroductionHydraulic transmission systems utilize fluid power to transmit and control mechanical energy. They are widely used in various industries such as construction, agriculture, aerospace, and automotive. This section provides an overview of theimportance and applications of hydraulic transmission systems.2. Principles of OperationThis section discusses the fundamental principles of hydraulic transmission systems, including Pascal's law, hydraulic pressure, flow, and the role of hydraulic fluids. It also explains the working principles of hydraulic pumps, actuators, and control valves.3. Components of Hydraulic Transmission SystemsThis section presents a detailed description of the key components of hydraulic transmission systems, including hydraulic pumps, cylinders, motors, accumulators, filters, and control valves. The functions and characteristics of each component are explained, highlighting their importance in the overall system performance.4. Control StrategiesEffective control strategies are essential for optimizing the performance of hydraulic transmission systems. This section discusses various control strategies, including proportional control, servo control, and electro-hydraulic control. Theadvantages and limitations of each control strategy are analyzed, along with examples of their applications.5. Applications of Hydraulic Transmission SystemsHydraulic transmission systems find numerous applications in different industries. This section provides an overview of the application areas, including heavy machinery, mobile equipment, manufacturing automation, and aerospace. Real-world examples are presented to illustrate the benefits and specific requirements of hydraulic transmission systems in each application domain.6. Advancements in Technology and ResearchThis section discusses the latest advancements in hydraulic transmission technology and ongoing research efforts. Topics such as energy efficiency, noise reduction, condition monitoring, and fault diagnosis are explored. The potential impact of emerging technologies, such as digital hydraulics and intelligent control systems, is also discussed.7. ConclusionIn conclusion, hydraulic transmission systems are vital for efficient and reliable power transfer in various industrialapplications. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of hydraulic transmission systems, covering their principles of operation, components, control strategies, and applications. The latest advancements in technology and ongoing research efforts are discussed, highlighting the potential for future advancements in this field.References:1. Smith, J. et al. (2019). Hydraulic Transmission Systems: Principles and Applications. International Journal of Fluid Power, 25(3), 123-145.2. Zhang, L. & Wang, Y. (2018). Control Strategies for Hydraulic Transmission Systems: A Review. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 23(4), 1678-1692.3. Chen, H. & Li, X. (2017). Recent Advances in Hydraulic Transmission Technology. Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 54(9), 45-58.4. Wang, Q. et al. (2016). Applications of Hydraulic Transmission Systems in Construction Machinery. Proceedings of the International Conference on Fluid Power and Mechatronics, 123-136.5. Li, Z. et al. (2015). Advancements in Digital Hydraulics: AReview. Journal of Fluid Power, 32(2), 89-103.。
水利英语词汇
一. 综合类1.geotechnical engineering岩土工程2.foundation engineering基础工程3.soil, earth土4.soil mechanics土力学 cyclic loading周期荷载unloading卸载reloading再加载viscoelastic foundation粘弹性地基viscous damping粘滞阻尼shear modulus 剪切模量5.soil dynamics土动力学6.stress path应力路径7.numerical geotechanics 数值岩土力学二. 土的分类1.residual soil残积土groundwater level地下水位2.groundwater 地下水groundwater table地下水位3.clay minerals粘土矿物4.secondary minerals次生矿物ndslides滑坡6.bore hole columnar section钻孔柱状图7.engineering geologic investigation工程地质勘察8.boulder漂石9.cobble卵石10.gravel砂石11.gravelly sand砾砂12.coarse sand粗砂13.medium sand中砂14.fine sand细砂15.silty sand粉土16.clayey soil粘性土17.clay粘土18.silty clay粉质粘土19.silt粉土20.sandy silt砂质粉土21.clayey silt粘质粉土22.saturated soil饱和土23.unsaturated soil非饱和土24.fill (soil)填土25.overconsolidated soil超固结土26.normally consolidated soil正常固结土27.underconsolidated soil欠固结土28.zonal soil区域性土29.soft clay软粘土30.expansive (swelling) soil膨胀土31.peat泥炭32.loess黄土33.frozen soil冻土三. 土的基本物理力学性质 compression index2.cu undrained shear strength3.cu/p0 ratio of undrained strength cu to effective overburden stress p0(cu/p0)NC ,(cu/p0)oc subscripts NC and OC designated normally consolidated and overconsolidated, respectively4.cvane cohesive strength from vane test5.e0 natural void ratio6.Ip plasticity index7.K0 coefficient of “at-rest ”pressure ,for total stressesσ1 andσ28.K0’ domain for effective stressesσ1 ‘andσ2’9.K0n K0 for normally consolidated state10.K0u K0 coefficient under rapid continuous loading ,simulating instantaneous loading or an undrained condition11.K0d K0 coefficient under cyclic loading(frequency less than 1Hz),as a pseudo- dynamic test for K0 coefficient12.kh ,kv permeability in horizontal and vertical directions, respectively13.N blow count, standard penetration test14.OCR over-consolidation ratio15.pc preconsolidation pressure ,from oedemeter test16.p0 effective overburden pressure17.p s specific cone penetration resistance, from static cone test18.qu unconfined compressive strength19.U, Um degree of consolidation ,subscript m denotes mean value of a specimen20.u ,ub ,um pore (water) pressure, subscripts b and m denote bottom of specimen and mean value, respectively21.w0 wL wp natural water content, liquid and plastic limits, respectively22.σ1,σ2 principal stresses, σ1 ‘andσ2’denote effective principal stresses23.Atterberg limits阿太堡界限24.degree of saturation饱和度25.dry unit weight干重度26.moist unit weight湿重度27.saturated unit weight饱和重度28.effective unit weight有效重度29.density 密度pactness密实度31.maximum dry density最大干密度32.optimum water content最优含水量33.three phase diagram三相图34.tri-phase soil三相土35.soil fraction粒组36.sieve analysis筛分37.hydrometer analysis比重计分析38.uniformity coefficient不均匀系数39.coefficient of gradation级配系数40.fine-grained soil(silty and clayey)细粒土41.coarse- grained soil(gravelly and sandy)粗粒土42.Unified soil classification system土的统一分类系统43.ASCE=American Society of Civil Engineer美国土木工程师学会44.AASHTO= American Association State Highway Officials美国州公路官员协会45.ISSMGE=International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 国际土力学与岩土工程学会四. 渗透性和渗流1.Darcy’s law 达西定律2.piping管涌3.flowing soil流土4.sand boiling砂沸5.flow net流网6.seepage渗透（流）7.leakage渗流8.seepage pressure渗透压力9.permeability渗透性10.seepage force渗透力11.hydraulic gradient水力梯度12.coefficient of permeability渗透系数五. 地基应力和变形1.soft soil软土2.(negative) skin friction of driven pile打入桩（负）摩阻力3.effective stress有效应力4.total stress总应力5.field vane shear strength十字板抗剪强度6.low activity低活性7.sensitivity灵敏度8.triaxial test三轴试验9.foundation design基础设计10.recompaction再压缩11.bearing capacity承载力12.soil mass土体13.contact stress (pressure)接触应力（压力）14.concentrated load集中荷载15.a semi-infinite elastic solid半无限弹性体16.homogeneous均质17.isotropic各向同性18.strip footing条基19.square spread footing方形独立基础20.underlying soil (stratum ,strata)下卧层（土）21.dead load =sustained load恒载持续荷载22.live load活载23.short –term transient load短期瞬时荷载24.long-term transient load长期荷载25.reduced load折算荷载26.settlement沉降27.deformation变形28.casing套管29.dike=dyke堤（防）30.clay fraction粘粒粒组31.physical properties物理性质32.subgrade路基33.well-graded soil级配良好土34.poorly-graded soil级配不良土35.normal stresses正应力36.shear stresses剪应力37.principal plane主平面38.major (intermediate, minor) principal stress最大（中、最小）主应力39.Mohr-Coulomb failure condition摩尔-库仑破坏条件40.FEM=finite element method有限元法41.limit equilibrium method极限平衡法42.pore water pressure孔隙水压力43.preconsolidation pressure先期固结压力44.modulus of compressibility压缩模量45.coefficent of compressibility压缩系数pression index压缩指数47.swelling index回弹指数48.geostatic stress自重应力49.additional stress附加应力50.total stress总应力51.final settlement最终沉降52.slip line滑动线六. 基坑开挖与降水1 excavation开挖（挖方）2 dewatering（基坑）降水3 failure of foundation基坑失稳4 bracing of foundation pit基坑围护5 bottom heave=basal heave （基坑）底隆起6 retaining wall挡土墙7 pore-pressure distribution孔压分布8 dewatering method降低地下水位法9 well point system井点系统（轻型）10 deep well point深井点11 vacuum well point真空井点12 braced cuts支撑围护13 braced excavation支撑开挖14 braced sheeting支撑挡板七. 深基础--deep foundation1.pile foundation桩基础1)cast –in-place灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile沉管灌注桩bored pile钻孔桩special-shaped cast-in-place pile机控异型灌注桩piles set into rock嵌岩灌注桩rammed bulb pile夯扩桩2)belled pier foundation钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation钻孔扩底墩under-reamed bored pier3)precast concrete pile预制混凝土桩4)steel pile钢桩steel pipe pile钢管桩steel sheet pile钢板桩5)prestressed concrete pile预应力混凝土桩prestressed concrete pipe pile预应力混凝土管桩2.caisson foundation沉井（箱）3.diaphragm wall地下连续墙截水墙4.friction pile摩擦桩5.end-bearing pile端承桩6.shaft竖井；桩身7.wave equation analysis波动方程分析8.pile caps承台（桩帽）9.bearing capacity of single pile单桩承载力teral pile load test单桩横向载荷试验11.ultimate lateral resistance of single pile单桩横向极限承载力12.static load test of pile单桩竖向静荷载试验13.vertical allowable load capacity单桩竖向容许承载力14.low pile cap低桩承台15.high-rise pile cap高桩承台16.vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile单桩抗拔极限承载力17.silent piling静力压桩18.uplift pile抗拔桩19.anti-slide pile抗滑桩20.pile groups群桩21.efficiency factor of pile groups群桩效率系数（η）22.efficiency of pile groups群桩效应23.dynamic pile testing桩基动测技术24.final set最后贯入度25.dynamic load test of pile桩动荷载试验26.pile integrity test桩的完整性试验27.pile head=butt桩头28.pile tip=pile point=pile toe桩端（头）29.pile spacing桩距30.pile plan桩位布置图31.arrangement of piles =pile layout桩的布置32.group action群桩作用33.end bearing=tip resistance桩端阻34.skin(side) friction=shaft resistance桩侧阻35.pile cushion桩垫36.pile driving(by vibration) （振动）打桩37.pile pulling test拔桩试验38.pile shoe桩靴39.pile noise打桩噪音40.pile rig打桩机八. 地基处理--ground treatment1.technical code for ground treatment of building建筑地基处理技术规范2.cushion垫层法3.preloading预压法4.dynamic compaction强夯法5.dynamic compaction replacement强夯置换法6.vibroflotation method振冲法7.sand-gravel pile砂石桩8.gravel pile(stone column)碎石桩9.cement-flyash-gravel pile(CFG)水泥粉煤灰碎石桩10.cement mixing method水泥土搅拌桩11.cement column水泥桩12.lime pile (lime column)石灰桩13.jet grouting高压喷射注浆法14.rammed-cement-soil pile夯实水泥土桩法15.lime-soil compaction pile 灰土挤密桩lime-soil compacted column灰土挤密桩lime soil pile灰土挤密桩16.chemical stabilization化学加固法17.surface compaction表层压实法18.surcharge preloading超载预压法19.vacuum preloading真空预压法20.sand wick袋装砂井21.geofabric ,geotextile土工织物posite foundation复合地基23.reinforcement method加筋法24.dewatering method降低地下水固结法25.freezing and heating冷热处理法26.expansive ground treatment膨胀土地基处理27.ground treatment in mountain area山区地基处理28.collapsible loess treatment湿陷性黄土地基处理29.artificial foundation人工地基30.natural foundation天然地基31.pillow褥垫32.soft clay ground软土地基33.sand drain砂井34.root pile树根桩35.plastic drain塑料排水带36.replacement ratio（复合地基）置换率九. 固结consolidation1.Terzzaghi’s consolidation theory太沙基固结理论2.Barraon’s consolidation theory巴隆固结理论3.Biot’s consolidation theory比奥固结理论4.over consolidation ration (OCR)超固结比5.overconsolidation soil超固结土6.excess pore water pressure超孔压力7.multi-dimensional consolidation多维固结8.one-dimensional consolidation一维固结9.primary consolidation主固结10.secondary consolidation次固结11.degree of consolidation固结度12.consolidation test固结试验13.consolidation curve固结曲线14.time factor Tv时间因子15.coefficient of consolidation固结系数16.preconsolidation pressure前期固结压力17.principle of effective stress有效应力原理18.consolidation under K0 condition K0固结十. 抗剪强度shear strength1.undrained shear strength不排水抗剪强度2.residual strength残余强度3.long-term strength长期强度4.peak strength峰值强度5.shear strain rate剪切应变速率6.dilatation剪胀7.effective stress approach of shear strength 剪胀抗剪强度有效应力法8.total stress approach of shear strength抗剪强度总应力法9.Mohr-Coulomb theory莫尔－库仑理论10.angle of internal friction内摩擦角11.cohesion粘聚力12.failure criterion破坏准则13.vane strength十字板抗剪强度14.unconfined compression无侧限抗压强度15.effective stress failure envelop有效应力破坏包线16.effective stress strength parameter有效应力强度参数十一. 本构模型--constitutive model1.elastic model弹性模型2.nonlinear elastic model非线性弹性模型3.elastoplastic model弹塑性模型4.viscoelastic model粘弹性模型5.boundary surface model边界面模型6.Duncan-Chang model邓肯－张模型7.rigid plastic model刚塑性模型8.cap model盖帽模型9.work softening加工软化10.work hardening加工硬化11.Cambridge model剑桥模型12.ideal elastoplastic model理想弹塑性模型13.Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion莫尔－库仑屈服准则14.yield surface屈服面15.elastic half-space foundation model弹性半空间地基模型16.elastic modulus弹性模量17.Winkler foundation model文克尔地基模型十二. 地基承载力--bearing capacity of foundation soil1.punching shear failure冲剪破坏2.general shear failure整体剪切破化3.local shear failure局部剪切破坏4.state of limit equilibrium极限平衡状态5.critical edge pressure临塑荷载6.stability of foundation soil地基稳定性7.ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil地基极限承载力8.allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil地基容许承载力十三. 土压力--earth pressure1.active earth pressure主动土压力2.passive earth pressure被动土压力3.earth pressure at rest静止土压力4.Coulomb’s earth pressure theory库仑土压力理论5.Rankine’s earth pressure theory朗金土压力理论十四. 土坡稳定分析--slope stability analysis1.angle of repose休止角2.Bishop method毕肖普法3.safety factor of slope边坡稳定安全系数4.Fellenius method of slices费纽伦斯条分法5.Swedish circle method瑞典圆弧滑动法6.slices method条分法十五. 挡土墙--retaining wall1.stability of retaining wall挡土墙稳定性2.foundation wall基础墙3.counter retaining wall扶壁式挡土墙4.cantilever retaining wall悬臂式挡土墙5.cantilever sheet pile wall悬臂式板桩墙6.gravity retaining wall重力式挡土墙7.anchored plate retaining wall锚定板挡土墙8.anchored sheet pile wall锚定板板桩墙十六. 板桩结构物--sheet pile structure1.steel sheet pile钢板桩2.reinforced concrete sheet pile钢筋混凝土板桩3.steel piles钢桩4.wooden sheet pile木板桩5.timber piles木桩十七. 浅基础--shallow foundation1.box foundation箱型基础2.mat(raft) foundation片筏基础3.strip foundation条形基础4.spread footing扩展基础pensated foundation补偿性基础6.bearing stratum持力层7.rigid foundation刚性基础8.flexible foundation柔性基础9.embedded depth of foundation基础埋置深度 foundation pressure基底附加应力11.structure-foundation-soil interaction analysis上部结构－基础－地基共同作用分析十八. 土的动力性质--dynamic properties of soils1.dynamic strength of soils动强度2.wave velocity method波速法3.material damping材料阻尼4.geometric damping几何阻尼5.damping ratio阻尼比6.initial liquefaction初始液化7.natural period of soil site地基固有周期8.dynamic shear modulus of soils动剪切模量9.dynamic magnification factor动力放大因素10.liquefaction strength抗液化强度11.dimensionless frequency无量纲频率12.evaluation of liquefaction液化势评价13.stress wave in soils土中应力波14.dynamic settlement振陷（动沉降）十九. 动力机器基础1.equivalent lumped parameter method等效集总参数法2.dynamic subgrade reaction method动基床反力法3.vibration isolation隔振4.foundation vibration基础振动5.elastic half-space theory of foundation vibration基础振动弹性半空间理论6.allowable amplitude of foundation基础振动容许振幅7.natural frequency of foundation基础自振频率二十. 地基基础抗震1.earthquake engineering地震工程2.soil dynamics土动力学3.duration of earthquake地震持续时间4.earthquake response spectrum地震反应谱5.earthquake intensity地震烈度6.earthquake magnitude震级7.seismic predominant period地震卓越周期8.maximum acceleration of earthquake地震最大加速度二十一. 室内土工实验1.high pressure consolidation test高压固结试验2.consolidation under K0 condition K0固结试验3.falling head permeability变水头试验4.constant head permeability常水头渗透试验5.unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test不固结不排水试验(UU)6.consolidated undrained triaxial test固结不排水试验(CU)7.consolidated drained triaxial test固结排水试验(CD)paction test击实试验9.consolidated quick direct shear test固结快剪试验10.quick direct shear test快剪试验11.consolidated drained direct shear test慢剪试验12.sieve analysis筛分析13.geotechnical model test土工模型试验14.centrifugal model test离心模型试验15.direct shear apparatus直剪仪16.direct shear test直剪试验17.direct simple shear test直接单剪试验18.dynamic triaxial test三轴试验19.dynamic simple shear动单剪20.free（resonance）vibration column test自(共)振柱试验二十二. 原位测试1.standard penetration test (SPT)标准贯入试验2.surface wave test (SWT)表面波试验3.dynamic penetration test(DPT)动力触探试验4.static cone penetration (SPT) 静力触探试验5.plate loading test静力荷载试验teral load test of pile 单桩横向载荷试验7.static load test of pile 单桩竖向荷载试验8.cross-hole test 跨孔试验9.screw plate test螺旋板载荷试验10.pressuremeter test旁压试验11.light sounding轻便触探试验12.deep settlement measurement深层沉降观测13.vane shear test十字板剪切试验14.field permeability test现场渗透试验15.in-situ pore water pressure measurement 原位孔隙水压量测16.in-situ soil test原位试验。