Studying Hadronic Structure of the Photon in Lattice QCD
普通语言学第二章概括
Summary of Chapter TwoIn this chapter, I have learnt something related to the phonology.To begin with, we learn what the phonic medium of language is. As a matter of fact, speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Speech is, however, more basic than writing for reasons that were discussed in the last chapter.Language is first perceived through its sounds. Thus the study of sounds is of great importance in linguistics. On the other hand, not all the sound will be studied by the linguists, in that those sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication can be involved in, thus these sounds are limited in number. And the constitution of them is called phonic medium of language, while each individual sound is called speech sound.Second, we learnt the phonetics, which is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language. Besides it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. There are three branches of phonetics, articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics respectively. The fist one studies the sounds from the speaker’s point of view. Then the second one looks at the sounds from the heater’s point of view. And last one studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves.Next, we leaned the organs of speech. Human being have three important articulatory apparatus and areas: the pharyngeal cavity---the throat, the oral cavity---the mouth, and the nasal cavity---the nose. Pharyngeal cavity is the first point where sound modification might occur, because air coming from the lungs and through the windpipe passes through the glottis, a part of the larynx, which is a bony structure at the end of the windpipe. Then the oral cavity is the greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral. Lastly, the nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity.And at the following, we were talking about the orthographic representation of speech sounds containing broad and narrow transcriptions. Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only, whereas the transcription with letter-symbols together with diacritics is called narrow transcription.And then we leant the classification of English speech sounds. An initial classification will divide the speech sounds in English into two broad categories: vowels and consonants.The classification of English consonants has two ways: one is in term of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides, bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal.the way to distinguish English vowel as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest.Next we come to the main points of this chapter, which is the phonology. First we have already known both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the sameaspect of language---the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. Phone refers to the particular sound, while the phoneme is the smallest unit of the phone, so it don’t have any meaning. And allophone refers to the phoneme in different phonetic situation sounds differently.Next we leant phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair. It can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast. The allophones are said to be in complementary distribution. Two sounds represent different phonemes and these calls minimal pairs. All the sound like p b combinations together constitute a minimal set.There are also some rules in phonology. Sequential rules are to identify the phonemes of a language is only part of the task of the phonologist. Assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phonemes, thus making the two phones similar. Deletion rule is to tell us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.The last part we learnt are the suprasegmental features---stress, tone, intonation Stress contains two kinds, word stress and sentence stress. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Tones are pitch variations which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. When pitch, stress, sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.。
武汉理工大学研究生新编综合英语教程unit3课后答案
Unit Three Music1.1Vocabulary1.Those students are studying such fields as genetics and molecular biology.那些学生正在学习遗传学和分子生物学等领域。
2.His research was used in planning treatments for hyperactive children.他的研究被用于计划治疗多动儿童。
3.The company was integrated with the computer giant.公司和电脑巨头整合了。
4.The Citizens’ Forum supported special powers for Quebec but also argued for theretention of a strong central government.公民论坛不仅支持魁北克的特殊权力，也主张一个强大的中央政府的保留。
5.When you summarize, you condense an extended idea or argument into a sentenceor more in your own words.当你在总结时，你是用自己的话把一个扩展的想法或论点浓缩成为一个句子或更多。
6.Clerical jobs, skills, and workers are concerned with routine work that isdone in office.文职工作，技能和工作人员所关心的是在办公室完成日常工作.7.The bank is alert to the danger.银行要谨防危险。
be alert to谨防8.Art experts say it is tasteless and aesthetically wrong to replace the missingbody parts.艺术专家说，替换失去的身体部位是无味的，且在美学观点上是错误的。
211126672_葡萄酒泥中果胶的提取工艺优化与脱色
唐小华，杜鑫，钟琦琦，等. 葡萄酒泥中果胶的提取工艺优化与脱色[J]. 食品工业科技，2023，44（9）：227−235. doi:10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022070372TANG Xiaohua, DU Xin, ZHONG Qiqi, et al. Optimization of Extraction Process and Decolorization of Pectin from Wine Mud[J].Science and Technology of Food Industry, 2023, 44(9): 227−235. (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022070372· 工艺技术 ·葡萄酒泥中果胶的提取工艺优化与脱色唐小华1，杜 鑫1，钟琦琦1，贾玉莹2，查 飞1,*（1.西北师范大学化学化工学院，甘肃兰州 730070；2.甘肃红桥庄园葡萄酒有限公司，甘肃临泽 734207）摘 要：葡萄酒泥是葡萄酒在发酵、贮存期间产生的沉淀物，含有果胶、蛋白质、多酚等物质。
为将酒泥中的有效成分分离提取，实现葡萄酒泥的增值利用，本研究以生产干白葡萄酒中的酒泥为原料，通过单因素实验探讨了料液比、pH 、提取温度以及提取时间对果胶得率的影响，采用响应面法优化了果胶的提取工艺条件，并使用大孔树脂对果胶进行脱色，最后用红外光谱和HNMR 进行结构表征。
结果表明，在料液比（葡萄酒泥:水）为1:14 g/mL 、pH 为2.0、提取温度65 ℃、提取时间90 min 时，果胶得率为6.48%，与响应面模型预测值6.50%相近，各因素对果胶得率的影响大小为：料液比>提取温度>提取时间>pH 。
选用D101大孔树脂对提取的果胶进行脱色，最佳脱色条件为脱色温度25 ℃、pH 为2.0、脱色流速为3 BV/h ，解吸液为60%（v/v ）乙醇、解吸流速3 BV/h ，在此条件下，脱色率可达91.75%。
判断正误
Chapter I1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.对4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. 对5. General linguistics普通语言学 is generally the study of language as a whole.对9. The study of the ways in which morphemes词素 can be combined to form words is called morphology. 对12. Both semantics语义学 and pragmatics语用学 study meanings. 对13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. 对14.Social changes can often bring about language changes. 对7. Phonetics语音学 is different from phonology音律学 in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.对11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics 语义学.对15. Sociolinguistics社会语言学 is the study of language in relation to 和-有关society. 对17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.对2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.错3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. 错6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.错8. Morphology形态学 studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. 错10. Syntax 句法is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. 错16. Modern linguistics现代语言学 is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 错18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. 错19．Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language. 错20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.错l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8.F 9 .T 10.F11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.T 18.F 19 .F 20.FChapter 2：Phonology音律学1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. 对5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.对6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 对9. Vibration of the vocal cords声带 results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. 对12. Vowel sounds元音 can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. 对17.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.对19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.对20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.对2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. 错3. A phone音素 is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. 错4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. 错7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. 错8.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.错10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. 错11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. 错13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. 错14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.错15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.错16.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.错18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. 错l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T10.F11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TChapter 3：Morphology1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes andd__________ affixes.15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m___________ rules. 19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.l.T 2.F 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T Chapter 4：Syntax1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.9. “it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T Chapter 6：Pragmatics1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.4. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.5. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.6. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, butcontext-dependent.7. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.8. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences9. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.10. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.11. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.12. Perlocutionary act is the a ct of expressing the speaker’s intention. l. F 2. F 3.T 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.T 12.FChapter 7： Historical Linguistics1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages.2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation.3. The history of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English.4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe.5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases.6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it.7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language.8. In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language.9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds.10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.11. In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the head noun in case, number and gender.12. The word order of Modern English is more variable than that of Old English.13. Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words.14. “Smog” is a word formed by the word-forming process called acronymy.15. “fridge” is a word formed by abbreviation.16. Modern linguists are able to provide a consistent account for the exact causes of all types of language change.17. Sound assimilation may bring about the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence, as in the case of change of “Engla-land” to “England”.18. Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.19. Language change is always a change towards the simplification of language rules20. The way children acquire the language is one of the causes for language change.l.T 2.T 3.T 4.F 5.F 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F11.T 12.F 13.T 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. T 19.F 20.TChapter 8：Sociolinguistics1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts.2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another.4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.5. The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership.6. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety ” can n ot be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects.8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language.10. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way.12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages.14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages.16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.17.The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latterd oesn’t.18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.19.The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual.20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.l.F 2.F 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.F11. F 12. T 13. F 14. F 15.F 16. T 17. F 18.F 19. T 20. FChapter 9： Psycholinguistics1. The linguistic ability of human beings depends primarily on the structure of the vocal cords.2. Human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the left half of the brain is larger than the corresponding part of the right half.3. The case of Phineas Gage suggests that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front.4. In general, the right side of the brain controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left side controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.5. Language functions are believed to be lateralized primarily in the left hemisphere of the brain.6. The language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and therefore the nature of thought.7. Human beings can not think without language, just as they can not speak without thinking.8. If a language lacks a word, its speakers will not be able to grasp its concept.9. Generally speaking, left hemisphere is responsible for language and speech, analytic reasoning, associative thought, etc., while the right hemisphere is responsible for perception of nonlinguistic sounds, holistic reasoning, recognition of musical melodies, etc.10. Language by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its convenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions of human being.1. F2.T3.T4.T5.T6.F 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.TChapter 10：Language Acquisition1. L1 development and L2 development seem to involve the same processes.2. The capacity to acquire one’s first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with.3. All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language.4. Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyncratic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar.5. Humans can be said to be predisposed and biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.6. Some languages are inferior, or superior, to other languages.7. Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the vocabulary and the meaning of language.8. Human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is a sufficient condition for language development.9. Children who grow up in culture where caretaker speech is absent acquire their native language more slowly than children who are exposed to caretaker speech.10. In mother tongue acquisition, normal children are not necessarily equally successful.11. For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and require little conscious instruction on the part of adults.12. The available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best.13. Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development as they were claimed to be. 14. Imitation, plays at best a very minor role in the child’s mastery of language.15. Observations of children in different language areas of the world reveal that the developmental stages are similar, possibly universal, whatever the nature of the input.16. A child’s babbling seems to depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input.17. In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the second half of the child’s first year.18. Children’s two-word expressions are absent of syntactic or morphological markers.19. Children first acquire the sounds in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in late stages acquire the more difficult sounds.20. Language acquisition begins at about the same time as lateralization does and is normally complete, as far as the essentials are concerned, by the time that the process of lateralization comes to an end.l.F 2.T 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.F 11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.F 18.T 19.T 20.T。
英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案
Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words We have discussed the historical, cultural and social factors that facilitate (使……容易；推动) the development of the English vocabulary. Borrowing, as we see, has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary. In modern times, however, vocabulary is mainly enlarged on an internal basis. That is, we use word-building material available in English to create new words. But before we discuss the actual ways and means to make new words, we need to have a clear picture of the structure of English words and their components (成分) —word-forming elements. This chapter will discuss morphemes(语素；词素), their classification(分类) and identification(辨别), the relationship between morphemes and word-formation(构词法).3.1 MorphemesTraditionally, words are usually treated as the basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules(句法规则). Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Take decontextualization for example. This is one word, but can be broken down into de-, con-, text, -a/ , -iz(e), -ation , each having meaning of its own. These segments (部分) cannot be furtherdivided; otherwise, none of them would make any sense. Though -ation has a number of variants (变体) such as -tion, -sion, -ion, they belong to the same suffix as they have the same meaning and grammatical function and occur owing to (因为；根据) different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes (morphe is the Greek word for 'form'; -eme as in 'phoneme' (音素) means 'class of' ). In view of word-formation, the morpheme is seen as 'the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words' (Crystal 1985). Syntactically(从句法上看), however, a morpheme is the minimal form of grammatical analysis (语法分析). For instance, each of the word-forms studies, studying, studied, consists of the morpheme study + ; the forms -es in studies, -ing in studying, -ed in studied are morphemes, which express grammatical concepts (语法概念) instead of deriving new words (See Classifying Morphemes).3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs(词素变体)Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units (具体单位) known as morphs(形素). 'They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning' (Bolinger and Sears 1981:43). In other words the phonetic or orthographic strings(语音串或拼写字串)or segments (切分成分；节) which realize morphemes are termed 'morphs' (Bauer 1983:15). The morpheme isto the morph what a phoneme (音位) is to a phone (音素). Most morphemes are realized by single morphs like bird, tree, green , sad, want, desire, etc. . These morphemes coincide (巧合) with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a set of morphs in different sound context, e. g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in matches /iz/. The alternates (作为替换的事物) /s/, /z/ and /iz/ are three different morphs. The same is true of the link verb morpheme {be}. Its past tense is realized by two distinct orthographic forms was , were, each of which happens to be a word-form, realizing {preterit} and {singular}, and {preterit} and {plural} respectively and each has its own phonetic form /woz/ or /wə:/. Therefore, both was, were and their phonetic forms /woz/ and /wə: / are morphs (See discussion in Bauer, p15).An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme. Just as we class phones(音素) together as allophones (音位变体) of a single phoneme(音位), so we class morphs together as allomorphs of a single morpheme. Take the plural morpheme {-s} again. Phonetically, it is realized by /s/, /z/, /iz/, all of which are allomorphs. In English, many morphemes canhave more than one allomorph, particularly those freestanding morphemes which are functional words in their own right. Once they occur in connected speech, they may be realized by different forms, depending on whether they are accented or weakened (Look at the data in the table).Morphem e AllomorphStrong Weak{am} /aem/ /əm/, /m/{ was} /woz/ /WəZ/{have } /haev/ /həv/, /v/{would } /wud/ /wəd/, /əd/,/d/{he} /hi:/ /i:/, /i/{his} /hiz/ /iz/{for} /fo:/ /fə/{to} /tu:/ /tu/, /tə/Then what is the difference between morphs and allomorphs? The relationship can be illustrated by the diagram below.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph →allomorph/wud/ /wəd/ /əd/ /d/3.3 Classifying MorphemesMorphemes vary in function. Accordingly, we can classify morphemes into several general categories: free versus bound, derivational versus inflectional, and lexical versus grammatical. However, their boundaries are not as clear-cut as they appear to be due to some overlapping(重叠). For the sake of discussion, we shall define each type in terms of its characteristics.1. Free versus Bound Morphemes(自由词素与粘着词素)This is the easiest and most preferred classification in morphological studies, discussed in Hatch and Brown (1995), Crystal (1985), Fromkin and Rodman (1983), Bauer (1983), Bolinger and Sears (1981) and Matthews (2000). Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with(与……完全相同) words, for example, man, earth, wind, car and anger.Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particulargrammatical function.Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words (派生词). Let us take recollection, idealistic and ex-prisoner for example. Each of the three words comprises three morphemes: recollection (re- collect-ion) , idealistic (ideal-ist-ic) , ex-prisoner (ex- prison -er). Of the nine morphemes, collect, ideal and prison can stand by themselves and thus are free morphemes. All the rest re-, -ion , -ist, -ic, ex-and -er are bound as none of them are freestanding units.Free morphemes are all roots, which are capable of being used as words or as word-building elements to form new words like collect, ideal, prison , whereas bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes, most of which can be used to create new words like -dict- , -ced- (接近；去), re-, -ion, -ist, -ic and ex-(前). But there are a few affixes which can only indicate such grammatical concepts as tense, aspect, number and case, for example, the -ing in watching, -er in easier, -s in books, and -ed in worked.The English language possesses a multitude of (大量的) words made up of merely bound morphemes, e. g. antecedent, which can be broken down into ante-, -ced- and -ent. Among them, -ced- is a root meaning 'approach, go to', ante-, a prefix meaning 'before' and -ent, a noun suffix meaning 'a person, a thing', thus the whole word antecedent meaning 'something that goes before'(前例；前事；先行词；祖先). These examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types: bound root (See Root, Stem, Base) and affix.2. Derivational versus Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes (派生词素) because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.In English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes. For example, a + mor + ai, clear + ance, Life + Like and homo + gen + eous are results of such morphological processes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折词素), in contrast, indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, fridges, desks, radios and potatoes; the same forms can be added to verbs to indicate the simple present for the third person singular such as likes, works and goes; the form -'s is used to denote the possessive case of nouns such as the children ' s library, the man ' s role and the mother-in-law' s complaints; the suffixes -er, -est are usually attached to simple adjectives or adverbs to show their comparative or superlative degrees like happier—happiest,harder—hardest. Apart from these, there is the past tense marker -ed and progressive marker -ing added to verbs. The differences between inflectional and derivational morphemes can be summarized as follows (See Hatch and Brown, p266): Inflectional Derivational(1) Does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem (1) Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem.(2) Indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.(2) Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.(3) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) Occurs at margins of words.(4) Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.3. Content versus Grammatical MorphemesOn a semantic and syntactic basis, morphemes can fall into content and grammatical morphemes (Traugott and Pratt 1980:90; Bolinger and Sears, pp66~70; Hatch and Brown, p267). Content morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used as wesee above to derive new words, so also known as derivational morphemes. These morphemes, whether free or bound, have a lexical content, hence the name. Grammatical morphemes, on the other hand, function primarily as grammatical markers. They encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in, and, do, have, they, -while, -where, but and that, which are traditionally called functional words.3.4 Identifying Morphemes(词素的区分)Since morphemes are the minimal distinct units, they should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution. Generally speaking, lexical morphemes are easy to define:Mono-morphemic: land, skyDouble-morphemic: chill + y, mis + takeTriple-morphemic: anti + govern + ment, sports + man + shipFour-morphemic:un + friend + li + ness, morph + olog( i) + cal + lyOver-four-morphemic: inter + nation + al + iz(e) + ationIf the morphemes are always consistent in form and meaning, there should be no difficulty in identification(区分). However, thereis often mismatch(不一致)between form and meaning. Some morphemes are identical(相同的) in form but different in meaning, for instance, -er in teacher, clearer and eraser. -er in teacher means 'one who', but -er in clearer indicates 'the comparative degree', and -er in eraser denotes 'an object'. Therefore, -er in each case is a different morpheme.Some morphemes are not meaningful in isolation(单独)but acquire meaning by virtue of(通过)their connection in words (Fromkin and Rodman, p116). The classic examples are cranberry(越橘), huckleberry (黑果；乌饭树浆果)and boysenberry(博弈增莓), each seeming to be a kind of berry. But when cran-, huckle- and boysen- are isolated, they are meaningless and they are incapable of forming new words with other morphemes rather than with berry. There are other morphemes which occur in many words, but their meaning is difficult to define, for instance, -ceive in conceive (想象；设想), perceive(感觉，察觉；认为)and receive. Some forms are meaningful, but not morphemes, such as fl- meaning 'moving light' in flash , flame and flicker(闪烁，忽隐忽现), and gl-meaning 'static light' in glow(发光，燃烧)，glisten (闪耀；反光)and glitter(闪光；光彩夺目). These are only sound symbols often employed by poets in their literary creation but do not qualify as morphemes.The identification of inflectional morphemes is more problematic. In most cases, an inflectional morpheme can be segmented (切分)from the stem of a word and naturally can be added to the stem like the plural morpheme {s} in gloves, tables and classes. But what is the plural morpheme in men, sheep and feet ? The same is true of the past tense morpheme {ed} , which is explicit and segmentable in walked, loaded and danced. How can we isolate the past tense morpheme from knew, taught and cut ? To solve the problem, we have to resort to other ways.3.5 Morpheme and Word-formationWe know that words can be analyzed into morphemes, which are the minimal meaningful units in the composition of words. In word-formation, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix.1. AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes because none of them can stand as words in their own right. According to the functions of affixes, we can divide them into inflectional affixes like -s, -ed and -ing, and derivational affixeslike pre-, ex-, de-, -less, -dom and -ic. Derivational and inflectional affixes are identical with derivational and inflectional morphemes. In view of their distribution in the formation of words, affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. Prefixes are all derivational, i.e. they are used to form new words whereas suffixes embrace(包括) both derivational suffixes and inflectional suffixes. Accordingly, the above-mentioned affixes can be further grouped into prefixes: pre-, ex- and de-y and suffixes: -less, -dom, -zc, -5, -ed and -ing.2. Root, Stem, BaseBefore we begin our actual discussion of word-building processes, there are some basic concepts that need clarifying(澄清). The processes of derivation and compounding involve different word-forming elements: affixes and root or stem or base. Indeed, some people use root or stem undiscriminatingly (不加区别地) on all occasions. But these three terms are not the same, and they denote to a greater or lesser degree different concepts despite the semantic overlapping between them.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity (Crystal 1985). As mentioned earlier, the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the maincomponent of meaning in a word. In the word internationalists, removing inter- , -at, -ist, -s leaves the root nation. If we further divide nation as * na/tion or * at /ion, though -tion and -ion coincide with the noun suffix, the other part is meaningless and the original lexical identity is totally lost. Therefore, nation defies(使不能；使落空)further analysis. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a 'root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed' (Bauer 1983). Take internationalists again. After the removal of the inflectional affix -s and the derivational affixes -ist, -al and inter-, nation is what is left and thus is the root.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, understatement. To make things more clearly, we say that the stem is used only when we deal with inflectional affixes. As Bauer defines, a stem is 'that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed' (ibid). In other words, any form to which an inflectional affix is attached is a stem. Consider the word internationalists again. Nation is a root as well as a stem as the plural -s can be added to it; national is not a root as it can be further divided, but a stem because an inflectionalaffix -s can be added to it when used as a noun; similarly, international is not a root but a stem for the same reason. This is also true of internationalist, which is a stem.A base is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem. In the case of internationalists, nation is a base, national is a base, so are international and internationalist.nation(root, stem, base)national(stem, base)international(stem, base)internationalist (stem, base)InternationalistsIt should be noted that such an example gives the impression that a stem is just as good as a base. This is not true. In many cases, a form of word can neither be a root nor a stem, but only a base. This often happens when we deal with derivational affixes exclusively, for example impracticality(不切实际；无用；不现实). Removing the derivational affix -ity leaves only the base form impractical, and by further removing im- we have the base form practical left and by still further analysis, only practice remains.impracticalityimpractical (base)practical(base)practice(root, stem, base)Therefore, in the chapters to follow, we shall employ only the term base to refer to any basic word-building element.英语词汇学第三单元课后练习及答案Questions and Tasks1. Write the terms in the blanks according to the definitions.a. a minimal meaningful unit of a language ( )b. one of the variants that realize a morpheme ( )c. a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme ( )d. a morpheme that can stand alone ( )e. a morpheme attached to a base, stem or root ( )f. an affix that indicates grammatical relationships ( )g. an affix that forms new words with a base, stem or root ( )h.what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes ( )i. that part of a word that can take inflectional affixes ( ) j. a form to which affixes of any kind can be added ( )2. What is the difference between grammatical and lexicalmorphemes, and inflectional and derivational morphemes?Give examples to illustrate their relationships.3. Analyze the words in terms of root, stem and base.individualistic undesirablesanize the following terms in a tree diagram to show their logical relationships.affix morphemederivational affix free rootbound root inflectional affixprefix free morphemebound morpheme suffix参考答案1. a. morphemeb. allomorphc. bound morphemed. free morphemee. affixf. inflectional affixg. derivational affixh. rooti. stemj. base2. Inflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end ofwords to denote grammatical concepts such as -s (-es) , -ed,-ing and -est (to show superlative degree of adjectives andadverbs) whereas derivational morphemes are prefixes andsuffixes added to words to form new words such as pre-, dis-, un- , -lion, -er, -ness and so on.Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammatical concepts, including inflectional suffixes as mentioned above and functional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles,auxiliary verbs), for example, but, the, do and was; lexicalmorphemes are derivational affixes including both prefixesand suffixes.3.individualisticindividualist+ic[stem, base]individual+ist[stem, base]individu+al[stem, base]in+dividu[root, stem, base]undesirablesun+desirable[stem, base]desir+able[root, stem, base]4. morpheme free morpheme=free rootbound morpheme bound rootaffix inflectional affixderivational affix prefixsuffix。
胡壮麟语言学修订版笔记Chapter 7
Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society[The textbook form of this chapter seems very twisted for me. So I changed the structure of the notes, using some questions to guide the whole chapter. – icywarmtea] 7.1 Language and culture1. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesisWhat the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests is like this: our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, two important points could be captured in the theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand, similarity between language is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity.This hypothesis has two versions: a strong and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak version, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.2. Context of situation(1) The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities:a. The verbal action of the participantsb. The non-verbal action of the participants(2) The relevant objects(3) The effects of the verbal action3. Speech community: Speech community refers to a group of people who forma community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least onespeech variety in common.4. Gender difference: Gender difference is the difference in a speech betweenmen and women.5. Linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity: Linguistic determinism isone of the two points in S-W hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought.Linguistic relativity is the other point: there is no limit to the structuraldiversity of languages.6. Ethnography of communication: The study of place of language in cultureand society. Language is not studied in isolation but within a social orcultural setting. Ethnography of communication studies, e.g. how people in aparticular group or community communicate with each other and how thesocial relationships between these people affect the type of language theyuse.7. Cross-cultural communication: An exchange of ideas, information, etc.between persons from different cultural backgrounds.8. What are the aims of teaching culture in language class?There are at least three objectives for us to teach culture in our class:(1) To get the students familiar with cultural differences;(2) To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as themembers of the target culture will;(3) To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and culturethrough various classroom practices.All this lead to a belief that a good understanding of structural things in some cases has much to do with a conscious understanding of the cultural background of the target language from language learners. In other words, a successful master of a given language has much to do with an understanding of that culture, because language and culture are correlated with each other at different levels of linguistic structure.7.2 Language and society1. How many social factors are believed to influence our language behaviors ina social context?The following social factors are believed to influence our language behaviors in a social context:(1) Class;(2) Gender;(3) Age;(4) Ethnic identity;(5) Education background;(6) Occupation;(7) Religious belief.2. What are the sociolinguistic study of society and the sociolinguistic study oflanguage>If we want to know more about a given society or community by examining the linguistic behavior of its members, we are doing a sociolinguistic study of society. That is to say, we are doing sociolinguistics at a macro level of investigation. At this level of discussion things that we are interested in include bilingualism or multilingualism, language attitude, language choice, language maintenance and shift, language planning and standardization, vernacular language education, etc.On the other hand, if we want to know more about some linguistic variations in language use by turning to potential socio-cultural factors for a description and explanation, we are doing a sociolinguistic study of language. Consequently, we are more interested in examining micro linguistic phenomena such as structural variants, address forms, gender differences, discourse analysis, Pidgin and Creole languages, and other more language-related issues.3. What are vernacular, Pidgin and Creole?Vernacular refers to the native language of a country, not of a foreign origin or learned formation; or the indigenous language or dialect of a region.Pidgin is a mixed or blended language used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. Pidgins arose as a result of mixing two languages such as a Chinese dialect and English, an African dialect and French, etc.Creole is a pidgin that has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that community as their native language.4. What is discourse analysis?Discourse analysis refers to the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversation, interviews, etc. Analysis of spoken discourse is sometimes called conversational analysis. Some linguistics use the term text linguistics for the study of written discourse. Recent analyses have been carried out on discourse in the classroom.Such analyses can be useful in finding out bout the effectiveness of teaching methods and the types of teacher-student relationships.5. What are bilingualism, diglossia, and multilingualism?Bilingualism refers to the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Bilingualism is common in the province of Quebec in Canada where both English and French are spoken, and parts of Wales, where both Welsh and English are spoken.When two languages or language varieties exist side by side in a community and each one is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia. Usually, one isa more standard variety called the high variety, which is sued in government, themedia, education, and for religious services. The other one is usually a non-prestige variety called the low variety, which is used in the family, with friends, when shopping, etc.Multilingualism refers to the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.Multilingualism is common in Malaysia, Singapore, Israel, etc.7.3 Summary(Omit.)。
胡壮麟 语言学教程修订版 课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter (3)
Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a completeutterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential forrearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituentsof sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If themorphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in betweenthe three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is oneallowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”thelatter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. V ariable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer to those wordssuch as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore,pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives andmany adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here aresome of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negativemarker “not,”and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “getby,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of theirunique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguiststoday tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements fordifferent elements in a sentence. For example, in the followingconversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the nounacting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference thenoun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses:predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 T ypes of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix isthe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added toanother morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes towhich an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without totalloss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes areremoved. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism,what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may befree or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive,conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants.E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence formslept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend-in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that astem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may containa root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes andderivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with thefollowing ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammaticalmeaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serveto produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivationalaffixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attachto, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or mightnot, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, andthat between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguisticfactors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence.E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” isdetermined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivationalaffixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. Thechoice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talkabout the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of beingclever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are alwaysword final. E.g. drums, walks,etc. But derivational affixes can beprefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound)and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form,such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded,wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbalcompound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participantof the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formedby V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V+ A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original wordeither changed or unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch oflinguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonologicalfactors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and correspondingly, thegrammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also calledmorphonology or morphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of theinfluence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or“contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one soundsegment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers ortheir brand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of thesecond word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part orcutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in thelanguage.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic andother languages have all played an active role in this process.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may also occur inutterances at the expense of some unstressed words.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds.Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked andaccepted by the speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact”or “contiguous”assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understoodin its narrow sense, i.e. the change of meaning has nothing to do withgeneralization or restriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formationis also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from theinfluence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.。
语言学课后答案第2章
1.phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics andperceptual/auditory phonetics.articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. speech organs: those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‗vocal organs‘.voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‗voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‗voiceless‘.International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the InternationalPhonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996. consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.manner of articulation: ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.Cardinal Vowels: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived. coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sou nd shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticution‘.phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymouslywith ‗coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‗regressive assimilation‘; t he converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.distinctive features: a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‗prominent‘, it is a ‗stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‗unstressed‘ syllable. intonation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.8.In Old English, there are no voiced fricative phonemes. All voiced variants, which appear only between voiced sounds, are allophones of their voiceless counterparts.The rule can be stated as follows:fricatives → [+voice] / [+voice]_____[+voi ce][–voice] in other places2.1) voiced dental fricative2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel3.1) [f]2) [ʒ]3) [j]4) [h]5) [t]6) [e]7) [ʉ]8) [ɶ]9) [ɔ]10) [u]4.1) On a clear day you can see for miles.2) Some people think that first impressions count for a lot.5. 1)Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth. The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in the oral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered to allow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the ―Adam‘s Apple‖. The larynx contains the vocal folds, als o known as ―vocal cords‖ or ―vocal bands‖. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam‘s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.5. 2)This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [ɪ] in women, and ti as [ʃ] in nation.5. 3)In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction ofair. The former is known as the Manner of Articulation and the latter as the Place of Articulation.The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart.As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this spacewould involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points.The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue can achieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowest position the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or open-mid, and mid-low or close-mid).5. 4)Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.5. 5)Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [æ] in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel [æ], the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [æ] has begun. Similarly, when [æ] isfollowed by [m], as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of [æ] so that it is ready for the following nasal.When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process ‗coarticulation‘. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticulation‘, as is the case of map.Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example,ex. 1a. cap [kæp] can [kæn]b. tap [tæp] tan [tæn]ex. 2a. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛn̪θ]b. ninety [naɪnti] ninth [naɪn̪θ]ex. 2a. since [sɪns] sink [sɪŋk]b. mince [sɪns] mink [mɪŋk]In both exx. 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is ―nasalized‖ because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2, the nasal /n/ is ―dentalized‖ before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [ŋ] before the velar stop [k]. In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following:ex. 4a. pan[ŋ]cakeb. he can[ŋ] go nowStudies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound: ex. 5a. five past [faɪvpɑːst] >[faɪfpɑːst]b. has to [hæztə] >[hæstə]c. as can be shown [əzkənbɪʃəʊn]> [əskənbɪʃəʊn]d. edge to edge [ɛʤtəɛʤ] >[ɛʧtəɛʤ]The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels.5. 6)The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the /l/ must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme /l/ is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word isformed. In word-formation it is tell + -er while in syllable structure it is [te+lə].6.In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.1) All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([-voice]) consonants and all the sounds that end the words in column B are voiced ([+voice]) consonants.2) All the words in column C are open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [ʌɪ] appears only before voiceless consonants and [aɪ] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) (a) [lʌɪf] (b) lives [laɪvz]5) (a) [traɪl] (b) [bʌɪk] (c) [lʌɪs] (d) [flaɪ] (e) [maɪn]6) /aɪ/ [ʌɪ] / _____[–voice][aɪ] in other places7.As far as orthography is concerned, there are four variants: in-, im-, ir-, and il-, but closer scrutiny shows that in- may be pronounced as [ɪŋ] before velar consonants, so there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation:(1) [ɪn]: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable[ɪn] or [ɪŋ]: incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent[ɪm]: impenetrable, impossible, immobile[ɪl]: illiterate, illegal, illogical[ɪr]: irresponsible, irresistible, irregularIt is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find [ɪm] before labial consonants like [m] or [p], [ɪl] before the lateral [l], [ɪr] before [r]. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant [k], it is [ɪŋ] in rapid speech and [ɪn] in careful speech. In all other cases [ɪn] is always the case. Assuming an underlying form /ɪn/, the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this (in the simplest notation):(2) /ɪn/ → {[ɪn], [ɪŋ]} / _____[velar][ɪm] / _____[labial][ɪl] / _____ [l][ɪr] / _____[r][ɪn] in other placesThis rule system could be further simplified if we eliminate the first rule, as the realization [ɪŋ] is actually optional. Unlike the other rules, this variation is due to a more general mechanism of assimilation in fast speech, which happens naturally. For example, in conference is also often pronounced as [ɪŋkɒnfərəns] in fast speech, and the nasal in thank and think is also realized as a velar.We can test these rules by looking at other base words which can take the prefix in-, such as correct, moveable, legible, rational, and adequate. When prefixed, they are respectively pronounced [ɪn]correct (or[ɪŋ]correct), [ɪm]moveable, [ɪl]legible, [ɪr]rational, and [ɪn]adequate, which further support the rules above.(Based on Plag, 2003: 200-1)。
教师资格证考试英语学科知识语言学整理高中英语
教师资格证考试英语学科知识语言学整理高中英语学科知识中语言学并不是唯一的部分，不过是比较难理解的部分。
其实语言学只要知道专业名词意思是什么，题目很好做的。
特此整理一份语言学手册，尽量给出通俗解释帮助大家快速掌握抽象在风中的语言学相关概念。
此外，我在百度上看到一个学科知识的总结也挺好的，可以结合TKT知识理解复习。
预祝教资顺利。
一、语言学基本概念1. 语言概念及功能：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
语言学概念中，语言本质上是声音符号，文字只是声音的载体。
语言学中认为声音和意义的对应是任意的，是约定俗成的。
我们所创造出来的发音和这个事物的本身并没有任何内在的联系。
说白了就是所有人管叫做“xiao lian”，“xiao lian”才对应了意义，我们也可以管这个叫做“ku lian”，如果大家都这么约定的话。
语言的功能：（便于理解，做通俗解释）信息功能informative：传递信息人际功能interpersonal：表达讲话者身份、地位、态度、动机及其对事物推断等方面的功能施为功能performative：用语言去做事情，比如用“好冷啊”去让人关门。
感情功能emotive function：表达感情感受寒暄功能phatic communication：比如问候娱乐功能recreational function：比如相声元语言功能metalingual function：用语言解释语言（此概念重要）真题链接：The language used to describe the language itself is called __________.A. paralanguageB. special languageC. metalanguageD. interlanguage2. 语言学：Linguistics is the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言的科学研究。
Gamma-Gamma Physics at LEP2
taking into account the finite angular acceptance of any detector
2
unclear and the LEP2 results, at higher energy, will be helpful to distinguish between various models and hadron wave-functions. One should point out interesting differences between LEP2, as a γγ collider, and a hadronhadron collider. In particular, in the former case the initial energy is not fixed: this will turn out to be a major nuisance in the study of the deep-inelastic structure function of the photon but it could be an advantage in the study of the semi-inclusive channels (because it could help disentangle perturbative from non-perturbative effects). Furthermore, using the forward detectors of the LEP experiments one can vary the “mass2 ” of the incoming virtual photons. This will be used to better constrain the non-perturbative component in the photon, which rapidly decreases with the photon virtuality, in the study of deep-inelastic, total cross section or large pT processes, for example. More generally, it will help understand the transition from a non-perturbative to a perturbative regime in QCD studies. On the theoretical side, considerable progress has been recently achieved on the various topics mentioned above. Of particular interest for data analysis and the study of the event structure of γγ collisions is the existence of several general purpose Monte-Carlo codes (Ariadne, Jetset, HERWIG, Phojet, Pythia) which are described in the “γγ event generator” chapter. These generators are adapted from hadron-hadron and electron-positron studies and they have been (or are being) tuned to HERA data thus incorporating all the physics constraints necessary to reliably describe γγ reactions. The crucial test of confronting in detail the models with the LEP1 results on γγ physics is still in progress as both data and models are very recent and little discussion on this point will be given below. In any case, the situation is much improved compared to only a year ago, when essentially every experimental group had its own specific event generator, making the comparison between the various experimental results rather delicate. One interesting outcome of the recent studies is that the global features of γγ scattering are predicted to be rather similar to those of hadron-hadron scattering at the same energy. For the anticipated quantitative studies in perturbative QCD one obviously needs theoretical predictions at (at least) the next-to-leading logarithmic order in perturbation theory. All relevant calculations for γγ processes have been performed or are being completed. Depending on the channel under study it will be seen that the sensitivity of the theoretical predictions under the various unphysical parameters (scales) is not perfect but, overall, the situation is not worse than in the purely hadronic channels. The plan of the chapter is as follows. We first discuss, in some detail, the deep-inelastic scattering process on a photon target (γ ∗ γ process) and its relevance for the determination of the parton distributions and the ΛQCD scale. We then turn to quasi-real γγ scattering and discuss the equivalent photon approximation, the (anti-)tagging conditions which define what we mean by γγ processes as well as the background to it. Global features of γγ events are described next. Large pT phenomena and heavy flavor production are then discussed in the context of next-to-leading QCD phenomenology. The chapter ends with the discussion of resonance production and exclusive processes.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第5版）章节题库（1-4章）【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第5版）章节题库（1-4章）【圣才出品】第1章语言学导论Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.1. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of _____ communication.【答案】verbal【解析】语言是一种口头交流的手段。
2. The term _____ originates from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language. 【答案】phatic communion 【解析】寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，最先由Malinowski提出。
3. Linguistics is the scientific study of _____.【答案】language【解析】语言学是对语言的科学研究。
4. The features that define our human languages can be called _____ features.【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
5. Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present（in time and space）at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as _____.【答案】displacement【解析】移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点。
小学下册第6次英语第3单元期末试卷
小学下册英语第3单元期末试卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有50小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1 The ____ is recognized for its bright colors and patterns.2 The capital of Lithuania is __________.3 A chemical reaction that releases light is called a _______ reaction.4 The ______ has beautiful markings.5 I enjoy going for a walk in the _______ (我喜欢在_______里散步).6 The War of was fought between the USA and ________.7 What is the name of the famous statue in New York Harbor?A. Statue of LibertyB. DavidC. Venus de MiloD. The Thinker答案:A8 I love to ______ (阅读) books.9 The Earth is about ______ billion years old.10 We had ______ (fun) at the amusement park.11 The ________ (种子) grows into a new plant.12 The ________ (discussion) raises awareness.13 The chemical formula for europium(III) oxide is _____.14 The __________ is a large city known for its skyscrapers. (纽约)15 A chemical reaction that involves the transfer of electrons is called a ______ reaction.16 The chemical formula for strontium carbonate is __________.17 A __________ (绿色屋顶) can help insulate buildings.18 The ancient Romans had a system of ________ for voting.19 My cousin is a ______. She loves to organize events.20 What is the largest mammal in the world?A. ElephantB. Blue WhaleC. GiraffeD. Hippopotamus答案:B21 It is _____ (hot/cold) in winter.22 Which insect makes honey?A. AntB. ButterflyC. BeeD. Fly答案:C23 Light takes about minutes to reach the ______.24 We will have a ________ picnic.25 What do you call a person who repairs pipes?A. ElectricianB. MechanicC. PlumberD. Carpenter答案:C26 What do we call the shape that has no corners?A. SquareB. CircleC. TriangleD. Rectangle答案: B27 The ______ is a skilled violinist.28 __________ are used in the food industry for flavor enhancement.29 __________ (水分子) are polar, allowing for hydrogen bonding.30 My sister has a fluffy _______ (我妹妹有一只毛茸茸的_______).31 The __________ (历史的复杂性) warrants careful study.32 My _____ (小兔) is very fluffy.33 The process of making biodiesel involves transesterification of _______ oils.34 What is the capital of Mongolia?A. UlaanbaatarB. ErdenetC. DarkhanD. Choibalsan答案: A35 The air feels fresh after it ______ (下雨).36 The children are ______ in the playground. (laughing)37 A __________ is a place where people settle and build homes.38 Many _______ have medicinal uses in traditional practices.39 Which animal is a symbol of wisdom?A. OwlB. FoxC. DogD. Cat40 What is the name of the famous mountain in Nepal?A. K2B. AnnapurnaC. EverestD. Kilimanjaro答案:C41 A _____ (蝙蝠) flies at night.42 What is the capital city of Sri Lanka?A. ColomboB. KandyC. GalleD. Jaffna43 A dolphin plays with ________________ (海浪).44 I enjoy _______ (watching) the sunset.45 The clock ticks _____ (slowly/quickly).46 What do we call a person who studies languages?A. LinguistB. PolyglotC. TranslatorD. All of the above47 Which instrument is used to measure temperature?A. BarometerB. ThermometerC. RulerD. Scale答案:B48 I enjoy _____ (reading/writing) stories.49 What is the process of plants making their own food called?A. DigestionB. PhotosynthesisC. RespirationD. Fermentation答案:B. Photosynthesis50 The dog is _______ (在跑) in the yard.51 What is the primary color of a watermelon?A. PinkB. RedC. GreenD. Yellow52 The _____ (猴子) loves to eat fruit.53 I feel _______ when I help others.54 I call my _____ (姑姑) every week.55 A cat loves to chase a _______ that darts around the house.56 The chemical formula for sodium bromide is ______.57 My friend is a ______. He enjoys making films.58 The children are playing in the _____ (park/school).59 My mom is a great __________ (支持者) of my interests.60 They are _____ (making) cards.61 A liquid takes the shape of its ______.62 What do we call the imaginary line that divides the Earth into northern and southern hemispheres?A. EquatorB. Prime MeridianC. Tropic of CancerD. Tropic of Capricorn答案:A63 There are many __________ (动物) in the zoo.64 My friend is very ________.65 I have a collection of ______ (邮票) from my travels around the ______ (世界).66 A kitten learns to hunt by watching its ______ (母亲).67 The animal known for its ability to change colors is the ______.68 The book is _______ (很好看).69 What is the primary color that results from mixing red and blue?A. GreenB. PurpleC. OrangeD. Brown答案:B70 The _______ of light can be affected by the medium it passes through.71 What is 9 3?a. 6b. 5c. 4d. 3答案:a72 The __________ (历史课程) teach students about the past.73 We have ___ (science/history) class today.74 Which animal is known for its ability to change colors?A. ChameleonB. LeopardC. TigerD. Panda答案: A75 The process of ______ can lead to the creation of new habitats.76 What do you call the sweet dessert that is served at the end of a meal?A. AppetizerB. Main CourseC. DessertD. Snack答案: C77 The turtle is _____ in the pond. (swimming)78 The __________ is a large island nation in the Pacific Ocean. (日本)79 The chemical symbol for neodymium is ____.80 I enjoy visiting the ______ (水族馆) to learn about marine life.81 The __________ is a historical site in Greece. (帕台农神庙)82 A _____ (盆栽) can be placed indoors.83 The bee collects _____ from flowers.84 The sun is shining ________ today.85 The ______ (青蛙) can change color depending on its environment.86 How many colors are in a rainbow?A. 5B. 6C. 7D. 887 How many letters are in the English alphabet?A. 24B. 25C. 26D. 2788 The best time of the year is ______ (假期). I can travel and visit my ______ (亲戚). We have so much fun!89 What is the capital of Guam?a. Hagåtñab. Dededoc. Yigod. Mangilao答案:a90 The chemical structure of a compound can be represented by a ______ formula.91 What do we call the scientific study of living organisms?A. BiologyB. ChemistryC. PhysicsD. Astronomy答案: A92 The process of __________ (过滤) separates solids from liquids.93 The ______ (植被) provides habitat for wildlife.94 What is the opposite of 'happy'?A. SadB. AngryC. ExcitedD. Tired95 Bees communicate through a dance called the ______ dance.96 The ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia were located between the ________ and Tigris rivers.97 The _______ of an element describes its ability to react. (反应性)98 A _____ is a low area of land between hills.99 The _______ (Rosa Parks) refused to give up her seat, sparking a movement. 100 A ____ is a tiny creature that loves to explore flowers.。
语言学复习重点
C h a p t e r1??绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2. The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.（形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学）neurological linguistics, （神经语言学）mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3. Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written. Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.4.What is language? 语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, li ke Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5. Design features 语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology? 音系学1.???? The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
The Chemical Structure of DNA
The Chemical Structure of DNADNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is a complex molecule that stores and transmits genetic information. It is present in all living organisms, including plants, animals, and microorganisms. The discovery of the chemical structure of DNA was a major breakthrough in the field of genetics, and it paved the way for a better understanding of the mechanism of inheritance and the genetic basis of disease. In this article, we will discuss the chemical structure of DNA, its components, and its functions.Chemical Composition of DNADNA is composed of two types of molecules: nucleotides and phosphate groups. A nucleotide is a building block of DNA and consists of a nitrogenous base, a sugar molecule, and a phosphate group. There are four types of nitrogenous bases found in DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). The sugar molecule found in DNA is deoxyribose, hence the name deoxyribonucleic acid.The nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up to form base pairs. Adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine. This pairing is important for the stability and fidelity of DNA replication, as it ensures that each new DNA molecule will have the same sequence as the original.The phosphate groups in DNA form a backbone that bridges the nucleotides together. The chemical bonds that hold the nucleotides and phosphate groups together are called phosphodiester bonds. These bonds are responsible for the strength and structure of the DNA double helix.The DNA Double HelixThe double helix is the characteristic structure of DNA. It is formed by two complementary strands that wind around each other in a spiral shape. The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases. The helix has a right-handed twist, which means that if you look down the axis of the helix from one end, the strands will twist to the right.The diameter of the helix is approximately 2 nanometers, and the distance between each base pair is 0.34 nanometers. The length of a typical human DNA molecule is about 2 meters, but it is packaged into the nucleus of a cell through a process called supercoiling. Supercoiling helps to compact the DNA and fit it into the small space of the nucleus.Function of DNADNA holds the genetic information that determines the traits and characteristics of an organism. This information is stored in the sequence of the nitrogenous bases in the DNA molecule. The sequence of the DNA bases is determined by the sequence of nucleotides on the complementary strand.DNA replication is the process of copying the genetic information from one DNA molecule to another. This process is essential for cell division and the growth and development of an organism. DNA replication is a complex process that involves many enzymes and protein factors.DNA also plays a key role in the regulation of gene expression. The expression of genes is regulated by molecular signals that can turn genes on or off. These signals are often mediated by DNA-binding proteins that interact with the DNA molecule and control gene expression.ConclusionThe chemical structure of DNA is a complex and elegant molecule that holds the key to our genetic information. The discovery of the double helix structure of DNA was a major breakthrough in the field of genetics and paved the way for many advances in science and medicine. DNA replication and gene expression are essential processes that are controlled by DNA, and defects in these processes can lead to disease. A better understanding of the chemical structure and function of DNA will continue to provide insights into the mechanisms of inheritance and the genetic basis of disease.。
《英语语言学》综合习题集 胡壮麟版word打印版
《英语语言学》综合习题集胡壮麟版《英语语言学》综合习题集I. Write out a single sentence for each of the follow technical terms in linguistic(定义题)；1. arbitrariness2. a linguist3. creativity4. displacement5. culturally-transmitted6. yo-he-ho theory7. informative function of language 8.phatic communion9. recreational function of language 10. metalingual function of language11. phonology 12. morphology13. syntax 14. semantics15. pragmatics 16. psycholinguistics17. sociolinguistics 18. applied linguistics19. computational linguistics 20. descriptive vs. prescriptive21. synchronic vs. diachronic 22. langue & parole23. competence and performance 24. articulatory phonetice25. narrow transcription of IPA 26. manners of articulation of consonants 27. alveolar sounds 28. nasal sounds29. voicelessness 30. bilabial sounds31. high vowels 32. rounded vowels33. lax vowels 34. minimal pairs35. allophones 36.free variation37. assimilation 38.distinctive features39. onset of a syllable 40. sonority scale of English speech sounds 41. primary stress of words 42. lexeme43. open-class words 44. function words45. free morpheme vs. bound morpheme 46. a stem47. inflectional suffixes 48. allomorphs49.blending 50. clipping51. back-formation52. tense vs.aspect53. concord and government54. syntagmatic and paradigmatic55. signified and signifier56. immediate constituent analysis57. endocentric vs. exocentric constructions58. deep structure and surface structure59. transformational rules60. binding61. anaphor62. theme and rheme63. communicative dynamism64. textual function65. denotative meaning66. social meaning67. thematic meaning68. the referential theory69. synonymy70. gradable antonymy71. hyponymy72. superordinate73. semantic components74. propositional logic75. syllogism76. psychology of language77. recency effect78. semantic association network79. garden path sentences80. minimal attachment theoryII. Short-answer Questions (简答题)：Directions: Explain each of the following linguistic views in no more than 50 words. .1. What is Displacement of language？2. How to understand that language is productive?3. How to understand language is dually-structured?4. Why lingu ists say “All the languages are equal”?5. Comment on the saying “Language is culturally-transmitted”。
语言学第二单元参考答案
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics andperceptual/auditory phonetics.articulatory phonetics:the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.speech organs: those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‗vocal organs‘.voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‗voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‗voiceless‘. International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.manner of articulation:ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.place of articulation:the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.Cardinal Vowels: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived.coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticution‘.phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with ‗coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.distinctive features: a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‗prominent‘, it is a ‗stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‗unstressed‘ syllable.intonation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.2.1) voiced dental fricative 2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal 4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive 6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral 8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel3.1) [f]2) [ʒ]3) [j]4) [h]5) [t]6) [e]7) [ʉ]8) [ɶ]9) [ɔ]10) [u]4.1) On a clear day you can see for miles.2) Some people think that first impressions count for a lot.5. 1)Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.（其他见课本２５－２６）5. 2)This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [ɪ] in women, and ti as [ʃ] in nation.5. 3)（见２９－３０，３１，３３）5. 4)Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. （接下来见２４－２５）5. 5)Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [æ] in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel [æ], the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [æ] has begun. Similarly, when [æ] is followed by [m], as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of [æ] so that it is ready for the following nasal.When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process ‗coarticulation‘. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticulation‘, as is the case of map.Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example, ex. 1a. cap [kæp] can [kæn]b. tap [tæp] tan [tæn]ex. 2a. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛnθ]b. ninety [naɪnti] ninth [naɪnθ]ex. 2a. since [sɪns] sink [sɪŋk]b. mince [sɪns] mink [mɪŋk]In both exx. 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is ―nasalized‖ because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2,the nasal /n/ is ―dentalized‖ before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [ŋ] before the velar stop [k]. In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following:ex. 4a. pan[ŋ]cakeb. he can[ŋ] go nowStudies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound:ex. 5a. five past [faɪvpɑːst] > [faɪfpɑːst]b. has to [hæztə] > [hæstə]c. as can be shown [əzkənbɪʃəʊn] > [əskənbɪʃəʊn]d. edge to edge [ɛʤtəɛʤ] > [ɛʧtəɛʤ]The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels.5. 6)The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the /l/ must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme /l/ is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word is formed. In word-formation it is tell + -er while in syllable structure it is [te+lə].6.In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.1) All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([-voice]) consonants and all the sounds that end the words in column B are voiced ([+voice]) consonants.2) All the words in column C are open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [ʌɪ] appears only before voiceless consonants and [aɪ] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) (a) [lʌɪf] (b) lives [laɪvz]5) (a) [traɪl] (b) [bʌɪk] (c) [lʌɪs] (d) [flaɪ] (e) [maɪn]6) /aɪ/ [ʌɪ] / _____[–voice][aɪ] in other places7.As far as orthography is concerned, there are four variants: in-, im-, ir-, and il-, but closer scrutiny shows that in- may be pronounced as [ɪŋ] before velar consonants, so there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation:(1) [ɪn]: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable[ɪn] or [ɪŋ]: incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent[ɪm]: impenetrable, impossible, immobile[ɪl]: illiterate, illegal, illogical[ɪr]: irresponsible, irresistible, irregularIt is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find [ɪm] before labial consonants like [m] or [p], [ɪl] before the lateral [l], [ɪr] before [r]. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant [k], it is [ɪŋ] in rapid speech and [ɪn] in careful speech. In all other cases [ɪn] is always the case. Assuming an underlying form /ɪn/, the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this (in the simplest notation):(2) /ɪn/ → {[ɪn], [ɪŋ]} / _____[velar][ɪm] / _____[labial][ɪl] / _____ [l][ɪr] / _____[r][ɪn] in other placesThis rule system could be further simplified if we eliminate the first rule, as the realization [ɪŋ] is actually optional. Unlike the other rules, this variation is due to a more general mechanism of assimilation in fast speech, which happens naturally. For example, in conference is also often pronounced as [ɪŋkɒnfərəns] in fast speech, and the nasal in thank and think is also realized as a velar.We can test these rules by looking at other base words which can take the prefix in-, such as correct, moveable, legible, rational, and adequate. When prefixed, they are respectively pronounced [ɪn]correct (or [ɪŋ]correct), [ɪm]moveable, [ɪl]legible, [ɪr]rational, and [ɪn]adequate, which further support the rules above.(Based on Plag, 2003: 200-18.In Old English, there are no voiced fricative phonemes. All voiced variants, which appear only between voiced sounds, are allophones of their voiceless counterparts.The rule can be stated as follows:fricatives → [+voice] / [+voice]_____[+voice][–voice] in other places。
2013年北京航空航天大学英语专业(语言学)真题试卷
2013年北京航空航天大学英语专业（语言学）真题试卷(总分：18.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、简答题(总题数：9，分数：18.00)1.What is a phoneme? How to discover phonemes?（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________2.What are endocentric compounds and exocentric compounds? Which compounds below are endocentric and which are exocentric?airplane; dog food; pickpocket; policeman; redhead; sky-blue; walkman.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________3.What are syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations? Explain each of them with an example.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________4.What is Contrastive Analysis(in Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching)?（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________5.What are image schemas? Give three examples of image schemas.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________6.What is hyponymy? Arrange the vehicles shown in the first column in the table below, together with someappropriate superordinates and hyponyms, in a diagram to show the hyponymy.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________7.Write some phrase-structure rules(beginning with S→NP VP)which can generate the sentence: The men love a red car.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________8.What is Componential Analysis? Use this theory to explain why the following sentences do not make sense;(a)John isa man but not a male.(b)Peter killed Bob but Bob did not die.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________9.Consider the dialogue between A and B; A; Can I talk to you now ?B; I will have a meeting in a minute.Explain B"s implicature using Grice"s theory of Conversational Implicature.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________。
九江2024年小学三年级第七次英语第二单元测验卷(有答案)
九江2024年小学三年级英语第二单元测验卷(有答案)考试时间：90分钟（总分:120）B卷考试人：_________题号一二三四五总分得分一、综合题(共计100题)1、填空题：I saw a ________ swimming in the river.2、听力题：Some _______ have thorns to protect themselves.3、What do we call a story that is told using pictures?A. ComicB. Graphic NovelC. MangaD. Illustrated Book答案: B4、填空题：The __________ (历史学家) study and interpret the past.5、听力题：The chemical structure of DNA contains ______ bases.6、What do we call a person who studies stars?A. BiologistB. AstronomerC. ChemistD. Geologist答案:B7、听力题：The boiling point of water is ______ degrees Celsius.8、What is the main language spoken in the UK?A. SpanishB. FrenchC. EnglishD. German答案: C9、ts can grow in ______ (水) without soil. 填空题：Some pla10、听力题：My grandma teaches me how to ____ (knit).11、How many continents are in the world?A. FiveB. SixC. SevenD. Eight12、选择题：What do bees produce?A. MilkB. HoneyC. EggsD. Silk13、What is the name given to a person who studies fossils?A. BiologistB. PaleontologistC. GeologistD. Archaeologist答案: B14、What do you call a person who studies the human body?A. AnatomistB. BiologistC. PhysiologistD. All of the above答案:D15、填空题：I like to have ______ for breakfast.16、听力题：The mountain is ___ (high/low).17、填空题：The _______ (Buddhism) originated in ancient India and spread throughout Asia.Flowers come in many ______, such as red, yellow, and blue.(花的颜色有很多种，如红色、黄色和蓝色。
英语考研胡壮麟版语言学教程EnglishLinguisticsChapter6
英语考研胡壮麟版语言学教程EnglishLinguisticsChapter6英语考研胡壮麟版语言学教程English Linguistics Chapter 6Chapter 6: SyntaxSyntax is the study of sentence structure and how words are organized to create meaning. In this chapter, we will explore the basic principles of syntax and examine different sentence types and their components.1. Sentence StructureA sentence is composed of phrases and words that are arranged in a specific order. The basic structure of a sentence includes a subject, a verb, and an object. For example, in the sentence "The cat is sleeping," "The cat" is the subject, "is" is the verb, and "sleeping" is the object.2. Phrase StructurePhrases are groups of words that function as a unit within a sentence. They can be categorized into different types, such as noun phrases, verb phrases, and prepositional phrases. Noun phrases consist of a noun and its modifiers, while verb phrases include a verb and its objects or complements.3. Sentence TypesThere are four main sentence types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. Declarative sentences make statements or express facts, interrogative sentences ask questions, imperative sentences give orders or make requests, and exclamatory sentences express strong emotions.4. Sentence ComponentsIn addition to the basic subject-verb-object structure, sentences can also include other components such as adjectives, adverbs, and conjunctions. Adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs, and conjunctions connect words or phrases.5. Sentence TransformationsSyntax also involves the study of how sentences can be transformed or modified. Some common transformations include changing the word order, forming questions or negations, and using different sentence structures to convey the same meaning.6. Syntactic AnalysisSyntactic analysis is the process of examining the structure of a sentence to determine its grammatical correctness. It involves identifying the different parts of speech, analyzing phrase structures, and checking for agreement between words.7. Sentence ParsingSentence parsing is the process of breaking down a sentence into its constituent parts and determining the relationships between them. It helps in understanding the overall meaning of a sentence and how its components interact with each other.ConclusionSyntax plays a crucial role in understanding how sentences are structured and how meaning is created through word order and sentencetransformations. By studying the principles of syntax, we can gain a deeper understanding of the English language and enhance our language skills.Note: This article is written in a general format that is suitable for discussing the topic of syntax. The specific format of the "English Linguistics Chapter 6" would depend on the guidelines provided in the course materials.。
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nn′
ˆ (0)|n n|ǫ(λ) · J (k )|0 0|ǫ∗ (λ′ ) · J (k )|n′ n′ |O , (ω − En )(ω − En′ )
(3)
where |n are the eigenstates of HQCD with momentum k , and ω = |k | is the on-shell photon energy. The contributions from the other diagrams can be expressed similarly using the rules from time-independent perturbative theory.
UMD PP#01-007DOE/ER/40762-214
STUDYING HADRONIC STRUCTURE OF THE PHOTON IN LATTICE QCD
Xiangdong Ji and Chulwoo Jung
Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742 (Jan. 22, 2001)
where e is the renormalized electric charge unit and J µ is the electromagnetic current operator of the quarks. According to the above equation, the matrix element of interest is a Minkowski-space correlation function in QCD. This is in contrast to an analogous nucleon ˆ |p , which has no explicit reference to the Minkowski time. matrix element, p|O One can remove the explicit time dependence by deriving a Lehmann representation of Eq. (2): separating different time-orderings, inserting complete sets of hadronic states, and integrating out the spacetime coordinates x and y . The result can be shown as the timeindependent perturbation diagrams in Fig. 1. Diagrams a) to f) represent contributions from six possible time-orderings. Diagrams g) to i) are the vacuum contributions which must be subtracted. As an example, the diagram a) corresponds to the following time-independent matrix element, ˆ (0)|γ (kλ) γ (kλ′ )|O
processes involving space-like virtual photons, such as transition γγ ∗ → π [6] and the virtualphoton-nucleon forward Compton scattering γ ∗ N → γ ∗ N , can be studied in lattice QCD. The amplitude for the latter process is the key for generalizing the well-known Drell-HearnGerasimov and Bjorken sum rules for the spin-dependent structure function of the nucleon [7]. We start with a simple but instructive discussion about what is meant by the hadronic or ˆ (0) is a quark-gluon operator at the spacetime point 0, its QCD structure of the photon. If O matrix element in the photon state can be defined from the standard Lehmann-SymanzikZimmermann (LSZ) reduction formula, ˆ (0)|γ (kλ) = − lim γ (kλ′ )|O ′µ µ
k →k
′ ˆ (0) ǫ(λ) · A(y )|0 k ′2 , d4 xd4 ye−ik (y−x) k ′2 0|T ǫ∗(λ′ ) · A(x) O
(1) where k µ is the on-shell (k 2 = 0) photon momentum, λ and λ′ are the photon helicities, and k ′µ on the right-hand side is taken to be on-shell after cancelling the photon poles. The normalization for the photon states are taken to be covariant, i.e., γ (k ′ λ′ )|γ (kλ) = 2k 0 (2π )3 δ (k ′ − k )δλλ′ . The renormalization constant Z3 = 1 + O(αem ) has been omitted for simplicity. Evaluating the electromagnetic part of the Green’s function in the lowest-order perturbation theory (this is allowed because of the small electromagnetic coupling), we find ˆ (0)|γ (kλ) = −e2 γ (kλ′ )|O ˆ (0)Jν (y )|0 ǫν (λ) , d4 xd4 ye−ik(y−x)ǫ∗µ (λ′ ) 0|T Jµ(x)O (2)
Ever since the 1960’s, it has been well known that the photon is not just a point-like particle; rather, it has a complicated hadronic structure. Similarity of the photon-nucleon scattering cross section to that of meson-nucleon scattering has led to the so-called vector dominance model of photon-hadron interactions [1]. In recent years, the photon structure has been explored extensively in e+ e− and ep collider experiments [2]. For instance, in the certain kinematic region, e+ e− scattering is effectively the real and deeply-virtual photon collision, from which the partonic structure of the real photon can be extracted. Indeed, the unpolarized quark and gluon distributions in the photon has been phenomenologically determined to a reasonable accuracy [2], and future data from the polarized HERA and e+ e− colliders can constrain the polarized distributions as well [3]. Given the large amount of experimental data available to describe the hadronic properties of the photon, it is appropriate to ask how they can be understood from the fundamental theory— quantum chromodynamics (QCD). To the authors’ knowledge, the answer is still open. Part of the reason is that the photon is not an eigenstate of QCD; the standard lattice QCD method used in calculating the matrix elements of the nucleon and pion does not apply [4]. As we shall explain, the QCD matrix elements in the photon state are timedependent correlations which are notoriously difficult to access through the Euclidean space [5]. However, we will show in this paper that they can be extracted from the Euclidean correlation functions on a lattice. In particular, the moments of polarized (unpolarized) quark and gluon distributions of the photon can be calculated in Monte Carlo simulations just like for those of the nucleon. Generalizing our finding, we show that a number of 1